TYPOGRAPHICAL S.OCIETY,
THIS WORK
e IS MOST RE8PEGrFULLX
D E DIC A TED.. 
I 
PREFACE.
In presenting another edition of our Work for public favor,
we cannot forego the opportunity of acknowledging our obligations to the Profession, for the very liberal and flattering testimonials of their approbation heretofore extended us, as well as
to those who have taken so warm aninterest in the appearance
of the present edition.
Very many of the works heretofore published on this subject,
in a practical point of view, have been little else than reprints
of old Grammars, chiefly of Smith's, published in Londen,
1755; although we have in many instances adopted the language of our predecessors, still we have in general not only
compressed the information contained in it, but have ih all cases
made it subservient to our own views and experience.
Among the numerous additions which have been made, and
which now appear in print for the first time, we would direct
attention particularly to the articles on Gold, Bronze, Card and
Xylographic printing,. and last, though not least in importance,
the printing of Wood Engravings, a branch which when properly executed is eminently calculated to elevate the art in
public estimation, and to secure for the best productions extensive patronage as works of Art. Until recently but little attention has been bestowed upon it in this country, and as the
attention of the profession has now been turned to it, we have
thought proper to make our observations on the subject full and
comprehensible.
The Literati, and in fact every one in any way connected
with the publishing and printing business, will find suitable
directions for their guidance in preparing copy, making calculations, corrections, &c. &c.
10
v 
The practical directions for conducting every department in
an office, will, we trust, be found more complete than any heretofore published, giving all the necessary information for Composing, Imposing, Fine Presswork, Ornamental Printing, and a
minute account of the best modes of making and managing
composition rollers.
In our endeavours to furnish the Profession with an Assistant, we have orne in mind the wants of beginners, and may,
perhaps, in some instances be charged with unnecessary prolixity; but we think it is better to lay before the general reader
information which he already possesses, than to withhold such
minutia from the rising generation, who, by a proper appreciation of it, and attention to business, may become ornaments to
the profession they have embraced.
vi
PREFACE.
I 
ON T E N T S.
PART I.
HISTORY OF THE ART.
America, Printing introduced into.....          26
Art of Printing practiced in China at an early period.. 8
Bibles printed in 1450...........                          15
Chinese Printing described.....            8
Coster of Harlem, supposed inventor....    10
England, Introduction of the Art into...  25
Engraving, Sketch of............             38
Guttemberg of Mentz, Testimony in favor of...  16
Invention claimed by Herlem, Mentz, Strazburg and Venice  9
Lithography; Historical sketch of.....             33
Medallion of the acknowledged Inventors...  23
Newspaper, first in North America...    28
Origin, Rise, and Progress of the Art...   7
Stereotyping, Sketch of.........            32
Strazburg, Claims in favor of......           20 
Testimony of Ulric Zell in favor of Mentz...    12
PART II.
CHAPTER I.
PRACTICE OF THE ART.
Black Letter.......
Different sizes of Printing letters 
Irregular bodied Letter........
Italic Letter.... 
Practical Instructor...
Properties and Shlapes of Types...
Regular bodied Letter.....
Roman Letter.......
CHAPTER II.
LETTER FOUNDERS' SORTS;
Accented Letters.
Apostrophe.
Arithmetical Figures
vii
*..
V11
0
47
.47
48
.45
43
.44
.148
.44
55
. 65
70 
CONTENTS.
Ascending Letters....
Bill of Pica, Roman and Italic...
Capitals and Small Capitals....
*Descending Letters......
Double Letters.
Fount of Letter as considered by Letter Founders
Hyphen or Division.
Kerned Letters.......
Long Letters......
Lower Case Sorts......
Numeral Letters....v.
Parentheses and Brackets....
Points........
Quadrats
References... -.....
Short Letters
Sorts to a Bill of Pica, Rioman and Italic                    5
Spaces........
CHAP. III.
RULES, SIZES OF LETTER, &C.
Braces.............               73
Casting off Copy..............                                 82
Flowers........ 76
Fractions..............             74
Gradation of Types......       81
Leads      *...............             76
Metal Rules or Dashes..  72
Names of Letter and their bearings to each other.  7
Quotations..............              75
Rules..............             71
Space Rules..............               73
Superiors............... 74
Two line Letters............                                    76
CHAP. IV.
OBSERVATIONS ON COMPOSING, &C.
Cases generally used in the United States..    90, 91
The late Earl Stanhope's plan, and Remarks      94, 96
T. F. Adams' plan, and Remarks....  98, 100
Composing.............               87
Distributing..............           102
Laying of Cases..........              101
Observations on Composing..........           105
viii
.50
51
.54
50
.50
49
.62
50
.50
58
.67
64
.58
66
.55
.150
.53
67 
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER V.
IMPOSING, &C.
Imposing,.   *.   
Impositions.......
Locking up Forms.....
Making Margin......
CHAPTER VI.
Celestial and Astronomical Signs...      198
Correctors and Correcting.........176
Correcting in the Metal......          182
Greek and Hebrew Alphabets and Cases..   200. 209
Letters that have a likeness to others.             209
Music........                            210
Mathematical, Algebraical, and Geometrical Characters,   195
Physical Signs and Abbreviations..-...   199
Reader, Department of a......            188
Typographical Marks and Explanations..   178. 180
CHAPTER VII.
OVERSEER'S DEPARTMENT.
Compositors' and Pressmen's Check Book...    214
Correcting..............            224
Duty of an Overseer...........             211
Expediting Works of an urgent nature.2..   18
Imposing, and Distributing Letter...    223
Job Book, plan of.............                             215
Making up,-Letter-Furniture........            222
Press Book, plan of......                       213
Rules and Regulations to be observed in a Printing Office  216
Rules to be observed in Companionship...    220
Takling Copy...........      220
Transposition of Pages..........              226
CHAPTER VIII.
THE PRESS.
Xe  n..230
n kt.   ~.234
. 246
*           *            *           *
ix
118. 17e
119. 168
. 174
171
CORRECTORS AND CORRECTING.
Covering Tynipan
Blankets -
Fine Printing 
Ley Trough...
Making ready a Form.
Mixing and grinding Colors with Varnish    
Ornamental Printing-Card, Gold, Bronze, &c. &c.
Printing Engravings on Wood
Printing Red or other colors with Black.5
Pulling......
Rules and Remedies for Pressmen....
Setting up a Press and Roller Stand                       2
Wetting Paper.......
CHAPTER IX.
INKING APPARATUS.
CC.    o...
Directions for making. 
Preparing the Mould.. 
General Directions for Working
Skin Rollers-to Make
Self Inking Apparatus
CHAPTER X.
IMPROVED PRESSES.
Adams' Power Press.. 
American Press....
Columbian'.....
Machine Printing 
Philadelphia, Ramage, and Smith
Taylor's Cylinder Press..
Washington....
Wells......
CHAPTER XI.
WAREHOUSE DEPARTMENT.
Counting out and Putting by sheets
Filling in and Pressing sheets.
Giving out Paper to wet..~
Hanging up Paper to dry...
Sizes of Paper as made by Machinery'
Taking down sheets when dry..
Warehouse Book...... 
T.nIca.  279
..278
.  275
27(' 
.   I..  279
277
. 274
280. 282
CONTJENTS.
x
245
. 235
257
. 252
2l
. 255
240
. 243
228, 229
. 231
. 258
260
. 264
265
. 259
266
270, 271
. 268
267
. 270
272
' 270
..268, 269
. 270
Tec'hnical Terms. 
THE
ORIGIN, RISE, AND PROGRESS,
OF THE
TYPO G RAPHIC ART.
"Th' Inventor of this noble Art to find,
Has long engaged the Antiquary's mind;
To question dates, on books and records pore,
To draw the veil Obseurity's cast o'er;
Vain are his efforts,'tis beyond his might,
To fix in truth, on man, or place the right:
Doubts still exist to whom the palm is due,
Partisans for each their claims pursue:
But metal types the honor all confer,
On both the Guttembergs, Faust and Scheeffer.'
THIS noble invention, which is one of the greatest blessings
heaven has bestowed, cannot fail exciting a considerable degree
of interest in the rising generation, to be informed when, and by
whom, it was first discovered, and brought into general use.
Though printing be considered a modern invention, it is allowed
to have been practised in the East from a very early period, in a
similar manner to our first essays. It has been contended, that
the remoteness and seclusion of the Chinese prevented our gaining any information from them: but Mr. W. Y. Ottley, and Mr.
S. W. Singer, concur in opinion, that the art of engraving in
wood was known in Europe in the thirteenth century: that it
was brought from Asia by the Venitian merchants, whose intercourse with that territory was frequent, by way of Constantinople, from a very early period. As to the silence of Marco
Polo upon this subject, in his account of the marvels he had
witnessed in China, having resided at the court of the great Chan
of Tartary for seventeen years, 1295: Mr. O. conceives that
the author thought it of little interest, as the art had been long
practised in Venice. Many writers have ascribed this invention
to an earlier period than the Christian era; Father Couplet
states the year 930: Father du Halde fixes it fifty years prior 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
to the former period, under the reign of Ming Tsong I. the second Emperor of the Tartarian dynasty: and Father le Compte
contends, that it has been practised in China from all ages: he
adds that the only difference between the European and Chinese methods, consist in the former being able, from the small
number of letters in their alphabet, to print voluminous works,
the letters of the first sheet, from a re-arrangement, serving fobr
all the succeeding ones: whereas, from the prodigious numiber
of characters in the Chinese alphabet, (some accounts state them
at eighty thousand) they contend that it is much easier and less
expensive to have their pages cut on wood; thus having as many
blocks as there are leaves in the book. Father du Halde gives
the following particulars relative to Chinese printing:
"The work intended to be printed is transcribed by a careful
writer upon a thin transparent paper:' the engraver glues each
of these written sheets, with its face downwards upon a smooth
tablet of pear or apple-tree, or some other hard wood; and then,
with gravers and other instruments he cuts the wood away in
all those parts upon which he finds nothing traced; thus leaving
the transcribed characters ready for printing: in this manner he
prepares as many blocks as there are written pages. He then
prints the number of copies immediately wanted; for he can always print more, if they are required, without the labor of recomposition necessary in typography: nor is any time lost in
correcting the proof sheets, for, as he is guided in his engraving
by the strokes of the written copy, or perhaps the original of the
author himself, it is impossible for him to make any mistakes,
if the copy is written with exactness. When once, however,
the blocks are engraved, the paper is cut, and the ink is ready,
one man with his brush can, without fatigue, print ten thousand
sheets in a day. The block to be printed must be placed level,
and firmly fixed. The man must have two brushes, one of them
of a stiffer kind, which he can hold in his hand, and use at either
end. He dips it into the ink, and rubs the block with it; taking
care not to wet it too much, or to leave it too dry: if it were wetted
too much, the characters would be slurred; if too little, they
would not print. When the block is once got into a proper
state, he can print three or four sheets following without dipping
8
I. 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
his brush into the ink. The second brush is used to rub over
the paper, with a small degree of pressure, that it may take the
impression: this it does easily, for, not being sized with alum, it
receives the ink the instant it comes in contact with it. It is
only necessary that the brush should be passed over every part
of the sheet with a greater or smaller degree of pressure, and repeated in proportion as the printer finds there is more or less
ink upon the block. This brush is soft, and of an oblong form."
The discovery of Printing, having been made so lately as the
fifteenth century, it is matter of surprise that no certain record
has been handed down fixing the precise time when, the person
by whom, and the place whence this Art received its birth. The
abilities of the literary Antiquaries of different nations have been
called forth, in order that the palm may be ceded to those,,who
not only merited so well of their own country, but also of every
other portion of the civilized globe. These researches have not
satisfactorily determined the point; the affair still remains involved in a certain degree of mystery; although it must be
admitted, that great probability appears in the theories of some
of those who have investigated this difficult subject.
Two reasons may be assigned for this obscurity; viz. the
imperfect state of printing while it remained in the possession of
its inventor. Rd. Pecuniary motives induced the first printers
(from the large sums which were usually paid for manuscripts)
to sell their works as such; so that printing was, for a period, as
much the counterfeit as the substitute for writing, it being a
fac-simnile of the most approved Scribes. The few persons concerned kept the art a secret for some time, till their funds not
being sufficient to answer the necessary expenses, these ingenious men were thus compelled to associate with persons of
property, from the union of whose names a degree of doubt has
arisen to whom the merit really belongs.
A competition for this distinguished honor now took place
between Ilaerlem, Mentz, Strazburg, and Venice; partizans
arose in favor of Laurensz Jansz Coster, of Ilaerlem; John
Guttemberg and others of Mentz; Guttemberg and Mentilius,
of Strazburg; and Nicolas Janson, of Venice; others ascribing
the discovery to John Guttemberg, or Geinsfieich, junior.
2
9 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
The claims of Laurentius Coster, of Haerlem, depend principally on the authority of the celebrated historian of Holland,
Hadrianus Junius, or Adrian Young, who took up his residence
at Haerlem in 1560. He died 1575, having just finished his
work intituled "Batavia," which appeared in 1578, and from
which it is considered that all Coster's partizans have taken
their ground of argument. The following particulars, supposed
to have been written in 1568, he states were related by his tutor,
Nicholas Galius, an old gentlemen of very tenacious memory,
who stated, that when a boy, he had often heard one Cornelius,
a bookbinder, (then upwards of eighty years of age, who had,
when a youth, assisted at the printing office of Coster,) describe
with great earnestness the numerous trials and experiments
made by his master in the infancy of the invention: when he
came to that part of his narrative touching the robbery, he
would burst into tears, and curse, with the greatest vehemence,
those nights in which he had slept with so vile a miscreant;
and that, were he still alive, he could with great pleasure
execute the thief with his own hands.  Junius states that he
received a similar account from Quirinus Talesius, the Burgomaster, who declared that it was recited to him by the said
Cornelius:
"About 120 years ago, Laurence Zanssen Coster, inhabited
a decent and fashionable house in the city of HIaerlem, situated
on the market-place, opposite the royal palace. The name of
Coster was assumed, and inherited from his ancestors, who had
long enjoyed the honorable and lucrative office of Coster or
Sexton to the church. This man deserves to be restored to the
honor of being the first inventor of printing, of which he has
been unjustly deprived by others, who have enjoyed the praises
due to him alone. As he was walking in the wood contiguous
to the city, which was the general custom of the richer citizens
and men of leisure, in the afternoon and on holidays, he began
to cut letters on the bark of the beech; with these letters he
enstamped marks upon paper in a contrary direction, in the
manner of a seal; until at length he formed a few lines for his
own amusement, and for the use of the children of his brotherin-law. This succeeding so well, he attempted greater things;
10 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
and being a man of genius and reflection, he invented, with the
aid of his brother or son-in-law, Thomtnas Pietrison, a thicker
and more adhesive ink, as the common ink was too thin and
made blotted marks. With this ink he was able to print blocks
and figures, to which he added letters. I have seen specimens
of his printing in this manner: in the beginning he printed on
one side only. This was a Dutch book, entitled Spiegal enser
Behoudenisse. That it was one of the first books printed after
the invention of the art, appears from the leaves, which are
pasted together, that the naked sides might not be offensive to
the eyes; and none at first were printed in a more perfect
manner. As this new species of traffic attracted numerous
customers, thus did the profits arising from it increase his love
for the art, and his diligence in the exercise of it.
"He engaged workmen, which was the source of the mischief.  Among these workmen was one Jan, whether his
surname be that of Faust, or any other, is of no great importance
to me; as I will not disturb the dead, whose consciences must
have smote them sufficiently while living. This Jan, who
assisted at the printing-press under oath, after he had learned
the art of casting the types, setting them, and other articles.
belonging to the art, and thought himself sufficiently instructed,
having watched the opportunity, as he could not find a better,
he packed up the types and the other articles on Christmas eve,
while the family was engaged in celebrating the festival, and
stole away with them. He first fled to Amsterdam, thence to
Cologne, until he could establish himself at Mentz, as a secure
place, where he might open shop, and reap the fruits of his
knavery. It is a known fact, that within the twelve months,
that is, in the year 1440, he published the dlexandri Galli
Doetrinale, a grammar at that time in high repute, with Petri
Hispani Traetatibus Logicis, with the same letters which
Laurens had used. These were undoubtedly the first products
of his press. These are the principal circumstances that I
have collected from creditable persons far advanced in years,
which they have transmitted like a flaming torch from hand
to hand; I have also met with others who have confirmed the
same," &c. &c.
It 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
Ulric Zell, father of the Cologne press, was a native of
Germany, and is said to have gained his knowledge of the art at
Mentz. In the Cologne Chronicle of 1499, he gives the following testimony:
"ITEM: This most revered art was first discovered at Mentz,
in Germany; and it is a great honor to the German nation, that
such ingenious men were found in it. This happened in the
year of our Lord MCCCCXL; and from that time, till the year
MCCCCL, the art, and what belongs to it, was rendered more
perfect. In the year of our Lord MCCCCL, which was a golden
year, then men began to print, and the first book printed was a
Bible in Latin, and it was printed in a larger character than that
with which men now print mass-books. ITEM: although this
art was discovered at Mentz at first, in the manner in which it
is now commonly used, yet the first example of it was found in
Holland, in the Donatuses which were before printed there.
And thence is derived the beginning of this art, and it is more
masterly and subtle than the ancient manner was, and by far
more ingenious: but the first inventor of printing was a citizen
of Mentz, and was born at Strasbourg, and was called John
Gudenburch. ITEM: from Mentz, the before-mentioned art first
came to Cologne, thence to Strasbourg, and thence to Venice.
The beginning and progress of the before-mentioned art was
told me, by word of mouth, by the worthy man, Master Ulrich
Tzell of Hanautilt, printer at Cologne, in the present year
Mccccxcix-by whom the fore-mentioned art is come to
Cologne."
Schcepfiin asserts, that Peter de Olpe, not U. Zell, was the
first Cologne printer: Mr. Dibdin satisfactorily answers him,
and proves that Zell printed there in 1466, four years prior to
Olpe.  "Upon the whole," observes Mr. D. "the evidence of
Ulric Zell appears to be as honest as it is curious."
Theo. Volchart Coornhert, in his translation of Cicero's Offices,
which is dedicated to the Burgomasters, Judges, and Senators
of Haerlem, 1561, observes, like Junius, that he writes upon the
authority of
"Aged persons of the highest respectability and credit, who
had repeatedly informed him, not only of the family of the
12 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
inventor, and of his name and surname, but also concerning the
rude manner of printing which he at first practised, and the
place of his residence, which they had often pointed out to him
with their fingers."
Ludovico Guicciardini, by birth an Italian, in his Descrizione
di tutti i Paesi Bassi, written 1565, and printed at Antwerp,
in the year 1567, gives the following, in support of the claims
of Haerlem:
"According to the common tradition of the inhabitants, and
the assertion of other natives of Holland, as well as the testimony
of certain authors and other records, it appears that the art of
printing and stamping letters and characters on paper, in the
manner now used, was first invented in this place: but the
author of the invention happening to die before the art was
brought to perfection, and had required repute, his servant, they
say, went to reside at Mentz; where, giving proofs of his knowledge in that science; he was joyfully received; and where,
having applied himself to the business with unremitting diligence,,
it became at length generally known, and was brought to entire
perfection; in consequence of which, the fame afterwards spread
abroad and became general, that the art and science of printing
originated in that city. What is really the truth, I am not able,
nor will I take upon me to decide; it sufficing me to have said
these few words, that I might not be guilty of injustice towards
this town and this country." 
That Laurentius Coster carried the art no farther than separate
wooden types, appears from a Dutch poem, intituled Hertspiegal,
published in the sixteenth century,-by Henry Spiechal, who
exclaims: 
"Thou first, Laurentius, to supply the defect of wooden
tablets, adaptedst wooden types, and afterwards didst connect
them with a thread, to imitate writing. A treacherous servant
surreptitiously obtained the honor of the discovery: but truth
itself, though destitute of common and wide-spread fame; truth,
I say, still remains."
There is no mention in this poem, of metal types; had ne
been robbed of these, as well as of wooden ones, su'h a circumstance could not have been passed over in silence.
13
2-* 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
That the rough specimens with which Laurentius amused
himself, should be discovered, at the distance of three centuries,
appears almost improbable; yet John Enschedius, a printer,
discovered an old parchment Horariunt, prinled on both sides,
in eight pages, containing The Alphabet, The Lord's Prayer,
The  Apostles' Creed,  and  three  short  prayers, which  he
imagines to be the first productions of Laurentius. Mr. Meerman submitted this to artists, (competent judges,) who gave as
their opinion that it exactly agreed with the description of
Junius: it also corresponds with the first edition of the Dutch
Speculum Salvationis, and the fragment of the Holland Donatus,
which are said to have been the productions of Laurentius, and
are specimens of his piety and ingenuity, in this essay of his
newly invented art. Mr. Meerman has given an exact engraving
of this singular curiosity.
Having touched upon the principal arguments in favor of
Haerlem, we shall proceed to give those which refer to Mentz:
It is generally affirmed that John Geinfieisch, sen. came to
Mentz in 1441, and it is conjectured that he brought with him
some of the wooden types, the property of Laurentius Coster
of Haerlem, where it is stated that he had been employed, and
there learned the art and mystery of printing. In the following
year, 1442,,we are informed that he gave strong proofs of his
industry, by the production of two small works, intituled,
Alexandri Galli Doctrinale, and Petri Hispani Tractatus:-these
being books much used in schools, he had every reason to
expect that they would meet with a profitable sale, together
with a future prospect of success in his new enterprise.
In 1443, he engaged the house Zuni Jungen, when he was
joined by Faust: soon after, J. Meidenbachius and others were
admitted partners; but their names are not transmitted to our
times. In 1444, they were joined by Guttemberg, who is said
to have' made ineffectual attempts, for several years, to perfect
the art at Strazburg. These ingenious men at length discovered
that the wooden types were not sufficiently durable, and not
altogether a.swering their expectation in other respects, the two
brothers commenced cutting metal types; while these were
preparing, they printed several books of frequent use, such as
14 
TYPOG(RAPHIA.
the Tabula flphabetica, the Catholicon, the Donati Grammatica,
and the Confessionalia: these were printed with separate wooden
types and wooden blocks.
To commence printing an edition of THE BIBLE in this early
stage of the art, must be acknowledged by all as a most astonishing and wonderful undertaking; it was printed with large
cut metal types, and published in 1450: if we consider the
immense labor of this work, it is no wonder that it should be
seven or eight years in completing. This year the partnership
was dissolved; in August, Faust and Guttemberg entered into
a new agreement, the former supplying money, the latter skill,
for their mutual benefit. Various difficulties arising, occasioned
a law-suit for the money which Faust had advanced; the cause
was decided against Guttemberg. A dissolution of partnership
ensued in 1455; in 1457, a magnificent edition of the Psalter
was published by Faust and Schceffer, with a singular commendation, in which tL -  assumed to themselves the merit of a new
invention, (viz. of,etal types,) ad inventionem artificiosam
imprbnendi ac characterizandi.  This book was in some measure
the work of Guttembe;g, and at that time considered uncommonly elegant; it was four years in the press; and came out but
eighteen months after the partnership was dissolved between
nim and Faust..
John Fust, or Faust, a goldsmith of Mentz, was one of the
three artists considered as the inventors of printing; it is not
certain that he did more than supply the money for carrying on
the concern. In 1462, Faust carried a number of Bibles to Paris,
which he and his partner Schceffer had printed, and disposed of
them as manuscripts; at this time the discovery of the art was
not known in France. At first he sold them at the high price
of 500 or 600 crowns, the sum usually obtained by the scribes;
he afterwards lowered his price to sixty, which created universal
astonishment; but when he produced them according to the
demand, and even reduced the price to thirty, all Paris became
agitated.  The uniformity of the copies increased their wonder,
the Parisians considering it a task beyond humaanvention;
informations were given to the police against him     a magician; his lodgings were searched, a great number  of Bibles
15 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
were found, and seized; the red ink with which they were
embellished was said to be his blood; it was seriously adjudged
that he was in league with the devil; whereupon he was cast
into prison, and would most probably have shared the fate of
such, whom ignorant and superstitious judges condemned in
those days for witchcraft. He now found it necessary, in order
to gain his liberty, to make known the discovery of the art.
This circumstance gave rise to the tradition of " The Devil and
Dr. Faustus," which is handed down to the present time.  It is
uncertain when Faust died, he was at Paris in 1466, and it is
strongly conjectured that he fell a victim to the plague, which
then raged in that capital.
Naude, in his Mascuzrat, contends that Faust was the first
printer in Europe, and that he took in Guttemberg as a partner.
He grounds his argument on the impressions bearing the name
of Faust, and not the other partners; whereas, if Guttemberg
and Coster had had an equal share in the invention, they would
not have permitted him and his son-in-law to enjoy the honor,
without offering to do the like, or even asserting their own right.
J. Trithemius, in his history of the year 1450, gives the
following particulars relative to the invention, which he states
to have received from the meuth of Peter Schcetffery the inventor
of cast metal types:
"About this time that wonderful and almost incredible Art
of printing and characterizing books, was thought of and
invented at Mentz, by John Guttemberg, a citizen of Mentz,
who having expended almost all his substance in the invention
of this art, and struggling with great difficulties, both respecting
his circumstances and the impediments which arose, was upon
the brink of relinquishing the attempt; but he completed the
undertaking through the advice and pecuniary assistance of
John Faust, also a citizen of Mentz. They first printed a
vocabulary, called the Catholicon, with the characters of letters
carved in wooden tablets, in a series, and composed in forms.
But as these could not serve for any other purpose, since the
characterwere not moveable from the tablets, but carved, they
afterwards contrived better methods, and invented a manner ot
casting the forms of all the letters in the Latin alphabet, which
~ 16 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
they called matrices, from which they again cast brass and iron
characters capable of sustaining any-pressure, which they first
cut with the hand."
The person who discovered the method of casting the types
and completed the art as it now remains, was Peter Schceffer,
the first servant of Guttemberg and Faust, who became son-inlaw to the latter; these three kept the art a secret for some time,
till at length it was divulged by their servants, whose assistance
was required in the concern.
A great majority of German, French, and Italian authors, are
decidedly of opinion that the discovery was made in Germany.
That printing was exercised at Mentz at an early period, is an
incontrovertible fact; and was practised there by several persons,
to one or other of whom this invention has been attributed.  It
is strange, while Mentz is priding herself upon this high honor,
the citizens are not agreed to whom the merit is due.
Naude observes, that the person is not yet born who can say
that he has seen books printed by either Coster, Guttemberg, or
Mentil, before, or as early as those of Faust, all that can be
urged on their behalf being founded on reports, conjectures,
probabilities, forged authorities, and the jealousies of cities
against one another.
Salmuth cites a public act, which states Faust to be the
inventor; and, after sustaining it for some time, he at length
took in Guttemberg as a partner, to contribute towards the
expense, which was great, in consequence of the books being
printed on vellum, after the Chinese method.
The most ample testimony in favor of Schceffer is given by
Jo. Frid. Faustus of Aschaffenburg, from papers preserved in
his family:
"Peter Schceffer of Gerasheim, perceiving his master faust's
design, and being himself ardently desirous to improve the art,
found out (by the good providence of God) the method of
cutting (incidendi) the characters in a matrix, that the letters
might easily be singly cast, instead of being cut. He privately
cut matrices for the whole alphabet; and when he showed his
master the letters cast from those matrices, Faust was so pleased
with the contrivance, tnat he promised Peter to give him his
17 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
only daughter Christina in marriage, a promise which he soon
after performed. But there were as many difficulties at first
with these letters, as there had been before with wooden ones;
the metal being too soft to support the force of the impression;
but this defect was soon remedied, by mixing the metal with a
substance which sufficiently hardened it."
The first book printed wvith the improved types was lDura'zdi
Ratioiale, in 1459; however, they seem to have had only one
size of cast letters, all the larger characters which occur being
cut types, as it plainly appears by an inspection of the book.
Faust and Schceffer continued to print a considerable number of
works till 1466: particularly two famous editions of Tully's
Offices. They took more impressions on vellum than on paper
in their earliest works, which was the case with their Bibles and
Tuily's  Offes.  This  was  soon inverted;  for paper  being
introduced, they took but few impressions on vellum, which
were more for curiosities than for general use. How long
Faust lived is uncertain; but, in 1471, we find that Scheffer
was in partnership with Conrad Henlif and a kinsman of his
master Faust. He printed several books after the death of his
father-in-law; the last of which that can be discovered is a third
edition of the Psalter, in 1490, in which the old cut metal types
were used.,
We are informed that the Mentz printers, in order that the art
might not be divulged, administered an oath of secrecy to all
whom they employed; this appears to have been strictly adhered
to until the year 1462, at which period the city was sacked and
plundered by Archbishop Adolphus, its former rights and
franchises were also abolished: amid the consternation occasioned by this extraordinary event, the workmen of the Mentz
press, considering their oath of fidelity no Ionger binding, now
became free agents, and spread themselves in different directions
by this circumstance, the hitherto great mystery was rapidly
carried through a considerable portion of Europe: the places
which received it early, after some time, commenced a contention for the merit of the discovery of this important Art, which
has given rise to the numerous disputes we are now endeavoring
to reconcile.
18 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
Having given the most material points respecting the claims
of Haerlem and Mentz, we shall now proceed to state those in
favor of Strazburg:
It is asserted by J. Wimphelingius, the oldest writer in favor
of the latter city, that Guttemberg was the inventor of "a new
art of writing," ars impressoria, which he happily completed at
Mentz; but he does not mention one work of his printing; in
another book he observes, " the art of printing was found out by
Gittemberg, incomplete."
Richard Bartoline published a work in favor of Mentilius;and
states the period to be 1441. Gebwiler, (born 1473,) contends
that the art was first discovered at Strazburg, by Mentilius, and
that Faust, of Mentz, afterwards imitated him.
Trithemius informs us, that Guttemberg spent all his
substance in quest of this art, and met with insuperable
difficulties; that, in despair, he had nearly given up all hopes
of success, till he was assisted by the liberality of Faust, and
by his brother's skill, in the city of Mentz. It is evident that
his endeavors at Strazburg were unsuccessful; as appears by
the documents of a judicial decree of that Senate, in 1439; after
the death of Andrew Drizehen, or Drizenius, whom Guttemberg,
(a man of great talent and ingenuity) had engaged to instruct in
the art of polishing stones; he afterwards employed one John
Riff in the art of making mirrors, or looking glasses, as practised at Aix-la-Chapelle, and also in other arts, in which the
said Drizehen, and also Anthony Ileilinan, wished to be
initiated: certain conditions were then agreed upon. These
two individuals paid an unexpected visit to Guttemberg, who
lived in the suburbs, when they found him busily employed in
another mystery, which had been concealed from them. After
a short dispute, Guttembl)erg proposed to instruct them on certain conditions; one of which was, that a portion of the sum
advanced by the parties be refunded to their heirs if they should
die within the space of five years; Drizehen did not survive the
term, when his heirs insisted on the conditions of the engagement; to which Guttemberg, who appears to have been a
litigious man, strenuously refused; a legal process was the
consequence.  From the evidence given by the different work
19 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
men, carpenters, servants, &c. it is evident that this mystery Was
the invention of printing. Immediately after the demise of Drizehen, Guttemberg gave orders to his servants to convey from his
house certain implements in the most secret manner; which
afterwards appeared to be a printing-press, and a quantity of
letters cut in wood. This discovery was made December 26,
1438.
In 1439, John Dunnius declared before the magistrates, that
lie had received one hundred florins for work done at a press
three years before; this brings the epoch of the first attempt
to 1436.
In 1438, the unfortunate Drizehen lamented to his Confessor,
the great expense which he had incurred, without having been
reimbursed a single obolus. Nor did Guttemberg himself, who
persisted in his unsuccessful attempts, reap any advantage from
them; for on quitting Strazburg, he was overwhelmed in debt,
and under the necessity of parting with the greater portion of
his property.
John Mentilius, a physician at Paris, has strenuously defended the cause of his namesake of Strazburg: but his endeavors
have not advanced the cause of Mentilius one tittle beyond what
had been done by his predecessors.
The principal argument which the defenders of Mentilius
hleave set forth, is the'title of nobility conferred upon him by the
Emperor Frederick III. This circumstance was handed down
by the grand-daughter of Mentilius, who married J. Schottien;
and hlie gave it publicity in the Ptolemraic Geogrcaphy, printed at
Strazburg, 1520. It has been asserted, that he was induced to
make this boast, from the conduct of John Scheffer, of Mentz,
who had previously announced in his Golophts, that the dis.
covery was made by John Faust, his grandfather by his
mother's side.
This rivalship between Schoeffer and Schottus was carried to
a considerable height; the former gained many advocates in
favor of Faust, without allowing Gutteunberg the least merit;
amongst the number was the Emperor Maximilian, who, in
1518, granted him an exclusive privilege of printing Livy.
During the life of this Emperor, the latter remained silent: bu
20 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
it is said that (immediately after his death) he endeavored to
persuade his successor, Charles V. and the literati, that Faust
had no real claim to the merit of the invention, as the credit of
it justly belonged to Mentilius. In consequence of the above mentioned grant of the title of nobility, we are informed that, in
1520, he began to prefix his family arms to all the books which
he afterwards printed: adding,
"That they were granted to John Mentilius, the first inventor
of printing."
It appears that coat-armour had been previously conferred on
the inventors to perpetuate the discovery, but the grant to Mentilius was merely to gratify his ambition, as the diploma
contained not a syllable about the invention of printing.
A variety of evidence might be adduced in favor of Mentilius,
had it not been superseded by Schcepfiin's discovery of the
document of the law-suit; from which it appears, that Guttemnberg was the first who attempted printing at Strazburg, although
his endeavors proved unsuccessful. We are informed by Jacob
Wimphelingius, that Mentilius acquired a fortune by printing
his works in a correct and elegant manner: therefore, if Guttemberg claims the honor of the invention, the profitable harvest
was reaped by Mentilius.
Two Strazbutg Chronologers, (Dan. Speklinus, the other
Anonymous) expressly inform us, that John Geinsfieisch, sen.
(whom they distinguished from Guttemberg) when he had
learned the art from its first inventor, carried it by theft to his
native city, Mentz.
They make Strazburg the place of the invention, and Mentilius the inventor, from whom the types were stolen. These
writers are completely in error, because Geinsfieisch was a
resident at Mentz, in 1441, and Mentilius, according to their
account, did not begin to print before 1440; therefore, it is
improbable that he could have been a servant to the latter: other
authorities state, that Mentilius did not practise prior to 1444 of
1448; neither will their narrative agree better with Guttemberg,
who certainly printed before Mentilius, as, from the evidence
produced in the law-suit, 1439, we have no mention of any
servant, except Laurentius Beildek.
3
21 
TYPOGRAPIIIA.
We have endeavored in the foregoing pages, to reduce the
subject into as small a focus as possible: this we have done by
bringing it to one simple question, which in our opinion will
settle this long contested point: viz.  Had the Mentz printe?rs
any rivalprevious to 1462? Certainly not. Then we can have
no hesitation in decorating their brows with the laurel wreath,
as a just reward for their ingenuity and exertion, which others
have vainly endeavored to deprive them of.
The medallion in the following page contains the portraits of
the individuals generally acknowledged in Germany as the first
printers; the subject from which this was copied is supposed to
have been engraved by the famous Gubitz, of Berlin, from an
old German painting.
22 
OF >
JTO THE...
JOHN GUTTEMBURG, JR.
The reputed Inventor:
5,    JOHN FAUST,    W
The Promoter:
CS f WL )) PETER SCHOEFFER,
The Improver;
2 |       T H IS ME DA LL I O N
Is here presented,            1:
that Posterity may know the Men
to whom they stand so
much indebted.
t:"~-x  
I 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
The Art of Printing, from the best authorities, appears to have
been introduced into England, at Westminster, in 1474, by
William Caxton, mercer, who gained his knowledge of the Art
while travelling in Germany as agent for the Company of
Mercers, who, in those days, amongst other commodities, dealt
in books, which they either purchased in manuscript or caused
to be printed. In 1474 appeared the "Game of Chess," consi  1ered to be the first book printed in that kingdom. Caxton
must have been at that time at least sixty-two years of age, and
was remarkable for his habits of industry.  He died about six
years after the introduction of the Art, having, it is said, in
addition to the working of his press, translated not fewer than
five thousand folio pages.
Chevellier mentions a book printed at Goa, in 1577; and that
Prester John was very anxious, in 1581, to introduce it into
Abyssinia; and that it actually passed from Spain into Morocco
in that country. S. Olon, the French Ambassador to Morocco,
assures us, that there is scarcely a printing-office in the whole
4erritory; and that it is a part of their religion not to suffer corn,
horses, or books, to be exported; their fondness for the latter is
,ncreased by reason of their scarcity.
Some Danish missionaries are said to have sent a printing press and workmen to Tranquebar; where they printed the
New Testament (it quarto), Prayer Books, Catechisms, &c., in
Portuguese, and several Eastern languages, for promoting their
pious designs.
A  Russian merchant, in 1560, conveyed printing materials
into that state, and had several works printed there; but, being
a superstitious people, and fearful lest it-might tend to alter their
religious notions, some persons were employed to destroy the
press, &c. which circumstance passed by unnoticed, as no
attempt was ever made to discover the perpetrators.  Early in
the next century, several works were printed at Moscow and
St. Petersburg; since which, the art has gradually advanced in
that extensive territory. The Arts and Sciences are now improving.
The Art was extended early, by means of Europeans, but
more particularly by the Spanish missionaries, into Africa and
3*
2a 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
America.  Mr. Thomas in his History of Printing in.merica,
asserts that a press was established at Mexico some years
before 1569.
The earliest production from the Peruvian Press was printed
at Lima, by Father Pablo Jos. de Arriago, in 1621. Mr.
Thomas states its introduction about 1590: most of their works,
prior to the last fifty years, are said to have been upon religious
subjects.  About the beginning of the seventeenth century, a
press is said to have been introduced into the Spanish part of
St. Domingo; as well as into the Isle of Cuba; the government
principally employed these presses.
The first press in North America, is stated to have been at
Cambridge, (Mass.) in 1639.
In the accomplishment of what we have here undertaken, we
shall be much indebted to Thomas' History of Printing, for facts
and dates respecting the periodicals published here, previous to
the termination of the American revolution. In fact, there is
no person to whom the public is more indebted for a correct
history of printing, than the late venerable ISAIAH THOMAS, of
Worcester, whose vigorous intellect raised him to distinction,
and secured those blessings which are the never failing rewards
of industry and perseverance. Mr. Thomas was not only the
patron of every enterprise which promised utility to the rising
generation, but, in a particular manner, in his old age, devoted
his honestly acquired wealth in bringing into existence the
" American Antiquarian Society," which, in future ages, will
tell the story of our country's origin and growth.
Among the first settlers of New England were many pious as
well as learned men. They emigrated from a country where
the press had more license than in other parts of Europe, and
they were acquainted with the usefulness of it. As soon as they
had made those provisions that were necessary for their exist ence in this land, which was then a rude wilderness, their next
objects were, the establishment of schools, and a printing press;
the latter of which was not tolerated, till many years afterward,
by the elder colony of Virginia.
The founders of the colony of Massachusetts consisted of but
a small number of persons, who arrived at Salem: 1628. -
26 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
few more joined them in 1629; and governor Winthrop, with
the addition of fifteen hundred settlers, arrived in 1630. These
last landed at the place since called Charlestown, opposite to
Boston, where they pitched their tents, and built a few huts for
shelter. In 1631, they began to settle Cambridge, four miles
from the place where they landed. They also began a settle
ment on the identical spot where Boston now stands. In 1638,
they built an academy at Cambridge, which in process of time
was increased to a college; and, in the same year, they opened
a printing house in that place. In January, 1639, printing was
first performed in that part of North America, which extends
from the gulf of Mexico to the frozen ocean.
For this press our country is chiefly indebted to the Rev. Mr.
Glover, a non-conformist minister, who possessed a considerable
estate, and had left his native country with a determination to
settle among his friends, who had emigrated to Massachusetts;
because in this wilderness, he could freely enjoy, with them,
those opinions which were not countenanced by the government
and a majority of the people in England.
Very little more than the name of this Father of the American
press is known among us. So far as our researches have
extended, we can only find that his name has been barely
mentioned by two respectable journalists, Governor Winthrop,
and Captain, Johnson, who were among the first settlers that
emigrated here. This was, probably, owing to his having died
on his passage to Massachusetts.
Another press, with types, and another printer, were, in 1660,
sent over from England by the corporation for propagating the
gospel among the Indians in New England.  This press, &c.
was designed solely for the purpose of printing the Bible, and
other books, in the Indian language. On their arrival they
were carried to Cambridge, and employed in the printing house
already established in that place.
Notwithstanding printing continued to be performed in Cam bridge, from a variety of causes ft happened that many original
works were sent from New England, Massachusetts in particu lar, to London, to be printed. Among these causes the principal
were-first, the press at Cambridge had, generally, full employ
27 
TYPOGRAPHIA
nicht, secondly  e  printing done there was executed in an
injferior style;d, thirdly, many works on controverted points
of religion,,ere not allowed to be printed in this country.
Hence it happened that for more than eighty years after printing
was first practised in the colony, manuscripts were occasionally
sent to England for publication.
The fathers of Massachusetts kept a watchful eye on the
press; and, in neither a religious or civil point of view, were
they disposed to give it much liberty. Both the civil and eccle siastical rulers were fearful that if it was not under wholesome
restraints, contentions and heresies would arise among  the
people. In 1662, the government of Massachusetts appointed
licensers of the press; and afterward, in 1664, passed a law that
"no printing should be allowed in any town within the jurisdic tion, except in Cambridge"-nor should any thing be printed
there but what the government permitted through the agency
of those persons who were empowered for the purpose. Offenders against this regulation were to forfeit their presses to
the country, and to be disfranchised of the privilege of printing
thereafter. In a short time, this law was so far repealed, as to
permit the use of a press at Boston, and a person was authorized
to conduct it; subject, however, to the licensers who were
appointed for the purpose of inspecting it.
It does not appear that the press, in Massachusetts, was free
from legal restraints till about the year 1755. Holyoke's
Almanac, for 1715, has, in the title page, "Imprimatur, J.
Dudley."
Boston has the credit of issuing. the first newspaper in North
America, which was commenced on Monday, April 24, 1704,
by John Campbell, Esq. under the title of the Boston News
Letter.  It was discontinued, (1776) after being regularly published for nearly seventy-two years.
The second newspaper which appeared in America, as well
as the first, was published in Boston; it was called  Thle Boston
Gazette; the first number was published December 21, 1719, on
a half-sheet foolscap size.
The.merican Weekly JMercuy was commenced  the day
following at Philadelphia, which made the third paper issued it.
the United States.
-1,17 
TYPOGRAPHIA.                            29
The third newspaper which appeared in Bost s the JNYew
Englaand Courant, established by James Franklin, a[ugust 17,
1721, and was printed on a half sheet crown paper.  On Mr.
Musgrave's becoming proprietor of the Gazette, the printing
was taken from Franklin, which circumstance probably led to
the establishment of the  Courant; for he warmly attacked
Musgrave and endeavored to have him turned out of office. At
society of gentlemen furnished essays for this paper, which
were evidently written by men of talents, attacking persons in
office, the clergy and the prevailing religious opinions; and
opposed rather rudely the introduction of inoculation for the
small pox. These essays attracted general notice, and the paper
soon had warm advocates and zealous opposers; and finally
roused the attention and interference of the government. Dr.
Increase Mather openly denounced the Courant, by an address
to the public, which appeared in the Boston Gazette. Before
the Courant had been printed a year, Franklin was imprisoned
by order of the government in the common jail, where he
remained four weeks. After his release from prison, the club
was encouraged to proceed with increased boldness, which led
to a further interference of the government; and it was " thereupon ordered that James Franklin, the printer and publisher, be
strictly forbidden by this Court to print or publish the New
England Courant, or any pamphlet or paper of the like nature,
except it be first supervised by the Secretary of this Province;
and the Justices of his Majesty's Sessions of the Peace, for the
county of Suffolk, at their next adjournment, be directed to take
sufficient bonds of said Franklin, for his good behaviour for
twelve month's time."
Franklin published the Courant, notwithstanding, on the
following Monday, without submitting its contents to the Secretary. For this neglect, a bill of indictment was preferred to the
grand jury against him for contempt of an order of the Court.
'rhe jury returned "Ig-roramus" on the bill, and he was put
under bonds for his good behavior pursuant to the order of the
General Court. In consequence of things being thus situated,
it was determined to alter the imprint by leaving out the word
James, and inserting that of Benjamini, in order to evade the act.
C 
~0 ~ TYPOGRAPHIIA.
This was f ed into immedite efect, and the Courant pnr ported tome "printed and sold by BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, in
Queen street;" although he was a minor, and an apprentice to
his brother. The paper continued to be published in the name
of Benjamin Franklin for some time after he left his brotier;
and for any thing that appears, until its publication was discontinued in 1l727.
Tile British Colonies in America, and the West India Islands,
first received the art in 1751: their productions were chiefly
confined to colonial gazettes, &c.
Port-au-Prince is said to have received a press in 1750, at
which an account of a great earthquake (experienced in that
Island,) was printed, in 1751: the presses under the dominion
of France are chiefly confined to the use of the government.
Cicero, in his De Jatura Deoruin, has a passage, from which
Toland supposes the moderns took tile hint of printing. That
author orders the types to be made of metal, and calls them
Jfrmr  liceraiu,7, the very words used by the first printers to
express them. In Virgil's time, brands, with letters, were used
for marking cattle, &c. with the owner's name.
In the second book, he gives a hint of separate cast letters,
when he speaks of some ingenious man's throwing the twentytour letters of the alphabet, (made either of gold or other metal)
oy chance together, and thus producing 77Te linnais of Ennius.
Hle makes this observation, in opposition to the atheistical argument of the creation of the world by chance.
In the Philos. Trans, we find the emperor Justin could not
wirite; in consequence, a similar expedient to the printing of
playing cards was resorted to; namely, a smooth piece of board
with holes cut through it, in the form of the letters of his name;
and when he had occasion to sign anything, this was laid on
the paper, and he marked the letters with a pin, or stylus
dipped in red ink, and directed through the holes.
The following particulars, relative to the first productions of'
the art (though well known to the curious,) will, we trust, be
deemed acceptable to our readers:  WVith respect to their forms, they were generally either large
or small folios, or at least quartos: the lesser sizes were not in 
TYI'O)IGRAPHIA.                         31
use.  The leaves were without running title,i               n-word,
number of pages, or divisions into paragraphs.  Tbharacter
itself was a rude old Gothic mixed with Secretary, designed on
purpose to imitate the hand-writing of those times; the words
were printed so close to one another, that it was difficult and
tedious to be read, even by those who were used to manuscripts,
and to this method; and often led the inattentive reader into
mistakes.  Their orthography was various, and often arbitrary,
disregarding method. They had very frequent abbreviations,
which in time grew so numerous and difficult to be understood,
that there wvas a necessity of writing a book to teach the manner
of reading them. Their periods were distinguished by no other
point than the double or single one, that is, the colon or fiill point;
but they a little after, introduced an oblique stroke, thus, /, which
answered the purpose of our comma. They used no capital
letters to begin a sentence, or for proper names of men or places.
They left blanks for the places of titles, initial letters, and other
ornaments, in order to have them supplied by illuminators,
whose ingenious art, though in vogue before, and at that time,
(lid not long survive the masterly improvements made by the
printers in this branch of their art. Those ornaments were
exquisitely fine, and curiously variegated with the most beautiful
colors, and even with gold and silver; the margins, likewise,
were frequently charged with a variety of figures, of saints,
birds, beasts, monsters, flowers, &c. which had sometinmes
relation to the contents of the page, though often none at all:
these eimbellishments were very costly; but for those that could
not afford a great price, there were more inferior ornaments,
whichl could be done at a much easier rate.  The name of the
printer, place of his residence, &c. &C. where either wholly
n(glected, or put at the end of the book, not without some pious
(jacutilation or doxology.  The date was likewise omitte(l, or
iO\volved in some cramnpt circumstantial period, or else printed
either at full length, or by numerical  letters, and sometimes
perrtly one and partly the other; thus, One Thousand C(CCC
and lxxiiii, &c. but all of them at the end of the book. There
wore no variety of characters, no intermixture of r,oman and
Italic; they are of later invention; but their pages were con — 
32_    TYPOGRAPHIA.
tinued in        ic letter of the same size throughout.  They
printed b      w  copies at once,  for 200 or 300 were then
esteemed a large impression; though, upon the encouragements
received from the learned, they increased their numbers in
proportion.
About 14G9-70, alphabetical tables of the first words of each
cihapter were introduced, as a guide to the binder. Catch-words
(now generally abolished) were first used at Venice, by Vindeline de Spire. The name and place of the inventor of signatures
is obscured by a dark cloud.
STEREOTYPING seemns to have been invented in Scotland, and
first practised by William Ged, of Edinburgh, in the year 1725,
and when properly made known, was hailed with acclamation
by the printing and publishing world. When the types are set
with high quadrats and spaces, they are plastered over with
liquid stucco to the thickness of about half an inch, so that a
level cake is formed on the surface of the types. As soon as
the stucco hardens, which it does almost immediately, the caite
is separated from the types, and, on being turned up, shows a
complete hollow or mould-like representation of the faces of the
types and every thing else in the page. There being no longer
any use for the types, they are carried off and distributed. As
for the cake, it is put into an oven and baked to a certain degree
of iheat and hardness, like a piece of pottery. It is next laid in
a square iron pan, having a lid of the same metal, with holes at
the corners. The pan is now immersed in a pot of molten metal,
and being allowed to fill by means of the holes, it is at length
taken out and put aside till it is cool. On opening the pan, a
crious appearance is presented. The metal has run into the
mould side of the cake, and formed a thin plate all over, exhibiting the perfect appearance of the faces of the types on which
the stucco was plastered. Thus is procured a fictitious page of
types, not thicker than the sixth of an inch, and which can be
printed from in the same manner as in the case of a real page.
Such is the process of stereotyping, or making fixed, or stationary types;-and now fobr the utility of the invention: 
TYPOGRAPHIA.  3_8
In all cases of book work where a small edI         ly wll be
required, it is best to print from types, and then ditute them:
but in most cases of standard works or books published in parts,
or numbers, stereotyping becomes absolutely necessary. It is
easy to perceive the reason for this. When books are published
in numbers, it often happens that many more copies are sold of
one number than of another, and unless all the types be kept
up to complete sets in the hands of the publisher, or to print
copies according to the increased demand, a serious loss is sustained. The manufacture of stereotype plates is, therefore,
simply a means of keeping up fictitious types to answer future
demands, at an expense infinitely inferior to that of keeping the
actual pages standing.
LITHOGRAPHY is the art of printing from stone. It is only of
recent invention, and differs very considerably in principle,
from the art of printing from moveable types, wooden blocks or
copper or other plates. The process consists in writing on a
particular kind of stone, and from thence working off, by a
press, any number of copies, the writing thuis standing in relief
on the stone like raised letters. The peculiar value of this
ingenious art is in the cheapness and ease with which it accomplishes impressions of pictorial delineations or manuscript. The
discovery of the Lithographic art was made upwards of thirty
years since by Senefelder, a native of Germany-a country to
which the human race is also indebted for the more noble art of
printing from types; but since that period very greht improvemnents have been made upon it.
The history of the origin of lithography is instructive, and
affords to the young an additional instance of the triumph of
genius over poverty and its attendant disadvantages. Like
every new invention, when first attempted to be brought into
notice, it met with all the obstacles which ignorance or prejudice
could throw in its way; and it was not till after years of laborious
perseverance, accompanied with all the evils attendant on very
limited means, that the inventor succeeded in establishing his reputation, and gaining for the uew art its due degree of admiration.
4 
34_   TYPOGRAPHIA.
Senefelde es with the greatest candor, that having be
come an a~6r and at the same time being so poor that he
could not raise the necessary funds for the printing of his worx
with a view to publication, he endeavored to devise some method
by which his object might be attained, and, after much anxious
consideration, he resolved on attempting to accomplish it with
his own hands. With this view, his attention was first directed
to several original curious modes of stereotype, some of which
he considerably matured, and had his circumstances at this
period been such as to admit of his devoting a sufficient time to
the perfecting of this first part of his undertaking, it is questionable whether his talents would have ever been forced into that
particular line of study, which, in the end, acquired for his
name so great a celebrity. The same remark is applicable to
some of the other ingenious attempts which preceded his great
discovery. For a time, however, plan succeeded plan, each
being abandoned in turn, as new and more plausible theories
struck his fancy, and in this way did he persevere, for many
months, with various degrees of success, but without the
necessary results; and he at last relinquished this course of
experiments altogether, as presenting too many obstacles to be
overcome by an individual in his circumstances.
Disappointed, but not disheartened, in not having been so
successful in his operations as he had anticipated, we next find
him attempting to realize his hopes by substituting plates of
copper and tin for his metal and composition blocks; but this
second course of experiments was attended with little better
success than the former; for, after much labor, and numerous
trials with the etching needle, and by writing on the copper
with different chemical inks of his own composition, this medium
was found to be liable to all the objections which had deterred
him from prosecuting the stereotype plan. Being, however,
still of the opinion that his object was to be accomplished by art
alone, and having laid aside his copper plates for a time, as too
expensive, he began to look around for a substitute which would
supply their place fort all the purposes of practice, and at a
much less cost. He was not long in determining this point;
for, being aware that certain kinds of' stone had often been used 
TYPOGRAPHIA.  _                        3r
for similar purposes, he converted the slab on   w    he ground
his colors into a plate for exercising in writing, nd found it
answered his expectations completely. Experiments now followed each other in rapid succession, all tending to encourage
him in the prosecution of his design; and, when at length these
stone plates were rendered fit for undergoing the operations of
the printing press, he was greatly pleased to find that numerous
impressions might be taken on paper, without materially injuring, the original.
We shall now at once advert to the time when circumstances
conspired to force upon his attention those properties of the art,
which, on their first unfolding themselves, so astonished and
delighted him.  "I had (says he) just succeeded in my little
laboratory in polishing a stone plate which I intended to cover
with etching ground, in order to continue my exercises in
writing backwards, when my mother entered the room, and
desired me to write her a bill for the washer-woman, who was
waiting for the linen. I happened not to have even the smallest
slip of paper at hand, as my little stock of paper had been
entirely exhausted by taking proof impressions from the stones;
nor was there even a drop of ink in the inkstand. As the
matter would not admit of delay, and we had nobody in the
house to sendifor a supply of the deficient materials, I resolved
to write the list with my chemical ink, on the stone which I
had just polished, and from which I could copy it at leisure."'
When about to remove this writing from the stone, some time
afterwards, the idea struck him, that, by submitting its surface
to the action of aquafortis, such an elevation might be given
to the writing as would render it suitable, in the same way as
wood-engravings, for receiving printing ink. The experiment
exceeded his most sanguine hopes, and he lost no time in
following up his success with others, all tending to convince
him that he had discovered a new and important art.
Thus it will be seen, that, to a very simple occurrence in
itself, Senefelder was indebted for the hint on which hinged all
his succeeding improvements.
HIaving now briefly adverted to some of the leading incidents
which ultimately led to the discovery of chemical lithography, 
36                    TYPOGRAPHIA.
we shall neroceed to the notice of such particulars concern
ing the proress of the new art under the fostering care of its
author, as may be thought generally interesting.
Let it not be imagined that Senefelder's difficulties ceased with
this discovery: the fact is otherwise; for, in addition to the many
obstacles which he had to combat from lacking the necessary
funds for the prosecution of his labors, others were not wanting
of a nature equally serious, and which were to him the source
of long and painful anxiety. Among the rest, it was not a little
annoying to know that others were beginning to lay claim to the
merit of a new discovery.
For a series of years, Senefelder's patience and perseverance,
under the most disadvantageous circumstances, were truly
astonishing; and we shall now proceed briefly to detail such
other particulars in further illustration of the preceding remarks,
as may be deemed necessary for completing this part of our
subject.
Satisfied as to the originality of his new discovery, Senefelder
became anxious to turn it to account, by laying it before the
world; and in order to raise the necessary funds for at once
effecting this object, we find him, when all other means had
failed, offering himself as a substitute for a friend who was then
a soldier in the service of the elector of Bavaria, but with his
usual want of success; for, on presenting himself at Ingolstadt
for the purpose of being enrolled, it was discovered that he was
not a native of the electorate, and, consequently, inadmissible
to its army. His last hope seemed now to have failed him, and
he describes his feelings as being at this time in a state "bordering on despair." However, it was not long ere his prospects
began again to brighten a little; and he at length succeeded in
publishing, in conjunction with the composer, a collection of
music, the execution of which was greatly admired, and which
obtained for him the patronage of the elector, and a promise of
an exclusive privilege.
About this time another candidate for the honor of having
discovered the new art came forward in the person of M.
Schmidt, professor of the Royal College; and aithough, for a
time, the station which this gentleman filled helped to support 
TYPOGRAPHIA.                            37
his pretensions against his less fortunate rival,   lic opinion
by degrees became less divided, and ultimately the  prevailed
but one belief on the subject.
It was not till after having labored a considerable time in his
new profession, and experiencing innumerable inconveniences
from being compelled to execute all his writings on the stone
backwards, that he commenced another series of experiments,
the object of which, was to obviate the necessity of writing on
the stone, by previously doing it on paper, and then transferring
it from the paper to the stone, reversed. Some thousands of'
experiments were made before he was enabled to produce a
composition for preparing the surface of the paper suited bor
all the purposes which he had in view, and it was this property
of the new art which more particularly attracted public notice,
from the incalculable benefits which it was foreseen would be
conferred on all kinds of business when fairly brought into
general practice. It was about this time also that he invented
the lever press, which added greatly to the comfort and certainty
of the operations in the printing department of lithography.
Having at length obtained an exclusive privilege for exercising his art in Bavaria, he did not consider it any longer
necessary to keep the process a secret, and it soon spread over
the greater part of Germany; but his experience enabled hirn
for several years'to outstrip all his competitors in so far as the
execution of his work was concerned, although, in every other
respect, he seemed to be almost the only one in whose hands
the art did not give ample returns both for money and labor. In
no other way can this uniform want of success be accounted
for, than by supposing, that, while others were making the
most of what he had already discovered, he was devoting much
of his time to the experimenttal part of the business. This in fact
was the case.
About the year 1800, Senefelder went to London for the
purpose of establishing himself there as a lithographer, but a
few months sufficed to convince him that he had little chance
of succeeding in his undertaking;'and he returned to his own
country, where, on his arrival, he found that many attempts
had been made in his absence to deprive him of the benefit ot
4* 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
his privilege.- Among the most forward in this scheme were
two of his brothers, to whom  he had communicated all the
secrets of the art, and it took some time to counteract the bad
effects of their ungenerous conduct. Finding that, in his native
place (Munich,) others were reaping many of the advantages
which by right should have been the reward of his own
industry, he was induced to go to Vienna, for the purpose of
superintending a calico printing establishment, the operations
of which were to be conducted on the principles of the new art;
and here, for the space of several years, his talents were entirely
devoted to this new undertaking; but, at the end of which time,
from a variety of causes over which he had no control, he was
again thrown upon the world, destitute of every thing save the
resources of his own genius. It was not till about the year 1809
that Senefelder was extricated from the difficulties of his situation, by being appointed inspector of the royal lithographic
establishment of Munich, which at once placed him above the
necessity of exercising his profession as a means for gaining his
daily subsistence, and enabled him to devote a portion of his time
to tne improvement of such branches of the art, as, in his former
circumstances, he had never found it possible to effect.
In conclusion, it may not be out of place to remark, that, in
the case of Senefelder, we have another instance to the many
recorded facts in the lives of eminent men, of the successful
pursuit of knowledge under extraordinary difficulties-presenting an example worthy of our highest admiration and respect.
Hopeless would be our task, were we to endeavor to trace the
subject of ENGRAVING to its original source: after we have
explored one path, we find ourselves bewildered in a second,
and so in a third, till at length we finally lose ourselves in the
endless mazes of despair.
It has been contended by some writers, that the art of impression was well known to the ancients; in confirmation of this,
they instance the stamps of iron and other metals, with which
bales of goods and various articles of their manufacture were
marked, throughout Italy and other parts of Europe, during the
38
IV 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
low ages: and( that the art of taking impressions from engraved
blocks of wood is nothing more than a principle familiarly
known to the ancients from time imnmemorial; consequently, it
is not worthy the appellation of a discovery; even Typography
itself is considered by them as scarcely deserving the name of an
invention. It appears that the ancient artists used separate
letters (similar to our bookbinder's tools) for the purpose of
stamping the inscriptions, &c. upon their lamps, their vases,
and their bassi-relievi of clay; which being first cast, were
afterwards finished by the hand of the modeller. The mode of
indentation here noticed, being that of pressing one body against
another body of a softer texture, thereby occasioning a change
of form in its surface: the impression from engraved blocks or
letters, primed with ink, is not merely that of indention upon
the paper, but a change of color, from the black tint with which
the projecting parts were charged, previous to the operation of
printing. We have little proof that the ancients had a knowledge of this latter mode of impression; one instance has been
adduced: this is an account of a sigillum of a very rare kind in
the Duke of Richmond's collection, the letters of which are
raised, as well as the rim, after the manner of our printing
types. This stamp is of true ancient brass; it is nearly two
inches long, and one in breadth; on the back is a ring, for the
purpose of holding it when the impression is made. The letters
are in Roman capitals, standing in two rows. It contains
CAIUS JULIUS
CA CILIUS HERMIAS.
which must have been the name of some private man, no
account of such person being found upon record. The ground
of this seal being uneven, proves that it was intended to make
an impression on a thin substance, whereas, if it were stamped
on any thing soft, the unevenness of the ground would be
visible, which must destroy its appearance. This signet was
found near Rome, and is allowed to be the most ancient sample
of printing knqwn: from the appearance of the metal, it is
judged to be of the Higher Empire.
Impressions have been taken from it on paper, with modern
prntinng ink, which proves the use it was intended for; the
39 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
mark performs its office as well as any set of letters could do in
a similar manner. From this circumstance we may conclude,
that the Romans were acquainted with the essence of printing,
nothing more being required to form a page, than to increase
the length and number of the lines, which would have been
similar to the first printer's rude productions.
It must appear evident, that the impressions of the first
printers were made from wooden blocks, after the method practised by the Chinese. Mr. Bagford thinks that the hint was
taken from ancient medals and seals.
According to Vasari, the important discovery of Chalcography
was made by Thomas Finiguerra, a Florentine goldsmith of the
fifteenth century, who lived from 1400 to 1460. The manner
in which he made this discovery, is thus given by the Rev. T.
F. Dibdin.
"Of engraving upon copper the earliest known impression is
that executed by one Thomaso Finiguerra, a goldsmith of Florence, with the date of 1460 upon it. One of the following
circumstances is supposed to have given rise to the discovery.
Finiguerra chanced to cast, or let fall a piece of copper,
engraved and filled with ink, into melted sulphur: and observing
that the exact impression of his work was left on the sulphur,
he repeated the experiment on moistened paper, rolling it gently
with a roller. This origin has been admitted by Lord Walpole
and Mr. Landseer; but another has been also mentioned by
Huber:-" It is reported," says he, "that a washer-woman left
some linen upon a plate or dish on which Finiguerra had just
been engraving; and that an impression of the subject engraved,
however imperfect, came off upon the linen; occasioned by its
weight and moistness."
Of all the discoveries which have been made, we conceive the
reflecting mind will acknowledge that none have tended more to
the improvements and comforts of society than that of Printing;
in truth, it would almost be impossible to enumerate the advanlages derived by all professions from the streams of this invaluable fountain, this main-spring of all our transactions in
40 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
life. It has been justly remarked by a celebrated writer, that,
were the starry heavens deficient of one constellation, the
vacuum could not be better supplied, than by the introduction
of a printing press.
The more we reflect, the greater becomes our surprise, till at
length we are lost in wonder and astonishment, that the art
should have lain dormant for so many generations, (when the
principle was so universally known,) without being brought
into general use: still we may consider it fortunate in other
respects; and was, no doubt, ordered for a wise purpose,
because, had it received its birth during the dark ages, before
civilization began to dawn, it is not improbable, (considering
the opposition it at first met with,) but it would have been
strangled in its infancy, and consigned to an early tomb!  But
Providence has -ordained it otherwise. The first printers, as
though aware of the consequence of too early an exposure,
administered an oath of secrecy to their servants; and these
deserving individuals indefatigably labored for the space of
twenty years, until the infant, which they had sedulously
rocked in the cradle of industry, arrived at full maturity-: then
it was that this noble invention filled Europe with amazement
and consternation, the powerful blaze of which has proved too
much  for the whole phalanx of priests, scribes, and their
adherents, to extinguish.  On finding all their efforts vain, they
artfully pretended to turn in its favor, and reported it to be a
divine gift, fit only to be exercised in monasteries, chapels, and
religious houses; and the printers were courted to fall into their
views, several of whom accepted the invitation: but this narrow
policy was of short duration, the art spread with too rapid
strides to be confined within such circumscribed limits; for as
fast as individuals gained a knowledge of the mystery, they
commenced the undertaking in different places; by which
means, those who had till then remained in ignorance, gained
a true sense of religion, and the chicanery of the priests, from
that period, gradually became more apparent, and has sunk into
comparative insignificance, during the progress of' the glorious
reformation.
41 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
Viewing the subject in its proper light, can we too highly
prize that art, which has, and ever must continue (in opposition
to all attempts to shackle it) not only to amuse and instruct the
young; but also to cheer and console the aged, while journeying
to the close of this vale of tears? It is much to be regretted,
that many of those on whom Providence has so profusely
lavished her bounty, should withhold their assistance to the
laborers in this vineyard: in short, this art, above all others,
justly deserves to be encouraged; because, from it we derive
almnost every intellectual comfort, which man can boast on this
side the grave.
\\  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~....
42 
TYPOGRAPHIA:
OR
THE PRINTER'S INSTRUCTOR.
Though hard's our task, we fearless tread this ground,
Hope whispers us, "No work is perfect fould:"
Embolden'd thus, we now proceed to state
For others use, what to our Art relate:
Should the fastidious Critic vainly try,
Our best endeavors with his jaundic'd eye,
These questions let us ask, to set him right,
That he may view us in a favor'd light:
Has thy eye yet a perfect work e'er seen?
Look not from us, for what has never been!
How can imperfect man expect to find,
That which is not within the human mind?
Sutch being the case, our work we humbly trust
T' the Reader's candor-Americans are just:
To serve the Art, and messs good will attain,
Should we succeed, Ambition's height we gain.
I, perforiing th~is part of our duty, we shall endeavor, to the
utmost of our humble ability, to explain every thing in as
concise and clear a manner as possible; at the same time we
shall omit nothing, however trivial, that may be connected with
this important subject.  In doing this, we are fully aware that
somne will condemn such minutiae as unnecessary: but, let us
ask, is it requisite, because a few are acquainted with it, that
the information should ble withhleld from others?  It is a subject
whichl cannot fail to interest the general reader, and particularly
so all the admirers of the Typographic Art.
When any one pronounces a printing-office as complete, it
ought to be considered as a mere compliment, because, in a
strict and literal sense, no office can deserve this'epithet, unless
it is furnished with all the fusil metal types for both mrodern and
ancient languages: we believe that scarcely any oflice can boast 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
he appellation. In truth, to supply these almost unnecessary
fonts would only waste a man's property; it is sufficient for a
printer to have suitable types for the language of the country
where he resides.
PROPERTIES AND SHAPES OF TYPES.
THE Types or Letters, most generally used for printing in
Europe and America, are termed Roman, Italic, and Old
Eniglish, or Black Letter.
ROMAN LETTER.
RoMAN letter has long been held in the highest estimation;
and is the national character not only of this country, but also
of England, France, Spain, Portugal and Italy. In Germany,
and the kingdoms and states which surround the Baltic, letters
are used which owe their foundation to the Gothic character;
but even in those nations, works are printed in their own language with Roman letters. The reason why the Germans, and
those who patronise the Gothic characters, have not altogether
rejected them for the Roman, has been chiefly owing to their
apprehensions of sharing the fate of the primitive printers, who
suffered greatly in their attempt, from the dislike then evinced
by the learned to works which had been printed in that character.
This compelled them to return to their old mode of using the
Gothic, to which men of literature were moreaccustomed, from
its resemblance to the writings of the monks, which at that time
were held in great veneration. From the superstition of the age,
the lower classes were easily prevailed on to reject whatever had
the least appearance of infringing on monastic influence.
The same reason may be assigned why the Dutch still adhere
to the black letter in printing their books of devotion and religious treatises, while they make use of the Roman in their
curious and learned works.
In Sweden much greater improvements have been made,
which is principally owing to the countenance and support of
44 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
.nen of authority, learning, and taste. We may reasonably
hope, fiom the pleasing aspect of the present age, when man kind have dared to burst the fetters of prejudice and superstition,
being determined to exercise their better judgment, and adopt
plans more congenial to true taste, that the Roman character
wiil je universally employed in all civilized states.
The Roman letter, it may be concluded, owes its origin to the
natlol whence it derives its name;  though the face of the
present and ancient Roman letters materially differ, from the
improvements they have undergone at various times.
That good Roman makes the best figure in a specimen of
typography, cannot be disputed; and this superiority is greatly
improvel by the founders of the present day.  A printer, in his
choice of type, should not only attend to the cut of the letter,
but als.) observe that its shape be perfectly true, and that it lines
or ranges with accuracy. The quality of the metal of which it
is composed, and the finish of the letter, demand also his
particular attention, as the great competition for low prices
among some of the smaller foundries, (which have sprung into
existence through the facilities afforded them, of multiplying
matrices by the Electrotype process,) has induced them to use
an inferior metal, and to turn out their letters without  due
regard to that nicety of finish so necessary for proper justifi
cation.
It is equally important that types should have a deep face,
which will depend upon the depth of the punches, their hollows
being in proportion to the width of the respective letters, and
likewise that the letter have a deep nick, which should differ
from other founts of that body in the same house.
ITALIC LETTER.
For the invention of this letter we are indebted to Jlldus Mlanutius,
by birth a Roman, who erected a printing office in Venice, 1496,
where he introduced the Romnan types of a neater cut, and gave
birth to that beautiful letter which is known to most nations by the
name of Italic; though the Germans, and their adherents, show
D                     5
45 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
themselves as ungenerous in this respect as they did with the
Ronman, by calling it Cursiv, in order to stifle the memory of its
original descent, and deprive the Romans of the merit due to their
ingenuity.
in the first instance it was termed Venitian, from Manutius
being a resident at Venice, where he brought it to perfection;
but not long after, it was dedicated to the state of Italy, t,
prevent any dispute that might arise from other nations cla:-'
ing a priority.
Italic was originally designed to distinguish such pass of a
book as might be considered not strictly to belong to the body of
the work, as Prefaces, Introductions, annotations, &c. all which
sub-parts of a work were formerly printed in thietharacter; so
that at least two-fifths of a fount was comprised of Italic letter.
At present it is used more sparingly, the necessity being
supplied by the more elegant mode of introducing extracts
within inverted commas,  and poetry and annotations in a
smaller sized type. It is often serviceable in distinguishing the
head or subject matter of a chapter from the chapter itself, but
is too often made use of to emphasize sentences or words
without any direct rule.
That this character was not designed to distinguish proper
names, nor. for several other uses to which it has been applied
can be readily proved, even from works printed in this country.
Many have considered it as depriving Romnan of its beauty, by
loading it with Italic words and terms of common signification
and meaning; and have thought it inconsistent to intermix
letter of an erect position with that of an oblique inclination.
It destroys in a great measure the beauty of printing, and
often confuses the reader where it is improperly applied, who,
pausing to consider why such words are more strongly noted,
loses the context of the sentence, and has to revert back to
regain the sense of his subject.
Italic if justly formed, discovers a particular delicacy, and
requires considerable mathematical nicety.in the letter-cutter to
keep the slopings within the degree requisite for each body: but
this is not always attended to, as a want of uniformity is too
often observed in two letters of a particular sort coming to
46 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
gether, which require a hair space between  them to prevent
their riding, and occasions an unpleasant gap; this is too fre quently the case where the Italic capitals F, T, V, and W, are
llowed  by an  ascending  letter, as in  Florence,  Thames,
Victory, Wheresoever, &c. &c
BLACK LETTER.
~ hi% letter ml;icb is uoeb ill  Englanb anb Imerica,
bercenbb  from  the (5otbir crharactr%: it is  callet
0otbir b1  -ome, anb  (Plb (Englial bp others;  but
printer% term it A1lark Cetter, on arounnt of it% taking a
larger compar  than citber Roman or Jtalic, the full
anb.preabing strokes  thereof apvcanng more  black
upon paper.
On the introduction of the Roman character, the use of black
letter began to decline, and it was seldom used except in Law
works, particularly Statute Law; it was at length expelled from
these, and only made its appearance in the heads of Law blanks,
and as a general display letter.
DIFFERENT SIZES OF PRINTING LETTERS.
THE several bodies to which printing letters are east in England
and America, are twenty in number, viz.
1 Diamond.                   11 English.
2 Pearl.                     12 Columbian.
3 Agate.                     13 Great Primer.
4 Nonpareil.                 14 Paragon.
5 Minion.                    15 Double Small Pica.
6 Brevier.                   16 Double Pica.
7 Bourgeois.                 17 DLouble English.
8 Long Primer.               18 Double Great Primer.
9 Small Pica.                19 Double Paragon.
l' Pica.                      20 Canon.
47 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
REGULAR BODIED LETTER.
THE class of regular-bodied letter takes in, viz. Great Primer,
English, Pica, Long Primer, Brevier, Nonpareil, and Pearl;
and those which go before them, viz. Canon, Double Great
Frimer, Double English, Double Pica, &c. principally used in
jobs, to make emphatical words or lines appear conspicuous.
IRREGULAR BODIED LETTER.
THE general sorts of irregular-bodied letters are, Paragon,
Columbian, Small Pica, Bourgeois, Minion, and Diamond.
We call them irregular, because they are of intermediate sizes
to letter of regular bodies; a standard for which, no doubt, was
fixed by former printers and founders.
Among the irregular-bodied sorts of letter none has taken so
great a run as Small Pica; and very considerable works have
)een done in that character, &c. It is a letter, indeed, which
has now become the favorite character to do voluminous works
in; partly, because it is a round and legible letter, amid partly
because it takes in considerably more matter than Pica.
48 
CHAPTER II.
A FOUNT OF LETTER, AS CONSIDERED BY
LETTER FOUNDERS.
A COMPLETE fount of letter is comprised under nine heads, in
which is contained the following sorts:
1. Capitals.
ABCDEFGH I J KLMNOPQ, RSTUVWX
Y Z A  (E.
2. Small Capitals.
AB C D E F GHIJ KLM NO P qRSTU
V W X Y ZE(E.
3. Lower Case.
a b c defghij k 1 m no p q r stuvwx
y z   ce&.
4. Figures.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.
5. Points, etc.
,;:.?! -' () [] * t t ~   I.
6. Four kinds of spaces.
7. Em and en quadrats.
8. Two, three, and four em quadrats.
9. Accents.
These are the ordinary sorts cast to a fount of letter, and
which the founders-divide into long, short, ascending, descend
ing, and kerned letters.
5* 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
LONG LETTERS are those which take up the whole depth of
their bodies, and are both ascending and descending, such in the
Roman, as Q and j, but in the Italic, f is a long lower-case
letter.
SHORT LETTERS are all such as have their face cast on the
middle of their square metal, by founders called shank, as a, c,
e, m, n, o, r, s, u, v, w, x, z, all which will admit of being
bearded above and below their face, both in Roman and Italic.
A SCENDING LETTERS are all the Roman and Italic capitals; in
the lower case, b, d, f, h, i, k, 1, t.
DESCENDING LETTERS are g, p, q, y, in Roman and Italic.
KERNED LETTERS are such as have part of their face hanging
over either one or both sides of their square metal or shank. In
Roman, f and j are the only kerned letters; but in Italic, d, g, j
1, y, are kerned on one side, and f on both sides of its face.
Casting of the above sorts being attended with considerable
trouble, accounts for the founders sending so few of them in a
fount of letter, when in fact they require a larger number than
their casting bill specifies; their beaks being liable to accidents,
especially the Roman f, when at the end of a line. Kerned
letters of the Italic, especially f, g, j, and y, are also subject to
the same risk.
Most Italic capitals are kerned on one side of their face; but
none ought to be more attended to than F, T, V, IVW, and Y,
that their angles may not fall upon an ascending letter that may
stand next to them.
DOUBLE LETTERS.
DOUBLE LETTERS were originally formed for the convenience
of one kerned letter joining with another, as in the instance of a
if, if, fi, fi, ft, &c., as their beaks would inevitably receive
damage unless they were cast in one piece.
r)o 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
Of the number formerly used few now remain, and those
permitted only through necessity, as the fi,iff, fi, ffi, and fil
The introduction of the round s, instead of the long, was looked
upon as a valuable improvement in the art of printing, and we
see no reason why the beak of the f could not be gracefully
thrown back on its own body, and thereby save the founder the
inconvenience of kerning it, and the printer the expense and
trouble of kerned and double letters.
A BILL OF PICA, ROMAN AND ITALIC.
THIS part of our work might be extended to a considerable
length, were we to enter into the minutie of the different sorts
requisite to form a complete fount for every language printed
in the Roman character; but as this would be carrying us
beyond our limits, we shall confine ourselves to the improved
scale of the present day, calculated for our own language, to
which imperfections may be afterwards cast, so as to render the
fount serviceable for any other. The Latin and French require
more of c, i, 1, m, p, q, s, u, and v, than the English: but
until such sorts become really necessary, it would be useless to
cast them. When a work is completed for which such extra
sorts were required, it may then be proper to prevent their remaining inactive, to cast up to them.
It is well known in practice that a great number of imperfections are always wanted in a printing office; and from the
construction of language it appears there always will be a great
number of particular sorts deficient, whatever the proportions
may be at first.  In proof of this it may be stated, that a new
fount of letter shall be cast for the purpose of printing a work;
in composing this letter it shall be found that there is a great
deficiency of some letters, and a superabundance of others; to
bring the whole fount into use, for the purpose of composing as
many pages as possible, the deficient sorts are cast, till the
proportions answer to each other.  When this work is finished,
another author's work is to be printed with the same letter: the
disproportion is again felt; those which at the first were defi
151 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
cient are now superabundant, and those which were abundant
will be deficient; so that the master printer, to keep the whole
of his letter in use is obliged to be continually casting those
deficiencies and thus enlarging his founts.
Formerly a fount of letter, weighing 500 pounds, was considered a good sized fount; but now, so much has printing
increased, that double that weight would scarcely acquire the
appellation.
Upon this subject, we find that a fount of English, at Paris,
which formerly set up about twelve sheets of a Surgeon's Case,
in quarto, was much admired on account of its extraordinary
weight; this observation drew the following remark from an
English printer:
"But, how much would their admiration be heightened,
were they to see here several founts larger than that: and one
in particular of the late Mr. Richardson's, which set up above
thirty sheets in folio, of 77 lines long, and 45 m's wide, before
Imperfections were cast to it, which must be very considerable in
course, and have enlarged the fount to several more sheets."
Either of the above amazing founts (as then considered)
would, at the present day, be thought of a trifling nature. The
Messrs. Hansards, proprietors of a celebrated English printing
house, have founts of English and Pica, the former of which,
we are informed, will set up between three and four hundred
sheets of foolscap folio, and that the latter will extend to nearly
six hundred sheets of the above: they have also most of the
other founts of very considerable extent.
Printers divide a fount of letter into two classes.
1.'he upper case?  sorts.
2. The7 lower case 
The upper case sorts are capitals, small capital letters and
iferences.
'rhe lower case consists of small letters, double letters, figures,
points, spaces, quadrats, &c. each of which we shall treat of
under distinct heads.
We shall now give what is reckoned by the founders a reguJar bill, perfect in all its sorts.
52 
I-    OUU L         4OU
M       400 M       200
N      400 N        200
O 0    400 o        200
P      400 P        200
Q       180 q        90
R      400 R        200
S      500 s        250
T      650 T        326
U      300 u        150
V       300 v        150
W       400 w       200
X       180 x        90
Y      300 Y        150
Z        80 z        40
A3 2140:           20
CfE 430 (E           I5
Spaces.
Thick             18000
Middle           12000
Thin               8000
Hlair              3000
em Quads           2500
en Quads           5000
Large Ctuadrats about
80lbs.
T        lUU
f  5 e   100
~        100
[[       100
~         60
1      1300
2 1      200
3      1100
4       1000
5       1000
6       1000
7       1000
8       t000
.9      1000
0       1300
e       200
a       200
ft      200
6       200
All other
accents 100
each.
60                  8Olbs.
- ------
i
I
1
m
-n
.p
.q
:r
s
.t
u
V
,w
y
z
fi
,UUU
3000
8000
8000
1700
500
6200
8000
9000
3400
12Q0
2000
400
200O
200
200
400
500
200
100
150
I00
60
150
90
60
ffl
fLr
rni 
TYPOGCRAPHIA.
CAPITALS.
THE  use of capitals has been considerably abridged of late
years; and the antiquated method of using them with every
substantive, and sometimes even with verbs and adverbs, is now
discontinued. They are considered, in the present day, as
necessary only to distinguish proper names of persons, places,
&c. There are, however, some particular works in which
authors deem it essential to mark emphatical words with a
capital; in such cases, as there can'be no general rule to guide
the compositor, we would recommend the author always to
send his copy properly prepared in this particular, to the printer,
or he will become liable to the charge the compositor is allowed
to make, for his loss of time in following his alterations. The
method of denoting a capital, or words of capital letters in
manuscript, is by underscoring it with three distinct lines.
Capitals of whatever body, if they are well proportioned, look
well in titles, inscriptions, &c., but it requires both good taste
and judgment in the compositor to display them to advantage,
either by spacing them or not, as the length of the line may
require.
SMALL CAPITALS.
SMALL cAPITALS are in general only cast to Roman founts, but
in England often to Italic, and are used for the purpose of
giving a stronger emphasis to a word than can be conveyed to
it by its being in Italic. They are likewise used for running
heads, heads of chapters, &c. instead of Italic, according to the
fancy of the pri.ter.  The first word of every section or chapter
is generally put in small capitals, after a small neat two line
letter. They are likewise of considerable service in the display
of a title pag,e, particularly in setting the catch lines.
The small capitals c, o, s, v, w, x, z, so closely resemble the
same letters in the lower case, as to require particular care to
prevent their mixing, as the difference can only be ascertained
by their being cast thicker than the others. As a distinguishing
feature, however, the nick might be cast somewhat higher on
the upper case sorts.
or 4 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
In manuscript, small capitals are denoted by having two lines
drawn under them.
ACCENTED LETTERS.
THOSE which are called accented
vowels, marked either with an
Acute   -   -    -        
Grave   -    -    -
Circumflex    -    -
aL e   i
a  el
A A Ab
-a  e  11
a  e  i
a  e 
Dieresis
REFERENCES.
REFErP.ENCES are all such marks and signs as are used in
matter which has either side or bottom notes, and serve to direct.
the reader to the observations which are made upon such passages of the text as are distinguished by them, and demand a
reference of the same likeness to be put to the notes, by which
the matter is illustrated, or otherwise taken notice of.
References which are used in works with notes to thene are
variously represented, though often.er -by letters than other
characters.  Accordingly some put common  letters between
oarenthesis; thus (a,) (b,) (c,) &c. Others again, choose to see
them between brackets, as [a,] [b,] [c,] and so on to the end of
the alphabet; instead of these, some begin the notes of every
page with (a,) in which they are as right as the former; and(
have this advantage besides, that the order of references is not
so liable to be interrupted as by going through a whole alphabet.
We would recommend, however, literal references to begin
with every even page, if it has notes; and to carry them no
further than to the last note in the opposite uneven page; by
which means the order of the references would appear at one
view, and any irregularity in them rectified without much
trouble.
511%
by printers, are the five
6 fi
a
6 a
6 a
5 ft
6 ii
Long
Short
i 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
Instead of letters, whether capital or lower-case, figures are
used in the same manner, and also with equal propriety; for the
one as well as the other are of like signification, when used for
the same purpose: but the references which look the neatest,
besides being the most proper, are superior letters, or else
superior figures; for both were originally contrived and intended
to be employed in matter that is explained by notes, whether by
way of annotations, quotations, citations, or otherwise. Nevertheless, we observe that superior letters are not used upon
every occasion, but chiefly in large and lasting works, which
have sometimes more than one sort of notes, and therefore
require different references; in which case not only superior
letters, but also such marks are used as never were designed to
serve for references. But, to abide by the title of this article,
what are called references by printers are the following:
Asterisk ~       Double Dag(ger ~         Parallel 
Da,gger  t'   Section             ~       Paragraph ~
The above are the names and figures which founders reckon
amnong the points, and are denominated references by printers;
these characters were designed to serve for other purposes than
those to which they have been applied, as will appear from
their respective functions.
1. The'Asterisk is the chief of the references, and presents
itselrmost readily to the eye, on account of having its figure on
tie top, and leaving a blank below, which makes it a superior.
In Romnan church-books, the Asterisk divides each verse of a
psalm into two parts;,- and marks where the responses begin,
which in our Common Prayer Books is done by placing a colon
between the two parts of each verse.
They are sometimes used to supply the name of a person
that chooses to pass anonymous. They also denote an omission, or an hiatus, by loss of original copy; in which case the
number of asterisks are multiplied according to the largeness of
the chasm; and not only whole lines, but frequently whole
pages, are left blank, and marked with lines of stars.
In satirising persons in pamphlets and public papers, the
asterisk is of great service; for it is but putting the first letter of
a person's name, with some asterisks after it, and ill-natured
56 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
people think they may characterise, and even libel their betters
without restriction. Metal rules or dashes, also serve for the
above purposes as well as Asterisks.
2. The Dagger, originally termed the Obelisk, or Long Cross,
is frequently used in Roman Catholic church-books, prayers of
exorcism, at the benediction of bread, water, and fruit, and upon
other occasions, where the priest is to make the sign of the cross;
but it must be observed, that the long cross is not used in books
of the said kind, unless for want of square crosses, (+,) which
are the proper symbols for the before-mentioned purposes; and
are used besides in the Pope's briefs, and in mandates of archbishops and bishops who put it immediately before the signature
of their names. But the square cross is not reckoned among
the references of which we are speaking; whereas, the long
cross answers several purposes; for besides serving instead of a
square cross, it also answers for a signature to matter that has
been either omitted, or else added, and which is intercalated
after the work is gone beyond the proper place for it. But the
chief use which is made of the dagger, is by way of reference,
where it serves in a double capacity, viz. the right way, and
inverted.
3. The Double Dagger is a mark crowded in to make one of
the improper references.
4. The Parallel is another sign which serves for a reference,
and is fit to be used either for side or bottom notes.
5. The sign which implies the word Section, is a sort likewise
seldom employed, because in a work which is divided into
chapters, articles, paragraphs, sections, or any other parts, they
are commonly put in lines by themselves, either in large capitals,
small capitals, or italic, according to the size of the work. But
the sign of section is sometimes used in Latin notes, and particularly such as are collected from foreign books, which generally
abound with citations, because the introduction induces the
reader to account his author very learned.
6. The Paragraph is a mark which formnerly was prefixed to
such matter as authors designed to distinguish from the mean
contents of their works; and which was to give the reader an
Item of some particular subject. At present, paragraphs are
6
57
L 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
seen only in Bibles, where they show the parts into which a
chapter is divided, and where its contents change. In common
Prayer Books, paragraphs are put before the matter that directs
the order of the Service, and which is called the Rubric;
because those lines were formerly printed in red. Otherwise it
is a useless sort, and unfit to serve for a reference, as long as
there are others which have not that antique appearance.
Thus we have shown, that the symbols which are used as
references, were designed for quite different purposes. We are
therefore of opinion, that it would not have been one of the least
improvements, had some other marks been devised which should
have appeared in a more becoming shape than the above
references, and more perspicuous than superiors of the least
size.
LOWER-CASE SORTS.
HAvING already considered the lower case alphabet, we shall
merely notice those sorts which have not been already treated
on. Those termed lower case-sorts, are, the small letters of the
alphabet, double letters, points, the bracket and parenthesis,
spaces and quadrats. Of these i, v, x, 1, c, are numeral letters,
and are generally used in notes; the d, or m, seldom appear in
lower-case numnerals, though their power is not inferior in
calculation to capitals, as they are governed by the same rules.
POINTS.
THEY consist of a comma, semicolon, colon, period or full-point,
note of interrogation and note of admiration.
Points are not of equal antiquity with printing, though, not
long after its invention, the necessity of introducing stops or
pauses in sentences, for the guidance of the reader, brought
forward the colon and full-point, the two first invented. In
process of time, the comma was added to the infant punctuation,
which then had no other figure than a' perpendicular line,
proportionable to the body of the letter; these three points were
the only ones used till the close of the fifteenth century, when
58
L 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
Aldus Manutius, a man eminent for the restoration of learning,
among other improvements in the art of printing, corrected and
enlarged the punctuation, by giving a better shape to the comma,
adding the semicolon, and assigning to the former points a more
proper place; the comma denoting the smaller pause, the semi
colon next, then the colon, and the full-point terminating the
sentence. The notes of interrogation and admiration were not
introduced till many years after.
Perhaps there never existed on any subject, among men of
learning, a greater difference of opinion than on the true mode
of punctuation, and scarcely can any two people agree in the
same method; some making the pause of a semicolon where the
sense will only bear a comma; some contending for what is
termed stiff pointing, and others altogether the reverse.
The want of an established rule in this particular is much to
be regretted.  The loss of time to a compositor, occasioned,
often through whim or caprice, in altering points unnecessarily,
is one of the greatest hardships he has to complain of in the
progress of his profession.
Scarcely nine works out of ten are sent properly prepared to
the press; either the writing is illegible, the spelling incorrect,
or the punctuation defective. The compositor has often to read
sentences of hiscopy more than once before he can ascertain
what he conceives the meaning of the author, that he may not
deviate from him in the punctuation; this retards him considerably. But here it does not end-he, and the corrector of the
press, though, perhaps, both intelligent and judicious men,
differ in that in which few are found to agree, and the compositor has to follow either his whim or better opinion. The proof
goes to the authdr-he dissents from them both, and makes
those alterations in print, which ought to have rendered his
manuscript copy correct.
The late Dr. Hunter, in reviewing a work, had occasion to
censure it for its improper punctuation. He advises authors to
leave the pointing entirely to the printers, as from their constant
practice they must have acquired a uniform mode of plinctuation. We are decidedly of this opinion; for unless the author
will take the responsibility of the pointing entirely on himself, it
59 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
will be to the advantage of the compositor, and attended with
less loss of time, not to meet with a single point in his copy,
unless to terminate a sentence, than to have his mind confused
by commas and semicolons placed indiscriminately, in the hurry
of writing, without any regard to propriety. The author may
reserve to himself his particular mode of punctuation, by
directing the printer to point his work either loosely or not, and
still have the opportunity of detecting in his proofs whether a
misplaced point injures his sentence.  The' advantage resulting
from this method would ensure uniformity to the work, and
remove in part from the compositor a burthen which has
created no small degree of contention.
Having considered it our duty to enter thus fully on a subject
that so materially concerns the compositor, we will now proceed
to the points themselves.
The comma, which is considered the first, from its requiring
the shortest pause, its time being till you can reckon one, is
more frequently used and misapplied than any of the other
points. Its unnecessary introduction often involves the reader
in perplexity; and its omission blends sentences that should be
kept distinct-and in unskilful hands may pervert the meaning
of the author, and render it ridiculous. The most acceptable
mode seers to be what is termed easy poinrting, which certainly
has the advantage of not confusing the reader. All subjects,
however, should not be pointed alike; as familiar discourses, or
historical and narrative subjects, do not require so many points
as explanatory and Law matter.
Commas are used to denote extracts or quotations from other
works, in dialogue matter, or any passages or expressions not
original, by inverting two of them, and placing them before the
passages quoted, and closing such passage with two apostrophes These are termed inverted commas; and when used,
a thin space is sufficient to keep them free from the matter.
The method of running them down the sides to the end of the
quotation, has been found inconvenient, particularly where a
quotation occurs within a quotation, or a speech within a
speech; the proper method of distinguishing which, is by
placing a single inverted comma, before such extra quotation,
C)O
L 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
and to be concluded with a single apostrophe: or should both
quotations close together, put three apostrophes, observing after
the first to place a thin space.
InVerted commas owe their origin to Mons. Guillemet, a
Frenchman, who, it may be supposed, was no friend to Italic,
they being intended to supersede the use of that letter. As an
acknowledgment for this improvement, his countrymen call
them after his name.
A single comma inverted is used as an abbreviation to the
word Mac, as in the instance of M'Gowen.
The semicolon is allowed double the space of time for its
pause to the comma, and may be considered an important point
of punctuation; it enforces what has been illustrated by the
comma, and allows the reader an opportunity to acquire a
perfect view of the sentence, before it is terminated by the fullpoint.
The colon, whose allowed time is till the reader can count
three, has been superseded in almost every instance, either by
the semicolon, ellipsis line or dash.
The period or full-point is used to terminate a sentence, and
its pause is double the time allowed to the semicolon. It is also
used in abbreviations, but then loses its effect as a full stop in
the punctuation, unless at the end of a sentence. Many works
have recently been printed, in which this point has been entirely
dispensed with as an abbreviation, as in Mr Dr &c., a very
convenient, if not an elegant mode.
Full-points are sometimes used as leaders in tables of contents,
figure-work, &c., but dotted rules or leaders are much better for
this purpose, from their uniform appearance, as they not only
supply the place of full-points and quadrats, but save considerable time in the composition.
The sign of interrogation needs not to be explained, for the
very appellation tells us, that it is a mark which is used to show
where a question is proposed, that gives room for, or demands,
an answer.
It is not only proper, but also requisite, that every interrogation or question should begin with a large letter, whether
capitals are used in the matter, or not; according to the method
E                    6*
I n
61
7 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
which is observed in oui Bibles, where, as well interrogatives
as responses, besides the beginning of sayings, allocutions, &e.
are intimated by a large capital letter.
The sign of admiration, or exclamation, likewise explains
itself by its name, and claims a place where surprise, astonishment, rapture, and the like sudden emotions of the mind are
expressed, whether upon lamenting or rejoicing occasions.
The sign of exclamation is put after the particles Ah! Alas!
O! &c., though the last is not always of that force to be attended
tv the exclamatory symbol; but is softened by a comma, to
enforce what follows, and to make the admiration more complete.
The admirative part of a paragraph, as well as of the interrogatory, is always to begin with a capital letter.
All the points, except the comma and the full-stop, should
have a hair space placed between them and the matter, to distinguish them; the comma and full-point not lining with the
depth of the face of the letter, do not require any space to bear
them off.
Of late years, some founders east their semicolons, colons,
&c. of sufficient thickness to dispense with the hair space
between them and the letter, a mode to which we can see no
objection, but on the contrary would rather commend.
The m dash, though it cannot be denominated a point, is
frequently used in peculiar works, sometimes as a substitute for
the comma, at others for the colon, and is found particularly
serviceable in rhapsodical writing, where half sentences frequently occur.
HYPHEN, OR DIVISION.
To divide words or syllables with propriety, is an important
part of a compositor's business. It will exercise his judgment,
and demands particular attention, as authors must leave the use
of the hyphen to the discretion of the printer.
The difficulty that formerly existed as to the proper method of
dividing syllables, arose from the controversies in which authors
were continually engaged on the subject of orthography.
62
rL 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
Without being able to establish a criterion, each arrogated to
himself the adoption of his own particular mode, to the subversion of uniformity and propriety.
The Dictionaries of Walker and Johnson are looked up to as
the highest authorities, and the labor of these great men appears
to have been crowned with complete success. It has silenced
those pedantic clamors and divided opinions, which distracted
the attention of the compositor, and he is now able to solve any
difficulty, by a reference to those excellent standards of En,glish
orthography.
Authors of the present day seldom interfere with what is now
deemed the province of the printer: they will generally allow
him, from his practice, to be a pretty competent judge of ortho.
graphy, and therefore do not object to his mode of spelling,
though it may vary from their own. To the compositor this is
an advantage of considerable importance, as it allows him to
observe a system in his spelling, and enables him at the same
time, to acquire the proper use of the division, in which he
should be careful not to suffer a syllable of a single letter to be
put at the end of a line, as abide, e normous, o-bedient, &c.
except in marginal notes, which, from their narrow measure,
cannot be governed by this rule. The terminating syllable of a
word should not be allowed to begin a line, as ed, ly, &c. the
hyphen being the thickness of one of the letters, the measure
must, therefore, be narrow indeed, or the line very closely
spaced, that will not admit the other. A compositor, who
studies propriety and neatness in his work, will not suffer an
unnecessary division, even in a narrow measure, if he can avoid
it by the trouble of over-running two or three lines of his matter.
In large type and narrow measures, the use of the division
may admit of an excuse: but, in that case, care should be taken
that hyphens do not follow each other. In small type and wide
measures, the hyphen may generally be dispensed with, either
by driving out or getting in the word, without the least
infringement on the regularity of the spacing.   The habit once
acquired of attending to this essential point, the compositor
would find his advantage in the preference given to his work,
and the respect attached to his character from his being con
63 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
sidered a competent and careful master of his business. The
appearance of many divisions down the side of a page, and
irregular spacing, are the two greatest defects in composition.
It is proper, if possible, to keep the derivative or radical word
entire and undivided; as occurrenee, gentle-mana, respectful, &c.
Some printers have adopted the mode of dividing on the vowel,
which answers very well in some cases, but will by no means
answer as a general rule.
The hyphen, or division, is likewise used to join two or three
words together, which are termed compounds, and consist
frequently of two substantives, as bird-cage, love-letter, &c.;
likewise what are termed compound adjectives, as well-built
house, handsome-faced child, &c.  But compounds are sometimes
made of words that were never intended for such; therefore, to
acquire a competent knowledge of them does not depend upon
fancy, but exercises the judgment in discovering the rise and
fall of the tone, which is an adjunct: and whether that and the
preceding appellative may not be joined into one word, rather
than make a compound of it.
The prepositions after, before, over, &c. are often connected
with other words, but do not always make a proper compound;
thus, before-mentioned is a compound when it precedes a substantive, as, in the before-mentioned place; but when it comes
after a noun, as in the place before mentioned, it should be two
distinct words.
Hyphens are sometimes used in table-work, indexes, or contents; but, like the full-point, they are now generally superseded
by leaders or dotted rules.
Hyphens should not be cast of too thick a body; their principal use is in justifying and correcting, therefore they cannot
be too thin to be serviceable; they do not require a very bold
stroke, except for spelling-books, for which they are generally
cast on purpose.
PARENTHESIS AND BRACKET.
THE use of the parenthesis is to enclose such words or sentences
of a period as make no part of the subject, yet at the same time
64
Lt 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
strengthen the argument; which, however, would read smoothly
on, were the enclosed matter taken away.
Parentheses are not now so generally used as formerly;
authors place their intercalations between commas, which make
them equally as intelligible as though they were inclosed between
parentheses, and look much neater in print; but where parentheses are used, should a point be requisite to mark the sentence,
it is placed after the parenthesis, the intercalation not being
reckoned any part of that sentence; as, for instance, My Lord
(said 1), I will tell your Lordship, &c.
Brackets are so seldom made use of now, that they require
little notice; both parentheses and brackets were formerly used
to inclose folios, &c.; but the modern method of putting folios in
figures unattended, leaves the bracket scarce a duty to perform.
APOSTROPHE.
THE apostrophe is called a sign of abbreviation, its appearance
often ejecting some letter or letters from the word to which it is
attached, particularly in poetry, where it often contracts two
syllables into one, to give a verse its proper measure; to this the
vowel e yields oftener than any other letter, as alled,'d, chang'd,
&c. Sometimes it cuts off a vowel at the beginning of words,
as'bate, Iscape,'squire, &c.; sometimes a syllable, as'prentice;
but these, and many other abbreviations, are common only in
poetical works, and are under the arbitration of the author, who
best knows where such contractions serve his purpose.
The monosyllables tho' and thro' are sometimes shortened,
but without any appearance of propriety to justify the curtailment, as they retain the same sound, and therefore the use of
the apostrophe as an abbreviation cannot in the slightest degree
assist the versification.
The genitive case of the singular number is generally known
by having's for its termination.
All quotations, which are denoted by beginning with inverted
commas, are closed with apostrophes. There is no space
required between the apostrophe and the matter.
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
QUADRATS.
AN m quadrat is the square of the letter to whatever fount it
may belong; an n quadrat is half that size. In casting m and
n quadrats, the utmost exactness is necessary; they also require
particular care in dressing, as the most trifling variation will
instantly be discovered, when ranged in figure-work, for which
purpose they are much used, and unless true in their justification, the arrangement is confused to such a degree, that all the
pains and ingenuity of a compositor cannot rectify it. The
same observation will hold good with respect to figures.
M quadrats mostly begin paragraphs, by an indention of the
first line; but of late years some printers prefer using an m and
n for narrow measures, and two, three, or even four m's for
wide measures, which certainly must be acknowledged to be an
improvement. An m quadrat is likewise the proper space after
a full-point, when it terminates a sentence in a paragraph.
N quadrats are generally used after the semicolon, colon, &c.,
and sometimes after a curved letter; they are also exceedingly
useful in spacing.
Two, three, and four in quadrats are likewise cast for break
and white lines, but particularly for poetry, on which account
it is essentially necessary that they be cast to the exact depth
of the lefter, otherwise the matter will stand uneven where a
number of them come together.
The inconvenience arising from founts of the same body not
agreeing in depth, is great, where the quadrats, through necessity, are sometimes mixed. It is a serious evil, and much to be
deplored, that some method cannot be adopted to check it; as a
particular work will sometimes require more  quadrats than
were cast to the letter; recourse must then be had to the founder,
though there may be other founts in the office of the same body.
Reglets of the same body as the letter of the work, are sometimes used for white lines, instead of quadrats; but, from their
being often wet, they are apt to swell, and of course cannot be
depended on, and are only fit to be used in jobs, &c. where
large type is employed; it would therefore be better for bookwork, to use leads, which are cast from four, six, and eight
&c. to a Pica, and from four m's to any length required.
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
SPACES.
THE use of spaces is to separate one word from another, so that
the reading may appear easy and distinct. To enable the compositor to space even, and to justify with nicety, they are cast
to various thicknesses.
Five to an m-or five thin spaces; four to an mn-or four
middle spaces; three to an m-or three thick spaces; and two
to an m-or two n quadrats, which may with propriety be
reckoned among, the number of spaces. Besides these, there
are what are called hair spaces, cast remarkably thin, and found
particularly useful in justifying lines and assisting uniformity
in spacing.
NUMERAL LETTERS.
EvErY letter in the alphabet was used to denote some number
by the Greeks and Orientals, and each letter denoted a less or
greater number, as it was nearer or more remote from the first
letter in their alphabetical order; and no letter, which in the
order of the alphabet stands after another, ever denoted a
number less than the letter that stands before it. If the Romans,
who derived their letters originally from the Greeks, had derived
also their numeration by letters, it is in the highest degree
probable, that these particulars would have been the same in
both; but as not one third of the Roman letters are numerals, so
neither is the numeral value of those that are so, more or less,
according to their place in alphabetical order; because D and C,
which stand among the first letters of the alphabet, and M and
L, whose station is in the cen.tre, are of much greater numeral
value than X and V which are near the end.
But it has been supposed that the Romans used M to denote
1000, because it is the first letter of Mille, which is Latin for
1000; and C to denote 100, it being the first letter of Centum,
the Latin term for 100. Some also suppose, that D being
formed by dividing the old M in the middle, was therefore
appointed to stand for 500, that is, half as much as the M stood
for when it was whole; and that L being half a C, was, for the
same reason, used to denominate 50. But upon what just
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
principle can any person imagine, that 1000 and 100 were the
numbers which letters were first used to express? And what
cause can be assigned why D, the first letter in the Latin word
Decem, 10, should not rather have been chosen for 500, because
it had a rude resemblance to half an M? But if these questions
could be satisfactorily answered, there are other numerical
letters which have never yet been accounted for. We therefore
think these considerations render it probable, that the Romans
did not, in their original intention, use letters to express
numbers at all; the most natural account of the matter appears
to be this  The Romans probably put down a single stroke I, for one, as
is still the practice of those who score on a slate, or with chalk;
this stioke they doubled, trebled, and quadrupled, to express
two, three, and four, thus, II, III, 1111. So far they couldeasily number the minums or strokes with a glance of the eye;
but they found, that if more were added, it would be necessary
to number the strokes one by one; for this reason, when they
came to five, they expressed it by joining two strokes together
in an acute angle, thus V, which will appear the more probable,
if it be considered that the progression of the Roman numbers is
from five to five, that is, from the fingers of one hand to the
fingers ofthe other. Ovid has touched upon the original of this
in his Festortim, lib. iii. and Vitruv. lib. iii. c. 1. has made the
same remark.
After they had made this acute angle V, for five, they then
added single strokes to the number of four, thus VI, VII, VIII,
VIIII, and then, as the minums could not be further multiplied
without confusion, they doubled their acute angle by prolonging
the two lines beyond their intersection, thus X, to denote two
fives, or ten. After they had doubled, trebled, and quadrupled
this double acute angle, thus XX, XXX, XXXX, they then,
for the same reason which induced them to make a single angle
first, and then to double it, joined two single strokes in another
form, and instead of an acute angle, made a right angle, L, to
denote fifty. When this was doubled, they then doubled the
right'angle, thus, A, to denote one hundred, and having num bered this double right angle four times, thus  C 1, cC  c,
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
C      [:, when they came to the fifth number, as before, they
reverted it, and put a single stroke before it, thus 1 3, to denote
five hundred; and when this five hundred was doubled, then
they also doubled their double right angle, setting two double
right angles opposite to each other, with a single stroke between
them, thus C I 3, to denote one thousand: when this note for
one thousand had been repeated four times, they then put down
I 1 3, for five thousand;  E r' 1 313, for ten thousand; and
I 3:3, for fifty thousand.
That the Romans did not originally write M for one thousand,
and C for one hundred, but square characters, as before shown,
we are expressly informed by Paulus Manutius; but the corners
of the angles being cut off by transcribers for despatch, these
figures were gradually brought into what are now called nu merical letters.  When the corners of C I 1 were made round, it
stood thus, C I 0, which is so near the Gothic x, that it soon
deviated into that character: so that 13 having the corners
made round, stood thus I D, and then easily deviated into D. a
also became a plain C by the same means; the single rectangle
which denoted fifty, was, without any alteration, a capital L;
the double acute angle was an X; the single acute angle a V
consonant; and a plain single stroke, the letter I.  And thus
these seven letters, M, D, C, L, X, V  I became numerals.  As
a further proof of this assertion, let it'e considered, that C 1 X
is still used for one thousand, and  13 for five hundred, instead
of M and D; and this mark, x, is sometimes used to denote one
thousand, which may easily be derived from this figure, E  13,
but cannot be deviations from, or corruptions of, the Roman
letter M. The Romans also expressed any number of thousands
by a line drawn over any numeral less than one thousand; thus,
V denotes five thousand, LX, sixty thousand: so likewise M is
one million, MM two millions, &c.
Upon the discovery of printing, and before capitals were
invented, small letters served for numerals, which they have
done ever since; not only when the Gothic characters were in
their perfection, but even after they ceased, and Roman was
become the prevailing character. Thus, in the time of printing
in Gothic characters, i D, I C b mi  were, and are still, of the
7
69 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
same signification with capitals, when used as numerals. But
here it should be observed, that the capital J is no numeral
letter, though the lower case i is as often and as significantly
used as  he vowel i, especially where the former is used as a
closing letter, in ii    iij  U i ii btij, &c., though it is as right
not to use j's at all, unless it were out of respect to antiquity;
tor in Roman lower-case numerals, which are of modern date,
the j is not regarded, but the i stands for a figure of 1, wherever
it is used numerically.
ARITHMETICAL FIGURES.
ARITHMETICAL or Arabic figures are nine in number, besides the
cipher, or nought.
Figures  require a founder's particular care  to cast them
exactly n-thick, and to a true parallel, as the least deviation
where a number of them come together in table-work, destroys
their arrangement, and causes an inconvenience in the justification which the ingenuity of a compositor cannot, without
considerable loss of time, rectify.
Printers at one time thought it a great impropriety to use
erect figures in italic matter, judging that the obliquity of that
character would be intercepted by them, and therefore had
figures cast of the same-inclination; this peculiarity is but partially attended to, though it still prevails in some parts abroad.
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CHAPTER III.
RULES.
RULES are of two descriptions, viz. brass, and metal, or space
rules; the former are cut from sheet crass, and the latter are
cast by type-founders
Brass rules ought to be exactly letter high; if, therefore,
founts differ in height to paper, from the regular standard, those
rules, accurately made, are rendered useless; for if they ate
higher than the letter, they come off black and broad; and,
besides hindering the adjoining letters from appearing, they cut
both paper and tympan. On the other hand, if they are lower
than the letter, they do not appear at all, especially if they are
thin, and stand between matter without leads at their sides;
which (in particular cases) may be left out in Roman letter,
yet in mixed matter, or Italic, a lead at least is required before
and after a thin brass rule, to prevent its touching upon d, f, 1,
at the fore-side, and upon f, g, j, p, y, at the hind-side; they
are made of various thicknesses for column rules of Magazines
and Newspapers, and when required for the latter purpose
great care should be taken to procure those made of the very
hardest and stiffest material.
The face of the rules ought to be attended to, that they may be
of an equal bold, or else tender look, according to the size of the
letter or figures with which they are used. But a great difference appears in this particular, when we find it necessary to
piece them; a compositor, therefore, when he is driven to this
necessity, should endeavor to dress the shorter pieces, in ordet
that they may appear as one length.
The thickness of rules for table-work should be proportionable
to their face, without so much shoulder as shall hinder a cross
rule from joining a perpendicular line; since it is a maxim
"That rules (in table-work) shall fall upon and touch rules;"
which, if followed, has a good effect. 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
METAL RULES OR DASHES.
METAL RULES or dashes, like quadrats, are cast to m's from the
size of one to four, sometimes to six m's, and are used in
schemes of accounts, to direct and connect each article with its
summary contents, where they stand opposite, and distant from
each other.
Sometimes dashes stand for noughts, in columns of figures,
where the dash should not exceed the extent which figures
require. Thus, in a column of four n's, a two-m dash is
answerable to them; and where the numeral contents of a
column do not amount to above hundreds, an m dash will answer.
Dashes made to line and join accurately, are very useful, as
they serve not only for rectilinear, but perpendicular progressions, where no other rules are to touch them. But though they
have shouldering sufficient to bear them from the matter, they
require, nevertheless, a lead or reglet before and after them, that
they may keep in line.
Sometimes a dash stands for a sign of repetition, in catalogues
of goods, where it implies ditto; and in catalogues of books,
where a dash signifies ejusdeni, instead of repeating an author's
name, with the title of every separate treatise of his writing:
but it must be observed, that no sign of repetition must be at the
top of a page; but that the name of the author, or merchandise,
must be set out again at length; and if their series continues, to
denote the continuation thereof, at every article, by a dash of
three or four m's, so as to range, instead of extending the dash
to the different lengths of names.
A dash likewise stands for to or till; as, chap. xvi. 3-17.
that is, from the third to the seventeenth verse. At other times,
it serves for an index, to give notice, that what follows it is a
corollary of what has preceded; or otherwise matter of import
and consequence. N dashes are generally cast, which are very
convenient in justifying lines of dashes, and in the arrangement
of braces where middles and corners are used.
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
SPACE RULES.
SPACE RULES are not always of the same thickness, though two
of them generally answer to the depth of a Pearl body. But
this is not of so much moment as their being of a neat look, and
made to join well; when this is the case they may be considered
valuable sorts. These lines are cast to various widths, from
one m to six, and are, in intricate rule work, from their joining
more exact, neater than brass rule, less expensive, and more
convenient to the compositor.
BRACES.
BRACES are chiefly used in tables of accounts, and similar
matter, that consists of a variety of articles, which would require
much circumlocution, were it not for the method of tabular
writing now practised.
Braces stand before, and keep together, such articles as are of
the same import, and are the sub-divisions of the preceding
articles. They sometimes stand after, and keep together, such
articles as make above one line, and have either pecuniary,
mercantile, or other posts after them, which are justified to
answer to the middle of the brace.
The bracing side of a brace is always turned to that part of ap
article which makes the most lines.
Braces are sometimes used horizontally in the margin to cut
off a chronological or other series from the proper notes, or
marginal references of the work.  They are generally cast to
two, three and four m's of each fount, but can be had larger if
'desired. When there is occasion for them larger, middles and
coriers are cast, and used with dashes, so that the brace may
include any space required; but the middles and corners, as
well as the dashes, require to be cast with great exactness, that,
when joined, they may appear as one piece; their shoulders in
Jressing should be planed away, so that the beard may not
prevent the face from meeting. The difficulty of nicely effecting
this has caused some printers, most eminent for their skill and
experience in table-work, to form their braces out of brass rule
7'
73 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
to the exact lengths required for each occurring instance; but
latterly, metal braces have been cast of considerable length
entire.
Middles and corners are convenient in genealogical works,
where they are used the fiat way; and where the directing point
is not always in the middle, but has its place under the name
of the parent, whose offspring stands between corner and corner
of the brace inside, in order of primogeniture: but this may be
superseded to advantage by the use of brass rule.
S
SUPERIORS.
As we have already treated of superior letters and figures under
the head of references, it will not be necessary to take further
notice of them here, than to observe that they should contain no 
more than the bare alphabet, without any double letters. Neither
ought the j to be used as a reference, on account of its being a
descending letter.  A larger number should be cast of the first
eight sorts; a less of the second, a still less quantity of the third
eight sorts; because it often happens that references begin with a
in every page; though sometimes they are continued to the end
of a chapter, or other division of a work; in which case they
may run the length of the alphabet.
The same rule may be observed in respect to superior figures,
more of the first five being used than the others, except the
nullo, which may be used as a degree in geometrical works.
FRACTIONS.
FRACTIONS, or broken numbers in arithmetic, were formerly
seldom cast to any other bodies than those of Pica, Small Pica,
Long Primer, Bourgeois, and Brevier, but since the use of small
type has become so general they are cast to almost every sized
body. A great improvement has recently been introduced by
casting them with the separatrix to run obliquely between the
numerator and denominator, rendering their appearance much
mnore clear and conspicuolls.
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
Where a fraction happens with large-bodied figures, such as
Great Primer and upwards, it is usually set out at length, unless
small figures can be conveniently had, which may be justified
with the same neatness as fractions cast to the body.
QUOTATIONS.
QUOTATIONS are cast to two sizes, and are called broad and
narrow. They should be cast lower than quadrats and require
to be dressed and finished with as much care as any other sort,
that they may stand true upon all occasions. They vary in size
according to the standard of the foundry where they are cast,
which is highly improper; as they should be governed by a
regular standard as well as every other sort, and to that standard
press-joiners ought to cut their furniture; but we are sorry to
observe so little attention paid to this important part of the
joiner's business, who follow too much in the steps of the letterfounder, and cannot decide on, and adhere to, a standard guage
for their furniture. This want of uniformity gives the compositor much trouble in making margin, and, with all his care, a
form will sometimes go to press imperfect in this respect, which
is immediately discovered on laying on the reiteration. The
pressman has then to unlock the form in order to make register;
from this, a dispute will too frequently arise between him and
the compositor; and, what is still worse, from frequent unlocking on the press, the pages will suffer some derangement, so that
the most skillful corrector's endeavors to send a work perfect to
press, will thereby be frustrated.
In order to obviate the above difficulties, metal furniture of
various widths is now cast by some founders, which can be
relied upon for its accuracy, not being liable to warp or expand
by heat or moisture, and most of the respectable printing houses
are supplied with it. The outlay is considerable at first, but it
will ultimately be found more economical than wooden furniture.
Justifiers are cast for broad and narrow quotations, to all
sizes, from Double Pica to Pearl inclusive, for the purpose of
ranging the side note with its proper text; in doing which, great
care is requisite, especially where there are many in a page.
75 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
TWO-LINE LETTERS.
THEY are now cut to the following bodies, Diamond, Pearl,
Nonpareil, Minion, Brevier, Bourgeois, Long Primer, Small
Pica, Pica, English, Great Primer, &c. and are found extremely
useful in titles, beginning of chapters, advertisements, jobs, &c.
FLOWERS.
AT one period flowers were held in the greatest estimation, and
the skill and ingenuity of the compositor was often put to the
test in forming faces and devices to grace the head pages of his
work.
The variety and richness of the designs recently introduced by
some of our founders, seems to have occasioned a desire on the
part of several printers to introduce the old mode of ornamenting.
A few years since, so great was the rage for novelty and
alteration, that some printers were not content with merely the
exclusion of flowers, but they stripped their works of every
article which had the least appearance of ornament; even rules
of every description were banished from their proper stations in
title-pages, heads, &c.; but this newfangled rage did not long
continue, and it was with some reluctance that they would
consent to,the re-introduction of them in certain cases, and thus,
by degrees, rules have again resumed their necessaryv functions.
LEADS.
LEADs form a very important part of a printer's stock in trade,
since it is scarcely possible to set up a single page in which
they may not be usefully employed; but their chief use is for
opening the lines to a regular distance from each other. They
are usually cast by letter-founders in a long mould, and then
cut to the required lengths. The bodies are regulated by pica
standard, and they are usually cast four, six, or eight to pica'
but are occasionally varied from one down to fourteen to pica.
The lengths also vary, twenty m's pica being about the average,
though they are cut to almost every length, in order that, by
being combined, they may suit every measure.
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TYPCGRAPHIA.
They are almost indispensably necessary in regulating the
blanks between displayed lines in titles and other pages. They
are also used in newspapers to designate editorial matter fromi
communicated and selected.
NAMES OF LETTERS, AND THEIR BEARINGS
TO EACH OTHER.
HAvING already treated upon the properties and shapes of types,
and of all the sorts contained in a complete fount of letter, with
some observations on the use and proper application of them,
we shall now endeavor to explain the origin of the names of the
various sized letters.
Canon is confessed to have been first produced by some
artizan, of the French nation, and employed in some  work
relating to the canons of the church; to which the German title,
Missal, likewise alludes.
Two-lines Double Pica, Two-lines Great Primer, Two-lines
English, Two-lines Pica, and Double Pica, have their names
from the respective bodies of which the depth of two m quadrats
answers to one of the double sizes. But we must here take
notice, that our Double Pica falls in with what the Germans
call Secunda, from which it follows, that there should be a
Prima; but because we have met with no letter of that name,
we conclude that Prima, being a size larger than Secunda, and
happening to answer afterwards to two lines of English, Prima
lost its first name, and was turned into that of Roman. Besides,
that Double Pica goes in Germany by the name of Secunda,
that letter is also called Text; as we cannot assign the reason
for it, we shall leave it to connoisseurs to observe which of the
primitive books has its text printed in that character.
Paragon is the only letter that has preserved its name, being
called so by all the printing nations. Its appellation shows,
that it was first cut in France; and at the same time gives us
room to suppose, that the state of well-shaped letter there, was
at that time but indifferent; because, when Paragon happened
to turn out a letter of better shape than the rest, it received the
name of perfect pattern, which the word Paragon implies.
F
77 
TYPOGRAPIIIA.
Great Primer, in Germany, is
called Tertia, and is therefore one
of the major sizes of letter which,
in the infancy of the Art, served
for printing several works of consideration7 and particularly the
Bible; on which account it is by
some called Bible Text.
English is called Alittel by the Germans, and St. Augustin by the French
and Dutch; both whlichl names might be
productive of considerable argument; the
word Mittel bearing the same meaning
with Middle, intimates, that the former
sizes of letter were seven in number, the
centre of which  being  English,  with
Prima, Secunda, and Tertia, ranging on
one side, and Pica, Long Primer, and
Brevier, occupying the other. As to the
name of St. Augustin, as it is designated
by the French and Dutch, we understand
that the writings of that Father were the
first works done in that sized letter.
Pica is another letter that admits of having
particular notice taken of it, on account of its
,being called Cicero by the French and Germans;
for as the preceding size was distinguished by
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TYPOGRAPIIIA.
the name of St. Augustin, so has this been
honored with that of Cicero, on account of the
Epistles of that writer having been first done in
letter of this size; and the only point now to
decide is, whether the Germans or the French
were the first who dedicated the letter of this
body to the name of Cicero on the before-mentioned account.
Small Pica, being of an irregular body, takes its
name here from its inferiority to Pica. But in France
they assign the invention of this body of letter to Philosophie; for which, indeed, they may have their
reason, considering that their Cicero and Philosophie
are of one and the same face; firom which, we conclude,
that they did not consider Small Pica worth cutting
with a face proportionable to its body; and that the
cramping of Cicero to Philosophie, was done with no
other view than to get in upon the former. This we
venture to suggest, though we can forin no idea why
the Germans give this letter the name of Brevier.
Long Primer. Upon the same supposition, that some
bodies of letter took their names from works in which they
were first employed, we are induced to believe that the
Germans gave the name of Corpus to this character, on
account of their Corpus Juris being first done in this size,
as it is still continued in that letter; but whether Garmoitd
is the name of the author, or what signification else it bears,
we have no items of. In contradistinction of the Friench
Gros Romtaiit, they call this size letter Petit Romain, conformable to the distinction that is made between Great
Primer and Long Primer, in England.
Bourgeois is a letter of an irregular body, and has hitherto
been received accordingly.  By its name it seems to have first
conme from France, having been dedicated to the master printers
there.  Gailla?rde is a letter of the same body, but has the face
of Petit Romain.  Two lines of this letter are equivalent to a
Great Primner body; and one line to two of Diamond.
79 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
Brevier takes its name from being first used for the Breviary, a
Roman Catholic Church-book, which is commonly printed in this
character. It is called Petit; and Jungfer, or Maiden Letter, by
the Germans, on account of its comeliness.
Minion. Why this letter was denominated Minion, we have not yet
been informed; probably it was held in great estimation on its first in troduction, and consequently received the title of (Darling) Minion.
Nonpareil. Little can be observed with respect Io this character: why it received
the name of Nonpareil no one has yet ventured tc nvestigate, it is therefore most
probable that the appellation was given on account of its extraordinary smallness
in proportion to those letters at that time in general use.
l'etarl'vith respect to this size we are left in the snlme situation as the last mentioned, consequently we
sall aain venture at a sugges tion for th e name wicht has received: it is probable that the successof the
frei g induced the founders ta ttempt cttin another letter, upon a  ismaller body; and as this was,
undoubtedly, a reater advance to perfection, it of course, was designated P erl.
FEen the minuteneqs of the type just mentioned, did not deter the founders from attemptig one upon a still
s ller scale, in hic   they have scceed even beond  the most sanguine  expetation, for which  they are justly
etted to rcrt credit; tus havin aied the summiit of perfection., lthey estwerd upon it the name of Diamond
a nort suitabl      e to its extraordinary  eness and consequent value. We are of opinion tithat their efforts at farther
min,t in must notw cease, unless t hey will undertake to furnish mankind with eyes possessing all the qualities of 
magutify)ing glass.
In the type last mentioned, so minute is each character, that
of the lower case i about 2,800 go to a single pound, and the
thinnest space about 5,000!
It is necessary to observe that the foregoing gradation of types,
from Great Primer to Diamond inclusive, were not cast by one
and the same founder; still this is not of the least consequence,
when it is considered that the founders have various faces to the
same body, consequently it would have not only been improper
to have made a selection of those which might agree as to the
regular gralation, but it would also have been attended with a
waste of time, and an unnecessary expense; therefore, we
thought proper to take those which were immediately at our
command.
Independently of the letters which are cast upon these bodies,
the founders cast a Nonpareil face on a Minion body, and a
Minion on a Nonpareil: a Small Pica on a Pica, and all the other
sizes, either in ascending or descending order.
We shall now give the proportion which one size of type
bears to another in width; but it is necessary to observe that it
must be taken with certain limitations, because each founder
has letter of every size, that will either driye out or get in with
others of the same body; therefore it is impossible for us to
present our readers with a  regular  gradation of the different
sizes from Great Primer to Diamond  inclusive; the limitation
of each line is marked by an inverted full-point.
80
L
I t 
GRADATION OF TYPES.
I       I I I I!
Does not this'divine Art,'  which has  28
Does not this'divine Art,' which has enlightened 39
Does not this' divine Art,' which has. enlightened the
Does  not  this'divine  Art,'  which  has' enlightened  the world,  ju
Does not this' divine Art' which has' enlightened the world, justly deser
Does not this' divine Art,' which has' enlightened the world, justly deserve
Does not this' divine Art,' which has' enlightened the world, justly deserve our en
Does not this'divine Art,' which has' enlightened the world, justly deserve our encoura
Does not this I divine Art,' which has' enlightened the world, justly deserve our encouragement, in pre
Does not this'divine Art,' which has.- enlightened the world, justly deserve our encouragement, In preference to all other
Does not this'divine Art,' which has. enlightened the world, justly deserve our encouragement, in preference to all other inventions 
1               2                3               4                 5
The length of the line is divided into six parts, five four m's and one of
two m's Pica, and the number of letters contained in each is given at the end.
I
l
i
|i
42
51
58
60
65
70
81
98
108
It
~
~
tt
tV
m_
2x)
.,      "~:  l 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
It is a point of the utmost importance that a printer should be
well acquainted with the exact proportion which one body of
letter bears to another; without a possession of this knowledge,
he is unable to form an accurate judgment as to the size of the
type most suitable for a work that is intended to be confined
within a given number of sheets; neither can he form a correct
opinion as to the extent of a work, unless he possess a rule
whereby to guide his calculation as to the quantity of copy
* which the proposed type may either take in, or otherwise drive
out.            a
A scale has been introduced in England for measuring the
depth of letter from Great Primer to Nonpareil; we should have
inserted a similar one, had we not been convinced of its inutility;
because, as we have before observed, not only do respective
founders vary, but as great a difference exists in each individual
foundry. If letter were cast, as it ought to be, to a mathematical
standard, such a scale would be of the greatest consequence: a
certain number of m's unquestionably, should be allowed to a
foot, as three barley-corns to an inch; viz. Pica 72 m's, and all
others in the same proportion; whereas, we now have halves
and quarters included: from such a system, what can we expect
but confusion? They may vary the face of the letter as they
please; bet, as to height to paper and depth of body, the printers
should insist upon their keeping to a true mathematical standard.
In order to show the variations in the depth of type, we shall
give an example, by inserting two lines of Long Primer m's
The great difference in body here exhibited, not only applies
to Loung, Primer, but also to every other size.
CASTING OFF COPY.
To cast off rrnuscript with accuracy and precision, is a task
of a disagreeable nature, which requires great attention and
mature deliberation. The trouble and difficulty is much increased, when the copy is not only irregularly written (which
is too frequently the case), but also abounds with interlineations,
S2
L 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
erasures, and variations in the sizes of paper. To surmount
these defects the closest application and attention is required;
yet, at times, so numerous are the alterations and additions, that
they not unfrequently baffle the skill and judgment of the most
experienced calculators of copy. Such an imperfect and slovenly
mode of sending works to the press (which is generally attended
with unpleasant consequences to all parties) cannot be too
strongly deprecated by all admirers of the art.
The first thing necessary is to take a comprehensive view of
the copy, and to notice whether it is written even, if it has many
interlineations, &c. also the number of break-lines, and whether
divided into chapters and sub-heads, in order that allowance may
be made for them in the calculation, so that the plan of the work
may not afterwards be infringed on. These observations should
be entered as a memorandum, on a separate piece of paper, to
assist the memory, and save the trouble of re-examining the
manuscript.
This preparation being made, we then take that part of the
copy for calculation which comes nearest to the general tendency
of the writing, and reckon the number of words contained in one
line, previously counting a number of separate lines, so that the
one we adopt may be a fair average; we then take the number
of lines in a page, and multiply the one by the other, which we
again multiply by the quantity of folios the manuscript copy
may contain, and thus we are put in possession of the amount
of the words contained in the work, with as little loss of time,
and as much accuracy as circumstances will admit; the necessary allowances should then be made for break-lines, chapters,
insertions, &c. according to the observations previously made on
the memorandum.
If the information has been furnished, what size letter the
work is to be done in, and what the width of the page, we make
our measure accordingly, and after composing a few lines of the
manuscript copy, are enabled to form an opinion what number
of words come into each printed line; we then take the length
of our page, generally to double the number of m's contained in
a single line, or less, and multiply the one by the other, which
produces the information we had previously gained from the
.83 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
adoption of the same mode on the manuscript page; we compare
their results, and if the manuscript drives out, we multiply the
print by a larger number than the last folio of the writing, and
so vice versa; if the print drives out, we multiply it by a less,
until we bring the number of words to agree; the multiplier on
the printed calculation will show what will be the last folio of
the printed volume, which we divide into sheets according to
the given size of the work, and we are then in full possession,
whether it will bear to be leaded, or the chapters begin pages,
&c., or whether it must be made up close, the measure widened,
the page lengthened, or the size of the letter reduced.
Should the size of the page and letter be left to the opinion of
the printer, with no other order than the number of sheets the
work is intended to make, from following the above mode he
will be enabled pretty accurately to give his directions;-but as
it is necessary, on a subject like the present, to be as clear in our
observations as possible, we will exemplify what has been laid
down. -- We are supposed to have made our remarks upon the
manner of the writing as directed, and we take the number of
words in a line of manuscript at 20, the linies in a page at 50;
we multiply 50 by 20, which will produce 1000 words in a page;
we then multiply 1000 by 422, which are supposed to be the
number of folios in the manuscript, and we shall find it contain
422,000 words.-The work being printed in Pica 8vo. 20 m's
measure, and each line containing 10 words, each page 40
lines-the case will stand thus:
MANUSCRIPT.                         PRINTED.
50                      40
2C                      10
1000                     0          1050
422                                   400
2000                             422000 words.
2000
4000                               Divide
1611055 1 65 sheets,
422000 words in MS.                        15 pages.
Having ascertained the number of sheets the work will make,
and that number being sufficient for two volumes, they are
84
. 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
divided accordingly. But should the author wish to have his
work comprised in one volume, it is requisite to be prepared
with the sized type and measure which may accord with his
inclination.
As there are two methods of casting off copy, we shall conclude this article with the one laid down in former grammars:
"After having made the measure for the work, we set a line
of the letter that is designed for it, and take notice how much
copy will come into the line in the stick, whether less or more
than a line of manuscript. And as it is seldom that neither one
nor the other happens, we make a mark in the copy where the
line in the stick ends, and number the words that it contains.
But as this is not the safest way for casting off close, we count
not only the syllables but even the letters that are in a line in the
stick, of which we make a memorandum, and proceed to set off
a second, third, or fourth line, till a line of copy falls even with
a line in the stick. And as we did to the first line in the stick,
so we do to the other, marking on the manuscript the end of
each line in the stick, and telling the letters in each, to see how
they balance against each other. This being carefully done, we
begin counting off, each time, as many lines of copy as we know
will make even lines in the stick. For example, if 2 lines of
copy make 3 lines in print, then 4 make 6, 6 make 9, 8 make
12, and so on, calling every two lines of copy three in print.
"In like manner we say, if 4 lines make 5, then 8 make 10,
and so on, comparing every four lines of copy to five lines in
print.
"And in this manner we carry our calculation on as far as
we have occasion, either for pages, forms, or sheets.
"The foregoing calculations are intended to serve where a
line of print takes in less than a line of copy, and therefore
where a line of print takes in more than a line of copy, the
problem is reversed, and instead of saying, if 2 lines make 3, we
say, in this case, if 3 lines of copy make 2 lines in print, then 6
lines make 4, 9 make 6, 12 make 8, and so on, counting three
lines of copy to make two lines in print. In this manner we
may carry our calculation to what number of pages, forms, or
sheets we will, remembering always to count off as many lines
8*
85
k 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
of copy at once, as we have found they will make even lines in
the stick. Thus, for example, if 5 lines make 7, the progression
of 5 is 10, 15, 20, &c. and the progression of 7 will be 14, 21,
28, &c. 
"In counting off copy, we take notice of the breaks; and
where we judge that one will drive out, we intimate it by a
mark of this [shape; and again, where we find that a break will
let in, we invert it thus]. And to render these marks conspicuous to the compositor, we write them in the margin, that
he may take timely notice of, and keep his matter arcordingly.
We also take care to make proper allowance for heads to chapters, sections, paragraphs, &c.
"In examining the state of the  copy, we  must observe
whether it has abbreviations, that we may guard against them
in casting off, and allow for them according to the extent of the
respective words, when written out at length."
We trust that the foregoing observations upon this subject,
will convey a sufficient idea as to the best mode of casting off
copy; still these remarks more properly apply to regular written,
as well as thoroughly revised copy. Upon this subject Smith
justly observes  "But how often one or more of these requisites are wanting,
compositors can best tell; though very few will imagine, that
among men of learning there should be some, who write after
such a manner, that even those who live by transcribing, rather
shun than crave to be employed by them: no wonder, therefore,
if compositors express not the best wishes to such promoters of
printing. But it is not always the capacious genius that ought
to be excused for writing in too great a hurry; for sometimes
those of no exuberant brains affect uncouth writing, on purpose
to strengthen the common notion, that the more learned the man,
the worse is his (hand) writing; which shows, that writing well,
or bad, is but a.abit with those that can write."
86
L 
CHAPTER IV.
COMPOSING.
HAVING arrived at that portion of our work which more immediately concerns the young practitioner, we deem it highly
requisite to offer a few remarks on the attitude or position which
it is necessary that he should acquire upon his first introduction
to the department of composing.
frequently, with great justice, inveigh in strong terms against
the conduct of those unto whose care they were first entrusted,
for suffering them to contract those ill-becoming postures which
are productive of knock knees, round shoulders, and other
deformities. It is deeply to be regretted, that those who undertake so important a charge, are not better qualified to fulfil that
duty: instead of suffering the tender shoot to grow wild and
uncultivated, when the pruning-knife, in a gentle hand, with a
little admonition, would have checked its improper growth, and
trained it in a ncrht course.
What to a learner may appear fatiguing, time and habit will
render easy and familiar; and though to work with his cases on
a level with his breast, may at first tire his arms, yet tise will so
inure him to it, that it will become afterwards equally unpleasant
to work at a low frame. This method will likewise keep the
from pressure on the stomach.
The standing position of a compositor should be perfectly
upright, without stiffness or restraint; the shoulders thrown
back, the feet firm on the floor, heels nearly closed, and toes
turned out to form an angle of about 45 degrees. The head and
body should be kept perfectly steady, except when moving from
the roman to the italic case, the operations of distributing and
composing being performed by the various motions of the arm,
from the shoulder joint alone; and if, to reach a box placed in
L 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
the further part of the cases, to put in, or take out a letter, he
should incline the body by a slight motion, he should immediately resume his erect position. The height of a compositor
and his frame should be so adjusted, that his right elbow may
just clear the front of the lower case by the a and r boxes,
without the smallest elevation of the shoulder joint; his breast
will then be opposite the space, h, and e boxes. Sitting to his
work should only be permitted on particular occasions, and then
his stool should be a small piece of board, fastened to a single
leg: resting the whole weight of the body upon one leg, while
the other foot is on the bottom of the frame, must be strictly
avoided, as a deformity of the legs will be the certain consequence; if fatigued by walking previous to beginning work, he
should rather take the stool for a short time, than resort to the
means above mentioned for relief.  There are, undoubtedly,
circumstances under which it may be necessary for a compositor
to be much on his stool,-lameness, weakness, old age, or other
infirmity; but, in the absence of these excuses, an habitual sitter
I should call an habitual idler: that which at first going to case
may appear fatiguing to the novice, habit will render familiar
and easy; a perseverance in conquering a little fatigue will be
amnply repaid by the reflection that it will prevent all the evils
of knock knees, round shoulders, obstructed circulation of the
blood, and respiration of the lungs, and though last, not least,
habits of idleness.
The question still remains undecided with many masters, as
to the most proper part of the business that should first engage
the attention of the learner without confusing his ideas; various
methods are adopted, each following the mode he thinks best.
Sorting pi is generally the first employment, and afterwards to
set it up, which unquestionably gives the youth a strong insight
into the nature of the business, makes him acquainted with the
different sizes of type and the method of composing, and
prepares his understanding for the comprehension of whatever
direction may be given him when he is put to the case. The next
duty is that of teaching him the nature of the cases, a knowledge
easily acquired by paying proper attention to that part of the
profession.
8 -8
vL 
TYPOGRAPHIIA.
In presenting the cases to the notice of the beginner, we shall
first give those generally used in the United States; secondly,
the late Lord Stanhope's plan; and lastly, those which we have
adopted.
The schemes of cases in the following pages, are given as
those generally in use in the United States, or at least those which
we h'ave found to be most numerous; but it is here necessary to
observe that in some offices slight deviations will be found,
such as the transposition of the comma and w, y, and p, &c.
In the upper case several empty boxes will be found, which
are usually filled with fractions or useful sorts employed in the
work in hand, but not unfrequently with pi.
89
i 
UPPER CASE GENERALLY USED IN THE UNITED STATES.
t 1~  11-  II                            1
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I  I  GI(Ek                   x IE
A  B  C  D  E |    G  A  B |    D  E  F  G
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LOWER CASE GENERALLY USED IN TE
ffi  fl E i    |   |'  k     -    1  2
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i                          e
|i      c       d                  i
-    1     m       n       h         o
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I 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
We beg to call the reader's attention to the cases upon the
late Earl Stanhope's plan, and also to his remarks on the same:
"I have deemed it advisable to contrive a new pair of composing cases, making a new arrangement of the types in the
boxes, introducing a new set of double letters, which I denominate logotypes; and rejecting altogether the double letters if, fi,
fl, ffi, ifi, formerly occupying room in the cases, but used so
seldom that they might rather be considered as retarding than
forwarding the work of the compositor.
"My object, in this matter, has been, to afford the best means
for the compositor's comfort in composing, combining therewith
the greatest attainable expedition. Upon first looking into this
part of the business, which naturally fell under my observation,
I was forcibly struck with the result of some examinations which
I caused to be made, in order to ascertain correctly the frequency
of the occurrence of the several different types in composition.
Those examinations pointed out, that the double letters if, fi, fl,
ffi, ff, E, (E, m, ce, were so little used in composition as to
occupy room in the composing cases unnecessarily; I therefore
resolved on getting rid of them; and resorted to the adoption of
a slight change in the shape of the letter f, to keep the dot
which forms its top from overhanging and being broken off by
ascending letters. Man is so much the child of custom, and so
much the implicit admirer of fancied beauty, that I believe if the
human body generally was very round shouldered, and if the
head projected considerably beyond the chest, it would, in such
a case, be deemed a deformity to see a man with an upright
body, and carrying his head erect. Having this opinion upon
so weighty a subject, I was not surprised to meet with objectors
to the proposed alteration in the shape of so humble a servant
of literature as the letter f: readers had been so long accustomed
to meet her with a downcast head, apparently too weighty to be
supported by her feeble neck, that she failed in meeting with a
welcome reception in assuming the appearance of strength, by
carrying her head upright. Let us put the two together. Now
I do not say that though the beauty of the letter be diminished
by the change, yet that, in consideration of the advantage
attendant upon the change, we should reconcile ourselves to it;
92
. 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
but I say that, independent of every other view of the matter,
the f which I introduce is of a preferable shape, in look alone,
to the f which I discard. I can easily conceive that many
fantastical flourishes which are given to some letters in old
printed books, had their admirers when these books were first
published; but it would be difficult for any person now to
succeed, if he were to undertake to show their superior beauty,
and insist upon their restoration to use. I shall not hesitate ia
being for once a prophet, and foretel that when the f Wqnra t
insist upon introducing, has become common in books, the f
now admired will be condemned solely because of its comparatively inelegant shape.
"I have said thus much on the f, because it has- stood in the
way of the improvement which I planned, by occupying with
its numerous relatives, considerable portions of the composing
cases.
"Although I condemn all the above double letters, as inelegant
and useless, as occupying, to the inconvenience of the compositor, a considerable part of the area of composing cases, as
loading founts with sorts which sometimes remain new when
the fount is generally worn out; as burthening the type-fobunder
with the expenses of punches and matrices from which he might
be entirely exbnorated; yet I am led to view another sort of
double letters in just as favorable a light as those appear the
reverse.
"First. The nine logotypes now in use are omitted. They
are proposed to be printed with separate types, thus: ft; fi, fl,
ffi, ffl, &c.  And the Italic thus: ff, f, &c. instead offf,fi,fl,
&c. In 20 pages of Enfield's Speaker, (namely, from page
71 to 90, both inclusive,) those logotypes occur only 95 times,
viz.
PRESENT LOGOTYPES.
ff fi fl ffi ffl!  (E m    ce   Total
28 51 10 4  2   0   0  0  0          95.
"Secondly. Eight new logotypes are introduced. Their
regular and frequent occurrence expedite the process of composition in a very considerable degree; for, in those same 20
G                    9
93 
UPPER CASE UPON THE
I    I  111'1,    xlYl
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|  1     1    5   t  P  Q  I 
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X  Y  Z |J  U  A  B 
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P |   R  S| T |V  W  3 6
H I K L MIN 0 2 5
A  B  C  D |E  FG   1  4
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LATE EARL ST 
TYPOGRAPHIA.        9
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bB
I 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
pages, the new logotypes would save to the compositor no less
than 3073 lifts, viz.
STANHOPE LOGOTYPES.
thi  in   an   re  se   to   of   on    Total,
771  441  413  385  291 279 264  229    3073.
TThirdly.  The introduction of the new logotypes and the
great imperfection of the various existing arrangements of
composing cases, have caused the above new and very superior
arrangement to be adopted.
"Foturthly.  The front side of each box of the lower case is
made sloping, instead of upright; which shape is convenient
both to the view and to the hand of the compositor, and it
enables him to lift the types with the same rapidity and ease
when the boxes are nearly empty as when they are full. The
types are much better preserved from wear, by means of this
shape. It also allows the lower case to be made deeper than
usual; so that, two of them contain as much as three lower
cases on the old construction. At the bottom of each box of the
upper case, the internal front arras is filled up.
"The saving of time is of immense importance, especially in
all cases where despatch is particularly required.  The  new
cases are, by experience, found to save full one day out of six to
the compositor.
" Fifteen boxes on the left-hand side of the upper case are
represented empty.  They are intended for the sorts which are
sometimes used for particular works; such as, accented letters,
mathematical marks, &c.
"As the asterisk, or star, (-) is very liable to be filled with ink
at press, it is intentionally excluded from among the reference
marks.
" In the upper case I have put a galley ledge over the third
row of boxes. I do not propose putting the galley, as usual,
towards the right-hand end of the case, for I occupy that neighborhood with useful sorts, that is, sorts which may be often
wanted in composition; but I propose placing the galley on the
left-hand side of the case, which I therefore represent as empty
boxes, leaving them to be filled when occasion requires, with
accented letters, or other unusual sorts. This quarter of the
IC
96
L
w 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
case is evidently that which requires the most awkward motion
of the compositor, if he has occasion to go there to take types
out of the boxes, and therefore the most proper to be generally
left unoccupied with types. I consider the figures to be fully as
well arranged as formerly, easily to be remembered, and better
placed in being so compactly together. The small capitals
undergo the least change as to arrangement: this is, however,
clearly improved, inasmuch as their first row, that most used, is
entitled to be brought nearer to the compositor than the last
three letters of the alphabet, which are, in comparison so little
used."
This logo system, we are informed, was once attempted at the
London Times office, but soon after abandoned; it was found
that the hands could get through much more work by the old
process, than by the proposed improvement. It was also tried
at Boston, Mass., some ten or twelve years since, under our
own observation, and found to be ineffectual.
We must certainly coincide with his Lordship in his arguments in favor of discarding the double letters, as we consider
them quite as inelegant and useless as was the long s, long
since discarded.
9,
97
L
L
to 
UPPER CASE UPON T. F. ADAMS
*it    tlt l 11 ~.....
A    BC    D   E   F   G   A   B 
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I 
LOWER CASE UPON T. F. ADAMS' PLAN.
fl |f    ffi    fi    j        k                    1     2     3      4     5    6      7      8
b;c    d                     s  f                          g               
z                                                                                               0
epace 
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4em
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If
r 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
It has always been a matter of surprise to us, that so little
attention has been paid to the improvement of this important
branch of the compositor's business, while there seems to have
been so much care and expense lavished upon the other branches
of the Art. Presuming to be aware of the defects of the cases
upon the old plan, we have endeavored to filrnish the trade with
what we deem to be an essential improvement.
In presenting our plan of cases to the trade, we are aware of
the many objections that will, at first sight, be brought against
them; but we are induced to believe, that after an impartial and
unprejudiced examination of them, their superiority over those
of the old plan, will be readily acknowledged; in short, they
have met the decided approbation of all practical printers, to
whom they have been submitted, who have expressed their
entire willingness to adopt them.
We shall now endeavor to point out some of the advantages,
on which our claims to a preference, are founded.
The principal improvement at which we have aimed, is that
of bringing all the spaces immediately under the hand, without
removing the a, t, and other letters, but half a box from their
original places, or curtailing the capacity of any of the principal
boxes. Tie advantage gained by this arrangement must be
obvious, when it is considered, that in spacing out a line, the
hand is frequently extended to the remotest parts of the case, to
the n quadrat and thin space boxes, causing much unnecessary
delay in the progress of composition; for it not unfrequently
occurs, that the time occupied in spacing out a line, is greater
than that.employed in composing it; nor is this immense loss of
time confined to composing alone, for in distributing, the thin
spaces almost invariably accompany the thick, which in the old
plan, must be dropped some distance from each other, consequently, much time and labor is saved by the proximity of their
situation.  It has been satisfactorily ascertained, by counting the
n quadrats-and thin spaces in 1000 m's of matter, that the
distance which the hand has to traverse unnecessarily, to reach
those sorts in their old position, is 600 feet in 1000 m's, or in
the same ratio, 4,200 feet in a day's work of 7000 m's, and the
same distance again traversed over in distributing.
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It will be perceived by referring to the schemes in the preceding pages, that we have not only brought the spaces together,
but also the points, figures, and double letters, and by curtailing
the? and! boxes, have brought all the double letters into the
lower case; these alterations, though seemingly of minor importance, nevertheless rider the position of those sorts more
consistent in their arrangement.
We have thought it quite unnecessary to enter into a minute
detail respecting the particular position which each letter
occupies, believing that the members of the profession generally,
are possessed of sufficient penetration to discover why those
letters most used, are placed nearest the hand.
In the arrangement of our upper case, we also beg leave to
differ from the customary plan, by transposing the capitals and
small capitals, and by introducing the J and U or V, in their
regular order in the alphabet, with some few alterations of little
consequence. Our reason for transposing the capitalsand small
capitals, must be apparent to every practical printer, upon a
moment's reflection, their old position requiring one of the most
awkward movements of the body, to reach them.   We can see
no reason why the J and U or V, should not occupy their
respective situations in the alphabet, since their admission into
general use.  Tnis arrangement  would  prevent considerable
confusion in regard to the position of the U and V, as some
offices leave out the U, and others the V, consequently, those
boxes are frequently found to contain a mixture of both letters.
Our object in offering these few remarks, is more particularly
to call attention to the improvement of the lower case, as many
printers consider the arrangement of an upper case as a matter
of but little importance; to such, we would only recommend the
lower case, believing that the alterations are of sufficient conse quence to receive theJ, notice.
LAYING OF CASES.
THIS process consists in filling the cases with the respective sort,.;
contained in a new fount of letter.
After having ascertained the weight of the fount, and provided ourselves with a sufficient number of cases, (say one pair
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
of cases to about every fifty or sixty lbs. of letter,) and a fount
case, we begin to lay the letter, fillitg each box moderately with
its proper sort; after which we deposit the remainder in the
fount case, which is put in some convenient place till wanted.
As new letter is very liable to stick, after having been wetted,
it would be advisable to sprinkle it with a little strong soap
water, which would greatly tend to prevent such unpleasant
consequences.
DISTRIBUTING.
DISTaRIBUTING, or conveying the different sorts of letter to their
respective compartments, is generally the first of a compositor's
practical exercise; though it would be found more advantageous
both to employer and employed, were this custom sometimes
reversed, and composing made antecedent to distributing, which
depends upon a perfect knowledge of what is contained in each
of the different boxes in a pair of cases. But as the arrangement of sorts differ, in some degree, in almnost every printingoffice, it follows, that such irregularities must have their effects
accordingly; of which we do not want for instances. The first
that offers itself to our observation, is the loss which a compositor sustains every time he changes his place of work; for, being
unacquainted with the situation of each sort, he is hindered, for
some time, in his quick and ready way of distributing, which
might be easily prevented, were establishers of new houses to
follow one uniform method.
Other evils result from this want of uniformity, which, as we
have before observed, equally affect both the employer and the
employed. Some compositors, rather than charge their memory
with the different situations of particular sorts, transpose them
into such boxes as contained them at their last place of work,
consequently the situation of the letters, in that Roman case, at
least, is destroyed, and the transposed sorts not being replaced,
the boxes become receptacles for pi, for the right sorts being
distributed at the top, the undermost are rendered useless, because
they are not expected to lodge in quarters that were not assigned
them; therefore, if the hidden sorts happen to run short, they
must be re-cast.
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It would be the means of preserving a clean pair of cases
were they filled and provided with letter for a new compositor
to begin his work upon, that by composing first, he might
become acquainted with the contents of his boxes, and be better
prepared for distribution; but as few compositors feel inclined
to quit the beaten track, and as a difficulty would occur in
compelhlng them to leave the cases as they found them, or if
they did leave them full of letter, might distribute it carelessly,
knowing they would not have to set it out again, the evil might
be still far from being remedied.
To make a young apprentice the sooner fit for distributing, he
should be informed that there are some letters that resemble
others, and at the same time be shown how to distinguish one
from another; viz. b from q, d from p, 1 from I, n from u, &c.
And in order to prove whether he has acquired a perfect knowledge of the distinction between such letters as have a similarity
to each other, let the young compositor distribute a handful of
broken matter into an empty case, and if, upon examination,
the before mentioned sorts are found in their proper boxes, he
may be trusted to distribute for himself. But before he proceeds,
he should be cautioned not to take up too much matter at a time,
for, should he break his handful, he will have the less pi to
clear. Even to those who are not likely often to meet with this
accident, the caution is not unnecessary, as too great a weight
weakens the wrist, and it is a mistaken notion that it saves time,
for if one handful falls into the case, it will be more than equi valent to the time gained.
In taking up a handful, the head of the page should be towards
the distributor, which prevents the trouble as well as danger of
turning it round, in order to have the nick uppermost. So much
matter only should be taken at a time, as can be conveniently
held i; the left hand, and not to be higher than the thumb,
which guards the ends of the lines from falling.
He should be careful not to throw the letters into the case
hvith their face downwards, as it batters them; neither'should he
distribute his case too full, for it invariably creates pi.
He should not be impatient to acquire a quick method at first;
nis principal study should be propr4ety, though his progress be
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TYPOGRAPhI1A.
slow; that attained, expedition will follow from practice, and he
will find his advantage in composing from a clean case, though
he may be longer in distributing it. A man loses double the
time in correcting, that he imagines he saves from quick distribution.
With many compositors much time is unnecessarily lost in
looking at the word before they distribute it. By proper attention,
the learner may avoid this, and become, without the appearance
of hurry, an expeditious as well as a clean distributor. To
attain which, we would recommend him never to take more
letters between the fingers than he can conveniently hold, and
if possible, always to take an entire word; to keep his handful
on an inclining position, so that the face of the letter may come
more immediately under his eye.  By proper attention and
practice he will become so corpletely acquainted with the
beard or shoulder of the type, as to recognize the word he takes
firom his handful, with the cursory view he may have of it
while in the act of lifting.
It is to this method that so many in the business are indebted
for their expedition and cleanness in distribution; though to an
observer the movements of their hands appear but slow.  It is
not to velocity of movement that compositors are indebted for
their expedition, either in composing or distributing-it is to
systCemn, without which their attempts may have the appearance
of expedition, but produce only fatigue from anxiety and false
motion. Therefore, to system we would particularly call their
attention, and as clean distribution produces clean composition,
which not only saves time at the stone, but acquires them  a
respectable name, they can not be too attentive to that part of
their business.
Another material point, before distributing, is the well laying
up of the form. In this particular many compositors are
shamefully remiss, and from this negligence arise inconveniences that lose more time than if they had taken the first
trouble, besides the unpleasantness of Working with dirty letter.
The letter-board should always be kept clean, and the bottom
as well as the face of the form well washed before it is laid on
the board and unlocked, for if any of the dirt ramain from tlbe
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lie brush after it is unlocked, it will sink into the matter instead
of running off. This precaution taken, the pages should be
well opened, and the whole form washed till the water appears
to run from it in a clean state. A form can not be well laid up
without plenty of water. If the form appears particularly dirty,
it is best to lock it up again, which works out the filth; then
rinse the bottom of it, and proceed as before.
Many compositors keep a piece of alum in their cases, in
order to contract the grain of the skin of their fingers when
distributing slippery letter; this is a declaration of their want of
cleanliness, for had they washed their letter properly, it would
not be slippery.
It is sometimes necessary to dry the letter at the fire after
distributing; it is particularly recommended not to use the letter
after it is dried in this way, until it is perfectly cold, as very
pernicious effects arise from the antimony, which the heat of
the fire brings into action, when joined to the tender particles of
the skin; nor to stand near the case, either while at the fire, ol
until completely cool. The noxious vapor which arises is so
easy to be perceived that it must alone be sufficient warning of
the effects: it is the only part of the business that has any thing
injurious to health, and being entirely at the choice of the
compositor, he, fbr his own sake, ought avlways to avoid it as a
pestilence, which will equally effect his respiration and his
sinews, by the former instantly affecting his lungs, and the
latter causing contractions of the fingers. It is always better.
where it can be conveniently managed, to distribute at night, or
before meals, so that the letter may dry without artificial heat.
OBSERVATIONS ON COMPOSING.
CoMPosING is a term which includes several exercises, as well
of the mind as the body; for when we are said to compose, we
are at the same time engaged in reading and spelling what we
are composing, as well as in taking care to space and to justify
our matter.  But that we may observe some method in our
remarks, we will begin with what immediately precedes the
composition.
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When the copy of a work is put into the hands of the com-positor, ne should receive directions respecting the width and
length of the page; whether it is tobe leaded, and with white
lines between the breaks; and whether any particular method
is to be followed ill the punctuation and in the adoption of
capitals. These instructions being given, the compositor will
make his measure to the number of m's directed, which is done
by laying them flat-ways in the composing stick, and then
screwing it up, not too tight, as it is apt to strain it, nor so slack
as to allow the measure to give. He then fits a setting-rule to
the measure, and his case being supplied with letter, he is prepared for composing.
If the copy he is to begin on be a re-print, he will observe
whether there be any difference between the type he is about to
use and the copy, so that his spacing may not be affected,
against which he must take the necessary precautions at the
time, by widening or lessening his measure, if solid matter, or
driving out or getting in each paragraph, if leaded. He should
select a close spaced line from the copy, which will at once
prove if there be any variation.
Being now provided with a case of letter, and all the requisites
for composing, we examine the copy, to ascertain if it be written
fair and legible, and spelled and pointed according to the modern
way.  Upon this subject Smith thus remarks:
"If therefore it happens that the copy turns out to our liking,
we wish the work to last long; whereas if it proves otherwise,
we are glad to have done with it, especially if the author should
chance to be a humorous gentleman, and unacquainted with the
nature of printing; for then a compositor is obliged to conform
to the fancy of his author, and sometimes to huddle his work up
in such a manner as exposes both him and his employer;
whereas the gentleman that pursues the elaboration of his plan,
and leaves the gracing of his work to the judgment of the
printer, seldom finds room to be dissatisfied upon that score.
"By the laws of printing, indeed, a compositor should abide
by his copy, and not vary from it, that he may clear himself, in
case he sIhould be charged with having made a fault. But this
good law is now looked upon as obsolete, and most authors
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
expect the printer to spell, point, and digest their copy, that it
may be intelligible and significant to the reader; which is what
a compositor and the corrector jointly have regard to, in works
of their own language, else many good books would be laid
aside, because it would require as much patience to read them,
as books did when no points or notations were used; and when
nothing but a close attention to the sense made the subject
intelligible."
Having taken particular notice of the state of the copy, and
received directions respecting the method to be adopted in the
execution of it, he then commences his work. It will not be
improper to point out in this place, what we have before observed, that an ill habit once acquired, is with great difficulty
shaken off-truly ludicrous are the attitudes and motions
exhibited by some compositors, while performing the operation
of composing; such as nodding the head, agitating the body,
throwing out the arm, ticking the letter against the case or the
setting-rule, with numerous other false movements, which not
only lose time, but fatigue the mind and exhaust the body. The
swift movement of the hand is not always a just criterion of the
quick progress of a compositor. In proof of which, the following
anecdote is given:
"A gentlemanf, some few years back, not a professed printer,
though the proprietor of an extensive concern, gave orders to his
overseer to discharge a compositor who had not the appearance
of moving his arm so quick as others in the office with him;
but his overseer was able to convince him that this man was not
only the neatest, but the most expeditious, and consequently the
most valuable man in his employ."
The left hand, which contains the composing stick, should
always follow the right, which takes up the letters. If the
former be kept stationary, considerable time is lost in bringing
each letter to the stick, because the latter would, consequently,
have to traverse a much greater space than is necessary: the
eye should instantly precede the hand, being steadily fixed upon
that particular letter, which lies with the nick from you, which
should be taken up by the upper part; this would effectually
prevent any false motion, and preclude the necessity of turning
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the letters when in the hand. A sentence of the copy should be
taken, if possible, at one time, and while putting in the point
and space which concludes the sentence, the eye is at full liberty
to revert again to the copy, for a fresh one. It is to perfection
in this particular, that those compositors who are so much
admired in the profession, are indebted for their swiftness.
The time thus gained is very considerable, without the least
appearance of bustle or fatigue. By their taking a sentence into
the memory at one time, they preserve the connexion of the
subject, which renders the punctuation less difficult.
The compositor, from habit, becomes so well acquainted with
the peculiar feel of each type, that he can generally detect a
wrong letter without looking at the face. Those who are
careful in their distribution, find the advantage of it in compbsition.  What greater disgrace can be attached to a compositor,
than being denominated a foul or slovenly workman? To avoid
this stigma, he should use his earnest endeavor; it would even
be better that he should read every line as he composed it, than
to lose so much of his time at the stone, independent of the
disgrace just mentioned. If he accustom himself to glance his
eye over each line, as he justifies it, he will find it turn greatly
to his account, without the least impediment to his progress.
Uniformity in spacing, unquestionably, is a most important
part of the compositor's occupation; this requires both care and
judgment, and, therefore, cannot be too strongly impressed
upon the mind of the young beginner. Close spacing is equally
unpleasant to the sight as wide spacing, and ought never to be
permitted, except in very narrow measures; and frequently,
even then, with care, it might partly be prevented. What is
commonly called the composing space, is the best and proper
separation between each word; though this rule cannot always
be adhered to in narrow measuires, when large type is used. It
is not merely necessary to have a line here and there uniformly
spaced-a careful compositor evinces an anxiety to give every
page that uniformity of appearance, in whliich consists one of its
chiefest excellencies. Careless and foul compositors will never
preserve this most desirable uniformity; because, when their
proof is crowded with corrections, the utmost possible care in
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
rectifying those blunders, will not make the spacing regular.
Therefore, we wish to impress this important maxim upon the
mind of the young beginner: that it is better to do little, and be
determined to do that little well, than to be anxious to put
together a great number of letters, without any regard to accuracy and uniformity. Authors, certainly, should send their copy
finally corrected to the press; for when alterations and additions
are made in the proof sheet, it becomes difficult, where there are
few paragraphs, to make the spacing equal.
In correcting, many compositors do not over-run the matter,
through the stick, as they ought to do, but prefer doing it on the
stone, in which case they not unfrequently hair space, or treble
space, in order either to get in or drive out a word; when, by
over-running a line or two forward or backward, they would
not only preserve uniformity, but also save considerable labor.
In a late work upon this subject, we find a mixture of all the
spaces (except the hair space and n quadrat) strongly recommended, in which it is urged that it would expedite the
compositor in his justification-in this instance we must differ,
and shall ever contend against any advantage being derived from
so slovenly a practice. For how many compositors are there,
who would, upon finding their line to justify without an alteration of the spaces, take the trouble to examine whether the thin
spaces were not between perpendicular and the thick ones
between sloping letters; which would be in direct violation of
the only true rule for even spacing-and should there be any
that would even condescend to take that trouble, what advantage
would they gain by mixing their spaces in distributing and
assorting them from their stick while composing?
Where a line is even spaced, and yet requires justification,
the additional spaces should be put between those words in the
line where it will be least observable, viz. a d and an h being
perpendicular letters, will admit an addition, but not more than
a middle and thin space to a thick spaced line; or, after a kerned
letter, the beak of whichli may bear upon the top of an ascending
letter, as thef and the h, i, 1, &c., but not always after a kerned
letter, as the f and the w, where the distance would in some
cases be too conspicuous.
H                     10*
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
The same rule should be observed where it may be necessary
to reduce the spacing of a line; less space being required after
a sloping letter than a perpendicular one, the comma requires
only a thick space, but the other points should have a hail
space before, and an n quadrat after them, except the full point
which should have an m quadrat, as terminating a sentence.
Still this rule will not always hold good, it must depend entirely
]pon circumstances, for, should it be necessary to reduce the
spacing, those spaces after the points must also be altered in the
same proportion. Spaces are now cast to such regular gradations, that the compositor can urge no reasonable excuse either
for bad justification o.r improper spacing.
Having made these preliminary and most essential remarks,
we shall now proceed:-Should the length of the page be left
to the compositor's discretion, he then sets such a number of
lines as he conceives to be a proportioned page, this is generally
taken at nearly double the width; he next puts in the head and
direction (if any,) and cuts an exact guage as follows:-after
having marked off the length of the page, we then, with a sharp
penknife, make a light mark at the bottom of each line, commencing after the first: these marks are of the greatest service
to a neat compositor, he is thereby enabled to make up his work
with greater certainty and less trouble, particularly when the
work consists of light matter, heads, sub-heads, quotations, &c.
This is done before he makes up the first page, as that will vary
according to the different founts which are necessarily introduced.
Head lines are generally set in small capitals of the same
fount, or in italic, and sometimes in capitals. Capitals of letter
about three sizes smaller than the body of the work, with folios
.of a proportionable size, have a much neater appearance than
either of the foregoing. If only folios are placed at the top of
the page, it is better to make use of figures of rather a bold
appearance, without parentheses or brackets.
Direction-words at the bottom of the page are not now generally used; the omission of them does not injure the appearance
of the work, but saves time and expense where overrunning
occurs in the proof; nevertheless, in making up the page it is
necessary to substitute a white line for the signature. volume, &c.
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
Much trouble and loss of time was formerly experienced by
compositors, in making up the first page of a work, when they
had to introduce head-pieces and facs, formed with flowers of
different bodies. This taste for flowery decorations is now
exploded, and it is only necessary to set the title of the work in
a neat type. The setting of titles must depend on the fancy and
ingenuity of the compositor, and the fashion of the day, (which
varies materially from year to year,) under general directions
from the employer, as no fixed or certain rule can be laid down
for this purpose.
The compositor will also receive directions, when there are
notes, what letter they are to be set in. The usual rule is for
the notes to be two sizes less than the text of the work: thus,
to Pica work, Long Primer; Small Pica, Bourgeois; Long
Primer, Brevier. Side notes are usually smaller in proportion;
and when the work is of the nature of bibles, law-books, &c., in
which the side notes or references, frequently drive down more
than the lines of the text to which they refer, the expedient of
cut-in-notes must be resorted to. This is a difficult part of a
compositor's business, and requires much skill and patience to
adjust all parts, so that every line of note and text may have
proper and equal  bearing.  The  reglet, scaleboard, or lead,
which is placed between the lines of matter and the side-note
must be cut with as much nicety as possible to the length of the
text, as far as where the note is to run under; and having
accurately adjusted, by means of the quotations and justifiers,
the situation of the first line of the note, such lead or scaleboard,
is added to the text as will make it precisely correspond in depth
with the lines of note that stand on the side before turning: the
remainder of the note is then set in a long measure, to correspond in width with the text, reglet, and side-note; and the page
is made up with note, or the text begun again after the note is
finished. In bibles with notes and annotations, in law books,
some classics, and other works, it frequently happens that a
page exhibits several of these alternate frame-works of note and
text, which, if done well, display a workman's skill to the best
advantage; but if done at all ill, nothing exhibits a more vile
appearance.
III
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TYPOGRAPI]TA.
On beginning a work, the compositor should be informed
what number of volumes it is intended to be comprised in, in
order that he may place the number of the volume in the left
hand corner of the signature line, in the first page of every sheet.
The above and the signature are generally put in small capitals;
and where they extend to more than one alphabet, the second
one should begin, 2A, 2B, and so on. In our opinion the sinature is much better both in appearance, and for collating,
when placed within about six mn's from the end of the line, than
in the centre, according to the old custom.
The title, preface, &c., of a volume is always left till the body
of the work is finished, as many circumstances may arise in the
course of its progress through the press, which may induce the
author to alter his original preface, date, &c. or the work may
conclude in such a manner as to admit of their being brought in
at the end, in order to complete a sheet, which may save both
paper and press work. For this reason it is customary to begin
the first sheet of every work with signature B, leaving A for the
title sheet. To a sheet of octavo, two signatures only are neces..
sary, which are placed to the first and third pages; to a sheet
of twelves three signatures, to the first, third and ninth pages,
thus, B, B2, B3.
In works printed in half sheets, figures are generally used
instead of letters. This plan is considered to cause less confusion with the binder, particularly in works of five or six
hundred pages.
Instead of beginning the work with a two-line letter, according to the old custom, capital letters have a much neater
appearance; the remainder of the word may be put either in
capitals or small capitals, the latter is most preferable.
We now proceed to the second page, and set the running
title in a neat letter proportioned to the size of the page; but
-his must be governed by the quantity of matter necessary to be
introduced at the head of the page. A full line, as a running
title, has a very clumsy appearance, and should, if possible, be
avoided. To a solid page, two leads make the usual space after
the head; to a single leaded page, three leads or a Long Primer
white; and to a double leaded page, a Pica white.
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
It has long been, and still is a practice ton prevalent among
compositors, to drive out a word at the close of a paragraph, or
even to divide it, in order to reap the advantage of a break line.
Part of a word, or a complete word in a break line, if it contain
no more than three or four letters, is improper. It should be
the business of the proof-reader, at all times, to notice this
encroachment. The last line of a paragraph should not on any
account begin a page, neither should the first line of a paragraph
come at the bottom of a page, if the work has white lines
between the breaks. To obviate which, the compositor makes
his page either long or short, as most convenient, always taking
care that the corresponding pages back, by which means the
long or short appearance of the page escapes observation.
If the work is very open, consisting of heads, whites, &c. the
compositor must be particularly attentive to their depth; so that
though the white may be composed of different sized quadrats,
yet that their ultimate depth shall be equal to the regular body of
the type the work is done in; for unless care is taken in this
particular, the register of the work must be incomplete.  The
pressman cannot make the lines back if the compositor is not
careful in making up his matter.
The first line of a new paragraph is indented an m quadrat,
of whatever sized letter the work may be; though we prefer an
m and an n in small measures, and two or even three m's when
the measure runs very long, by which means the paragraph is
more strongly marked; the mere indention of an m being
scarcely perceptible in a long line. Authors vary materially in
the mode of making paragraphs; some carry the argument of a
position to a great length, before they relieve the attention of the
reader; while others break off at almost every place that will
admit only of a full point. But in this case we follow the
author's plan, unless, upon particular occasions, it may be
necessary to multiply or reduce the breaks in the copy, if it can
be done with propriety, in order to make the work look uniform.
Authors should always make the beginning of a new paragraph
conspicuous to the compositor, by indenting the first line of it
far enough to distinguish it from the preceding line, in case it
should be quite full.
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
Many hints, in addition to what have already been dropped,
relative to composing, might be added for the information of
learners, were we not persuaded that practice, and a close
attention to the mode of doing business by good workmen, will
be of more service to them than a multiplicity of rules. It is
ene duty of the person under whose tuition an apprentice is
placed, to discharge that trust with fidelity. The youth's future
prospects in life, depend in a great measure on the principles on
which his first instructions are formed; and it' is the duty of
every man to correct those habits in youth which may be improper, whether arising from carelessness or any other cause.
When a youth makes choice of a profession, and is aware that
his future support and prospects in life must depend on a correct knowledge of that profession, he should be anxious to attain
that knowledge; but to withhold it from him, or allow the
practice of improper habits, is, in his preceptor, a neglect
highly reprehensible, and unjust.
After the body of the volume is completed, the contents
sometimes follow next, though they belong more properly to
the beginning of the work; and for this reason we shall defer
speaking of them here, but introduce them in their proper place.
The index is generally placed at the end of the volume, and set
in letter two sizes less than that of the work; it is always begun
upon an uneven page. Running titles may be set to an index,
but folios are seldom put to them, unless it is to recommend the
book for its extraordinary number of pages; for as an index
does not refer to its own matter by figures, they are needless in
this case. The signatures, however, are always carried on
regularly to the last whole, or half sheet of the work.
It was formerly the plan to set the subject word of each
article in Italic, and all the rest in Roman, indenting all the
matter an m quadrat that makes above one line, what is technically termed-to run out and indent; but the Italic is now in a
great measure exploded, it being attended with extra trouble,
and at the same time destroys the uniformity of the page.
Care should be taken that the subject words are ranged
alphabetically, as it is not expected that the compositor will
transpose his matter afterwards, without being paid for it.
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TYPOG(RAPHIA.
Where figures have a regular succession, a comma is put
after each folio; and where their order breaks off, a full point
is used. Thus, for example, after 6, 7, 8, 9, commas are put;
and after 12. 16. 19. 24. full points; but to save figures and
commas, the succession of the former is noticed, by putting a
dash between the first and last figures, thus, 4-8. Again, if
all article has been collected from two pages, the folio of the
second is supplied by sq. or sequente; and by sqq. or sequientibts, when an article is touched upon in succeeding pages.  A
f'il point is not put after the last figures, because it is thought
til;tt their standing at the end of the line is a sufficient stop.
Nf itler is a comma or a full point placed to the last word of an
ch icle, in a wide measure and open matter; but it is not improper to use a comma at the end of every article in narrow
columns, or where figures are put after the matter, instead of
running, them to the end of the line.
At the conclusion of the index, the volume is considered as
completed, with the exception of the title, preface, &c. A compositor's first consideration, then, is in what manner the work
has ended, what number of pages the titles, &c., will make,
and whether he can impose them in such a form as to save
paper and presswork.  To answer this purpose, a preface may
be drove out or got in; or if matter is wanting, it is customary
to set a half title.
The method of setting or displaying a title is governed
entirely by fancy; and in this country the style of late years is
mniuch altered for the better, as a comparison between the title
pages of the last and present century fully evince. We concur
in the assertion, that no fixed rules can be laid down for instruction, because it depends entirely upon the taste and ingenuity
of the compositor; such being the prevalent opinion, we trust
that we shall be pardoned for obtruding a few hints, which, in
our judgment, may tend to assist the juvenile portion of the
profession. 1st. Having divided the title into lines, and decided
upon the sized type most suitable for the principal one, we
begin by composing those of the second and third class, both in
ascending and descending order. 2d. We avoid having two
lines of equal length to follow, or come in contact with each
F..
115 
TYPIOGRAPHIA.
other.  3d. Cat(ch words should be set on a very reduced scale,
and proportionea according to the strength of the preceding and
succeeding lines; because, when catch words are bold, they
take from the general effect of the title, it being impossible that
it can appear to advantage if the striking lines, which ought to
stand forward, are too much crowded by the full appearance of
their neighbors' faces. 4th. This knowledge will be best attained
by a close attention to those title pages which are considered,
by those who are judges, to be displayed with true taste and
jitdgment
Authors should endeavor to make their title pages as short
and concise as possible; for a crowded title never can be displayed with elegance or taste.
The dedication generally follows the title, and seldom exceeds
one page. It should be set in capitals and small capitals, dis
played in the manner of a title; but where it extends to r
considerable length, it is generally set in a letter two sizes large,
than the work. There is neither folio nor direction line required
to it, where it does not exceed a page; but if it happens to be
the third pag,e of the sheet, the signature must be inserted. The
French Manual gives very particular directions upon this head:
"When a book is divided by several different titles, we must
give to each division its suitable type. Thus, if we set the
word'Part' in Pica, we should set'Chapter' in Long Primer,
'Article' in Bourgeois, and' Section' in Brevier."- In English
works this does not often occur, but the principle laid down is
very proper. "In Epistles Dedicatory, the name of the person
to whom the work is dedicated, should always be in capitals.
and the terms, Your very humble and very obedient, &c. should
be set in a smaller type, and the signature, or name of the
author, in capitals of a less fount than that in which the name
of the personage to whom dedicated, has been set."
Formerly, the preface was uniformly set in Italic; at present
this plan is seldom adopted, and Roman is used in its stead, of
one size larger than the body of the work. The running title
to the preface is commonly set in the same manner as those oft'
the body of the work, at the same time the folios are put in
numeral letters, beginning with ii over the second page, an.
116
I',
ill'"" 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
continuing the rest in the usual manner. If the work itself was
printed with folios only, then the preface should have them
also in the middle of the line.
The title, dedication, preface, introduction, &c., form what is
called the title sheet; viz. signature A, which makes the printer's
alphabet, consisting of twenty-three letters,* complete; provided
that the body of the work begins with B. To ascertain more
readily how many sheets a book consists of, more than are
marked with signatures in capitals or small capitals, a lower
case Roman a is put to the first sheet, and thus carried on till
the beginning of the body of the work.
What has been observed concerning prefaces, relates equally
to introductions, drawn up and intended to elucidate their
respective works.
The contents follow the preface or introduction, and are
either set in Roman or Italic, generally two sizes smaller than
the body of the work; the first line of each summary full, and
the rest indented an m quadrat, with the referring figures justified at the ends of the respective lines.
The errata are put immediately before the ]idy of the work,
or at the end of it, and should consist only of such corrections
as are indispensably necessary, without noticing any defects in
the punctuation, utnless where the sense is perverted.
It is most devoutly to be wished, that works could issue from
the press perfectly free from errors, which would more likely
be the case were authors to endeavor to render their copy more
legible, before they place it into the hands of the printer. It can
hardly be expected that the corrector, under whose inspection
such a variety of subjects are continually passing, should be
able to enter thoroughly into every one of them, and to guess so
nicely at the author's meaning when the copy is obscure, and
unable to afford him any assistance: besides every form is exposed to accidents which can seldom be detected as it passes
through the hands of the printer; so that every additional proof
may be productive of fresh error.
* It was formerly the custom to omit the letters, J, V, and W, in the
list of signatures. But the greater convenience attending the use of
twenty-five letters has recently induced several of our largest establishmeuts to omit the letter J only.
11
LI
117
t
k 
CHAPTER V.
IMPOSING.
HAVING sufficiently treated, in the preceding chapter, upon the
principal subjects connected with the department of composing,
it next becomes our duty not only to lay schemes of the various
impositions before our readers, but also to endeavor to give a
general outline for the imposition of whatever odd matter there
may be at the conclusion of a work; and likewise to explain, a
as clear a manner as possible, every point connected with this
important branch of the art.
This article not only comprehends a knowledge of placing the
pages so that they may regularly follow each other after they
are printed off, and the sheet folded lip, but also the mode
of dressing chases, and the manner of making the proper
margin.
We will suppose that a compositor has got up as many pages
as are required for a whole sheet, or such portions of a sheet,
of whatever size; he begins to lay them upon the imposing
stone, placing the first page with the signature to the left hand
facing him, according to the following schemes, which, it is
hoped, will be found to contain every necessary imposition;
they consist of folios, quartos, octavos, twelves, sixteens,
eighteens, twenties, twenty-fours, thirty-twos, thirty-sixes,
forties, forty-eights, sixty-fours, seventy-twos, ninety-sixes, and
one hundred and twenty-eights. We have also introduced
schemes for imposing from the centre, by which means the
blank or open pages may be thrown in the centre of the form,
leasing the solid pages on the outside to act as bearers for the
rollers, as well as for the better regulation of the impression.
Schemes of various other irregular sizes might also be introduced, but they could answer no other purpose than that of
pleasing the fancy, by exhibiting the possibility of folding a
sheet of paper into so many different forms.
L
I'n 
TYPOGRAPHIA....  119
Abstract  Title  Deeds  of Estates.
1 
Abstract Title 
Deeds of Estates are
printed with blanks
at the back, with all
'the margi n on the left  
side, and on single
leaves,  which   are 
stitched together  at
the corner..
This method of
imposing the form is
to save  press-wmork
and the compositor's
charge.
A Single Shleet of Folio.
s
Form.
Z
_I    _   _ _
1  1 
fottte7 
A
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---
4
OUtC7
Form,.
11,-i  
120.... TYPOGRAP HIA.
Two Sheets of Folio, Quired,* or lying one in another.
Outer Form of the Outer Sheet.
i-1'll'                          I,
iX              I 1 
~~~~~~~~A 
Outer Form of the Inner Sheet.
I 6
A2
* Imposing in quires may be carried to any extent, by observin
the following rule:-first, ascertain the number of pages, then divide
them into so many sheets of folio, and commence laying down the
two first and two last, which form the first sheet, and so on to the
centre one, always remembering that the odd pages stand on the left,
and the even on the right; the folios of each two forming one more
than the number of pages in the work: for example, let us suppose
the work to consist of thirty-six pages, which is nine sheets of folio
then they should be laid down according to the scheme at the fool
of the opp)site page.
I
I
L 
TYPOGRAPHIA..-. 121
Two ESeets of Folio, Quired, or lying one in another.
Inner Form of the Outer Sheet.
7 ~~~~2
7    1                  1;2  
Hi   iIL
~~~~~~~~~~~~I
Inner Form of the Inner Sheet.
A 5_ 4
0~~~~
O_ t__, a_ ~~~~~~~~~~~ CD o
1  36  35   2, 1st      3  34  33   4, 2d        5  32  31   6 3d
7  30  29   8,4th       9  28  27  10, 5th      11  26  25  12 6th
13  24  23  14,7th    15  22  21  16,8th    17  20  19  18 9th
The furniture must be reduced in the backs of the inner sheets, to
p1low for stitching.
11*
fI
I
I 
122..'.. TYPOGRAPHIA.
A Sheet of Common Quarto.
IOuter            Form.
11I~w___rm.$
I                * U U U E                  U
A.
A Sheet of Quarto, the Broad Way, commonly used
in Works of Music.
IOuter    I    |    Form. 
Ajf
L~    Al      *      ***s __***ss X_~X__
_..$
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TYPOGRAPHIA.    -123
A Sheet of Common Quarto.
Inner            Form.
9
A_
__~~ _
A Sheet of Quarto, the Broad Way, commonly used
in Works of Music.
isv~s~sttt l Zv 
{ Inner;          l Form.
9
7 vs~s~**v*ss*ts 
I
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124.. TYPOGRAPHIA.
Two Half Sheets of Quarto, worked together.
Outer'      Form. 
1    4     I
A A
Half a Sheet of Common Quarto.
I I'
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ar.                  ".II
F. -, 
TYPOGRAPHIA..   125
Two Half Shieets of Quarto, worked together.
F         lt    I  a         Liner   j          Fortn.
I            I*
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Half a Sheet of Quarto, the Broad Way.
---- ----.
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126...TYPOGRAPH1A,
Outer Form of a Sheet of Comnmon Octavo.
i  o 
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Outer Form of a Slheet of Octavo, the Broad Way.
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TYPOGRAPHIA,..129
Inner Form of Two Half Siecets of Octavo.
9          9 I
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Two Quartei's of a Sheet of Octavo, worked together.
I1.........................................11 -........1!l             I    U!_____
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130... TYPOGRAPHIA.
Sheet of Octavo, 12 of the Work, and 4 other Matter.
~~~ Ii
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An 
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Outer Form of a Sheet of Octavo, of Hebrew WTVork.
tl       il          1            Illfy 
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TYPOGRAPH1A....131
Inner Form of Octavo, 12 of the TVork, and 4 other Matter
I!$
'-   $;$1-'111
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Inner Form of a Sheet of Octavo, of Hebrew Work.
I t I  I     i!
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Outer Form of a Sheet of Octavo, Imposed from the Centre.
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A  Half Skeet of Octavo, Imposed from  the Centre.
rI        I,  Ji
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TYPOGRAPHIA..  133
Inner Form of a Sheet of Octavo, Imposed from the Centre
II      I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I
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I
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IF~ssss I~w~ II*ss_ 9s
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136..  TYPOGRAPHIA.
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Half Sheet of Twelves without cutting.
-                 $ _$
T7welves.
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140  *-  rYPOGRAPHIA
Outer Form  of a Sheet of Long  Twelves.
.           -f        l FJ
One third, or 8 pa es of a Sheet of Twelves.
To be imposed as a Slip, or in the Off-cross.
Ai            Outer 
1.
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TYPOGRAPHIA.   141
Inner Form of a Sheet of Long Twelves.
i_.............             
-  I   n ner            F         o
!              -           e~              I
~~~~~~~-. —-,.      I —T_, *
One third, or 8 pages of a Sheet of Twelves.
To be imposed as a Slip, or in the Off-cross.
Ii          | Inner|        lForm.m 
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TYPOGRAPHIA....143
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144... TYPOGRAPHIA.
$U-$       $s          S 
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S__?~ -              1       $ _?   $  $?
* A Sheet of Sixteens, with Two Signatures, is imposed as two sheets
of common octavo, putting the first signature for the one half sheet
where A stands, (fohlio 1), and the first page of the other half sheet in
the place of A 3 (folio 5.)
t
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L.D
I'lS 
TYPOGRAPHIA..-. 145
A Half Sheet of Eighteens.*
Containing 16 pages.
----------— |     So~~ _ s t-$  $ASo
1 i        1 6                                       2|7 I   0  15
F~Js  Har    San  of J                                es.T
A Half Sheet of Eiitteens.t
$| ii $l~li LI | $   S  
ET v                              $ g0,6{$~
sac sews~~~ sE. IT o
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The white paper of this half sheet being worked off, the centre
pages to be transposed; viz. seven and ten in the room of eight and
nine, and pages eight and nine in the place of seven and ten: when
this is done your imposition will be true.
t The white paper of this form being now worked off, the four
lowermost pages in the,entre must be transposed; viz. pages eight
and eleven in the room of seven and twelve, and pages seven and
twelve in the place of eight and eleven; this being done, the sheet
will then fold up right.
will then fold up right.
13*
1
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146... TYPOGRAPHIA.
Outer Form of a Sheet of Eighteens, to befolded together.
5    32 2 9t 8  17!  20 s
iv.....-            18i ig!$11                    lz
of -!               2 91                           2 0
s  ~ $   X                     $$ ss     ~ s 
_@+~~~~~o
,....~,....                              __.~___i.....!__2_...../_
136     25  12$   24
Outer Form of a Sheet of Eighteens, with One Signature.
F....    s..........~:$........
9. I zz; I                      1
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TYPOGRAPHIA..  149
Inner Form of a Sheet of Eighteens, with Two Signatures.
$s I             ~                I   I,.. I...  I      9 8l                     9    H   s t 0 1l
' —',-' —---—'
01 ~~~~~~                9 6   1 8-1
ILne  F or f                   ho2 Eh3 i  T3 s 2
Inner Form of a Sheet of Eighteens, with Three Signatures.
1-l f 1l  a sZv
9 I   01r
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150...TYPOGRAPHIA.
Half Sheet of Eighteens, without Transposztion.*
\\F;   j~Isi                         S
$~~~^^        H1
a. s.s $ eV s FI
Loi $  8   5
s   $  s
I   12   L   L 13      1   42'
$ —i~,__ ii     l,!.....
Half Sheet of Twenties, with Two Signatures.
-----
;. CA     ___ 
........... ----
.....; —-;I,F —. 
S  n[_
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D~Li]~~'       - e,Pm
*To print a half sheet of eighteens without transposition, has long
een considered as impossible; at last a wiseacre made this discovery
t is here given with a view of showing its absurdity! Are three single
eaves preferable to the transposition of four pages? 
ti
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TYPOGRAPHIA.. 151
Inner Form of a Sheet of Twenties.
fl_F
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a_ * { _
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Outer Form of a Sheet of Twenties.
j                                      -: —_                                           _:_
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Outer Form, of a Sheet of Twenty-fours, with Two Sigs.
,  
241  214Fi         21L4 25 I   i 28
. I
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!JI~', 
l*er Form of a $]~eet of    yfous, eitd2 4 1,g1s
Inner Form of a Sheet of Twenlyfours, with Two Sigs.
L~FQiiT\>:I8  8  \F0jq1I ok19jI
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4
L 
TYPIOGRAPHIA.
All odd matter, for whatever sized form, should be divided
into fours, eights, twelves and sixteens, which is the ground  work of all the impositions, except the eighteens, tvhichl differ
from all the others; for instance, sixteens, twenty-fours, and
thirty-twos, are only octavos and twelves doubled, or twice dou  bled, and imposed in half sheets: for example, the sixteens are
two octavos imposed on one side the short cross; thie twenty  fours are two twelves imposed on each side the long cross, and
a thirty-two is four octavos imposed in each quarter of the cliase.
Thuis a sheet may be repeatedly doubled.  By this division, any
form or sheet may be imposed, always bearing in mind, that the
first page of each class must stand to the left hand, when the
foot of the page is towards you, and to the right when the head
of the page is nearest to you. Having set down the first page;
then trace the remainder according to the scheme which applies
to its number; in proof of which, the standard rule for all other
impositions may be adopted; namely, each two pages that come
together, will make one more than the number of pages in the
class or sheet. The first page of any portion can be placed ia
the situation of any odd page, where they make even numbers
It is necessary to make a few observations on the method of
tying up a page, which is done with a piece of strong pack thread
or fine twine, turned four or five times round it, and fastened at
the right hand corner, by thrusting a noose of it between the
several turnings and the matter, with the rule, and drawing it
perfectly tight, taking care always to keep the end of the cord
on the face of the page, and while tying it to keep the fore
finger of the left hand tight on the corner, to prevent the page
from being drawn aside.
The page being tied up, the compositor removes it from the
ledges of the galley, to see if the turns of cord lie about the
middle of the shank of the letter; if they lie too high, as most
commonly they do, he thrusts them lower, and if the page be
not too broad, he places the fore and middle finger of his right
hand, on the off side of the head of the page, and his thumb on
the near; then, bending his other fingers under, presses them
firmly against the head of the page; he next places the fingers
of his left hand in the same position at the foot of the page, and
15*
L
I
I 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
raising it upright, lays it on a page paper; then, with his right
hand he grasps the sides of the page and the paper, which turns
up against the sides of the page, and sets it in a convenient spot
under his frame, placing it on the left hand, with the foot
towards him, that the other pages that are in like manner set
down afterwards, may stand by it in an orderly succession until
he comes to impose them.
If it be a large folio page, or a broadside, he has tied up, lihe
cannot take that into his hands, because it is too broad for his
grasp; therefore he carries his galley and page to the imposing
stone, and turns the handle of the galley towards him, and
taking hold of the handle with his right hand, he places the ball
of the thumb of his left hand against the inside of the head
ledge of the galley, to hold it and keep it steady, and by the
handle draws the slice with the page upon it, out of the galley,
letting the slice rest upon the imposing stone: he then thrusts
the head end of the slice so far upon it, that the foot of the page
may stand an inch or two within the outer edge of the stone,
and placing his left hand against the foot of the page, in the
same posture he last placed it against the head ledge of the
galley, he then draws the slice from under the bottom of the
page.  We shall now return to our subject:  In half sheets, all the pages belonging to the white paper,
and reiteration, are imposed in one chase. So that when a
sheet of paper is printed on both sides with the same form, that
sheet is cut in two in the short cross, if quarto or octavo, and
in the short and long cross, if twelves, and folded as octavo, or
twelves.
When a compositor proceeds to impose, he carefully takes
the pages, which he had previously placed on pieces of paper,
in regular succession, from under his frame: in doing this, the
paper should be tightly grasped on both sides the page, in order
that it may be kept firm to the bottom of the page, whereas if it
should be left slack, the letters will be liable to slip out, unless
it be particularly well tied up; having conveyed it to the stone,
ne next places the two last fingers of his right hand under the
head of the page, but not under the page paper at the head of
it, still grasping thc sides with his fore fingers and thumb; he
170
L
z
I!! 
TYPOGRAPH1A.
then slips his left hand so that the palm of it may turn towards
the bottom; and lifting the page upright on his right hand, he
disengages the left to remove the paper; he next grasps the
foot end of the page with his left hand, in the same manner as
the right holds the head of it, and turning the face of the letter
towards him, lays it nimbly down, so that the whole page may
come in contact'with the face of the stone at one time, thereby
preventing any letters from slipping out, which would endanger the breaking, squabbling, or hanging of the page.
As the foregoing method, particularly in inexperienced or
careless hands, would frequently endanger a page, because,
should it be large, double, or treble columns, or have side notes,
it would be much safer to pursue the following plan, which is
now adopted by many compositors; namely, to provide good
strong, not coarse and rough, page papers, and when the pages
are brought to the stone, instead of lifting them up as just
noticed, they are slided off the papers in the same manner as
before directed respecting a folio page on the slicegalley, being
careful that no particles of dirt remain under the page.
Being sure that our pages are laid down right, we proceed to
dressing of chases, which we will suppose to be for a sheet of
octavo. Accordingly we endeavor to come at a good pair of
chases, that are fellows, as well in circumference as in other
respects; and having laid them over the pages for the two
different forms, we consider the largeness of the paper on
which the work is to be done, and put such gutter-stick between
page and page, and such reglets along the sides of the two
crosses, as will give the book proper margins after it is bound.
The pages of a sheet or half sheet being now laid, our next
business is to arrange the margin, so that each page may
occupy one side of a leaf, and have the proper proportion of
white paper left at the sides, as well as at the head and foot
thereof.  Custom has familiarised us to the printed page being
a little higher than the middle of the leaf, and to its having a
little more margin on the outside than in the back.
In making margin, some use the following method, for
octavos; viz. they measure and mark the width of four pages
by compasses, on a sheet of paper designed for the work,
71
L
LI' 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
beginning to measure at one extremity of the breadth of the
sheet. The rest of the paper they divide into four equal parts,
allowing two-fourths for the width of two separate gutter-sticks;
the remaining two-fourths they divide again into four equal
parts, and allow one-fourth for the margin along each side of
the short cross, and one-fourth for the margin to each outside
page. But because the thickness of the short cross adds considerably to the margin, they reduce the furniture in the back
accordingly, and thereby enlarge the outside margin, which
re(quires the greatest share to allow for the unevenness of the
paper itself, as well as for pressmen laying sheets uneven,
when the fault is not in the paper.  Having thus made the
margin between the pages to the breadth of the paper, they proportion the margin at the head, in the same manner, to the
length, and accordingly measure and mark the length of two
pages, dividing the rest into four parts, whereof is allowed onefourth on each side of the long cross, and one-fourth for the
margin that runs along the foot of the two ranges of pages.
But though each part is counted equal to another, they do not
prove so upon examination; for as in the short cross, so they
lessen the furniture on both sides the long one, to enlarge the
bottom margin, for the same reasons that were assigned for
extending the side margin.
This being the method that is used by some in making margin to octavos, they go the same way to work in twelves, where
their chief care is to fix upon a proper size for the head-sticks;
and, according to them, allow in the following manner: viz.
for the outer margin along the foot of the pages, the amount of
two-thirds of the breadth of the head-sticks, and the same for
the inner margin, that reaches fiom the foot of the fifth page to
the centre of the groove for the points; and from the centre of
that groove to the pages of the quire, or that cut off, they allow
half of the breadth of the head-stick. As to the margin along
the long cross, it is governed by the gutter-sticks; and it is
common to put as much on each side of the long cross as
amounts te half the breadth of the gutter-stick, without deducting almost any thing for the long cross, since that makes
allowance for the inequality of the outer margin.
172
IFL
ill,t 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
Thus much may suffice about making margin the above way;
which is laid down in Smith's Grammar, published in 1755.
We shall now proceed to give the plan adopted by us, which
seems to be much more simple in its arrangement than any we
have noticed in the various works upon this subject. Having
laid our pages as nearly as possible in their proper places on
the stone, with a suitable chase around them, we fold a sheet
of paper which has been wetted for the work, or one of the
same size, into as many portions as there are pages in the
form, and holding the sheet thus folded on the first or left hand
page of the-form, one edge even with the left hand side of the
types, we place the adjoining page so that its left side may be
even with the right hand edge of the folded paper, which will
leave a sufficient space between the two pages to admit the
gutter stick, which should then be selected of a proper width to
suit the form in hand, as follows:-In Octavos, about a Great
Primer less in width than the space between the pages, as
determined by the above rule; in Duodecimos, about a Pica
less; in Sixteens, about a Long Primer, and proportionably
less as the number of pages are increased. Having thus secured
the proper width for the gutter sticks, we cut them according to
the rules laid down for that purpose, and holding one of them
between the two pages above the page cord, close the pages up
to it; we then open our folded sheet so as to cover the two
pages, and bringing the fold in the paper exactly in the middle
of the gutter stick, we secure it there with the point of a penknife or bodkin; the right hand edge of the paper thus opened,
niust be brought to the centre of the cross bar, which determines
the furniture required between it and the pages. Having thus
arranged our margins for the back and fore edge of the book,
we proceed in like manner to regulate the head and foot margins, by bringing the near edge of the folded paper even with
the bottom of the first page, and so placing the adjoining off
page, that its head may be barely covered by the off edge of the
folded paper, which will give the required head margin; all
other sections of the form must be regulated by the foregoing
measurements, when our margins for the whole sheet will be
found correct.
M
173
wL 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
In imposing jobs where two or more of the same size,
requiring equal margins, are to be worked together, we fold our
paper to the size appropriate for each, and so arrange our types,
that the distance from the left side of one page to the left side
of the adjoining one, shall be exactly equal to the width of the
folded paper, as before described.
All that has been said concerning making margin, relates
properly to imposing the first sheet of a work; for after that is
truly dressed, a second, or more sheets, may be dressed with
less trouble; for then we impose from wrought-off forms, where
we have nothing else to do but to put the chase and furniture
about the pages, in the same manner as we take it off the form
we are stripping; after which we untie the pages to make room
for the quoins, which we put to each quarter in the same order
as we take them off the form we impose from.
Having dressed the inside of our pages, we then place side
and foot sticks to their outsides; being thus secured by the
furniture, we next untie them, quarter after quarter, the inner
page first, and then the outer, at the same time forcing the
letter towards the crosses, and using every precaution to prevent the pages from hanging or leaning; and in order to guard
against accidents, when the quarter is untied, we secure it with
a couple of quoins.
By observing a proper method in cutting up new furniture,
the same will be serviceable for other works, as well as the one
for which it is intended, even though the size of the page may
differ, provided it agrees with the margin of the paper. The
gutters should be cut two or three lines longer than the page;
the head-sticks wider; the back furniture may run nearly down
to. the rim of the chase, but must be level with the top of the
pag,e, which will admit of the inner head-stick running in; the
difference of the outer head-stick may go over the side-stick,
and the gutter will then run up between them. The side-stick
only need to be cut exact, and the furniture will completely
justify.
We then proceed to locking up our forms; first carefully
examining whether the pages of each quarter are of an exact
length, for even the difference of a lead will cause them to
174
wL
I 
TYPOGRAPHIIA.
hang. We ascertain their exactness by placing the ball of each
thumb against the centre of the foot-stick, raising it a little with
the pressure, and if the ends of both pages rise equal with the
stick, it is a proof they will not bind; we then fit quoins bettween the side and foot-stick of each quarter and the chase, till
the whole form may be raised. And though locking up a form
may be thought a trifling function, it demands our attention,
nevertheless, in several instances. When we have pushed the
quoins as far as we can, with our fingers, we make use of the
mallet and shooting-stick, and gently drive the quoins along the
foot-sticks first, and then those along the side-sticks, taking care
to use an equal force in our strokes, and to drive the quoins far
enough up the shoulders of the side and foot-sticks, that the
letter may neither belly out one way nor hang in the other; and
as to the lower quoins, they ought to be driven to a station
where they may do the office of keeping the letter straight and
even. And here we may venture to disprove of the custom of
slanting quoins on both sides, and planing their edges and corniers off, whereby all the bevelled-off parts are rendered ineffectual
to do the office of a quoin or wedge; for the slanted side of a
quoin running against the square side of the chase, must needs
carry a cavity with it, and consequently be void of binding with
equal force in every part. As to the edges that are planed off
across the two ends of a quoin, the want of them causes the
shooting-stick to fly off the quoin at almost every hard stroke
of the mallet, because the quoin end of the shooting-stick is
rounded off; for which reason we should choose to have that
end cut to suit the angle of the quoin and imposing stone, when
the stick is held in a proper position.
It often occurs that the quoins, from having been locked up
wet, stick so tight to the furniture as to render it troublesome to
unlock them: in such cases the inconvenience is remedied by
driving the quoin up instead of down, which immediately
loosens it, and it unlocks with ease.
Our form, or forms, being now locked up, and become portable, we remove them to the proof-press, and pull a proof of
them; we then rub them over with a wet lie-brush, put them in
lie rack, and deliver the proof-sheets and copy to the reader.
175
L
r 
CHAPTER VI.
CORRECTORS AND CORRECTING.
IT has ever been the pursuit of eminent printers to aim at
accuracy, by their particular care that the effects of their
profession should appear without faults and errors, not only
with respect to wrong letters and false spelling, but chiefly in
regard to their correcting and illustrating such words and passages as are not fully explained or expressed, or are obscurely
written in the copy. The office of corrector is not to be applied
to one that has merely a tolerable judgment of his mother
tongue, but who has some knowledge of such languages as are
il frequent use, viz. Hebrew, Greek, Latin, French, Italian and
German, and possesses a quick and discerning eye-these are
the accomplishments by which a corrector may raise his own
and his employer's credit; for it is a maxim with booksellers to
give the first edition of a work to be done by such printers
whom they know to be either able correctors themselves, or that
employ fit persons, though not of universal learning, and who
know the fundamentals of every art and science that may fall
under their examination. We say, examination; for in cases
where a corrector is not acquainted with the subject before him,
hlie, together with the person that reads to him, can do no more
than literally compare and cross-examine  the proof by the
original, without altering either the spelling or punctuation;
since it is an author's province to prevent mistakes in such case,
either by delivering his copy very accurate, and fairly written,
or by carefully perusing the proof-sheet.
What is chiefly required of a corrector, besides espying literal
faults, is to spell and point after the prevailing method and
genius of each particular languag,e: but these being two points
that never will be reconciled, but always afford employment for
pedantic critics, every corrector ought to fix upon a method to
spell ambiguous words and compounds always the same way.
L' 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
And that the compositors may become acquainted with and
accustomed to his way of spelling, the best expedient will be to
draw out by degrees, a catalogue of such ambiguous words and
compounds.
As it is necessary that correctors should understand languages,
so it is requisite that they should be acquainted with the nature
of printing, else they will be apt to expose themselves in objecting against several things that are.done according to method
and practice in printing. It is for this reason that correctors, in
most printing-offices, are chosen out of compositors that are
thought capable of that office, and who know how not only to
correct literal faults, but can also discern where improprieties in
workmanship are used, which cannot he expected in gentlemen
who have not a sufficient knowledge of printing; and it would
be very ungenerous in a compositor to swerve from the common
rules in practice, because the corrector is not printer enough to
find fault with it.
Inaccuracy may proceed either from inattention and carelessness in the printer, or else to his non-acquaintance with all
languages, both ancient and modern; also to a deficiency of
knowledge in the arts and sciences, and other abstruse subjects,
wherein technical phrases and terms often occur, which, unless
very distinctly written, may be misunderstood by the most
attentive and accurate corrector.
If attention be paid to right spelling of proper names of persons, places, technical terms, &c. the finishing of sentences
marked by the period, that the author's ideas may not be
misunderstood, and the hand-writing tolerably legible, much
time, and a very considerable expense would be saved, and the
great object of accuracy gained, by gentlemen who communicate their sentiments to the public through the medium of the
press.
16
177
L
I -% 
178      TYPOGRAPHICAL IMARKS EXEMPILIFIED).
1/   THOUGH a variety of opinions exist as to
the individual by whom the art of printing was 9
first discovered; yet all authorities concur in
admitting  Peter Schoeffer to be the  person 3,//
who invented east metal types, having learned
4    the art -g of eutting the letters from the Gut5 (   tembergst  he is also supposed  to have been
6    the first whoengraved on copperAplates.  The /
following testimony is preseved in the family, 8
by  Jo.  Fred. Faustus,  of  Ascheffenburg:              6
0o}-]' Peter Slchoeffer, of  Gernsheim,  perceiving           a.l 4
V  his master Fausts design, and being himself               /
A     1
1       22 desiru         to improve the art, found
out  (by  the good providence  of  God)  the
13
method of cutting'.     the characters   ov~.
in a matrix, that the letters might easily be
5 singly cast  instead of bieng cut.  He  pri- 12,
14 ] vately cut matricesl for the whole alphabet:) 15
-Faust was so pleased with the contrivap:,
/that he promised  i'eter to give him     only 17
I...3
16 /daughter Christina  in  marriage       promise 
/which he soon after performed/
9fi/   But there  were  man"ifculties at first   -   }
/with these letters,    there had been before 3a~y/.
20+  with wooden oS, the metal being too soft3
to support       force of the im pression: but    /
this  decet was  soon  remedied, by mixing 
a stance with the metal which sufficiently Jr. 12
5        e/hardened  it.,'
WSG~~~~y4,,,,,a Ze    7,te   Axs+~ z,Ad
diivJc   c il //-a I/ eoe mecz J aJelI
Ln'  
TYPOGRAPHICAL MARKS EXEMPLIFIED.
THOUGH a variety of opinions exist as to
the individual by whom the art of printing was
first discovered; yet all authorities concur in
admitting PETER SCHOEFFER to be the
person who invented cast metal types, having
learned the art of cutting the letters from the
Guttembergs: he is also supposed to have been
the first who engraved on copper-plates. The
following testimony is preserved in the family,
by Jo. Fred. Faustus, of Ascheffenburg:
'PETER SCHOEFFER, of Gernsheim, perceiving his master Faust's design, and being himself ardently desirous to improve the art, found
out (by the good providence of God) the
method of cutting (incidendi) the characters in
a matrix, that the letters might easily be singly
cast, instead of being cut.  He privately cut
,nwtrices for the whole alphabet: and when he
showed his master the letters cast from these
matrices, Faust was so pleased with the con trivance, that he promised Peter to give him
his only daughter Christina in marriage, a
promise which he soon after performed. But
there were as many difficulties at first with
these letters, as there had been before with
wooden ones, the metal being too soft to sup port the force of the impression: but this defect
was soon remedied, by mixing the metal with
a substance which sufficiently hardened it.'
.79 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
EXPLANATION OF THE CORRECTIONS.
A WRONG letter in a word is noticed by drawing a short per  pendicular line through it, and making another short line in the
margin, behind which the right letter is placed. (See No. 1.)
In this manner whole words are corrected, by drawing a line
across the wrong word, and making the right one in the mar gin, opposite the faulty line.
A turned letter is noticed by drawing a line through it, and
the mark No. 2 in the margin. If a corrector is not able to dis tinguish such turned letters as have a resemblance to others, it
is much better to mark such letters in the margin.
If letters or words are to be altered from one character to
another, a parallel line or lines should be made underneath the
word or letter, viz. for capitals, three lines; small capitals, two
lines, and Italic, one line: and write in the margin opposite the
line where the alteration occurs,  Caps, Snall Caps, or Ital.
(See No. 3.)
When letters or words are set double, or are required to be
taken out, a line is drawn through the superfluous word or
letter, and the mark No. 4, placed opposite in the margin.
Where the punctuation requires to be altered, the colon,
and  period, if marked  in the margin, should  be encircled.
(See No. 5.)
Where a space is wanting between two words or letters
which are to be separated, a caret must be made where the
separation ought to be, and the sign, No. 6, placed opposite in
the margin.
No. 7 describes the manner in which the hyphen and ellipsis
line are marked.
Should a letter have been omitted, a caret is put at the place,
and the letter marked as No. 8.
Where words or letters that should join are separated, or
when a line is too wide spaced, the mark No. 9, must be placed
under it, and the junction signified by that in the margin.
Where a new paragraph is required, a quadrangle is drawn
in the margin, and a caret placed at the beginning of the sentence. (See No. 10.)
.84
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TYPOGRAPHIA
No. 11 shows the way in which the apostrophe, inverted
commas, the star, and other references and superior letters and
figures are marked.
Where two words are transposed, the word placed wrong
should be encircled, and the mark No. 12 placed in the margin:
but where several words require to be transposed, their right
order is signified by a figure placed over each word, and the
mark, No. 12, in the margin.
Where words have been struck out that have afterwards
been approved of, dots should be marked under such words,
and in the margin write Stet. (See No. 13.)
Where a space sticks up between two words, a horizontal
line is drawn under it, and the mark, No. 14, placed opposite,
in the margin.
Where several lines or words are added, they should be
written at the bottom of the page, and a line drawn from the
place where the insertion begins, to those lines or words. (See
No. 15.) But if more is added than can be contained at the
foot of the page, write in the margin, Out, see copy, and enclose
the omission between brackets, and insert the word Out, in the
margin of the copy.
Where letters or lines stand crooked, they are noticed by
drawing lines before and after them; but where a page hangs,
lines are drawn across the entire part affected. (See No. 16.)
When a smaller or larger letter, of a different fount, is improperly introduced into the page, it is noticed by the mark,
No. 17, which signifies wrong fount.
If a paragraph is improperly made, a line should be drawn
from the broken-off matter to the next paragraph, and write in
the margin, No ~.  (See No. 18.)
Where a word or words have been left out, or are to be
added, a caret must be made in the place where they are in
tended to come in, and the word or words written in the margin.
(See No. 19.)
Where a faulty letter appears, it is marked by making a cross
under it, and placing a similar one in the margin, though some
prefer to draw a perpendicular line through it as in the case of
a wrong letter. (See No. 20.)
16*
181
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
CORRECTING IN THE METAL.
BY correcting, we understand the rectifying of such faults,
omissions, and repetitions, as are made by the compositor, either
through inadvertency or carelessness. And though the term of
corrections is equally given to the alterations that are made by
authors, it would be more proper to distinguish them by the
lame of emendations; notwithstanding it often happens, that
after repeatedly mending the matter, the first conceptions are at
last recalled: for the truth thereof none can be better vouchers
than compositors, who often suffer by fickle authors that know
no end to making alterations, and at last doubt whether they
are right or wrong; whereby the work is retarded, and the compositor greatly prejudiced in his endeavors; especially where he
is not sufficiently satisfied for spending his time in humoring
such whimsical gentlemen.
Correcting is the most disagreeable part of a compositor's
business, attended not only with loss of time, but great fatigue,
from leaning over the stone, and is therefore extremely prejudicial to health. To avoid this we recommend silence, and
attention when at work. The noise and confusion which too
often prevail in a printing-office, from light and frivolous conversation, not only retard business, but at the same time distract
the attention of the compositor from the subject he has in hand,
and cause him to run into such mistakes as can only be rectified
by loss of time, and fatigue at the imposing stone. Some men,
no doubt, are capable of supporting a conversation, and at the
same time compose correctly, but their noise must confuse
those who are unable to preserve that accuracy but in quiet,
and by close attention to their copy. The press-room should,
it possible, be separated from the composing-room, as the pressmen are generally discussing some important topic, and are
less liable to feel the inconvenience of much talking.
The first proof should merely contain the errors of the compositor, but it too frequently happens that the corrector heightens
them by his peculiarities; when this is unnecessarily done, it is
an act of injustice to the compositor: it is sufficient for him to
rectify such mistakes as arise either from inattention or want
182
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
of judgment.  By the term, "want of judgment," we beg not
to be understood as including the alteration of points, that being
a subject which can never be reconciled: the compositor ought
not to suffer from the caprice of a reader, in altering commas
and semicolons in the first proof (unless the sense is perverted,)
which he not unfrequently re-alters in the second, from a doubt
upon his mind which would be the most proper points to be
adopted.
We certainly agree, in conjunction with all our contemporaries, with the necessity for the immediate correction of proofs
by the compositor; still we  consider that we should not have
performed our duty, (according to our original intention,) were
we to urge an ex parte case, when a similar injunction is equally
incumbent on both parties. Ought not the reader or overseer to
be equally as punctual in despatching the proofs in his department?  Can it reasonably be expected that the compositor will
feel that inclination to forward his proof, when he knows that
the reader will not equally assist him?
Should a compositor have transposed two or more pages,
either from a mistakle in the folios, or any other cause, he must
then unlock such quarter or quarters, and loosening the cross
or crosses from the furniture, he next lifts the chase and the
remaining quarters off the stone; should he have furniture
sufficient round each page, he may move them into their proper stations by pressing the balls of his thumbs and fingers
against the furniture at the head, foot, and sides of each page:if the letter be small, it will be advisable to wet the pages,
because few imposing stones are horizontal, or so steady that
they will not shake when touched, or by the motion of the floor,
occasioned either by persons walking, or the dragging of forms.
Should a compositor find that his pages hang, he must unlock
that quarter or quarters, and pat the face of the type with the
balls of his fingers, and so twist it, until he gets it into a square
position.
When a compositor unlocks his form, he should be careful
not to leave the unlocked quoins too slack, as the force neces sary to loosen the others may either squabble the matter, or
occasion it to hang.
183
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
A compositor should possess the following requisites before
he begins to correct   "What is required of a compositor when he goes about cor recting a foul proof, is a sharp bodkin and patience, because
without them the letter cannot escape suffering by the steel;
and hurrying will not permit him to justify the lines true. No
wonder, therefore, to see pigeon-holes in one place, and pi in
another."'
It is too well known to all compositors, the delay and incon
venience (not to say actual loss,) which they daily suffer from
the want of a regular despatch of proofs; it is not for us to say
whether it arises from an overpressure of business, or whatever
cause; but this we can state, (having not only repeatedly witnessed it, but also greatly suffered firom it ourselves,) that there
are some overseers who do not give themselves the least concern about reading proofs, (provided the work is not in a particular hurry) as long as the compositor can rake together more
letter to make up: at length, being run out of sorts, he is necessitated to press for his proofs, and should the reader then have
leisure, he probably receives the whole of them as fast as he
can correct, which is very much to his disadvantage in two
points of view:-first, he has to perform a disagreeable task,
which takes longer time than if he had received them as they
were imposed, because much correcting fatigues, and makes a
mtnan careless, that would otherwise have done his workl snore
justice: secondly, should his proofs turn out foul, and take up
*.In proof of the trouble and inconvenience to which compositors are
mot unfreoluently subjected, we present the reader with the  following
epitaph, which, no doubt, was written by a Typo, while performing the
most disagreeable task attendant on his profession:
"No more shall copy bad perplex my brain,
No more shall type's small face my eye-balls strain;
No more the proofs foul page create me troubles,
By errors, transpositions, outs, and doubles:
No more my head shall ache from author's whims,
As overrunnings, driving-outs, and ins;
The surly pressman's frown I now may scoff,
Revised, corrected, finally wrought off."
184 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
a considerable time, his bill for that week must be greatly
diminished, as few men make allowance from their week's
earnings, for the corrections which may occur in the following
one. We ever shall contend, be the station of the parties
what it may, high or low, rich or poor, for "equal rights, and
equal laws."
When the compositor has as many corrections between the
thumb and fore-finger of his left hand as he can conveniently
hold, or in his composing-stick, beginning at the bottom of the
page, in order that they may follow regularly; and an assortment
of spaces on a piece of paper, or, what is more convenient, in
a small square box, with partitions in it, let him take the bodkin in his right hand, and instead of raising each letter he may
have to alter, he should place the point of the bodkin at one
end of the line, and with the fore-finger of his left hand against
the other, raise the line altogether, sufficiently high to afford
him a clear view of the spacing; he may then change the faulty
letter, and alter his spacing before he drops the line. By observing this method, he will not injure the type, which must be
the case where the bodkin is forced either into their sides or
heads; it likewise ensures a greater degree of regularity where
there may be occasion to alter the spacing, and will not take up
more time than the-other method.
In tables, and such like matter, where rules prevent the lines
from being raised, as just noticed, the letters must be then drawn
up by the bodkin; this is done by the compositor holding the
latter fast in his right hand, with the blade between his forefinger and thumb, within about half an inch or three quarters
of the point, thus guiding it steadily to the faulty letter, he
sticks the point of the bodkin into the neck of the letter, between
the beard and the face, and thus draws it up above the other
types, so that he can take it out with the fore-finger and thumb
of his left hand. In performing this operation, as small an
angle as possible should be made with the blade of the bodkin,
-Liz. it should be kept as flat as possible to the face'of the type,
out he blade of the bodkin should not touch any of the surraunding neighbors of the faulty letter, as the slightest graze
imaginable must injure their face, and consequently they will
Li
185 
TYPOCGRAPHIA.
appear imperfect in the next proof, when he will have the
trouble of altering them, and his employer suffers the loss of
his type; we are again brought to the union of interest between
the parties.
The reason why the bodlkin blade should be kept flat to the
form is, because a small horizontal entrance of its point into the
neck of the letter, will raise it above the face of the form; but
should the bodkin be held nearly upright, it would not have
sufficient purchase to draw the letter up, because the weight of
the type and its close confinement, would have greater power
than the sharp point of the steel. By pressing sideways, the
bodkin blade acts as a lever, even though it has no other purchase than merely the slight motion of the hand.
The most careful compositor cannot at all times avoid leaving
a word or words out, or composing the same word twice;
when this happens, he should consider the best mode of rectifying the accident, by driving out or getting in, either above
the error or below it; this ascertained, let the matter be taken
into a galley, and overrun in the composing-stick: overrunning
on the stone is an unsafe, unworkmanlike, and dilatory method,
destroys the justification, and renders the spacing uneven.
One of our predecessors gives the following:  "But a great deal of trouble might be saved in cases of outs
and doubles, would correctors try to add as much as will fill up
the double, or to shorten the matter, to make room for an out;
unless both the one and the other are too considerable for that
expedient; which otherwise might be safely ventured, without
either castrating or corrupting a writer's meaning. This would
be a sure means to secure a neat compositor's workmanship,
and care in true spacing his matter; whereas that beauty is lost
by alterations and overrunning."
In correcting, care should be taken not to hair-space a line,
if it can possibly be prevented, but avoid it by overrunning
either back or forward. He should also in overrunning the
matter, use the division as little as possible; for though he may
carefully follow the instructions laid down in this work, on the
subject of spacing and dividing, yet the effect of his attention
will be completely destroyed, if not followed un at the stone.
186
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
The following observation has been made with respect to the
despatch of proofs:  "The first proof being corrected, a perfect sheet is pulled
clean, to be sent to the author, or to the person by him authorised; either of whom, if they understand the nature of printing,
will not defer reading the sheet, but return it without  any
alteration perhaps, to be made ready for the press. But because
such good authors are very scarce, compositors are discouraged
every time they send a proof away, not knowing when or how
.it may be returned, and how many times more it will be wanted
to be seen again, before the author is tired, or rather ashamed,
of altering."
,tlgIllllpllil~ii   |
~~~~~~   ~~~~~~~~~~ \~ 
Ye Authors list! we must a tale unfold
Which, doubtless, some of you have oft been told,
You little dream how much poor Typo's vex'd,
When with bad copy his mind's sore perplex'd;
Nor is this all, he still has cause to dread
The Reader's gall, when first his proof is read;
Corrected now, to you'tis strait convey'd,
And in a trice the greatest havoc's made;
The proofs return'd-the Chapel's members all
Rush to the stone, obedient to his call,
Aloud they roar-enough to strike him dead,
"A mob, a mob, th' riot act m,tst be read!"
Ihis grief to soothe-they, sympathising, bawl,
"Patience and a sharp bodkin cures all!"
His form, with heavy heart, he then lays up
His orm,withheay   her,hetelfy p,
And letters seeks, which fills his bitter cup:
How often, when correcting at the stone,
He's prayed for you, while breaking his breast-bone,
Reflect, when next you wield your potent quills,
A:id spare the printer all these dreaded ills;
Revl se, transcribe, and make your copy right,
'Thu save his labor and his precious sight-!
187
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I-11,, 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
THE DEPARTMENT OF A READER.
IHAVING just given an account of the nature of correcting, and
the duties of a corrector, we deem it not improper, considering
the vast importance of this branch of our profession, to enter
somewhat more minutely into the subject.
When it is considered how much the credit of our art, and
the general interest of literature depend on the grammatical
accuracy and typographical correctness of our labors, it will
readily appear that a careful and steady Reader must be indisnensable in every printing office. We shall therefore detail the
business and qualifications requisite to form such a reader, or
corrector of the press, as can alone save the typographic art
from degenerating into one of those ordinary occupations that
require only the mechanical operation of the fingers, to form a
perfect and complete workman.
It is always desirable that a reader should have been previously brought up a compositor. By his practical acquaintance
with the mechanical departments of the business, he will be
better able to detect those manifold errata which, unperceived
by the mere man of learning and science, lie lurking, as it
were, in a thousand different forms, in every sheet; and, if
overlooked, evince a carelessness and inattention to our labors,
that must always offend the just taste and professional discernment of all true lovers of correct and beautiful typography.
Some of the principal imperfections which are most easily
observed by the man of practical knowledge in the art of printiPg, are the following: viz. imperfect and wrong-founted, or
inverted letters, particularly the lower-case n, o, s, and the u;
awkward and irregular spacing; uneven pages or columns; a
false disposition of the reference marks; crookedness in words
and lines; bad making-up of matter; erroneous indention, &c.
These minutice, which are rather imperfections of workmanship, than literal errors, are apt to be overlooked and neglected
by those readers who have no idea of the liability there is, even
with the most careful compositor, occasionally to fall into them.
It is desirable that a reader should have been brought up a
compositor, because the imperfections above enumerated may
188
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
not be observed by one who is not practically acquainted with
every department of the art. Nevertheless, long and frequent
habits of reading proof-sheets for the press, a quick eye, and a
steady mind, will certainly enable a person, though not a com positor, to detect those minor deviations from correctness, which
the inexperienced and the careless are apt to overlook. But
while these habits are acquiring, without which no person can
be safely entrusted to read a sheet for press, the labors of the
printer are liable to go forth into the world in a manner that
will reflect discredit on the employed, and give offence to the
employer. This observation equally refers to those readers
who have previously been compositors. No form, therefore,
ought to be put to press, until it has been read and revised by
an experienced reader.
But even habit itself is not sufficient to form a competent
reader, unless he possess those literary qualifications which are
obviously necessary in an employment of this nature. No one
should undertake this arduous task, until he has made himself
a complete master of, at least, his native language.
A reader ought to be well versed in all the peculiarities of the
English tongue-its idioms, its true genius, and singular adaptation to that variety of expression in which we embody our
thoughts, and portray the human intellect. Instances will frequently occur, particularly in large printing-offices, where a
knowledge of this nature and extent will be almost indispensable. Many, even of our first-rate authors, are too apt, in
the warmth of discussion, the flights of speculation, and the
laborious exercise of the thinking powers, to pass over, unobserved, those deviations from pure diction and strict grammatical
accuracy, which they have imperceptibly acquired the habit of
falling into, by their ordinary conversation with mankind.
Although no corrector of the press can strictly be required to
do otherwise than tofollow his copy, that is, faithfully to adhere
to the original, with all its defects, yet every one must perceive,
that it would often be performing a friendly, and perhaps a
charitable service, to point out, in proper time, imperfections
and mistakes which have escaped the observation of a quick or
voluminous writer. This remark will, however, chiefly apply
.N                  17
189
LN
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
to inaccurate orthography, and glaring instances of erroneous
syntax. With the spirit, the opinions, the whims of an author,
no corrector of the press has any business to interfere. Some
writers, after all the labors of the printer, and the skill of the
reader, are doomed to make their appearance before the world
with many "imperfections on their heads," are condemned to
bear the contumely, and face the broad eye of an unrelenting
critic.
We shall conclude this part of our subject by remarking, that
a reader ought not to be of a captious or pedantic turn of mind:
the one will render his situation and employment extremely
unpleasant, and the other will tempt him to habits destructive
of that consistency of character in his profession, which he
ought ever scrupulously to maintain. It too frequently happens, that when a compositor is called from his frame, and is
appointed to fill the situation of a reader, and is admitted into
the sanctum,* much less the sanctum sanctorum,t that he considers the importance of his station has placed him above the
rank of his former associates: and they, on the other hand,
conceive that he still is, (literally) but as one of themselves;
because both hold their situations by the same tenure, namely,
a supply of business and good conduct: consequently it behoves
them so to acquit themselves, that they may retain the esteem
of their fellow workmen, lest they should unfortunately be
forced into the ranks,+ when they would be continually upbraided for their improper conduct. Should a compositor have
a foul proof, either from inabilitv or carelessness, the reader
often taunts him with it: the compositor very aptly replies,
"if we could compose without faults, there would be no necessity for proof readers!" We have known instances of such
readers, when at case, not possessing half the ability of the
compositors whom they wish to hold up to derision; and who
committed equally as many errors when composing! Let such
men reflect on this, "He that is without fault, let him cast the
first stone."
*Technical term for the reader's room.
t Do. overseer or emnployer's room.
t Technically applied to compositors in their frames
190
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TYPOGRAPH1A.
We should always preserve a strict uniformity in the use of
capitals, in orthography, and punctuation. Nothing can be
more vexatious to an author, than to see the words honour,
fhvour, &c. spelt with, and without the u.  This is a discrepancy which correctors ought studiously to avoid. The above
observations equally apply to the capitaling of noun-substantives, &c. in one place, and the omission of them in another.
However the opinions of authors may differ in these respects,
still the system of spelling, &c. must not be varied in the same
work: but whatever authority is selected should be strictly adhered to, whether it be Walker, or any of his contemporaries.
Such being the qualifications of a reader, it will not be improper to glance at the application of those attainments, by
exhibiting the process which proof-sheets ought to undergo
before they are put to press.
When a first proof is pulled, the compositor who imposed
the sheet, ought to collect and arrange the copy, and deliver
both to the reader, who then calls his reading-boy, to read the
copy aloud to him. This boy should be able to read any copy
put into his hands with ease and distinctness; he should be instructed not to read too fast, but to pay the same attention to
the subject, as though he were reading for his amusement or
edification.  Tlte eye of the reader should not follow, but rather
precede the voice of the boy; accustomed to this mode, he will
be able to anticipate every single word in the copy; and should
a word or sentence happen to have been omnitted in the proof,
his attention will the more sensibly be arrested by it, when he
hears it pronounced by his reading-boy. He ought to be careful
lest his eyes advance too far before the words of the boy; because in his attention to the author's meaning, he will be apt to
read words in the proof which do not actually appear there,
and the accuracy of the reading-boy will but tend to confirm
him in the mistake.
The proof being read with the reading-boy, the signatures,
head-lines, titles, and folios of each page should be most carefully examined; and the number (if more than one) of the
volume, signature, and prinma of the ensuing sheet, accurately
marked on the margin of the copy, and a bracket made between
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
the last word of that and the first of the next sheet, in order
that the compositor, should he not have composed beyond
the sheet, may know where to begin, without having the trouble
of referring, either to the proof or the form, and the reader will
be certain that the commencement is right when he gets the
succeeding sheets-this prevents unnecessary trouble both to
the reader and compositor.
Before the proof is sent to the compositor to be corrected in
the metal, an entry should be made in a book, according to the
following plan:
Date of  Signa-                                              Read for
reading.  t-res.      Names of Works.       Sent out. Returned  press.
1851.                                        1851.   1851.   ]851.
May 2   11   Decorative Printing,..   May 2  May 4  May 5
4   82   Physiognomical Portraits,           4       5        6
6   20    Typographia........              7        8       8
7    2   Musical Library,....            8       9       9
-_ 
This account being attended to at the different stages of each
proof-sheet, will enable the reader to furnish the employer or
overseer with an exact account of the state of each work, without trouble or inconvenience.
After the compositors have corrected the errors in the form,
a clean proof is pulled, which with the first proof, is again
handed to the reader, or overseer; whose duty it is to collate
the corrected sheet with the one before read, in order to ascertain if the corrections have been properly made, and that others
have not been created in the process; and in the case of a reprint, or where the author is not to examine the proof, he then
proceeds to read it very carefully for press.
There are many compositors whose proofs are so foul, that it
is almost an impossibility for them to correct all the marks at
one time, consequently it is indispensable to have a second
proof corrected before it can be sent out; and it not unfrequently happens that compositors, in the course of correcting,
either transpose a letter or word, or else alter a letter in a word
that is not marked, thereby not only leaving one error uncor
192 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
rected, but also making another: likewise, when the line is
raised to change the spaces, it often happens that some of them
get transposed. Consequently it is absolutely necessary, in revising a proof, that the reader should not only look at the word
larked, but he ought also to glance his eyes across every line
in which an alteration had been made.
In those offices where more than one reader is employed, it
is advisable that a proof-sheet should be read over by at least
two of them; because the eye, in traversing the same ground,
is very liable to be drawn into mistake and oversight. The
interest having abated which was excited by the first reading, a
certain degree of listlessness imperceptibly steals upon the
mind, which greatly endangers  the correctness of a proof.
Should outs or doubles occur in a proof, it ought to be again
read by copy, to prevent any improper connection in the overrunning, either by the insertion or removal of them.
Although we recommend the propriety of proofs being examined by more than one reader, yet we beg to be understood
as not admitting each reader to the privilege of altering the
punctuation; this duty should be exclusively confined to one
individual, as no two men point alike, nor will a subject always
appear to a person in the same light upon a second or third
reading; consequently where a compositor is liable, in this particular, to the whim or caprice of several readers, it is neither
more nor less than the taking of so much money out of his
pocket, because his valuable time is unnecessarily frittered
away: nor is this the only evil, the employer not only has the
work retarded, but also his types injured, as well as the liability
of creating fresh errors, &c.
Stower concludes with these observations:
"It may not be improper, in this place, just to take notice of
the great danger to the correctness of a work which arises from
the practice, too common with some authors, of keeping their
proof-sheets too long in their hands, before they are returned to
the printer. As the pages in the metal get dry, the adhesion of
the types to each other is weakened, and the swell or extension
of the quoins and furniture, which the moisture had occasioned,
is removed; so that there is great danger of letters falling out,
17*
193 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
when a form is long kept from the press.  Nor is the danger
which is hereby occasioned to correctness the only inconvenience; the impatience of authors to see their works in a fit state
for publication is almost proverbial. The pleasure arising from
beholding, as it were, the'form and texture' of one's thoughts,
is a sensation much easier felt than described. That authors,
therefore, may partake of this pleasure in a speedy and regular
succession, they should make a point of forwarding their proofsheets to the printer as quick as possible, not only that they
may the sooner be got ready for press, but that the work may
proceed in a regular manner, without being interrupted by the
forwarding of other works in lieu of that, the proof-sheets of
which are detained beyond the proper time in the hands of the
author.
"Authors are very apt to make alterations, and to correct
and amend the style or arguments of their works, when they
first see them in print. This is certainly the worst time for
this labor, as it is necessarily attended with an expense which
in large works will imperceptibly swell to a serious sum;
when, however, this method of alteration is adopted by an
author, the reader must always be careful to read the whole
sheet over once more with very great attention, before it is
finally put to press.
"A proof-sheet having duly undergone this routine of purgation, may be supposed to be as free from errata as the nature
of the thing will admit, and the word' Press' may be written
at the top of the first page of it. This is an important word to
every reader: if he have suffered his attention to be drawn
aside from the nature of his proper business, and errors should
be discovered when it is too late to have them corrected, this
word' Press' is as the signature of the death-warrant of his
reputation. A reader, therefore, should be a man of one business-always upon the alert-all eye-all attention. Possessing
a becoming reliance on his own powers, he should never be too
confident of success. Imperfection clings to him on every
side!-Errors and mistakes assail him from every quarter! His
business is of a nature that may render him obnoxious to blame,
but can nardlv be said to bring him in any very large stock of
194
Lu
w 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
praise. If errors escape him he is justly to be censured-for
perfection is his duty! If his labors are wholly free from mistake-which is, alas! a very rare case-he has done no more
than he ought, and consequently can merit only a comparative
degree of commendation, in that he had the good fortune to be
more successful in his labors after perfection, than some of his
brethren in the same employment."
The form being finally laid on the press, and a Revise pulled
by the pressman, he sends it to the overseer, who carefully
casts his eyes along the sides and heads of the respective pages,
to observe whether any letter should have fallen out, any crookedness have been occasioned in the locking up of the form, any
battered letters, or any bite from the frisket. Should the revise
prove faultless, he returns it to the pressman with the word
Revise written on the margin; if otherwise, to the compositor
to whom the form belongs, whose duty it is to see it immediately corrected.
MATHEMATICAL, ALGEBRAICAL, AND GEOME               TRICAL CHARACTERS.
+ plus, or more, is the sign of real existence of the quantity
it stands before, ahd is called an affirmative or positive sign.  It;
is also the mark of addition: thus, a + b, or 6 + 9, implies
that a is to be added to b, or 6 added to 9.
-  minus, or less, before a single quantity, is tne sign of
negation, or negative existence, showing the quiantity to which
it is prefixed to be less than nothing. But between quantities
it is the sign of subtraction: thus, a-b, or 8-4, implies b subtracted from a, or 8 after 4 has been subtracted.
= equal.  The sign of equality, though Des Cartes and some
others use this mark) o; thus a = b, signifies that a is equal
to b.  Wolfius and some others use the mark = for the identity
of ratios.
X into or with. The sign of multiplication, showing that
the quantities on each side the same are to be multiplied by one
another, as a X b is to be read, a multiplied into b; 4 X 8, the
product of 4 multiplied into 8. Wolfius and others make the
195
't 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
sign of multiplication a dot between the two factors; thus, 7.4,
signifies the product of 7 and 4. In algebra the sign is commonly omitted, and the two quantities put together; thus, b d
expresses the product of b and d. When one or both of the
factors are compounded of several letters, they are distinguished
by a line drawn over them; thus, the factum of a +  b- c into
d, is wrote d X a +  b-  c.  Leibnitz, Wolfius, and others, distinguished the compound factors, by including them in a parenthesis; thus, (a+b-c) d.
by.  The sign of division; thus a -b denotes the quantity
a to be divided by b. Wolfius makes the sign of division two
dots; 12: 4 denotes the quotient of 12 divided by 4-=3. If either
the divisor, or dividend, or both, be composed of several letters,
for example, a.. b  c, instead of writing the quotient like a
fraction.
. involution. The character of involution
vv evolution. The character of evolution, or the extracting
of roots.
7 or c are signs of majority; thus, a 7 b, expresses that a
is greater than b.
Z or'   are signs of minority; when we would denote that
a is less than b.
n is the character of similitude used by Wolfius, Leibnitz,
anda others.  It is used in other authors for the difference between;wo quantities, while it is unknown which is the greater
of the two.
:: so is.  The nark of geometrical proportion disjunct, and is
usually placed between two pair of equal ratios, as 3: 6:: 4: 8,
shews that 3 is to 6 as 4 is to 8.
: or. -. is an arithmetical equal proportion; as, 7.3: 13.9:
i.e. 7 is more than 3, as 13 is more than 9.
[I Quadrat, or regular quadrangle, as follows: 0 AB - -
BC; i. e. the quadrangle upon the line AB is equal to the quadrangle upon the line BC.
b Triangle; as, A ABC- A ADC.
Z an Angle; as Z ABC= Z ADC.
J Perpendicular; as, AB J_ BC.
O Rectangled Parallelogram, or the product of two lines.
Y~.
196
.i 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
I The character of parallelism.
V equiangular, or similar.
. equilateral.
c right angle.
0 denotes a degree; thus 450 implies 45 degrees.
a minute; thus, 50', is 50 minutes:,, ", denotes
seconds, thirds, and fourths: and the same characters are used
where the progressions are by tens, as it is here by sixties.
. the mark of geometrical proportion continued, implies the
ratio to be still carried on without interruption, as 2, 4, 8, 16,
32, 64.-H are in the same uninterrupted proportion.
/ irratio?ality.  The character of a surd root, and shows,
according to the index of the power that is set over it, or after
it, that the square, cube, or other root, is extracted, or to be extracted; thus, V  16, or /2 16, or / (2) 16, is the square root
of 16.'y 25, the cube root of 25, &c.
-: the differences, or excess.
Q or q, a square.
C or c, a cube.
Q Q, The ratio of a square number to a square number.
These and several other signs and symbols, we meet with in
mathematical and algebraical works; though authors do not
confine themselves to them, but express their knowledge in
different ways, yet so as to be understood by those skilled l,
the science. In algebraical works, therefore, in particular, gentlemen should be very exact in their copy, and compositors as
careful in following it, that no alterations may ensue after it is
composed; since changing and altering work of this nature is
more troublesome to a compositor than can be imagined by one
that has not a tolerable knowledge of printing. Hence it is that
very few compositors are fond of algebra, and rather choose to
be employed upon plain work, though less profitable to them
than the former; because it is disagreeable, and injures the
habit of an expeditious compositor besides. In the mean time
we venture to say, that the composing of algebra might be
made more agreeable were proper cases contrived for the letter
and sorts belonging to such work, where it is likely to make a
return towards its extraordinary charges.
197
It —2 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
CELESTIAL AND ASTRONOMICAL SIGNS.
The twelve Signs of the Zodiac.
Q  Leo,         I          Sagittarius,
T  Virgo,       I         Capricorn,
Libra,          I' Aquarius,
M  Scorpio,             )  Pisces.
The Nine Planets.
U  Mercurius,
4i J  Georgium
Sidus,
D  Ceres,
2 Pallas,
Seven of the Planets sometimes imply the seven days of the week.
Dies Solis-Sunday,                 Dies Jercurii-Wednesday,
Dies Luncr-Monday,                 Dies Jovis-Thursday,
Dies Jlartis-Tuesday,              Dies Veneris-Friday,
Dies Satunti-Saturday.
The dragon's Head, or ascending node, and
The Dragon's Tail, or descending node, are the two points
in which the eclipses happen.
The Aspects.
d Conjunctio; happens when two planets stand under each
other in the same sign and degree.
( Oppositio; happens when two planets stand diametrically
opposite each other.
A Trigonus; happens when one planet stands from another
four signs, or 120 degrees; which make one-third part of the
ecliptic.
o Quadril; happens when two planets stand three signs
from each other, which make 90 degrees, or the fourth part of
the ecliptic.
* Sextil; is the sixth part of the ecliptic, which is two signs,
and make 60 degrees.
e New Moon.                        Full Moon.
G  First quarter.                D Last quarter.
198
T Aries,
6 Taurus,
II Gemini,
S Cancer,
T2 Saturnus,
4 Jupiter,
8 Mars,
(D Earth,
Y Venus,
Juno,
A Vesta,
0 Sun,
0 Moon.
vL 
TYPOGRPAPHIA.
Many are the signs and symbols which astronomers have
invented to impose upon the credulity of the vulgar, who are
the chief supporters of almanacs; and especially of such as
abound in predictions of any kind: among which we reckon
those signs which give notice, on what day it is proper to let
blood; to bathe and to cup; to sow and to plant; to take
physic; to have one's hair cut; to cut one's nails; to wean
children; and many other alike nonsensical observations, to
which the lower class of people are particularly bigoted; besides giving credit to the marks that serve to indicate hail,
thunder, lightning, or any occult phaenomena.
PHYSICAL SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS.
R stands for Recipe, or Take.
a, aa, of each a like quantity.
i a pound.
an ounce.
3 a drachlim.
3 a scruple.
j stands for 1; ij for 2, and so on.
f5 signifies semi, or half.
gr. denotes a grain.
One pound makes 12 ounces.
One ounce contains 8 drachms.
a
One drachm is equal to 3 scruples.
One scruple consists of 20 grains.
One grain has the weight of a barley-corn.
P. stands for particztla, a little part, and means so much as
can be taken between the ends of two fingers.
P.,eq. stands for partes cequales, or equal parts.
q. s. qualttuti sufficit, or as much as is sufficient.
q. p. quantunm placit, or as much as you please.
s. a. secundean arlent, or according to art.
199 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
OF GREEK AND HEBREW.
GREEK.
GREEK is more frequently used in printing than the other
peculiar characters; it is, therefore, necessary for every respectable printing-office to be furnished with that type, though not to
any great amount of weight, as a quantity sufficient to serve
for quotations, notes, mottos, &c. may be contained in a pair of
cases, by dividing some of the boxes of the upper case for the
accents, and omitting useless letters, ligatures, and abbreviations.
This was impracticable when ligatures and abbreviations were
in use, for then seven hundred and fifty boxes were required for
the different sorts in a fount of Greek. The inducement to the
first founders of the art to perplex themselves with cutting and
casting so many different abbreviations and contractions was
probably a desire to imitate Greek writing, and to produce in
type the flourishes of the pen; but what could prompt them to
confound themselves with an infinite number of ligatures, cannot so well be accounted for. Greek is, however, now'cast
almost every where without either ligatures or abbreviations,
except where founders have express orders for them. Some
few, however, not only grace Greek letter, but are also profita!-e to a'compositor who knows how to use them properly.
Siving intimated that the useful sorts of a fount of Greek
letter may be lodged in a pair of cases that contain no more
than two hundred and seven boxes, a scheme will be presented
in the following pages for that purpose, which will afford a fair
presumption that a great many of the sorts above referred to
must be needless, where their number occupies seven hundred
and fifty boxes. It must, however, be observed that almost
three hundred of these sorts have no other difference than that
of being kerned on their hind side; for there has been Greek
with capitals kerned on both sides.
We now present to the reader, the Greek alphabet with the
name of each letter in English characters, its sound, and numerical value.
200 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
THE GREEK ALPHABET.
Names in English
characters.
Alpha...
Beta...
Gamma 
Delta...
Epsilon..
Zeta...
Eta.. 
Theta.. 
Iota..
Kappa. 
Lambda..
Mu..
Nu..
Xi...
Omicron.
Pi...
Rho...
Sigma..           
Tau..
UpsilonI..
Phi..
Chi *.. 
Psi...
Omega..
18
I
201
Numerical
value.
1
2
3
4
5
7'
8
9
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
100
200
300
— too
500
600
700
800
Cliaracters.
A a,..
B j3
r
E E
z 
H i7
E)  0
I
K x
A %
K
N
0 o
R 7t w
P C p.
.2. ar 5
Tj
Tv
cp
X
Sounds.
a
b
9
d
e short
z
e long
th 
i
k c
I
m
n
x
oshort
p
r
s
t
u
ph
- ch
Ps
0 long
A 
GREEK UPPER CASE.
x~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ (LI                          IntW I
VI 
~~~~T..I.. i.
XL  CL  CL  CL~ CLC   LC          LC   L  LVVVVVV                             VI'        V VV
-V~~~~~~11 -    L
A
i
ri
to
Pt
~
'll  F 
TYPOGRAPHIA.20
qp..b
Qs~*i~~n 
fl
I
I
I
i
I
203
w
C)
94
FA
0
w
w
w
9 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
Such compositors and readers as are not Greek scholars, and
even those who are, but have not paid attention to accents, will
do well to bear in mind the proper situations of the spirits and
accents; as many of the faults which so frequently offend the
scholar's eye, might thereby be avoided. The following rules
may be easily borne in mind:-No accent can be placed over
any other than one of the three last syllables of a word. No
vowel can have a spirit, or breathing, except at the beginning
of a word. The grave accent never occurs but on the last
syllable; and this being the case, the asper grave ["'] and lenis
grave [i] can be wanted only for a few monosyllables, and less
than half the quantity usually cast would be enough in a fount.
Almost every word has an accent, but very seldom has more
than one; and when this happens, it is an acute thrown back
upon the last syllable from one of those words called enclitics,
which, in that case, has none, unless it be followed by another
enclitic. In no other case than this can a last syllable have
an acute accent, except before a full point, colon, or note of
interrogation, when the grave accent of the last syllable is
changed to an acute; a circumstance which has often led
printers who were ignorant of the reasons for accenting the
same word differently in different situations, to think that there
-asan error in their copy, and thus to make one in their proof.
Most errors, however, proceed from those who do not think at
all about the matter.
HEBREW.
In the column No. 1 of the following table, the force of the
Hebrew letters, when read without points, is expressed; and
the next column, No. 2, gives you their force when the
language is complicated with the Masoretic points or vowels,
which are certainly of later date than the present Hebrew
letters. We also give their names in English characters, and
their numerical value.
204
L
.1 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
THE HEBREW ALPHABET.
No.  2.
A  gentle aspi  rate.
Bh
Ght
Dh
A  rougn aspi  rate.
Ds
Hh
j consonant, or
the softer y
Aleph S
Beth ~.
Gimel I
Daleth    S.
He,.
Vau'.
Zain t.
Cheth n.
Teth D
Jod t
Caph 
Lamed 
Mem n t|
NunII
Samech D
Ain V
Phe 0 q
Tzaddi',
Koph i'.
ReschI'I.
Shin V or Si
Thau n.
o long. (vowel)
j soft.
q, or qu
18*
205
Numer.
Value.
1
2
3
4
5
6
.7
8
9
10
20
30
40
50
60 -
- o
80
90
100
200
300
400
No. 1.
Sounded a in
war (vowel.)
g hard
a in hate (vow.)
u vowel, or before a vowel, w
Th
Like cc in Eng lish. (vowel.)
k or c hard
5'
I
Soft s
hg, or hgh,
roughest
pirate.
tire
as
hard
0
I 
HEBREW UPPER CASE
sIto -t  I    i.
I 
y          
Is             I               I                     IT:                       I                              I              I  i
I *i i
siLL
'Xil
lI
I 
I'
a -n J 3. I  
Spaces and quads for justifying the points.
I - I
f  -               I
I             I              I
- I                       I          -
_-                           t-         _
-0        -      u'     i    j.
-             1
0:
Et
td
n
0
n
I
I,
iwt 
I&
L
-  r     ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
n~~~~  -
I
I
I
il
I --
60
P4'
9
r4
z
0
V- -
I
r-I
0
le 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
Letters that gave a likeness to others.
Caph
Daleth
Zain
t
Samech
)Nun
Nun
Cheth
Mem
Tzaddi
9''
L
The following five letters are cast broad, and are used at the
end of words, viz.,
Aleph   He   Lamed   Mem  Thau
N   rn  L7   =    r
but are not counted among the final letters, being contrived for
justifying, because Hebrew is not divided.
The Hebrew has no capitals, and therefore letters of the same
shape, but of a larger body, are used at the beginning of chapters, and other parts of Hebrew works.
The Hebrew reads from the right to the left, which is the
case with all other Oriental languages, except the Ethiopic and
Armenian. In composing Hebrew, therefore, the Jews begin
at the end of the composing stick, and justify the vowels and
accents over and under the letters after the line of matter is
adjusted.
209
Beth
,n
Caph
I
Resch
11
Vau
I
Jod
t
Nun
I
Mem
t)
Gimel
1.
I
He
117
Tbau
11
Teth
to
Ain
.V 
MUSIC,
Cast at the foundry of L. Johnson &  Co., Philadelphia.
IN no department of letter founding has the progress of improvement been more decided and satisfactory than in the production of
music type. Delicacy and distinctness, grace and symmetry have
been united in so remarkable a manner, that the finest work of
the music stamper can scarcely compare with the ingenious combinations of the type founder and printer. The music of which
specimens are here given is cast on the centre of the body, and
any intelligent workman may learn to compose it with facility.
A plan of the cases accompanies every fount.
DIAMOND.
A~ L
| 9        2:.61                                            _ 1
_r         -                I'4,        C               _ 
AGATE, No. 2.
14                   a — J   1>l   C —-Qff
In
'S bi ~
-4q —— ~  1 L..        l,        | I                   Is.
aft:bi b A       g'
r 
CHAPTER VII.
THE DUTY OF AN OVERSEER.
TliosE persons whose ability or ambition induces them to
aspire to the attainment of this important situation, should be
endowed with something more than an ordinary capacity,
together with an even and forgiving temper; and whose rules
of conduct should be founded upon the strict laws of Equity
and Justice; not deviating in the least from the above standard
in order to favor either the employer or the employed; otherwise he may stand a fair chance of losing the good-will and
esteem of one, or perhaps both of the above named parties; he
should always bear in mind, in all his actions, that a reciprocity
of interests exists between them, which is indispensably necessary to the forwarding an excellent execution of any branch of
art, and that it falls precisely within his province to maintain
this union of interests to the utmost of his ability.
In houses where several presses are employed, an Overseer
is indispensably necessary; it is true a small concern may be
conducted by an Employer, if he were not liable to frequent
interruptions while in business, together with the necessary
absence from home: on which occasions a trustworthy Agent
is of course required, not only to answer all applications, but
also to attend to every department of the machine; otherwise
(compositors and pressmen being at all times dependent on
each other) one or both may probably stand idle, from the
absence or neglect of duty in either party, or from the employer's engagements abroad. Having pressmed thus much,
we shall now venture to offer a few hints for the benefit of those
who are now, or who may hereafter be selected to fill this
highly imrportant situation.
ItI has been observed, that an Overseer should be the first and
last il attendance at the office, in order that he may be satisfied
that every person on the premises does his duty; likewise to
i'
I  
TYPOGRAPHIA.
observe that those in the establishment attend at their regular
time: we suggest, that the task of an early attendance in the
morning would be more properly filled by the second in authority; because the principal manager would of necessity be
frequently required to attend late in the evening to depatch
proofs, &c.
The office being now swept, and the type selected from the
dust by the errand boy, that found in the body of the rooms
should be given to the Overseer, or his deputy, (if any) who
ought to see it immediately distributed, and then walk round
the house in order that he may discover if the compositors have
followed his example, by disposing of the portion found in each
respective frame, likewise that no pi be left either on the frames,
bulks, or gallies; should there be any, even a single letter, he
should insist upon its being immediately distributed. Attention
to this particular is of vast importance, because it not only
keeps the office clear of pi, but it also prevents useful and
valuable sorts from being buried.
He should likewise be possessed of a thorough knowledge of
the state of every work in progress, and as a more effectual
mode of expediting them, he may adopt the following rules.
1. In companionships, no man should be suffered to hold too
large a taking of copy, otherwise he would keep his companions composing at random much longer than were necessary, which would of course retard the imposition of the sheet,
and also require a much greater scope of letter to enable them
to proceed with the work; from which cause, it is not at all
improbable, but that the pressman will have to remain idle in
the first instance, and consequently the compositors in the
second. 2. The moment a sheet is composed and made up, he
should order it to be imposed, provided there be room on the
imposing-stone for that purpose. 3. The same expedition should
be used in getting the proof pulled when imposed. 4. The
Reader should receive it instantly, send it, up leaf by leaf to be
corrected; which the Overseer of course will direct to be forwarded immediately, should no obstacle occur to prevent it. 5.
This duty performed, a second proof should be taken, which
the reader should forward to the author, (if required,) or other
1;
212 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
wise read it carefully through for press; the same expedition
should be used in getting it finally corrected for working off.
A close attention to the above hints will enable an Overseer
co conduct and keep in regular motion a concern of great magnitude, not only with satisfaction to himself, but also with
credit to his employer, for punctuality and despatch of business.
Sorts not in general use, chases, furniture, leads, &c. should
be locked up under the care of the Overseer or his deputy, in
order that they may be in readiness when required; he would
also find a memorandum book, in which an entry of such sorts
should be made, highly beneficial.
He would also find a book, which we shall denominate a
Press Book, of vast importance, in which he should regularly,
every evening, make an entry of the paper that the warehouseman is to give out to wet, for the various works in progress.
Upon the pressmen enquiring of him what they are to lay on
next, he informs them, and in this book fills up the necessary
columns, agreeable with the heads of the annexed table.
— W-hen  -                            1-Date
given out       Names of Works.          No.   Signa- when laid Names of
to wet.                                       tures   on.   pressmen.
1851.                                                 1851.
May 2  Decorative Printing,...   1000    11   May 4 Speer.
4   Physiognomical Portraits,      750    82          5 Flue.
6  Typographia............1000   20.   8 Smith.
7   Musical Library, 3000........000        2         9 Butt.
It is generally the business of the Overseer to revise the
proofs for press, in doing which he will be careful not only
to ascertain whether all the corrections marked in the proof are
made, but also to cast his eye carefully over the sides, head,
and bottom of each page, as it frequently happens that the folios
or catch words drop out of the form in lifting it off the imposing
stone; also in leaded matter, letters at the beginning and ends
of lines frequently fall out of their proper place, and by standing crooked have a slovenly appearance. Before the revise is
given to the compositor, the names of the pressmen who are
intended to work off the form, should be entered in the Press
19
213
t 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
Book. With foul compositors, the Overseer should invariably
require a second revise, in order to ascertain if all the corrections have been made which were marked in the first, as no
sort of dependence can be placed on them. He should, (where
there is not a person engaged expressly for the purpose, as is
the case in houses employing ten or fourteen presses) go regularly round, about every quarter of an hour, to the different
presses, and examine their work, point out defects, if any, and
glance again over the heads, sides, and bottoms of the pages, to
see if any thing has been drawn out by the rollers, which frequently occurs from bad justification of the lines, and careless
and improper locking up of the form. An active and conscientious Overseer will not be content with merely managing the
concerns of the composing room; he will also see that the
business of the warehouse is attended to with regularity and
accuracy; and that the warehouseman, errand boys, and apprentices do their duty.
Having, in the present Chapter, presented the Overseer with
the plan of a book, called the Press Book, we shall introduce
another of equal importance, (which we shall call a Check
Book,) for the purpose of checking the bills of both the Cornmpositprs and Pressmen; this book enables him, at a single glance,
to discover any overcharges that may have been made.
Plai of a Book for Checking Compositors' and Pressmenl's Bills.
Adams' Typographia, 18mo. Double Med. No. 1000.
Compositors'  By whom worked at Press.  Observations.
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
After he has entered into the press book an account of the
paper intended to be wet, he sets down the same articles with
the numbers and date in a book called the Wetting Book: from
this book the warehouseman receives his instructions for giving
out the paper. This book also informs him of the quantity of
wet paper, and the length of time it has been wetted; this is
of importance when authors sometimes detain proofs so long,
that the paper allotted for those sheets will mildew, if it be not
hung, up to dry in a seasonable time.
In addition to the foregoing tables, we shall now lay before
our readers another, equally important in every point of view,
whicn we shall designate with the title of the Job Book.
Plai of the Job Book.
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By means of a Job Book, an Employer or Overseer will be
enabled, at a single glance, (without referring to the bills of the
Compositors and Pressmen,) to discover not only every charge
that has been made upon a Job, but also for whom, the number printed, and the size and description, together with the full
charge.
An Overseer should be in possession of a thorough knowledge of every branch of his profession. It not unfrequently
happens either from a press of business, or the absence of the
reader. that he may be necessitated to read for press; he should
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make it his study to qualify himself for that important duty: to
this point we most particularly invite his earnest attention, and
beg to refer him for useful hints upon this subject, to Chapter
VI. p. 176, &c. ante. And should he conscientiously sustain
the character which we have laid down at the commencement of
this article, he will not only acquit himself with credit to his employer, but also prove by his conduct that he is an ornament to
society in general.
Th' man who aspires to this high station,
Should for his guide seek moderation;
And justice keep in view:
But few there are who reach the wish'd for height,
That justly keep strict equity in sight,
And render each his due.
To the Employer too much court is paid,
When by the men th' entrapping snares are laid,
To catch the wary elf:
Who, unsuspecting, daily plods along
Nor heeds the snares placed by the wily throng,
To entrap his noble self.
The bubble, thus kept up in air so long,
Thro' flattering tales and fulsome tongue,
By schemes at length is burst;
Hlis office lost, he then most deeply wails,
To hide his shame he now invents new tales,
And deems his lot most curst.
A warning this, for those who dare aspire,
When in this birth to raise themselves much higher,
And think't will last for life;
Should they but once o'erstep the compass bound,
Their folly brings them quickly to the ground,
To end their days in strife.
RULES AND REGULATIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN
A PRINTING-OFFICE.
1. Compositors to receive their cases from the Overseer, ox
other persons appointed by him, free from all pi, or other heterogeneous matter, with clean quadrat and space boxes, both Roman and Italic, which they are to return to him in the same state.
2. When a compositor receives letter, furniture, &c. from the
Overseer, he is to return what he does not use, in the same
state he received it, the same day.
216
FP' 
TYPOGCRAPTIA.A
3. Compositors to impose their matter when desired by the
Employer or Overseer; also to correct proofs, unless in either
case it shall appear that all the stones were engaged, in which
case he should seize the first opportunity.
4. The proofs when pulled to be given to the reader, or
carried into the reading closet, with, if a first proof, the copy,
and, if a second, the foul proof.
5. Compositors not to leave a foul stone, either of letter or
furniture.
6. A compositor is not to detain an imposing stone longer
than the nature of the business may require.
7. Wlihen any cases are taken out of the racks, the com positor is to return them into the proper place immediately after
hle has done with the same.
8. No cases to be placed over others, or under the frames
9. Galleys, with head-lines, or other useful materials, used
during the course of a piece of work, to be cleared the day after
the work is all completely at press.
10. When a work is completely finished, the compositor or
compositors concerned, shall, before he or they begin another
work, unless prevented by the Employer or Overseer, clear
away the forms, taking from them the head lines, white lines,
direction lines, as also the leads and riglets: which, with the
furniture of each sheet, and the matter properly tied up for
papering, are to be given to the Overseer.
11. Sweepings of frames to be cleared away before one
o'clock every day. Matter broken by accident to be cleared
away on the same day.
12. The saw, saw-block, bowl, sponge, letter-brush, shears,
bellows, &c., to be returned to their respective places as soon
as done with.
13. That pi of any sort, on boards, windows, frames, &c.
shall be cleared after five minutes' notice.
14. No person shall take sorts from the frames or cases of
another without leave, nor hoard useful sorts, not wanting or
likely to want them.
15. Compositors employed by the week, to work not less
than ten hours per day.
19*
217 
TYPOGRAPIIIA.
THE BEST MEANS OF EXPEDITING WORKS OF A
TEMPORARY AND URGENT NATURE.
A  judicious distribution of the employment of workmen  in
every kind of business, is the only means of expediting it.
This observation applies very forcibly to the printing business.
Pamphlets and other works of a temporary nature, it is sometimes necessary to print in the course of a few hours; to accomplish this, the utmost exertion, accompanied with skilful
management, is requisite; we shall, therefore, lay down a plan
which we conceive will be found fully to answer this purpose.
As soon as a work of this nature is put in hand, it must be
the business of the Overseer to select such men as are able to
complete the greatest quantity of work in a given time. We
will suppose eight men are ordered to distribute letter for it.
Their first concern must be, to appoint one from among them
who thoroughly understands his business, and is in other
respects qualified to undertake the management of the work, to
make it up, and to do every thing which interferes with the
regular business of distributing, composing, and correcting.
Having done this, let them proceed to the distribution of their
letter; whle the clicker, or person appointed to manage the job,
applies to the Overseer for the copy, receives instructions
respecting it, and procures leads and every other necessary sort.
He then draws out the following table:
Compositors' Names.  Folios of.
Lines
2omposed.
I 
In the first column he sets down Th" name of each compositor when he takes copy; and, in the second, the folio of the
copy, that he may be able to ascertain instantly in whose hands
it lies.  In the third column he notes down the number of lines
218
L
F'
Memorandurns.
a 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
each man has composed, opposite to his name, as fast as the
gallies are brought to him. In the fourth, he sets down such
remarks respecting the copy, &c. as may be necessary, and also
any circumstance that may occur in the companionship.
By this means each compositor will receive a share of the
amount, according to the number of lines he composes, and the
clicker must have an equal share with the person who sets the
greatest quantity: or it may be done by limiting the quantity
each man is to compose in an hour; whoever is deficient in this
quantity, must suffer a proportionate deduction from his share
of the work.
When the members of the companionship are ready for their
first taking of copy, they are to receive it from the clicker in
pieces as short as possible, taking care that the two first have
shorter takings than either of the others, to prevent, as much
as possible, any delay in thV making up. During the time the
first taking is in hand, the clicker sets the half-head, head lines,
white lines, and signature lines, together with side notes, and
other extraneous matter.
As soon as the first person brings him his matter, he counts off
the number of lines, and inserts them in the table; then gives
him another taking of copy, and proceeds with the making up.
The same plan, is observed with the rest of the companionship.
When the first sheet is made up, he lays the pages on the
stone, and informs the Overseer of it, who will then immediately procure chases and furniture.
The work will now proceed rapidly, provided the compositors stick close to their business, and there be no hindrance
with respect to letter, &c., which depends on the good management of the Overseer. If the clicker finds that he cannot make
up the matter as fast as it is composed, he should call one of the
compositors to his assistance, who must be the person last in
copy.  In this case he counts the lines he has composed, sets
them down in the table, and takes notice of the time he is off,
which is to be made up to him by a deduction from the share
of each person.
The proofs should be read immediately after they are pulled,
and given to the clicker to be corrected. As soon as this is done,
219
L
'i. 
TYPOGRPAPHIA.
he lays up the forms, and gives the proof to the compositor
whose matter stands first, who should immediately correct it, then
forward it to the next, and so on, till the sheet be corrected; the
clicker then locks it up, and carries the forms to the proof-press.
As soon as one of the companionship is out of copy, and
there is no more to be given out, the lines of the whole must be
counted off, and set down in the table, which closes the account,
and then every one does as much as he can for the general
benefit. If there be not work enough to employ the whole,
those who are not wanted may go to their regular work, and
the time of their absence, till the rest of the companionship
return to theirs, be deducted from their respective shares.
It would save time in making calculations, could the companionship agree to divide the amount of the bill between them
in equal proportions, and merely fine those who absent themselves from the office; but as some compositors will set considerably more than others, the above mode will, we conceive,
be found to answer best, as it excites a spirit of emulation, and
induces them to pursue their work with vigor.
RULES TO BE OBSERVED IN COMPANIONSHIP.
THE dispites which frequently arise in a printing-office upon
trifling as well as intricate points, can only be settled by a
reference to the general custom and usage of the trade. These
misunderstandings, which  annoy  and retard  business,  often
take place in companionships consisting of three or four compositors; it is therefore highly desirable that the generally
received rules and regulations on this subject, should be explicitly and clearly laid down for the future comfort and government of the compositor.
TAKING COPY.
IF printed copy, and the compositor is desired to follow page
for page, each sheet, as it is given out, should be divided into
as many parts as the companionship may consist of, in which
211)0 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
case the bulk of the copy must not be subject to the inspection
of the companionship, but kept by the Overseer, and dealt out
by him as it is wanted, or it will inevitably cause contention;
for the compositor likely to be first out of copy, if he has free
access to that which remains unfinished, will observe whether
the next taking be fat or lean-if the latter, he will hold back
and loiter away his time, in order to avoid it, and thus materially delay the work. On the other hand, if this taking appears
to be advantageous, and there should happen to be two or three
of the companionship out of copy at the same time, a sort of
scramble will take place who shall have it, which will end in
dispute and confusion: on no account, therefore, should the
copy be open to examination. If the copy be manuscript, or
not page for page, the Overseer should give it out in such portions as will, in his judgment, insure regularity in the progress
of the work; and should, in all cases, mark the name of the
compositor in the margin, opposite the paragraph where he is
to commence. Compositors are apt to desire a large portion of
copy, with the view of advantage in the making up, though
nine times in ten it will, as before observed, operate as a loss to
them, by their eventually standing still for want of letter. If by
mistake too much copy has been taken, the compositor should
hand a part of it to the person next in the making up, to set up
to himself.
If parts of the copy should be particularly advantageous or
otherwise, each of the companionship may throw for the chance
of it: the person to whom it may fall, if he have copy in hand,
must turn that copy over to him who is about to receive more
copy; but for trifling variations from the general state of the
copy, it cannot be worth the loss of time necessary to contest
it; though it frequently happens that a litigious man will argue
half an hour on a point that would not have made five minutes'
difference to him in the course of his day's work.
If one of the companionship absents himself from business,
and thereby delays the making up, and there is the smallest
probability of standing still for want of letter, the person who
has the last taking must go on with this man's copy, whether
it be good or bad.
P
221 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
MAKING UP.
THE compositor having the first take on the work, as soon as
he has completed it, proceeds without delay to making up his
matter into pages, according to the directions laid down in our
observations on composing. Having completed as many pages
as his matter will make, he passes the overplus, if less than
half a page, with the correct head and folio, to the compositor
whose matter follows his, at the same time taking an account
of the number of lines loaned; if, on the contrary, the overplus
makes more than half a page, he borrows a sufficient number
of lines to complete his page, each compositor keeping an account of the number of lines borrowed and loaned. His last
page being completed, he passes the make up to the compositor
next in succession, by handing him the proper head lines and
folio for the following page; each compositor passing the make
up in like manner without delay.
MAKING UP OF LETTER.
THE number of the companionship, if possible, should always
be determined on at the commencement of the work, that they
may all proceed upon an equal footing. It should be well ascertained that the letter appropriated for the work will be adequate
to keep the persons on it fully employed.
If any part of the matter for distribution, whether in chase or
in paper, be desirable or otherwise, for the sorts it may contain,
it should be divided equally, or the choice of it thrown for.
When a new companion is put on the work after the respective shares of letter are made up, and if there be not a sufficiency to carry on all the companionship without making up
more, he must make up an additional quantity before he can be
allowed to partake of any part of that which comes from the press.
MAKING UP FURNITURE.
Two of the companionship who may have the greatest proportion of the first sheet, should make up the furniture for that
sheet; and though it may be thought that a disadvantage will
222
rL- 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
be felt in making up the first sheet, they having to ascertain the
right margin, yet, properly considered, this disadvantage is
sufficiently balanced by their not being likely to meet with a
scarcity of furniture, which will frequently occur after several
sheets are made up. The other companions in rotation, as
their matter is made up, will take an equal share of the furniture. Should an odd sheet be wanted, it will be better to throw
for the chance of making it up.
IMPOSING AND DISTRIBUTING LETTER.
THE person to whose turn it falls to impose, must lay up the
form for distribution; but as continual disputes arise on this
subject, and as it can only be ascertained by comparing the
number of pages composed, with the number put in chase by
each person, we therefore recommend their keeping an exact
account of these pages, which had better be done agreeably to
the following
Plan of an Inposition Book.
FrQst's United States.
By whom
c:%~ ~    c ~imposed.
B   5    2    2    3                       Jones.
C   2    3    5    2                      Stille.
1)
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a;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
This book should always be kept in a convenient place, so
that each compositor may mark down the number of pages he
has made up, opposite to the proper signature, and under his
own name; also when lie imposes, he inserts his name in the
223
r 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
column appropriated for that purpose.  By following strictly
this mode, every sort of dispute will be prevented; and though
a private account may be necessary for individual satisfaction,
yet it will not avail in settling a general misunderstanding, as
the various private accounts may differ, and the charge of inaccuracy may be alleged with as much reason against one as the
other; but in this general scale a mistake can be immediately
detected. It also operates as a check on those who may be inclined to write out of their proper signature, or tt) charge more
pages than they have imposed.
As the letter is laid up, it should be divided in equal proportions; and, if it can be so managed, each person had better
distribute the matter originally composed  by him; for by this
means, the sorts which have made his case uneven will again
return to him. It may happen, from one of the companionship
absenting himself, that his former share of letter remains undistributed at a time a second division is taking place; under these
circumstances, he must not be included in this division. In the
event of a scarcity of letter, if any man absent himself beyond a
reasonable time, his undistributed matter should be divided
eq(ually among his companions, and when hlie returns, he may
then have his share of the next division.
CORRECTING.
THE compositor, whose matter is in the first part of the proof,
lays up the forms on the imposing stone, and corrects. He
then hands the proof to the person who has the following matter. The compositor who corrects the last part of the sheet,
locks up the forms.
The compositor having matter in the first and last part, but
not the middle of the'sheet, only lays up the form and corrects
his matter; the locking up is left to the person who corrects
last in the sheet.
A compositor having the first page only of the sheet, is required to lay up one form; also to lock up one form if he has
only the last page.
224 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
If from carelessness in locking up the form, viz. the furniture
binding, the quoins badly fitted, &c.-any letters, or even a page
should fall out, the person who thus locked up the form inust
immediately repair the damage. But if from bad justification,
or in leaded matter the letters ride upon the ends of the leads,
the loss attending any accident from this circumstance, must
fall upon the person to whom the matter belongs.
It is the business of the person who locks up the form, to
ascertain whether all the pages are of an equal length; and
though a defect-in this respect is highly reprehensible in the
person to whom it attaches, (whose duty it is to rectify it,) yet
if not previously discovered by the locker-up, and an accident
happen, he must make good the defect.
The compositor who imposes a sheet, must correct the
chargeable proof of that sheet, which is also generally at the
same time corrected for press, and take it to the ready place.
He must also rectify any defect in the register, arising from
want of accuracy in the furniture.
Forms will sometimes remain a considerable length of time
before they are put to press. When this happens, and particularly in the summer, the furniture is likely to shrink, and
the pages will, in consequence, if care be not taken, fall out; it
is therefore the business of the person who has locked up the
form, to attend to it in this respect, or he will be subject to
make good any accident which his neglect may occasion.
The liability to accidents of this nature has been greatly
lessened by recent improvements, viz. the introduction of metal
furniture and quoins; the former we have previously alluded
to-the latter is of recent invention, and has not yet been offered
to the trade. The Iron Screw Quoin was invented by Mr. E.
M. Maeder, of Philadelphia, and consists of a screw working
into a square iron shoulder about two inches in length, and about
half an inch in thickness, which is placed against a side stick
without bevel, the pointed head of the screw bearing against
the inner side of the chase;-by applying a small rack to the
cogged head of the screw, the formn can be locked or screwed
up to any degree of tightness without noise, and with but little
exertion on the part of the compositor, and having at least half
20
225 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
an inch play, will seldom require to be changed. From our
knowledge of the advantages of these quoins, we unhesitatingly
recommend them to the favorable notice of the profession.
When forms are wrought off, and ordered to be kept standing, they are then considered under the care of the Overseer.
When they are desired to be cleared away, it is done in equal
proportions by the companionship. During the time any forms
may have remained under the care of the Overseer, should
there have been any alteration as to form or substance, such
alterations not having been made by the original compositors,
they are not subject to clear away those parts of the form that
were altered.  If the pressmen unlock a form on the press, and
from carelessness in the locking up, any part of it fall out, they
are subject to the loss that may happen in consequence.
The compositor who locks up a sheet, takes it to the proofpress, and after he has pulled a proof of it, hands it, together
with the foul proof, to the reader, and deposits the form in a
place appointed for that purpose.
TRANSPOSITION OF PAGES.
EACH person in the companionship must lay down his pages
properly on the stone for imposition. The compositor, whose
turn it is to impose, looks them over to see if they are rightlyplaced; should they, after this examination, lay improperly,
and be thus imposed, it will be his business to transpose them;
but should the folios be wrong, and the mistake arise from this
inaccuracy, it must be rectified by the person to whom the matter belongs. Pages being laid down for imposition, without
folios or head lines, must be rectified by the person who has
been slovenly enough to adopt this plan.
226 
CHAPTER VIII.
THE PRESS.
From thee, O Press! what blessings flow
T' unworthy mortals here below!
Life's path to smooth:
The Widow's cause, the Infant's tear,
In thee a friend are sure to rear;
Their loss to sooth.
Through thee, fair Liberty will stand,
The proudest boast throughout this land;
See Hist'ry's page!
The Press enslav'd, she'll inly moan,
And freedom's sons in chains may groan,,
From age to age.
HOWEVER laudable it may be to cultivate the art to perfection,
it is to its common and more general application that we are to
look for its great and beneficial effects upon the human intellect,
and upon nations and societies of men. The Press is the great
engine by which man is enabled to improve the faculties of his
nature; it is the preserver of the knowledge tnd acquirements
of former generations, and the great barrier, when not perverted
by the hand of power, against the debasement of the human
mind, and the equalizing effects of despotism.
In the accomplishment of what we have here undertaken, we
shall strictly adhere to those rules which experience and observation have enabled us to select for our guidance, and which,
we feel persuaded, are in accordance with the advanced state
of this important branch of the art, a branch which is the very
end and consummation of all the compositor's previous care
and labor-a branch which, if in the least degree neglected, will
cause all his taste and skill in composition, and the employer's
expenses in beautiful type, to be passed over disregarded.
il 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
In former works upon this subject the directions to Pressmen
have been found to be quite inadequate, being in a great
measure confined to the two-pull Press, and to the minutiae of
balls, beating, &c. The various improvements in the art since
those directions  were written, have rendered them  entirely
obsolete, and it therefore devolves upon us to offer such new
directions as will suffice to acquaint the beginner with the peculiarities of modern press-work.
Industrious and careful pressmen must stand high in the
estimation of every master printer, yet it is to be lamented that
so few endeavor to merit so desirable an appellation, and one so
easily acquired by a little care and attention.
We shall now lay down a few directions, which, if properly
attended to, will enable the pressman to execute his work in a
manner that will do credit to himself and justice to his employer.
SETTING UP A PRESS.
UNDER this head might be introduced an almost unlimited
variety of operations, yet it is our intention here to confine
ourselves to a few remarks upon putting up those hand presses
now in general use.
Having placed our frame in an erect position upon its feet,
we next place the ribs in their allotted situation, where they are
fastened by means of screws, and the stay put under the near
end; we then lift the bed into the ribs, and commence nailing
the girths in their proper places upon the barrel of the rounce,
after which they are secured at the end of the bed; when the
press is run out, the double girths should be about half a turn
or more round the barrel; the off single girth about two or three
turns round it. The position of the rounce when run out should
incline a little forward of a perpendicular line, and when run in,
a little above a horizontal line on the near side; to accomplish
which it may be necessary to loosen the girths at one end of the
bed, and to draw them up at the other. We then commence
levelling our bed, which should be done with a spirit-level if
convenient, if not, an ordinary carpenters' level, raising either
end of the press by small blocks or wedges under the feet, or
fore stay, as may be required.
228 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
Having ascertained our bed to lie truly horizontal, and having
placed bearers at each end, upon which to rest the platen, we
run it in to its proper place, where it is attached to the suspending rods; being careful to observe that the marked end of the
platen is front, and that the marks on the nuts or screws correspond with those on the platen. In screwing down the
springs we should avoid compressing them too much, as it
would be likely to weaken them, at the same time screwing
them sufficiently tight to hold the toggles in their place, and to
cause the platen to rise quickly after an impression has been
given. We also take notice that the platen falls perfectly
horizontal, and that all four corners touch the type at the same
time, which may be regulated by screwing or unscrewing the
nuts at either corner, and inserting between them and the
platen, if necessary, a piece of tin or rule.
The levers, toggles and oil cups being well oiled in their
joints, and placed in their respective places, we then proceed to
SETTING UP THE ROLLER STAND.
THE roller stand containing the distributing cylinder, should be
regulated to the height of the press, bringing the shelf or bridge
even with the corner irons, and of sufficient distance from the
bed to allow it'to run clear; the stand should then be firmly
braced, as the constant turning of the rounce is very apt to
loosen it, meanwhile being cautious to observe that the rounce
in its revolutions does not come in contact with the frame of
the tympan when up. The position of the distributing cylinder
should be sufficiently high to allow the two composition rollers,
at least one inch apart, to rest on its top without danger of
touching the shelf or bridge in front; we have found it advantageous to nail two narrow strips of sole leather on the face of
the shelf, about eight or ten inches from each end, which, acting
as bearers, cause the rollers to pass very smoothly over them.
The roller handle while in use should lie in a horizontal
position, the back end being supported by a bar' of wood or iron
running parallel with the distributing cylinder.  There shoild
be a notch, or hook, about two inches from the end of the
handle to catch on the wooden supporter, to prevent the rollers
20*
229 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
from jumping forward while distributing or changing. It is
also necessary to have a back-board for the end of the roller to
strike against in coming off the form, to prevent the rollers
from falling backwards.
The ink-block is placed about five or six inches to the right
of the roller handle, and about on a level with it; it is furnished
with the ink slice, and a brayer, or a small roller about four or
five inches long, and of the same circumference with the large
rollers, being cast in the same mould.
A few years since a great improvement was effected by having the ink-block made Qf cast iron, for the following reason:it had been found necessary for the purpose of enabling the men
to work the fine and stiff inks in cold weather, to have in the
press room what was denominated a moveable ink-stand; this
was a small square table, with an iron plate for the top, under
which was a shelf to contain a lamp to warm the ink, and
render it free to work; this was, of course, moved to the side of
each press as wanted, but often proved a cumbrous article in a
crowded room, when not wanted. The iron ink-block, with a
little shelf underneath it, answers every purpose of the above
described apparatus, with this additional advantage over the
wooden one, it keeps the ink cooler in hot weather.
COVERING TYMPANS.
THE tympans are generally covered with parchment. They
should be of an even thickness, and about two inches and a
half wider, and three inches longer than the tympans. Tympans have been sometimes covered with linen, which, on
account of its evenness, would answer the purpose; but it is so
apt to stretch, that the tympans become slack in a short time.
and bag, (as it is termed,) which occasions a slur on the worth.
Muslin and silk have been used, but are likewise subject to the
same objection as linen. They are, however, still used for
newspapers, and other large works, where parchment cannot
be obtained of sufficient dimensions.
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TYPOGRPAPHIIA.
Having provided some stiff paste, he lays so much of it on
the edges of the skin, as will cover the frame of the tympan,
which is also well pasted. He then lays the skin on the inner
side of the frame, with the flesh side to face the type, and
draws it regularly, as tight as possible, on all sides. That part
of the skin that comes on the grooves of the tympan which receives the point-screws, is cut and wrapt round the inside edge
of the groove, which admits a free passage for the screws.
After having fastened the skin on the sides of the tympan, he
draws it towards the joints which receive the frisket, and with
a knife cuts across these joints to let them through the skin; he
then puts the frisket pins through the same, and makes that
end of the tympan fast.  He next proceeds to the lower joints,
and brings the skin as tight as he can round that part of the
tympan. The point-screws and duck-bill are then put on,
which prevent the skin from starting. The inner tympan, or
drawer, is covered in the same manner. To prevent their
warping when the skin begins to draw, pieces of furniture, or
wood of any kind, should be placed across the centre till they
are perfectly dry.
The skins are put on either wet or dry; if dry, they should
be afterwards well wet, which makes them give for the moment;
but as they dry, they contract, and are by this means rendered
much tighter than they would be if put on wet.
WETTING PAPER.
PAPER should be wet in a trough kept for the purpose, filled
with clean water. The size of this trough should be about two
inches longer and wider (when folded,) than the largest sized
paper that it is probable will have to be wet in it, and about six
inches deep. It should have a cover with hinges on the left
side, that the cover may fall over on that side, and, resting
horizontally, serve the purpose of a shelf to lay the paper upon
previous to its being wet.
Having received a sufficient quantity of paper from the
Warehouseman, counted out, the pressmen lays one heap on
231
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
the shelf attached to the paper trough, laying the first token
across the heap with the back of the quires towards his right
hand, that he may know when to turn the token sheet, and that
he may the readier catch at the back of each quire with that
hand, for the purpose of dipping it. He then places his paperboard with its breadth before him on his right, usually on the
ley trough, laying a wrapper, or a waste sheet of paper on the
board, that it may not soil the first sheet of the heap.
He then takes a quire by the centre of the back with his right
hand, and the edge of it in his left, and closing his hands a
little, that the quire may bend downward between his hands,
hlie dips the back of the quire into the left hand side of the
trough, and relinquishing his hold with the left hand, draws
the quire briskly through the water with his right; as the quire
comes out, he quickly catches the edge of it again in his left
hand, and brings it to the heap; and by lifting up his left hand,
bears the under side of the quire off the paper previously laid
down, till he has placed the quire in an even position. But
this drawing the quire through the water he performs either
quick or slow; if the paper be weak and spongy, he performs
it quickly; if strong and stubborn, slowly. To place the quire
in an even position, he lays the back of it exactly upon the
open crease of the former, and then lets the side of the quire in
his left hand fall fiat down upon the heap, and discharging his
right hand, brings it to the edge of the quire, and with the
assistance of his left thumb, still in its first position, opens or
divides either a third or a half of the quire, according to the
quality of the paper; then spreading the fingers of his right
hand as much as he can through the length of the quire, turns
over his opened division of it upon his right hand side of the
heap.
Drawing and plate papers, being occasionally used by the
letter-press printer, it is proper to observe that a different process must be used in the wetting. These papers are usually
sent in from the Stationers quite flat; that is not folded into
ouires or half quires. The best method of wetting these papers
is to use a brush, such as is called a banister brush; and instead
Of dipping the paper into the trough, lay it on the paper board
232
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
by the side of the trough, and dipping the brush into the water,
give it a gentle shake over the whole surface to give an equal
degree of moisture to all parts; and continue to follow up the
process upon the same principle as in wetting paper after the
ordinary mode, as before described. The drawing-paper being
very hard-sized in the making, will require the brush, and
much water, three, four, and sometimes five times a quire;
while the plate-paper will take as little water as it is possible to
give it, so as to cover it all over; and twice a quire will often
be too much. This same mode must also be adopted in wetting
paper of extraordinary dimensions
Having wet his first token, he doubles down a corner of the
upper sheet of it on his right hand, so that the further corner
may be a little towards the left hand of the crease in the middle
of the heap, and that the other corner may hang out on the
near side of the heap, about an inch and a half; this sheet is
called the token sheet, as being a mark for the pressman, when
he is at work, to know how many tokens of that heap are
worked off.
Having wet the whole heap, he lays a wrapper, or waste
sheet of paper upon it, that the paper board may not soil the
last sheet of the heap; then, three or four times, takes up as
much water as he ean in the hollow of his hand, and throws it
over the waste sheet, that it may moisten and soak downwards
into the wet part of the last division of the quire, after which he
places the label which the warehouseman must always furnish
for each heap, and upon which is written, in legible characters,
the title of the work and the date of wetting, in the heap, one
half hanging out so as to be easily read.
The paper being thus wetted, he sets it by in a part of the
room appropriated for that purpose, and lays another board
upon it; and in the middle of the board sets about a half a hundred weight, and lets it stand by to press, commonly till the
next morning; for pressmen generally wet their paper after
they have left work at night. All wetted paper would be better
if it were separated and turned in the course of the following
morning, and pressed for ten or twenty hours in a standing
press.
233
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
But the wetting of paper must, in all cases, depend entirely
upon its fabric: and since the printer has seldom, when employed by a bookseller, the choice of the paper, it will require
all his skill and patience to adapt his labors to the materials
upon which he is to work.  The paper for fine work must increase in firmness of texture, as the ink is increased in fineness
and tenacity. To attempt doing fine work upon common paper,
is but throwing away time and expense. A paper to take the
best ink must be made entirely of linen rags, and not bleached
by any chemical or artificial means. A fine hand-made paper,
fabricated a sufficient time to get properly hardened, and well
and equally saturated with size so as not to imbibe more water
in one part of the dip than in another, nor resisting the water
like a duck's back, is what we have found most suitable for fine
printing. The paper having been wetted with the greatest care
as to equality of water, should be pressed for twelve hours, and
then carefully turned by each three or four sheets, so as no lift
be relaid in the same position with respect to the adjoining lift;
at the same time every fold and wrinkle must be carefully rubbed out by the action of the hand, so that nothing but a fiat and
even surface shall remain; the heap should then be pressedl for
about twenty-four hours in a screw press, and it will be in
good order for working.
THE BLANKETS.
THE next matter of importance towards obtaining good press
work, is the substance which is fixed in the tympans to intervene between the type and the platen, in order, when the power
is applied, to cause an impression into the substance of the
paper. Whatever is used for this purpose, it is now become
technically correct to denominate the blankets. For this pur,ose there has been generally used a kind of blanket, manufactured for the purpose, of a more even fibre than ordinary
blanketing, flee from knots, and having a very fine surface, or
pile; and to vary the impression as different kinds of work
might require, very thin, or Welsh flannel, Cassimeres, or fine
234
i
I 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
broad-cloth are used. These are varied by the judgment of the
master or pressman, according to the type, paper, ink, &c. with
which he works: thus for very close or heavy forms, small
type, he must select the softest woollen blanket, and for yet
larger type and more open work, he must continue the change
to the thinnest blanket, and sometimes even to two or three
sheets of soft paper. Again, a discretion will be required, according to the state or wear of the types-the newer the letter
and sharper the ceriphs, the finer may be the work, the stronger
the ink, and the harder the impression; while, on the contrary,
in order to make type which has been worn, appear well up to
paper, additional softness must be given. In fact, nothing but
observation, experience, and good mechanical common sense
can guide the judgment of the pressman in this most material
point of making ready. By the various changes and combinations of his blankets, adding a soft to a hard, or a hard to a soft
one; reversing them in regard to the one or the other falling
next the type; adding a sheet of paper between, or under, or
over, he must, with necessary judgment and patience, regulate
his pull according to the various combinations of circumstances
which may attend his work.
We have been thus lengthy upon this subject in order to impress more particularly upon the minds of pressmen, the importance of their paying particular attention to this material
requisite in the production of fine printing; being fully aware
that it has heretofore been regarded as a matter of but little ir.
portance, and having been altogether too much neglected by
many pressmen, who have scarcely deemed it necessary to look
into their tympanls previous to going to work, frequently working ordinary forms with two or three blankets, whenr one or
less would have been amply sufficient.
MAKING READY A FORM.
BEFORE a form is laid on the press, the pressman should carefully wipe the back side of the form and the bed perfectly clean;
for if any hard particle, though ever so small, should remain on
235 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
it, it will cause that part of the form to rise, and not only make
a stronger impression, but in all probability injure the letters.
The form should be laid on the press, if an octavo, with the
signature page to the left hand, or nearest the platen; if a
duodecimo, or its combinations, with the signature at the right
hand, or nearest the tympan. The form should be laid under
the centre of the platen, and properly quoined up; he then lays
down the tympan, wetting it if necessary, and puts in his
blankets, which should be well rubbed if they are the least
hard. It was customary, formerly, to wet the tympans, for all
works, and even jobs of almost every description; but since the
introduction of fine printing, and particularly the iron presses,
this old custom is well nigh banished, excepting for extraordinary heavy forms, composed with old letter, which of course
require more softness to bring them off.  After putting in the
inner tympan or drawer, he fastens it with the hooks for that
purpose, which serve to keep it from springing out. Then
lifting up the tympan, he next folds a sheet of the paper he is
about to work, in quarto, and lays the short crease over the
middle of the grooves of the short cross, if it lie in the middle
of the form, for in twelves it does not, and then he folds the
paper accordingly in thirds, the long crease of it upon the middle of th'e long cross, and the short crease over the grooves;
having laid his sheet even upon the form, he then lays down
the tympan, and pulls gently upon the sheet, which, with the
least possible damp, will cause it to adhere to the tympan;
should it happen to lave been laid uneven, it is much better to
relay it, because this sheet (which is denominated the tympan
sheet,) is the guide by which the whole impression of the form
of white paper is worked. He next selects his points, for large
paper short-shanked, and for small, long-shanked points, and
screws them to the tympan; if an octavo, the off point will bear
to be a trifle longer than the near one, but if twelves, they must
be exactly of a length, or placed at exact distances from the
edge of the paper, and the more the distance between the point
holes, the less the liability of the registers varying by the stretching of the holes. By placing the points unequally in octavos,
&c..as before mentioned, he also secures himself the more from
236 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
a turned heap when he works the reiteration. When a press
has a run upon the same work, they seldom ever remove the
quoins on the offside of the bed, but let them remain as guages
for the following forms; for by thrusting the chase close against
those quoins, the register is almost, if not quite made, provided
the chases run equal as to size.  Having fixed on his points, he
then lays down the tympan, within about an inch and a half
of the form, in which position he holds it at the upper part with
his left hand, while he sinks his body till he can see between
the form and the tympan, and with the ball of the middle finger
of his right hand, presses gently upon the tympan over the end
of each point successively, to ascertain if they fall in the middle
of the grooves of the short cross; if not, he moves them: should
the sheet have been taken up properly, and the points carefully
fixed according to it, there can be little doubt but the points will
fall in their places. Under the head of making ready the form,
are comprehended several operations, viz.-1. The frisket should
be covered with stout paper, in the manner described for putting on parchment, being careful to place the paper on the inside of the frame, so as to lie close to the t3;mpan, and to confine the sheet in its place when laid on for printing; when the
paste is sufficiently dried, the frisket should be put on the tympan, and after inking the form, an impression should be pulled
upon it, the frisket is then taken off and laid on a board, or on
his bank, and the pages cut round with a sharp knife about a
Nonpareil from the edge of the margin of each page, it is then
replaced on the tympan; after which it would be advisable to
put a few cords across, not only to strengthen the bars of paper,
but also to keep the sheets closer to the tympan than would
otherwise have been the case if the paper bars had been left to
perform this office alone; at times it is necessary to work with
cords only, where the margin is too small to admit bars of paper.
2. He next examines his form, to see that it is properly
locked up and planed down.
3. That no letters or spaces lie in the white lines of the form,
nor between the lines in leaded matter; which may happen if
the compositors have made any corrections since the form was
laid on the press.
Q                    21
23T 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
4. Should there be any wood cuts in the form, they must be
brought to a proper height, which will depend much upon the
judgment of the pressman; if the cuts are heavy, they must be
at least type high, but should they be light, they will perhaps
require to be about a lead or more lower than the type, and the
solid parts, if any, brought up by overlays nicely cut from an
impression, with a pair of sharp scissors; should any particular
part then be too high, it may be humored a little by cutting it
out of the tympan sheet; but should the whole appear too
heavy, an underlay must be taken out, and if necessary, the cut
filed or scraped away at the bottom. This part of the pressman's duty has heretofore been altogether too much neglected,
either from inattention, or a want of knowledge of the proper
course to be pursued, much to the detriment of the engraver,
whose labor, unassisted by the printer, is entirely thrown away.
5. If a white page or pages happen in the form, and he uses
a newly covered frisket, he does not cut out that page; but if he
works with an old frisket, and that page is already cut out, he
pastes on a piece of paper to cover the white page in the form,
that it may not black; he then puts on a bearer, to keep the
adjoining pages from having too hard an impression; some
pressmen use reglets, others have furniture cut to a proper
height, and a third class adopt cork, which, from its elasticity,
in many cases is very useful; spring bearers, made of hard
paper rolled up, are also very serviceable to guard the sides and
bottoms of light and open pages, when there is an inclination
to slur, which, with some presses, cannot be prevented.
6. He examines whether the frisket bites; that is, whether it
keeps off the impression from any part of the pages; if it does,
he cuts away so much, and about a Nonpareil more, off the
frisket where this happens.
7. He considers whether the catch of the frisket stands either
too forward or too backward: if too forward, he may be much
delayed by its falling down, and if too backward, after he has
given the frisket a touch to bring it down, it will be too long
before it will follow, and retard the progress of the work, and
not unfrequently cause the sheet to slip out of its proper place;
he therefore places the catch so that the frisket may stand a
238 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
little beyond a perpendicular backwards, that with a nearguessed strength in the tossing up, it may just stand, and not
come back.
8. He fits the gallows so that the tympan may stand as much
toward an upright as he can; because it is the sooner let down
upon the form and lifted up again. But yet he will not place
it so upright as to prevent the white sheets of the paper from
lying secure on the tympan; and for reiteration sheets, their
laying upon the points secures them.
9. Few pressmen will set the range of the paper bank to
stand at right angles with the bed of the press; but they draw
the further end of the bank so that the near side may make an
angle of about seventy-five degrees, more or less, with the near
side of the bed.
10. The pressman brings his heap, and sets it on the horse,
on the near end of the paper bank, as near the tympan as he
can, yet not to touch it, and places an end of the heap towards
him. He then takes the uppermost, or outside sheet, and lays
it on the bank; and taking three, or four, or five quires off his
heap, he shakes them at each end, to loosen the sheets, that
with pressing stick close together; and not finding them loose
enough, he shakes them long-ways and side-ways, to and fro,
till he finds he hds sufficiently loosened or hollowed the heap.
Then with the nail of his right hand thumb, he draws or slides
forward the upper sheet, and two or three more commonly follow gradually with it, over the hither edge of the heap, to prepare those sheets ready for laying on the tympan.
11. Having attended to the foregoing directions, he next
proceeds to pull a revise sheet, which must be sent up to the
Overseer for a final revision, and that he may discover whether
any letters have dropped out of the form in putting it on the
press, &c.
12. While the sheet is undergoing a revision, the pressman
proceeds to make register, (if half sheet-wise) which he does
by pulling a waste sheet, and turning it, (withbut inking, as
the sheets may afterwards be used for slip sheets,) being par~ticular not to stretch the point holes in the least, or to draw the
hand along the sheet in leaving it, as it will be impossible to
L-1 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
make good register while these particulars are neglected. In
making register, the points should be knocked up-or down in
such a direction as would bring the first impression under the
last, only knocking the point half the distance apparent on the
sheet. Should we be unable to make register with the points,
the difficulty must then be either in the fiurniture, the length of
the pages, or what is too frequently the case, in the springing
of the cross-bars, from being locked up by careless and indifferent compositors, who commence atone quarter of the form,
locking it up tightly, and so going round, instead of gently tapping it at opposite sides till the whole is secure. In locking up
a form, the quoins at the feet should be gently struck first, to
force up the pages and prevent their hanging; but in unlocking, the side quoins are first slackened, otherwise, should the
matter be leaded, the leads are very liable to be bent, if not
broke, by the foot of the page being first unlocked.
In making register, it may sometimes be necessary to move
the forms, particularly in twelves, in order to avoid the inconvenience of moving the points, or in some cases where they
cannot be moved to answer the purpose.
But it sometimes happens that the compositor has not made
the white exactly equal between all the sides of the crosses; in
this case, altering the quoins will not make good register; the
pressman therefore observes which side has too much or too
little white, and, unlocking the form, takes out or puts in such
a number of leads or reglets as he thinks will make good register, which he tries by pulling a sheet, and if it be necessary,
alters it again, till he has pulled a sheet with good register.
PULLING.
To-take a sheet off the heap, the puller places his body almost
straight before the near side of the tympan; but nimbly twists
the upper part of his body a little backwards towards the heap,
the better to see that he takes but one sheet off, which he
loosens from the rest of the heap by drawing the back of the
nail of his right thumb quickly over the bottom part of the
240 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
heap, (but in the reiteration, care should be observed to draw
the thumb on the margin, or between the gutters, that the sheet
may not smear or set off,) and, receiving the near end of the
sheet with his left hand fingers and thumb, catches it by the
further edge with his right hand, about four inches from the
upper corner of the sheet, and brings it swiftly to the tympan,
and having the sheet thus in both his hands, lays the further
side and two extreme corners of the sheet down even upon the
further side and extreme further corners of the tympan sheet;
the sheet being now properly laid on, he supports it in the centre by the fingers of the left hand, while his right hand, being
disengaged, is removed to the back of the ear of the frisket, to
bring it down upon the tympan, laying, at the same moment,
the tympan on the form. He then, with his left hand, grasps
the rounce, and with a moderate strength quickly turns it in;
after pulling, he gives a quick and strong pressure upon the
rounce, to turn it back, and run the carriage out again: as soon
as he has given this pressure, he disengages his left hand from
the rounce, and claps the fingers of it towards the bottom of the
tympan, to assist the right hand in lifting it up, and also to be
ready to catch the bottom of the sheet when the frisket rises,
which he conveys quick and gently to the catch; and while it
is going up, he'slips the thumb of his left hand under the near
lower corner of the sheet, which, with the assistance of his two
fore-fingers, he raises, and by so doing allows the right hand
also to grasp it at the top, in the same manner, which lifts the
sheet carefully and expeditiously off the points, and nimbly
twisting about his body towards the paper bank, carries the
sheet over the heap of white paper to the bank, and lays it
down upon a waste sheet or wrapper, put there for that purpose; but while it is comling over the white paper heap, though
he has the sheet between both his fore-fingers and thumbs, yet
he holds it so loosely, that it may move between them as on
two centres, as his body twists about from the side of the tympan towards the side of the paper bank.
Thus, both the pressman's hands at the same time are alternately engaged in different operations; for while his right hand
is employed in one action, his left is busy about another; and
21*
.-241 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
these exercises are so suddenly varied, that they seem to slide
into one another's position, beginning when the former is but
half performed.
Having thus pulled a sheet, and laid it down, he turns his
body towards the tympan again, and, as he is turning, gives
the next sheet on the white paper heap a touch with the back
of the nail of his right thumb, as before, to draw it a little over
the hither edge of the heap, and lays it on the tympan, &c. as
he did the first; and so successively every sheet, till the whole
heap of white paper be worked off.
As he comes to a token sheet, he undoubles it, and smooths
out the crease with the back of the nails of his right hand, that
the face of the letter may print upon smooth paper. And being
printed off, he folds it again, as before, for a token sheet when
he works the reiteration.
Having worked off the white paper of twelves, he places his
right hand under the heap, and his left hand supporting the
end near him, turns it over on the horse, with the printed side
downwards: if octavo, he places his left hand under the heap,
supporting the outside near end with his right hand, and turns
it one end over the other; all turning of the paper for reiteration is regulated by this principle, and called by the pressmen
twelve-ways, or octavo-ways. In performing this operation, he
takes from the heap so much at once as he can well govern,
without disordering the evenness of the sides of the paper, viz.
a token or more, and lays that upon the horse; then takes
another lift, and so, successively, till he has turned the whole.
Having turned the heap, he proceeds to work it off, as before
described, except that with the left hand he guides the point
holes over the points, moving the sheet with the right hand,
more orless, to assist him in so doing. The token sheets, as
he meets with them, he does not fold down again, as he did the
white paper.
When within a quire or so of the end of the heap, the warehouseman should be called, whose duty it is to count the paper,
and if it falls short, he brings the pressman the number of dry
sheets, which he turns into the heap from which the wet sheets
are taken.
,'242 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
RULES AND REMEDIES FOR PRESSMEN.
ABOUT every five or six. sheets a small quantity of ink should
be taken; yet this will be subject to considerable variation from
the nature of the individual work, and quality of the ink; a
form of large type, or solid matter, will require the taking of
ink more frequently, and a light form of small type less frequently; during the intervals in which the roller boy is not
employed in brayering.out or taking ink, he should be almost
constantly engaged in distributing or changing his rollers. In
taking ink, he should invariably take it on the back roller, as it
will the sooner be conveyed to the other roller, and consequently save time in distributing. When, through carelessness,
too much ink has been taken, it should be removed by laying a
piece of clean waste paper on one of the rollers, and distributing them till the ink is reduced to the proper quantity. If letters, quadrats, or furniture, rise up and black the paper, they
should be put down with the bodkin, and the quarter locked up
tighter. If any letters are battered, the quarter they are in must
be unlocked, and perfect ones put in by the compositor. When
bearers become too thin by long working, they should be replaced by thicker ones. When the form gets out of register,
which will often happen by the starting of the quoins which
secure the chase, it must be immediately put in again, as there
can scarcely be a greater defect in a book, than a want of uniformity in this particular. If picks, which are produced by
bits of paper, composition, or film of ink and grease or filth,
get into the form, they are removed with the point of a pin or
needle; but if the form is much clogged with them, it should
be well rubbed over with clean lie, or taken off, and washed:
in either case, before the pressman goes on again, it should be
made perfectly dry by pulling several waste sheets upon it, in
order to suck up the water deposited in the cavities of the letter.
The pressman should habituate himself to glance his eye over
every sheet, as he takes it off the tympan; by following this
plan, he will be enabled not only to observe any want of uniformity in the color, but also to detect many imperfections
which might otherwise escape unnoticed.
243 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
In order to make perfect uniformity in the color, the roller
boy should be made to keep his ink well brayered out with the
small roller, in proper quantities for the work in hand, and also
to change his rollers well after taking ink, and at other times;
the rollers are changed by moving the roller handle slowly to
the right and left, while the crank is being turned briskly with
the left hand.
Torn or strained sheets met with in the course of work, are
thrown out and placed under the bank. Creases and wrinkles
will frequently happen in the sheets through careless wetting
of the paper, and which escaped the pressman's notice in turning; these should be carefully removed by smoothing them out
with the back of the nails of the right hand.
Slurring and mackling arise from various causes; the following, among many others, are the causes of, and remedies for
this evil. If the frame of the tympan rub against the platen, it
will inevitably cause a slur or mackle. This can easily be
remedied by moving the tympan so as to clear the platen. The
joints or hinges of the tympans should be kept well screwed up,
or slurring will be the consequence. The thumb piece of the
frisket being so long as to cause it to rub against the cheek of
the press, always produces a slur; this can be prevented by
filing off a part of it. Loose tympans will at all times slur the
work, great care must therefore be observed in drawing them
perfectly tight. The paper drying at the edges will also cause
a slur; this may be remedied by wetting the edges frequently
with a sponge.
Independent of the above causes, slurring and mackling will
sometimes happen; it will be better in this case to paste corks
on the frisket, or to tie as many cords as possible across it, to
keep the sheet close to the tympan.
In rolling the form, the pressman should see that the boy
rolls it slowly, or the rollers will be apt to jump, which occasions afrar'; to prevent the rollers from jumping or bounding,
various experiments have been tried, as the most successful of
which, we would recommend bridges or springs made of thin
steel, to reach across the gutters; these springs should taper off
at the ends, and have an oblong hole in each end, through
244 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
whichi they may be tacked to the gutter sticks. In very open
forms, it will perhaps be necessary to put bearers, or pieces of
reglet where the blank pages occur at the end of the form, to
prevent that end of the roller from falling down and leaving a
friar at the opposite end. Of late years this difficulty has, in a
great measure, been obviated by imposing the form in such a
manner, as in most cases, to bring the blank pages in the centre. (See pages 14, 15, 20, and 21 of the impositions.) This
mode should always be adopted for title pages and other light
matter, as great advantages must arise from working such
pages in the centre of the form.
Before the pressman leaves his work, he covers his heap.
He first turns down a sheet like a token sheet, where he leaves
off, then puts a quantity of the worked off sheets on it, and a
paper board if convenient. Laying the blanket on the heap,
after leaving off work, is a bad custom. If the paper be rather
dry, it will be better to put wet wrappers on it, after wetting
the edges well.
The pressman next observes whether his-form be clean; if
so, he puts a sheet of waste paper between the tympan and
frisket, and lays them down on the form; if it be dirty, it must
be rubbed over with clean ley, and several waste sheets pulled
on it as before directed, to suck the dirty ley out of the cavities
of the letter. On his return to work in the morning, should the
type be much worn, he takes care to wet the tympan. If there
should be any pages in the form particularly open, those parts
of the tympan where they fall must not be wetted.
THE LEY TROUGH.
THE form being worked off, it becomes the pressman's duty to
wash it clean and free from every particle of ink, not only for
the cleanly working and well standing of the letter in the subsequent composing, but to save his own time in making ready
when the same letter gets to press again; for if a pressman is
at all remiss in this duty, he will perhaps at last be obliged to
us 
TYPOGRAPtIA.
do it, and wait the drying of the form, before he can go on with
his work in a fit and proper manner. Many an hour is lost
from a pressman not bestowing a minute or two in thoroughly
cleansing and rinsing his form.
For this purpose, every printing office is provided with a ley
trough, suspended on a cross frame, and swinging by iron ears
fixed something out of the precise centre, so as the gravity of
the trough will cause it to fall in a slanting position forward.
This trough is lined with lead, the top front edge being guarded
from the pitching of the formns by a plate of iron. The form
having been placed in the trough on its side, he takes hold of
the rim of the chase by the hook, or instrument for that purpose, and laying it gently down, pours the ley upon it, and
sluices it by swinging the trough on its pivots, two or three
times to and fro, then taking the ley-brush, he applies it to the
whole form, type, furniture, and chase; the ley is then let out
into a receptacle for that purpose, and the form well rinsed with
clean water, by swinging the trough as before; the form is
then lifted out, and consigned to the care of the compositor.
The ley is made of pot or pearl-ash. A large earthen jar is
usually chosen for the purpose; a sufficient quantity of pearlash is added to the water to make it bite the tongue sharply in
tasting. 
The ley brush is made large, the hairs close, fine, and long,
in order not to injure the type, while sufficient force is applied
to search every interstice in the letter, where the ink can have
insinuated itself.
ON FINE PRINTING.
IT is to be regretted, that uncontrolable causes preclude us from
partaking of those benefits, which are so essentially necessary
in the production of Fine Printing; we allude to the very
changeable nature of this climate, the temperature of which is
so variable, that it acts powerfully upon the oil of which our
ink is composed, disposing it at one hour to spread equally over
the rollers, and at another rendering it so glutinous and stiff, as
246 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
to tear the surface of the paper, and thereby baffle the utmost
efforts of the pressman; even though he raise the temperature
to summer heat, if the frost be intense, it will be of little avail:
it has been proved that heat will not entirely counteract the
effects of a freezing atmosphere upon some kinds of printing
ink.  It is not the ink alone that is thus affected, but also the
rollers, which are so out of order at certain times, that it is
utterly impossible for the pressman to produce even passable
common work, much less that of a superior kind: of these
evils the public are little aware, but they are severely felt both
by the employer and the men. But there are other obstacles
against the production of Fine Printing, or indeed work of any
description; we allude to the introduction of cotton rags, and
likewise ground plaster of Paris (called g,ypsum,) into the
manufacture of fine and other papers, also the application of
the oxygenated muriatic acid for the purpose of obtaining
despatch and delicacy of color, and thereby producing a good
paper in appearance, from an inferior staple. Nothing can be
more perplexing to a printer, nor more detrimental to his
labors, than what is termed bleached paper: for although it
may be thick, and seem strong in the ream, no sooner does the
water penetrate through it, than it loses its adhesive quality,
and becomes so loose and soft, as scarcely to bear handling,
and in working sinks down into the letter, leaving a portion of
its substance on the form after the impression, until it so clogs
the type, that the work is often rendered scarcely legible. Hence
it is that works printed in this country are less valued than
those from the English press, whose works are printed on
paper of a fine fabric made mostly of linen rags, and sufficiently
strong to bear a fine ink; while in this country the pressman is
obliged to accommodate the ink to the softness of his paper,
which will seldom bear any thing above the lowest priced
book ink.
The printers who have paid most attention to fine printing,
have endeavored to produce that delicacy and sharpness of appearance on paper which is peculiar to the copper-plate work;
but though such an effect may be very nearly approximated, it
can never be perfectly attained, the impression being, as I have
247 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
before remarked, accomplished by such completely different
means. In seeking, therefore, after that which peculiarly belongs to another art, we are liable to a neglect of those excellencies which exclusively characterize our own; nor needs the
mortification be very great that we cannot produce close imitation of copper-plate printing, when we see the difficult and
abortive attempts of the copper-plate printer and engraver to
imitate us; and when we consider how much more than the
other, our art is capable of performing. With proper materials,
properly employed, the impressions from letter-press exhibit
peculiar fine relief and outline, which, in many respects, must
be allowed to excel in beauty, even the finest productions of
copper-plate.
Those who have had opportunities of inspecting the early
productions of the press, will be convinced that the art became
retrograde in the course of time; for there are yet in existence
works of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth centuries,
which, whether examined with regard to case or press, will
bear a near comparison with any that are now produced. It
has been previously remarked that printing, immediately on its
invention, made singularly rapid advances to perfection, which
may be easily accounted for by the facilities it afforded to the
purposes of society, and more especially to the cause of literature; and the unexampled patronage it thus obtained, as being
one of the most honorable vestibules to human glory.
The improvements which have taken place in all the arts
connected with letter-press printing, have acted, no doubt,
powerfully in stimulating the printers of this country to that
extraordinary exertion by which such fine specimens of typographic beauty are now so frequently produced. As engraving
on copper and on wood progressively improved, it became
necessary that the typography which accompanied them should
not, by a coarse and common appearance, serve but to disgrace
that which it should rival, and abridge the gratification which
might be reasonably expected from a union of the arts.
Although the powers of wood engraving are limited, yet, as
an art most intimately connected with our own, its importance
s worthy of being held in the highest estimation; and were we
.           *.t ~ 
248 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
not to attempt to force it beyond itg capabilities, its advantages
would be more esteemed. In consequence of several frst-rate
artists having put their genius to the stretch, in order that their
works might vie with copper-plate, a false taste has been produced. It is true that some have sent out very beautiful specimens, affording a vast variety; but how curious soever these
productions may appear, yet, on a comparison with impressions from copper, they will be found different things. The two
species of printing has each its peculiar feature, which it is a
vain attempt for the other to strive to equal.  The deep, soft,
regular black ground which can be given to a broad surface by
completely covering it with fine ink, is a property of letterpress printing which the copper-plate can never be able to accomplish; and there is a receding in perspective, and a general
sharpness of outline belonging entirely to the latter, which it is
impossible for the former fully to attain. As it is a natural consequence of the different methods of engraving and working
off, it is a species of dissimilarity that can never be entirely prevented. In speaking upon this subject, the author of a Printer's
Grammar, says: "We are as much disappointed in examining
a wood-engraving, in hopes of finding the softness of flesh and
delicacy of skin which is produced by an artist on copper, as
we are disappointed in not meeting in copper with that broad,
deep shade, and strength of contrast, which the engraver on
wood may always exhibit." Now with regard to the great defect of wood engravings in general thus spoken of, it is presumed that a considerable advance has been made towards
perfection by many artists.
No kind of engraving is better calculated than that of which
we are here speaking, to preserve the real outline and proportions of the designer. Indeed, this will be more easily credited
when it is stated that he generally makes the drawing with
pencil on the block; and the duty of the engraver is to leave
those lines standing, by cutting away the interstices with the
greatest exactness possible. Thus, as the most unfinished etchings on copper of the ancient masters are more valuable than
any imitations of them by a second hand, so are the powers of
the engraver on wood preferable for giviug, as far as drawings
2
249 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
concerned, a faithful transcript of the origreat point, therefore, seems to be, to con is the real province of the art, so that
be raised from it, which, from its nature,
and the art and the artist be unjustly deence of a disappointment which it is beyond
ther to prevent.
tending the printing of wood engravings,
ire the greatest care and attention in the
p   the labor previously bestowed by the der will prove abortive: the printer of fine
hould have some knowledge of light and
h he must of necessity find himself at a
s subjects for the press, however great his
r respects; for it is from the nice touches
y and effect of the engravings are brought
dilties the public are not aware, otherwise
ighly prize works of Art on wood, than
one.
inion exists respecting the color of printing
the glaring effect of a dark black, while
tened richness and warmth of a deep melalways pleasing to behold, without in the
to the sight.  The printer must exercise
ting the color and quality of the ink.
te Press nothing need be advanced; in sevrequisite for Fine Printing is attained.
ret in such a manner as to retain its firmciently soft to apply closely to the surface
e up all the ink; if too wet, it will be im clear or black impression.
ich so much depend, ought to be particularly
urther directions, see subsequent Chapter.)
uld always be kept in a state of tension, by
the blanket, and removing the slip sheets,
ey bcome p.
t be of fine broad cloth, or kerseymere, and
only one to be used.
250 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
When printing large letter, the surface of which requires to
be well filled with ink, a sheet of tissue paper, or common
paper damped, should be laid between every impression, to
prevent the sheets from setting off on the back of each other.
Different opinions exist respecting what constitutes Fine
Printing; some imagine, if they make their pages sufficiently
black, that the end is answered; others, if they are pale and
clear; so that each has a style peculiar to himself: therefore
persons contend on this head, as though they were criticising a
painting or an Engraving.
PRINTING ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.
HAVING previously alluded to this subject in our articles on Fine
Printing and Making Ready a Form, it will only be necessary
for us here to introduce such practical directions, as are indispensable in obtaining superior impressions from engravings on
wood.
Where a single block is to be worked in the centre of a large
press, it should be imposed in a small job chase, and this chase
again imposed in a larger one, to prevent the springing of the
furniture. Bearers, letter-high, placed round the block, serve
to equalize the impression, and protect the edges from the
severity of the pull; they also render the subject more manageable, by enabling the pressman to add to, or diminish the pres,
sure on particular parts, so as to produce the desired effect.
The first pulls made after the block has been laid on the press,
require a great deal of care, lest by too hard a pull, the delicate
lines of the engraving should be crushed; these remarks are
equally applicable to the printing of cards and other light forms.
The impression in an engraving on wood should not be uniformly equal; if it be, some parts will be too hard and black,
and other parts have neither pressure nor color enough, with
obscurity and roughness, and without any of the mildness of
the middle tint, on which the eye seeks to repose afe viewing
the strong lights and deep shades.
251 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
To produce the desired effect, the pressman pulls a few impressions on soiled or damaged India paper, out of which he
can cut overlays to the precise shape and size. that are wanted,
which he does with a penknife and a pair of small scissors,
scraping the edges of the overlay in many cases, to cause the
additional pressure to blend with the surrounding parts. The
overlays being nicely cut, he lays them on the engraving precisely where he wishes them, and having slightly pasted that
part of the tympan sheet, puts the tympan slowly down, and
presses with his hand over the block sufficiently hard to cause
the overlays to adhere to the tympan; this he repeats till his
dark shades are sufficiently strong, and should the light parts
then be too heavy, he proceeds to cut them out of the tympan
sheet, and the sheets in the tympan if necessary; for in the
printing of highly finished wood cuts, blankets should never be
used, a couple of sheets of fine smooth paper being sufficient.
The pressman will find it an advantage to have a good impression from the engraver before him as a pattern, and then
arrange the overlays, &c. until he produces a fac-simile in
effect; but it would be still better for him, could he obtain the
assistance of the artist at the press side.
It is indispensably necessary in the production of fine printing, of whatever kind, that the workman should be supplied
with the finest ink, and a smooth hard paper, anal that his
rollers or balls, the latter being preferable for wood engravings,
should be in the best order.
A fine engraving on wood should always be washed with
Spirits of Wine, and when out of use should invariably be kept
with its face downward in a cool place. If an engraving warp,
it may be straightened by laying the concave side on a few
sheets of damp paper for a short time.
ORNAMENTAL PRINTING.
UNDER this general head, we will attempt to describe the
various kinds of Ornamental Printing which have sprung into
existence, as it were, within the last twenty years; and from
our having been almost exclusively engaged in that branch of
252 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
the art during the greater portion of that period, it will no doubt
be expected of us to explain, for the benefit of the uninitiated,
the result of our experience.
CARD PRIrNTING has, perhaps, since the introduction of Enamelled or Polished Cards, made more rapid strides towards
perfection than any other branch of the art; the fine absorbing
quality of the Enamel, under proper management, producing
the most beautiful results, in many cases scarcely discernible
from copper-plate. A card, to be well printed, requires the
same treatment as a wood engraving, (see article on that subject) at least so far as the making ready is concerned, and also
in being worked without blankets, and with the finest ink.
Having made a light impression on our tympan sheet, we
place our pins so as to bring the impression as nearly as possible in the centre of the card, one pin at the lower side, and
two at the off side, taking care that the head of the pin does not
come in contact with the types. The pull should be exceedingly light until properly regulated, having at no time more
than is actually necessary to bring up tile face of the type.
Composition Balls should be used for all small forms on the
ordinary hand presses, where fine printing is required. (See
Balls.) The printing of Cards has, however, been carried to
such an extent of late, that they are now printed on small card
machines at the rate of one, two, and even three thousand per
hour; we have two of these machines in use, one capable of
printing one thousand, and the other three thousand per hour.
All prepared cards must be printed without wetting, and it is
now very common to print all kinds dry.
GOLD PRINTING, like most other novelties, has had its day,
but is now more sparingly used; the process, even now, is not
generally known by the profession, although within the power
of all. The types are composed, and made ready at the press in
the usual manner. A pot of gold size is then procured from
the Ink maker, or Printers' Warehouse, with which the form
is inked in the ordinary manner, and the impression taken upon
the paper. The book of Leaf Gold having been previously cut,
if for a large job, by merely taking off the back, if for a small
one, by cutting it into pieces the size of the printed impression,
R                 22'
.253 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
which is done by pressing a straight edge across it, and cutting
it through with the point of a sharp penknife, we proceed to
laying on the gold in the following manner: we slightly wet
the end of the fore finger of our right hand, and having placed
the thumb of that hand on the pile of gold, we raise the edge
of the paper with the fore finger sufficiently to dampen it with
the moisture of that finger, then pressing the moistened edge
of the paper on the gold, it will adhere sufficiently to enable us
to lift gold and paper together, and place it on the impression,
and so we proceed until it is entirely covered; we then gently
pat the gold with the balls of the fingers, or any soft pliable
substance, until it is set, when with a very soft hat brush, we
brush off the superfluous gold, leaving a clear and beautiful impression of the subject in hand. The sharpness of the print
will vary with the judgment of the printer in the quantity of
sizing applied to the type; for if the press-work be bad, the
print will be bad also.
BRONZE PRINTING is more extensively used than gold printing, being attended usually with less than half the expense in
the cost of the material; the method of printing is the same,
except that instead of laying on the gold leaf, the impression is
rubbed over with the bronze, by dipping a small block covered
with a short fine fur into the powder, and brushing off the
superfluous bronze with a soft brush, as in gold printing.
Bronze can be procured of various colors, and when laid on
with judgment, the effect is beautifiu. The palest bronze is best.
POLYCHROMATIC PRINTING is a new mode of printing, by
which any number of colors can be printed at one impression,
with the usual rapidity, and for which we have received letters
patent of the United States.
XYLOGRAPHIC PRINTING,  signifies literally, printing from
wooden blocks, but it is commonly applied to a species of Ornamental Bordering cut in type metal, the printing of which is
from the surface, usually in colored inks. In 1827 we discovered
a mode, which is practised to some extent, by which two colors can be printed at one impression; this is done by having
two plates, the inner one blocked in the usual manner, the outer
one moveable, and made to fit over it, resting on the same block.
254 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
PRINTING IN COLORS.
THE art of printing in colors has heretofore been almost entirely neglected in this country; at least as far as relates to the
embellishing works of ordinary excellence with vignettes, capitals, tail-pieces, and other devices of fancy, in beautiful tints,
in the manner of the early typographers. This may very easily
be accounted for. To print in two colors occupies more than
twice the time necessary to print in one; and it also requires
more skill and ingenuity. These, unfortunately, must be paid
for; and this pecuniary consideration is sufficient to banish
from our pages this lovely art. So did not our forefathers;
they took pride in choosing the most tasteful designs, the most
harmonious colors, to illuminate their productions, and beguile
the reader into study by the illusive charms of gold, and blue,
and crimson. Fortunately, either time was of little value, or
the exclusive possession of the market enabled them to demand
remunerating prices for the time thus well bestowed; but in the
bustle and competition of our more mercantile days, time is
money, and blue and gold, scarlet and green, give way to the
equally useful but infinitely less beautiful uniformity of unredeemed black. In this article we propose to give, only the
method of printing in colors, as now in general use, having
under the head of Ornamental Printing, adverted to a new
method which we have recently invented, called Polychromatic
Printing, for further particulars in relation to which, we refer
the reader to that article. The following remarks relate to the
printing of red and black, the same process being applicable to
all other colors.
When red and black are to be printed on the same sheet, the
form is made ready in the usual way, and a line traced all
round the outside of the chase on the press with chalk, or any
thing that will accurately show the exact situation in which the
form must be placed after it has been taken off the press. The
pressman then pulls a sheet in order to get those words or lines
marked, which are to be worked red; while this is doing, he
washes the form thoroughly, as the least dirt remaining on it
will destroy the beauty of the red. The form is then laid with
255 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
its face downwards on a letter-board covered with the pressblankets. Those words marked to be red are then forced down,
(which the soft and spongy nature of the blankets readily admit
of,) and Nonpareil reglets nicely fitted into the vacancies, which
raise the red lines and words all of an equal distance from the
other matter. A sheet of paper is then pasted on the form,
which keeps the Nonpareil underlays in their proper places.
The form is again laid on the press, observing the utmost care
in placing it agreeable to the marks before made on the press.
It must then be made perfectly fast to the corner irons, as it
is highly important that it remain firm and immoveable during
its stay on the press. The frisket (which is covered with strong
paper) is then put on, the form rolled over with the red ink,
and an impression made on it. The red words are then cut out
with a sharp pointed penknife, with so much nicety as not to
admit the smallest soil on the paper from the other matter.
The red being finished, and the form washed, the compositor
unlocks it, (which is best done on the imposing stone, as the
pressman can easily lay it agreeable to the marks made on the
press,) and draws out the red lines, and fills up the space with
quadrats. When this is done, the pressman cuts out the frisket
for the black.  An extra pair of points are used to prevent the
black from falling on the red, which is termed riling.  When a
great number is to be printed, two forms are generally used,
one for the red, and another for the black, or as many forms as
there are colors to be printed. There is another method of
placing the underlays, which is adopted for broadsides, &c.
with large letter, and with perhaps only two or three lines of
red in them. The red lines are taken out on the press, and the
underlays put in with a bodkin, upon which these lines are
placed, and the frisket cut out as before mentioned.
The custom of printing broadsides, &c. with various colors,
having become so much into general use, has induced most
of our ink makers to turn their attention to the manufacture
of colored inks; consequently the printer can now be supplied
with that article without the delay and labor of making. We
give the following particulars, however, for the benefit of those
who wish to prepare their own colors
.256 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
Varnish is the common menstruum adopted for all colors in
printing.  Red is the color generally used with black.  Trieste,
or English Vermillion, with a small portion of lake, produces a
beautiful red, which should be well groun.d with a muller on a
marble slab, till it be perfectly smooth. If it be in the smallest
degree gritty, it clogs the form, and consequently produces a
thick and imperfect impression; no pains should therefore be
spared to render it perfectly smooth; it may then be made to
work as clear and free from picks as black. A cheaper red, but
not so brilliant, may be prepared with orange mineral, iose
pink, and red lead. The Prussian blue makes also an excellent
color, and will require a good deal of time and labor to make it
perfectly smooth. It is also ground with the best varnish, but
made considerably thicker by allowving a greater portion of color
with the same quantity of varnish, than the red; it will then
work clear and free from picks. As this color dries rather
rapidly, the rollers or balls will require to be frequently washed.
Other colors may be made, viz. lake and indian red, which
produce a deep red; verditure and indigo, for blues; orpiment,
pink, yellow ochre, for yellows; verdigris and green verditure,
for green, &c. All these colors should be ground with soft
varnish, being in themselves dryers, or they will so choke up
the form, as to require it to be frequently washed; the consistency of the ink must be governed by the quality of the work
to be executed; for a posting-bill or coarse job, the ink should
be very thin, the proportion of varnish being much greater than
when required for fine work; should the work be a wood cut,
or small type, the pigmient should be made as thick as possible.
In working the above colors, there will be a great deal of
difficulty, unless they are ground perfectly smooth; too much
care and labor cannot therefore be bestowed upon them.
The best colors for printing, are those of the lightest body and
brightest color.
Boiling ley, made of American potash, should be used for
washing the forms.
257 
CHAPTER IX.
INKING APPARATUS.
To procure a good press being a printer's first care, his next is
the best manner of applying the ink to the type, so as to preserve a perfect uniformity of color; to gain this end, has been
the study of many in the profession; and various have been
their experiments to accomplish this desirable object.
BALLS.
PELTs were formerly used, and when in perfect order would
produce good work; but the difficulty of putting them in order,
and the filthiness attending them, led to the introduction of the
dressed sheep shins, now in use with those who still continue
the practice of beating; a practice which must, in general,
give place to the more perfect mode of rolling.
Composition Balls are made as described below, substituting
instead of the skin, a cotton cloth; the ball being properly
knocked up, must then be dipped into the melted composition,
and held in the hand till it forms a smooth surface on the
face, and is perfectly cool, after which we repeat the dipping
until a sufficient thickness of composition is obtained, when
it will require the same treatment laid down for rollers.
We introduce the following account of Pelt Balls, in order to
show the important alteration which has taken place in this
respect, but more particularly to give the printer proper directions for
KNOCKING UP BALLS.
PELTS are used for this purpose, and such are chosen as have
a strong grain, and the grease well worked out of them. They
are purchased either wet or dry; if dry, they are put to soak in
chamber-ley. One skin generally makes two proper sized balls. 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
When the skin has soaked sufficiently, which will require
about fourteen or fifteen hours, it is taken out of the ley, and
umied; that is, by putting the skin round the currying iron, or
any upright post, and taking hold of each end of it, and drawing it with as much force as possible, backwards and forwards,
against the post, which discharges a good deal of the water and
lime, and renders it more pliable; he then cuts the skin exactly
in two, and puts them under his feet, and continues to tread
them till he is unable to discover the smallest particle of water,
or till it sticks to the foot in treading. The skin is then laid on
a wetting board, or a vacant stone, and stretched, by rubbing
the ball stock on it, as much as possible. He then places a
lining (which is a worn out skin, and which has been previously soaked, but not trodden,) on the skin, and nails them
with one nail to the ball stock; he then proceeds to lay the different cardings of the wool one upon the other, crossways, till
he has sufficient for the ball; he then takes it up by the bottom
corners, and grasps it into a circular form, with which he fills
the ball stock, then brings the skin opposite the part already
nailed, and makes that also fast with another nail. He then
puts two nails immediately opposite each other, between the
fastenings already made, and proceeds to put the skin in plaits,
about an inchl wide; through each plait a nail is driven; the
superfluous skin should then be cut off, within half an inch of
the nails. Balls are well knocked up when the wool is so
placed as to form a full even face, that every part of the skin
may bear upon the letter; not rising in hillocks, or falling into
dales; not having too much wool in them, for that will render
them soon hard and uneasy for the pressman to work with; or
too little, for that will make the skin, as the wool settles with
working, soon flap, and wrap over into wrinkles, so that he
cannot so well distribute the ink on his balls.
SKIN ROLLERS.
IT appears that the skin rollers were not used in England.
They were first introduced in this country by a Mr. Maxwell,
of Philadelphia, about the year 1807, and soon after by him
259 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
abandoned, not being able to make them work properly: they
remained out of use for several years, until they were again
introduced by Mr. Fanshaw, of New York, about 1815 They
were never considered so good as balls: being too heavy for
the hand, they were always used behind the press.
COMPOSITION ROLLERS.
IN noticing the composition rollers, we shall present to the
reader all the information that we have been able to collect,
together with the observations resulting from a practice of nearly
twenty years.
This composition appears to have been discovered by the
mere chance observation of a process in the Staffordshire potteries, in which they use what are there called dabbers. These
were formed of a composition which appeared to possess every
requisite for holding and distributing the ink, imparting it
equally over the form, and being easily kept clean, soft, and
pliable. Mr. B. Foster, a compositor at Weybridge, England,
was the first who applied it to letter-press printing, (about the
year 1815) by spreading it, in a melted state, upon coarse canvass; and,making balls, in all other respects, in the usual manner.  The inventors of printing nmachinery soon caught the idea,
and by running the composition as a coat upon wooden cylinders, produced the apparatus so long and unsuccessfully sought
for, and without which, machine printing would never have
succeeded.
Rollers, like most other improvements, have met with considerable opposition; yet their superiority must certainly be acknowledged by all who have become perfectly acquainted with
them.
As this composition has now become one of the most essential requisites of a printing office, and as most printers are desirous of making their own rollers, (which plain name seems
to have been generally adopted for the revolving cylinder,) we
shall endeavor to describe the proportion of its ingredients, and
its principal advantages: the first, and most important, is that
260
k 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
of doing clean work; in this respect they are decidedly better
than balls, as it is seldom necessary to take out picks, or clean
the head lines; and a roller is frequently worked all day without the necessity of cleaning it. The next consideration is in
point of cheapness, when compared with balls. The pressman
will also find that they require but little attention when he has
become perfectly acquainted with them. The softness and deli —
cacy of the composition render it less liable than balls, to injure
the fine hair strokes of the letter-this consideration alone is
sufficient to warrant an experiment. The great saving of ink is
also an object worthy of attention, for as it cannot penetrate
the surface of the composition, there can be but little wasted.
The composition is made of the following ingredients, viz.
For a Medium roller,
Three lbs. of best Glue.
Three pints of sugar-house Molasses.
One table-spoonful of Tar.
This is calculated for approaching cold weather, but it is
necessary to reduce the quantity of molasses to one quart for
summer heat; and in proportion for any intermediate temperature. The mould best calculated to receive the composition,
should be madd of brass, copper, or iron, with the interior well
polished. The above quantity of composition is intended for a
roller of twenty-seven inches in length, and three and a half
inches diameter, with a wooden cylinder of two and a half inches diameter, which will give half an inch thickness of composition. The thickness of the composition may be varied
according to the size of the wooden cylinder.
DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING COMPOSITION.
THE glue must be put into a bucket, or vessel containing water
enough to cover it, and remain in soak five or six hours, or
until it shall have soaked nearly through, leaving about onethird dry in the centre, which may be ascertained by breaking
23
261 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
a piece of it; it is then taken out of the water, and laid on a
board to dry for ten or twelve hours, when it becomes pliable
like a piece of sole leather, the water having penetrated through
the centre; it is then in a proper state for melting, and should
be put into the melting kettle.
This mtst be a double vessel like a glue-kettle, so that the cornposition in the inner kettle may be melted by the heat of the
boiling water in the outer one. For this purpose, an iron pot
or a strong boiler may be the best or readiest thing found, into
which let a tin vessel be fitted, with a flanch to rest on the rim,
so as to leave one or two inches under it. This vessel may be
two or three inches above the top of the boiler, and so that the
lid of one may fit the other; it must also have a lip for pouring
out the composition.
Being thus prepared, put the glue into the inner vessel, the
boiler having in it as much water as it will contain when the
inner vessel is in its place. Put it on the fire, and keep the water
boiling, the heat of which will soon cause the glue to dissolve, and evaporate part of the water. When the glue is all
melted, the molasses should be poured slowly into it, stirring it
all the while, and shortly after the tar should be added; the lat..
262 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
ter ingredient, however, is not considered important in the composition, as but few printers make use of it; the water should
then be kept boiling for at least two or three hours, occasionally
replenishing it, during which time the composition should be
frequently stirred, when it will be ready for pouring.
Having given the receipt which we think most favorably of,
and which our long experience has fully tested, we will now
present the reader with several, the merits of which we are unable to appreciate, never having tried them.
Mr. Hansard, an eminent English printer, and to whom we
are indebted for much valuable information in relation to our
Art, says —" Take glue, made from the cuttings of parchment
or vellum, fine green molasses, pure as from the sugar refiners,
and a small quantity of the substance called Paris-white, and
you will have every ingredient requisite for good composition.
The proportion as follows:     Glue, 2 lbs.    Molasses, 6 lbs.    Paris-white, i lb.
Put the glue in a little water for a few hours to soak, pour
off the liquid; put the glue over the fire, and when it is dissolved, add the molasses, and let them be well incorporated
together for at least an hour; then with a very fine sieve, mix
the Paris-white, frequently stirring the composition. In another
hour, or less, it will be fit to pour into the mould.
Another receipt says 2 lbs. of Glue to 1 lb. of Molasses.
Another...  2......              3.....
Another...   3......        6..
Add to the last receipt 12 drops of the following liquid:
"A piece of sal ammonia about the size of a nut, powder the
same with about two ounces of Pearl-ash, and dissolve them in
a glass of clear water."
* This is the carbonate of barytes, terra ponderosa, or ponderous
earth; the most active of alkaline earths; and acts upon the animal
economy as a violent poison. It is found in combination either with the
sulphuric acid, forming the native sullphate of barytes, or heavy spar.
It is chiefly used in adulteration of paint, giving a body almost equal to
white lead. It is very difficult to be obtained pure, being often substituted with Paris-white of the oil shops, which is nothing mere than a
finer kind of whiting.
263 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
In the Printer's Manual, a small work, published in New
York, we see recommended two pounds and a half of glue, and
two quarts and a pint of molasses. With such proportions, we
cannot doubt the necessity of his introducing something like the
following:  "Washing Rollers.-A method has long been sought, by
which rollers might be cleaned, without washing the molasses
from the glue. It has at length been found. Take a sufficient
quantity of common ley, and antd a little fine salt; it is by far
better than any other way by which rollers can be washed.
The potash destroying the oil in the ink, it no longer adheres to
the composition; and the salt counteracts the effect the water
would otherwise have on the molasses."
It will be observed that the above receipts differ very materially; and as the composition is subject to the changes of the
weather, its consistency must greatly depend on the judgment
of the workmen. Of the above receipts, we are disposed to
think most favorably of Mr. Hansard's; but cannot admit its
superiority over the one previously laid down.
PREPARING THE MOULD.
IN preparing tke mould, care should be taken to have its interior surface perfectly free from any particles of dirt, or composition; it should then be well oiled with a swab, kept for that
purpose, at the same time being particular not to leave too much
on the surface, as it will run when the heat of the composition
comes to it, and cause an imperfect face on the roller: the end
pieces should then be oiled, and, together with the cylinder,
placed in the mould, the upper end piece being very open to
allow the composition to pass down between the interior of the
mould and the cylinder. The cylinder must be well secured
from rising, before the composition is poured in, by placing a
stick upon the end of it, sufficiently long to reach above the end
of the mould, and be tied down with twine. The composition
should be poured very slowly, and in such a manner as to
cause it only to run down one side of the cylinder, allowing the
air to escape freely up the other.
264 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
If the mould is filled at night, the roller may be drawn on tile
following morning, but should not be used, for at least twenty
four hours, except in very cold weather; it should be cleaned
Derore it is used, by rolling it about the floor until its surface is
covered with dust, then with a sponge wash it off quickly with
water, wipe it dry, and let it remain until in a proper state for
working.
GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR WORKING ROLLERS
HAVING cast three or four rollers for each press, we select two
of' them for immediate use, which are put into the roller frame
for working. To determine when a roller is in order for working, we press the hand gently to it, to discover whether it is
adhesive or not, if so, and the fingers can be drawn lightly and
smoothly over its surface, it may then be said to be in order;
but should it be adhesive, and the fingers will not glide smoothly
over its surface, it is then not sufficiently dry, and should be
exposed to the air until it possesses the above qualities: a roller
well washed at night, and put into an air-tight box till morning,
will generally be found in good order for working. For that
purpose, every press-room should be furnished with a large upright box or closet of sufficient size to contain all the rollers in
a horizontal position, their journals resting on supporters at the
end of the box.
To wash the rollers, nothing more is requisite than the application of water, after rolling them in the dust; in cold weather
a little warmed, but cold as possible in warm weather, which
needs only to be used with the hand or a sponge; some pressmen, however, prefer washing them with ley, after which they
should be well rinsed with clean water.
In very warm weather, the rollers should be occasionally
changed, to prevent them from getting too soft, or from melting; it is frequently found when a roller is sick, or soft, or you
do not know what is its ailment, that washing it clean, and
hanging it to rest for a time, restores it to as good a state as
ever, but it should not be washed till after it has cooled a little,
as the cold water has a tendency to wrinkle it very much when
265
23-* 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
over-heated. Great care should also be taken to keep themn
from the effects of the sun, as they are easily melted, and in
warm weather they should be kept in as cool a place as possible
during the night. Should any accident happen to the roller, to
injure its surface, it may be melted again and re-moulded as
before.
Since the introduction of composition, a great annual expense
is saved in skins and wool, and a vast deal of the precious time
of the men. Upon the introduction of the balls, it was calculated that the saving to each man was a half a day in a week;
and we conceive that still more is saved by the rollers. But
what is above every other consideration, the quality of the work
is materially improved, and the labor is reduced to comparative ease by rolling over a form instead of beating it.
It is curious to contemplate the various changes which have
taken place in a press-room, as far as regards manual labor,
within a very few years. Previous to the introduction of the
iron presses, the beating was the lighter labor, and pulling the
heavier; to the latter of which an apprentice was seldom put,
except for very light work, for the first twelve months. Then
pulling became the lighter-the stronger beat, and the weaker
pulled.  But when the rollers were introduced, the stronger
again took' the bar, and the weaker rolled: and a well-grown
lad was capable of taking both parts in the first month of his
service. The pulling is now the only hard labor, the rolling
requiring only a due degree of adroitness and attention.
About twelve years since, a machine was introduced to supply the place of a boy in rolling the form, &c. which was acted
upon by weights and springs wound up by the running in of
the bed; this machine performed the various offices of rolling,
taking ink, and distributing, but owing to its complicated construction, was very liable to get out of order. Within a few
years, however, various improvements have been made upon
them, and their construction much simplified.
266 
CIIAPTER X.
IMPROVED PRESSES.
AMONG the various improvements which have taken place in
many branches of our Art, we conceive that none have tended
more to the advancement of beauty in execution, and the comfort and convenience of the workman, than the improved presses
of the present day.
THE COLUMBIAN PRESS.
)
l is~~~~~~~~~~~
THE press thus called was invented by Mr. George Clymer, of
Philadelphia, about thirty years since, and made the subject
of a patent; shortly after its invention, Mr. Clymer proceeded
to Europe, where he introduced them to the notice of the profession in 1818, greatly improved in their manufacture.
They were held in high estimation in Europe, and are still
in use there; hut in this country they have been superceded by
the simplicity, lightness, and cheapness of the Washington
Press. They have not, however, been manufactured in this
country since the removal of Mr. Clymer to Europe. 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
THE AMERICAN PRESS.
THIs press was invented by Mr. Shelden Graves, and is nowv
manufactured by Mr. Ramage, of Philadelphia. It is a combination of the toggles of the Washington Press, and the lever or
elbow of the Smith.
THE WASHINGTON PRESS
WAS invented by Mr. Samuel Rust, of New York, to whose
ingenuity and skill we are indebted for a valuable combination
of jevers.  They are now manufactured by Messrs. Hoe & Co.,
Taylor, H. Worrall & Co., and others, of New York, and Mr.
F. J. Cosfeldt, of Philadelphia. The frame represented in the
engraving seems to have been adopted by most modern press
makers, and is an essential improvement on the old cast iron
rims; the columns at the sides of the press are cast iron hollow
cylinders, with wrought iron bars running perpendicularly
through them, which are attached to the head and winter
of the press, rendering the frame less liable to be broken, more
portable, and certainly much neater in appearance.
268 
— LI
:41+..
II."...
Tht~~~~U
GTON PRESS. 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
THE WELIS  t'tI~,;.
"ii
THis press was invented by John I. Wells, of Hartford, Conn.
about the year 1816; when  well made, they were excellent
presses, but they have given place to those of more recent invention.
MACHINE PRINTING.
THIS term is usually applied to cylindrical printing, but of
course literally applies to all kinds of printing where steam
power can be used. The first cylinder press was invented in
England, about the year 1814, and has caused a great revolution in the art, from the facilities which it affords for printing
sheets of paper of a size which could not be worked on a hand
press, enabling the proprietors of newspapers to enlarge them
to a previously unparalleled extent, and to afford them at prices
so greatly reduced, that the circulation of many of them have
been more than doubled.
In the following page we present an engraving of the best
platen nower press now in use; they are manufactured  by
Seth Adams & Co., of Boston. Mass.
270  
TYPOGRAPHIA.
TI'HE RAMAGE PRESS.
t ~Dt 
THIS Screw Press bears the name of its inventor, Mr. A. Ramage; it has been improved by substituting an iron bed and
plaitnn instead of the old wooden ones, the application of spiral
spritlgs, &c. &c.
THE PHILADELPHIA PRESS.
A wrought iron press, invented and manufactured by Mr. A.
Ramage. The principal difference between this and other
presses, is the use of a frame entirely of wrought iron, judiciously constructed.
THE SMITH PRESS.
THIS press was invented by Mr. Peter Smith, of New York,
and is now manufactured by Hoe & Co., and Worrall & Co.
We have deemed it quite unnecessary to present the reader
with a representation of this press, as the only difference between this and the Washington, and other presses, is the application of the wedge power between the toggles. They are
not considered a; powerful as the Washington Press by the
same makers.
272 
CHAPTER XI.
WAREHOUSE DEPARTMENT.
THE warehouse department of a printer is a highly important
part of his concern; the management of which involves his own
credit, and materially affects the interest of his employers: it is
therefore indispensably necessary to appoint a man for the
management of it, who has been regularly brought up to the
business; on whom  the utmost reliance may be placed for sobriety and honesty, and who can be taught to feel and act upon
the principle of making his employer's interest the object of his
constant solicitude. Those who have not such qualifications
will be continually liable, through ignorance and carelessness,
to fall.into many serious mistakes. The employer or overseer
should frequently look to the concerns of the warehouse, and
see that the people employed there, forward the different works
with expedition, neatness, and accuracy.
Having made these observations, we shall now proceed to
speak of the different stages of this department, and begin by
supposing the warehouse to be quite clear, business coming in,
and the warehouseman just entering upon his office. He
should first be provided with a book, which is termed "The
Warehouse Book," agreeable to the plan in the following page,
about the size of a foolscap quarto. When the porter or carman brings paper from the stationer or bookseller, the warehouseman should demand the bill of delivery, order the paper
to be brought in, and see if it is right according to the bill, before he discharges him; and if right, dismiss him, and enter it
immnediately into the warehouse book.
This plan will prevent disputes with the bookseller or author,
relative to the receipt of paper, or delivery of sheets, as the signature of the person to whom the sheets were delivered can be
24 
THE WAREHOUSE B(
JACKSON'S SHAKSPEARE'S GENIUS  JUSTIF]
Date    Receipt of Paper,  No. of Copies   To w
Dt.and of whom.     delivered.     with
1851.
Nov. 3.  90 reams of Messrs.
F. A. Server & Co.
Dec. 8.  40 Ditto.
24.                              100    John Ti
30.                             300      R. Will
1844.
May 4.                              400      Edward
5.      with -waste.           230      John W
1030
~
~~~~~~~~~~~~i ii' i.                                    - l.    i' —'"                   r'''' rT
Il  
TYPOGRAPHIA.
immediately produced. It also enables the warehouseman to
distinguish, with more ease, the different articles he might have
occasion to refer to.
Having entered the receipt of the paper, the warehouseman
should then write on each bundle, with red chalk, the title of
the book it is intended for, and remove it into a part of the
warehouse most out of his way, or into a store-room for that
purpose, observing to place it so as to take up as little room as
possible.
OF GIVING OUT PAPER TO WET.
A bundle of paper contains two reams, or forty quires, and
twenty-four sheets to each quire, if perfect; if not, twenty
quires to the ream, of which the two outside quires are called
corded or cassie, as they only serve for cases to the ream. These
outside quires are by the paper maker made up of wrinkled,
torn, stained, and other damaged sheets, yet the whole quire
very rarely consists of such sheets; but frequently some good
sheets may be found in looking them over. It is the ware —
houseman's business to lay by the two outside quires, and cull
them when most convenient; likewise so to dispose of them,
that they may neither be at the beginning nor end, but about
the middle of the volume, or use them for jobs or proof paper;
for they are seldom so perfect as the inside quires.
It is the general custom to print of every work what is termed
an even number, either 250, 500, 750, 1000, &c. These quantities are given out for the wetter in tokens, viz. for 250 (sheets)
one token, containing 10 quires 18 sheets; for 500, two tokens
one 11 quires, and the other 10 quires and a half; for 750,
three tokens, two of them 11 quires each, and the other 10
quires 6 sheets; and for 1000, four tokens, three of them 11
quires each, and the other 10 quires. If a work is printed in
half-sheets, it of course requires only half the.above quantities.
It would be difficult to form any positive and invariable rule
for the quantity to be given out for short numbers, as it must
depend, in soume degree, upon  the quality of the paper.  The
more expensive papers, on which, generally, short numbers or
275 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
fine copies are printed, must be given out more sparingly than
common paper; and the tympan and register sheets be supplied by a more common sort, cut to the size of the finer.
For numbers up to 150, on ordinary paper, six sheets over,
will, generally speaking, be necessary: the warehouseman
always bearing in mind to reckon for each 25, so many quires
of 24 sheets, and the same number of sheets in the first instance,
and then to add the necessary overplus.
In giving out paper for what are termed jobs, a little further
observation will be necessary. It has been usual to give tables
for this purpose, but we have not been convinced of its utility,
as few printers would refer to a book for such calculations on
every occasion, when they could be so easily made by a simple
calculation in division.
For example, a job, (label or any thing else) 750 number,
32)750(23  32 on a sheet, will require 24 sheets, which wilt
64       give an overplus of 18.  If this is not thought
-        sufficient, a remnant or sheet more must be given
110      out, calculating that where a sheet has to be cut
96      into many parts, some further allowance must be
--      made  for accidents.  The  overplus sheets being
14. partly allowed for tympan sheets, register sheets,
and other incidents; such as bad sheets, faults committed in
rolling, pulling, bad register, &c.; in any of these casualties,
the pressman doubles the sheet in the middle, and lays it across
the heap. In setting out the paper, the warehouseman lays
each token with the folded side, or back part, one way, and the
other token with the folded, or back side, the other way, that
the wetter may distinguish the different tokens.  When this is
done, he writes a label, and puts it into the bundle, thus: Typ)o,raphia, JIfay 25, 1844, that the pressman may know how long
it has been wet, and the state it is in for working.
OF HANGING UP PAPER TO DRY.
WHEN the paper is worked off and counted, the warehouseman takes the heap and carries it to the drying room, where
poles are fixed for the purpose of hanging the sheets upon to
dry, and lys it down on a stool, or table, of a convenient
0-76
I 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
height, with one end of the heap from him; he then takes the
handle of the peel in one hand, and lays the top part down
upon the heap, so that the upper edge may reach near the middle of the s-eet; after which, with the other hand, he doubles
over so much of the printed paper as he thinks sufficient to
hang up at one lift, which should be about seventeen sheets, as
near as he can guess, or twelve, &c. as he can allow time to
dry, or have pole-room to hang them on.
In hanging up the lifts, he places them so that each lift may
lap about an inch over the preceding one, till he has disposed
of all the paper, or until he comes to the end of the pole. It
will sometimes be necessary, where the end of a pole is exposed to any strong current of air, as a window, &c. to lock
the last lift. This is done by folding a lift two or three times,
so as to concentrate its weight in a small compass, and hanging this over the last lift near the window, it will generally
prevent the air taking the sheets off the poles.
OF TAKING DOWN SHEETS WHEN DRY.
WHEN the sheets are sufficiently dry, the warehouseman takes
his peel, and begins with the last lift hung up, on account of
the wrapper being with that lift, and continues to proceed to
the other, in the reverse order to that of hanging them up, successively taking them down and brushing them, if dusty, till he
has finished the whole; taking care that he lays the single signature of each lift one over the other; if this is not done, it will
occasion considerable trouble to turn them when they are to be
folded.
There is also another way of taking the sheets down from
the poles, which is, by laying the flat side of the peel against
the edge of that lift which hangs over the other sheets, and
pushing the peel forward, forcing them to slide, one doubling
over the other, and so finishing the business with more expeation.  But this method cannot be recommended, because the
dust, which flies about while the sheets are hainging, mus
lodge on them, and by pushing them forward, is rubbed in, i.
stead of being brushed off.
277
24* 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
OF FILLING IN AND PRESSING SHEETS.
WHEN the sheets are taken down, the warehouseman removes
them to the warehouse, where they are filled in between smooth
paste-boards made for the purpose. This operation is generally
performed by boys or girls, who, after a little practice, become
exceedingly expert at it. We shall endeavor to be somewhat
minute in our description of this operation, as it seems to have
been entirely overlooked by former writers on this subject; we
will suppose the paste-boards to have sheets between them,
which will be the case after they have been once used. The
warehouse being provided with long tables or benches, secured
to the wall, and a sufficient number of moveable tables about
the size of the largest paper, the warehouseman places one of
the small tables endwise against the long one, forming a right
angle, and upon which to lay the pressed sheets, as they come
out of the boards; the boy then takes his stand at the right side
of the table, with the dry unpressed sheets at his right hand,
and the paste-boards at his left, somewhat elevated, leaving
sufficient space before him to fill in the sheets; he then proceeds as follows: -He first moistens the thumb of his right
hand, andreaches across to the paste-boards at his left, drawing
one off with his thumb, and placing it before him; he then
catches a sheet of the dry paper also with his right hand, and
places it as near the centre of the paste board as possible, then
twisting his body nimbly round to the left, he slides the pressed
sheet from the pile of paste-boards, to the table at his left side,
and in resuming his former position, again draws off a pasteboard with his thumb, and so on, till the gross or bundle is
filled. It is then laid aside, and another bundle filled and laid
across the former, taking care always to keep the bundles separated until they are put in press, when they are separated by
smooth boards made of cherry or other hard wood. The bundles being all filled in, the warehouseman then proceeds to fill
up the standing press, putting in one bundle at a time, and
placing a pressing board between them; there should also be a
stout plank introduced between the top board and the platen.
In case the press should not hold quite as much as we wish,
278 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
more may sometimes be added by unscrewing the press, after
it has been once screwed down, which so compresses the bundies, that one or two more may often be admitted. The press
is then finally screwed down as tight as possible, and should
remain so for at least twelve hours, when it should be entirely
emptied before the sheets are taken out of the boards. In all
these operations, care should be taken to keep the sides of the
piles or heaps perfectly even.
OF COUNTING OUT AND PUTTING BY SHEETS.
WHEN  the sheets are taken out, the warehouseman knocks
them up, and after counting them into quires, proceeds to tie
them up in wrappers, marking the name of the work and signature on each bundle; he then puts them by in that part of
the room where they will be most out of his way, till wanted.
But two or three sheets of each signature should be put by, in
case the author, bookseller, or employer, should want a copy
of the work, or a specimen of as many sheets as are finished.
If this has not been done, and clean sheets should be wanted,
he would then be obliged to lift every signature to get a sheet
out of each, which will occasion a great loss of time; this may
easily be prevented by reserving a few sheets as they are
worked off.
SIZES OF PAPER AS MADE BY MACHINERY.
Double Imperial.......          32 by 44.
Do.  Super Royal,.                27 by 42
Do.  Medium, 23 by 36-24 by 371-25 by 38.
Royal and Half,......           25 by 29.
Imperial and Half,...          26 by 32.
Imperial,..........            22 by 32.
Super Royal,..21 by 27.
Royal,...         19 by 24-20 by 25.
Mediuim,.........          18  by 23i
Demy,....    17 by 22.
FPolio Post,...    16 by21.
Fools Cap,.........           14 by 17.
Crown..........           15 by 20.
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TYPOGRAPHIA.
TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN PRINTING.
Bank. A stage about four feet high, to lay sheets on at press.
Beard of a letter. The outer angle of the square shoulder of
the shank which reaches almost to the face of the letter.
Bearer. A piece of reglet to bear off the impression from a
blank page.-A long piece of furniture, type high, used in
working jobs.-A  solid faced type interspersed in the blank
parts of a page, in composing for stereotyping, to resist the
force of the knife in shaving the plates.
Bite. Is when the inked impression of the page, or any part
of it, is prevented by the frisket's not being sufficiently cut out.
Blankets. Woollen cloth to lay between the tympans.
Body.  The shank of the letter.
Bottled-arsed. When letter is wider at the bottom than the top.
Brayer. A round wooden rubber, flat at the bottom, used to
bray or rub out the ink. Now substituted by a small roller
about five inches long.
Break. A short line.
Broadside. A form of one full page, printed on one side of a
whole sheet of paper.
Broken Matter. When the orderly succession in which the
letters stood, in a line, page, or form is broken or mingled together, which mingled letters are called pi.
Bur. When the founder has neglected to take off the roughness of the letter in dressing.
Cassie Paper. Broken paper.
Clean Proof. When a proof has but few faults in it.
Close matter. Matter with few breaks.
Correct.  A compositor is said to correct when he mends the
faults marked in a proof.
Corrections. The letters marked in a proof.
Devil. The Errand-boy of a Printing house.
Double. Among compositors, a repetition of words; also,
among pressmen, a sheet that is twice pulled and mackled.
Dressing a Chase or Form. The fitting the pages and chase
,with furniture and quoins.
Drive out. When a compositor sets wide.
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I 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
Fat face, or fat Letter, is a broad stemmed letter.
Fat work.  Is when there are many break-lines in a work.
First Form. The form that contains the first page of a sheet.
Fly. The person that takes off the sheets from the press in
cases of expedition.
Form. The pages when fitted into a chase.
Foul Proof. When a proof has many faults marked in it.
Fount. The whole number of types cast to one body and face.
Friar. Where any part of the form has not received the ink.
Full Press.  When two men work at the press with hand
rollers or balls.
Get in. To set close.
Good color. Sheets printed neither too black nor too light.
Good work. Is so called in a two-fold sense; the master
printer calls it good work when the compositors and pressmen
have done their duty; and the workmen call it good work, if it
be light, easy work, and they have a good price for it.
Half Press. When but one person works at the press.
Hell. The receptacle for broken or battered letters, the old
metal box-the shoe.
Horse. The stage on which pressmen set the heaps of paper
on their banks:
Keep in. Is a caution either given to, or resolved on, by the
compositor, where there may be doubt of driving out his matter
beyond his counting off, wherefore he sets close, to keep in.
Keep out. A caution either given to, or resolved on, by the
compositor, when there may be doubt of getting in his matter
too fast, wherefore he sets wide, to drive or keep out.
Kern of a Letter.  That part which hangs over the body.
Letter Hangs.  When the page is out of square.
Low Case. When the compositor has composed almost all
the letters out of his case.
Macule. When part of the impression appears double.
Matter. The series of the discourse of the compositor's copy.
Measure. The width of a page.
Monk.   When the ink is not distributed, or lies in blotches.
Naked Form. When the furniture is taken from the pages.
Off. When the pressman has worked off the designed number.
28,1 
TYPOGRAPHIA.
Out. When a compositor has set all his copy.
Out of Register. When the pages do not back each other.
Pick. When any dirt gets into the hollows of the letter,
which chokes up the face of it, and occasions a spot.
Pi. When a page is broken, and the letters squabbled.
Quarters.  Octavos and twelves are said to be imposed in
quarters, not from their equal divisions, but because they are
imposed and locked up in four parts.
Ratting. Working at less than the established prices.
Register sheet. Sheet or sheets printed to make register with.
Reiteration. The form printed on the second side.
Reglet. Is a thin sort of furniture, of an equal thickness all
its length. It is made to the thickness of type.
Rise. A form is said to rise, when in rearing it off the correcting stone, no letter or furniture, &c. drop out.
Runs on sorts. When matter uses only a few sorts of letter.
Set off. When sheets that are newly worked off, black those
that come in contact with them.
Shank. The square metal upon which a letter stands.
Signature. Any letter of the alphabet or figure used at the
nottom of the first page of a sheet, as a direction for the binders
to place the sheets in a volume.
Slur. When the impression of the sheets appear smeared.
Smouting. When either compositors or pressmen are employed for a short time, and not engaged for a constancy.
Sorts. The letters that lie in every box of the case, are separately called sorts in printers' and founders' language.
Squabble. A page or form is squabbled when the letter or
letters are twisted about out of their square position.
Stem. The straight fiat strokes of a straight letter.
Superior Letters. Letters of a small face, justified by the
foundei im the mould near the top of the line.
Turn for a letter. When a sort runs short, a letter of the
same thickness is substituted, placing it bottom upwards.
White line. A line of quadrats.
White page. A page that no matter comes in.
White paper. Although the first form be printed off, yet pre.ss mnen call that heap white paper, till the reiteration be printed.
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