THE
CHRISTIAN
RETROSPECT AND REGISTER:
A SUMMARY OF
THE SCIENTIFIC, MORAL AND RELIGIOUS PROGRESS
OF THE
FIRST HALF OF THE XIXTH CENTURY.
BY ROBERT BAIRD.
THIRD EDITION.
NEW YORK:
PUBLISHED BY M. W. DODD,
BRICK CHURCH CHAPEL, CITY HALL SQUARE,
(OPPOSITE THE CITY HALL.)
1851.




Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1851
BY   JOIHN    BEACH,
In the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New York.




INTRODUCTION.
IN the early part of last winter, we were requested by a
friend,* to engage to prepare annually, if the proper encouragement should be secured, a volume of some 400 duodecimo pages, which should contain a resume, or summary, of all
that relates to the Progress of the Kingdom of God in this
world, as well as of what has a direct bearing on the most
important interests of mankind.
After much reflection, and with no little reluctance, we
agreed to undertake the task, and begin with the year
1851.   This would have given us the entire year for the
preparation of the first volume.  But we had no sooner
given our consent to attempt the work proposed than
an earnest application was made to us to prepare a preliminary volume, which should give a review of what had
been done during the first fifty years of this century. And,
although it was extremely inconvenient for us to take upon
* Rev. John Beach, of Michigan, who has taken a great interest in
the enterprise.




iv                   INTRODUCTION.
us such a work, situated as we were, and enjoying very
imperfect health, we set about the enterprise in the early
days of March, and (through God's blessing) we have been
able to get through it. The reader will find that the work
is divided into two Parts.  The first relates to'the'progress
of Mankind in what may, in a general sense, be called their
MATERIAL INTERESTS. This portion of the volume is divided
into eight chapters, and these again into sections.
For all of the Vth, VIth, VIIth and VIIIth chapters of
this part of the book, the reader, as well as ourselves, is indebted to the Rev. Benjamin N. Martin, of Albany. They will
be found admirably written, and all that could be desired
in a work of this nature, and so limited in extent.
The second Part relates to what we have denominated
the Progress in the MORAL AND RELIGIOUS INTERESTS
which the world has made during the period under consideration.
It has been our aim to prepare a volume which might
be read with interest and profit by all who desired to
know something of the advance which has been made
during the first half of the XIXth century in that which has
a bearing upon the temporal well-being of the Human
race, as well as in what relates to the enlargement of the
kingdom  of the Messiah. As the work has been written
for popular use-for the benefit rather of those who have
not time to read numerous and    not easily found books,
numerous reports of Societies, religious journals, etc.,-neither great detail, nor extended research, will. be expected.




INTRODUCTION.                     V
In the chapters relating to Science, the applications of
Science, etc., all that could be attempted was to speak of
those things which possess the most importance, and which
are more easily understood by the ordinary reader.
The work is entirely Protestant in its character, and relates to the progress of Protestantism  in the world,-for
the author regards true Protestantism as identical, if not
synonymous, with true Christianity.
It only remains to say that, from the nature of the case
many movements to which some persons attach no little
importance, could not be treated  in this volume;-some
because of their comparative   want of merit;   some because it is not clear that they have had, or will have,
the influence which their advocates claim for them, upon
the best interests, temporal or spiritual, of mankind; and
some because the size of the volume would not allow of
their being introduced. We trust, however, that whatever is
of intrinsical importance in its nature, or has an effective
bearing on the subjects treated in this work, will be here
found set forth as fully as our limits would allow.
NEW YORK, May 9th, 1851.








CONTENTS.
PART I.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
POLITICAL CHANGES OF THE FIRST HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY,.                           13
~ 1. In Europe,......              15
2. In the rest of the Eastern Hemisphere,.  21
3. In North America,.....     24
4. In South America,.              832
5.  In the West Indies,.......    35
CHAPTER II.
PROGRESS OF POLITICAL LIBERTY DURING THE FIRST HALF OF
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
1. Eastern Hemisphere,...            37
~ 2. Western Hemisphere,...                40
~ 3. Present State of the World,.....    40
CHAPTER III.
PROGRESS OF EDUCATION-COMMON-SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, ETC.
~1.  United States........  43
2. Other Countries in America,.... 48
3. Eastern Hemisphere,......          49
~ 4. Asia and Africa,...               55
CHAPTER IV.
FREEDOM OF THE PRESS-ITS PROGRESS-NEWSPAPERS AND
OTHER FORMS OF PERIODICAL INFORMATION AND LITERATURE.
@ 1. America-the United States,.            5...
2. Other Parts of America,.....     64




eoo
V111               CONTENTS.
PAGE
3.  Europe,.......            65
4.  Asia, Africa, and the Islands,......  71
CHAPTER V.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF SCIENCE IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY.
1. Astronomy,.o                 *        74
2. Optics,..........               81
3. Meteorology,....               83
4. Geography,........ 86
5. Physical Geography,                   90
6. General Chemistry and Electricity,.  92
7. General Chemistry-Magnetism,.94
8. General Chemistry-Galvanism,          97
~  9. Chemistry Proper,.....         100
~ 10. Mineralogy,.                       109
~ 11. Geology,..112
~ 12. Botany,.......     11
13. Zoology,...                          120
14. Moral Aspect of Science,..          126
CHAPTER VI.
APPLIED SCIENCE.
~1.  Medicine,........  128
~ 2.  Agriculture,....             135
3. Telegraphs,......141
CHAPTER VII.
PROGRESS IN THE ARTS OF INTERCOMMUNICATION.
1.  Steam Navigation,...            149
2. Railroads,....               154
CHAPTER VIII.
SOCIAL PROGRESS IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE NINETEENTH
CENTURY.
~ 1. History of Jurisprudence,            166
2. The Post Office,......     1. 178
3.  Mechanic Arts,....  182




CONTENTS.                  iX
PART II.
CHAPTER I.
ENLARGEMENT OF CHRISTENDOM DURING THE FIRST HALF OF
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
PAGE
1. Eastern Hemisphere,.e...        189
2. Western Hemisphere,...    194
CHAPTER II.
PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY.
1. Western Hemisphere,.                   202
2. Eastern Hemisphere,... 207
CHAPTER III.
PROGRESS OF EVANGELICAL CHRISTIANITY.
1. Western Hemisphere,.                     218
2. Eastern Hemisphere,...            223
CHAPTER IV.
SOCIETIES FOR THE DIFFUSION OF THE SCRIPTURES.
1. Great Britain,.                      227
2. Other Countries of Europe,....       233
3. Asia,.....235
4. Western Hemisphere,....           236
~ 5.  List of Bible Societies,....        242
CHAPTER V.
SOCIETIES FOR THE CIRCULATION OF RELIGIOUS BOOKS.
~ 1. Great Britain,......        247
~ 2. Other Countries in Europe,.          252
~ 3. The United States,.......      254
CHAPTER VI.
SOCIETIES FOR HOME EVANGELIZATION.
1. American Home Missionary Society,....259
2, Other Societies in the United States,...  262




X                     CONTENTS.
PAGE
3. England and Ireland,.             262
4 Scotland,.                                 265
5. The Continent,... 268
CHAPTER VII.
SUNDAY-SCHOOL SOCIETIES.
l1. England and Ireland,..                   272
2. United States,....                  273
CHAPTER VIII.
EDUCATIONAL SOCIETIES.
1. United States......            276
~ 2.  Europe,.......  278
CHAPTER IX.
THE TEMPERANCE REFORMATION.
~ 1. Western Hemisphere,.... 280
~ 2. Eastern Hemisphere,.            282
CHAPTER X.
AMERICAN COLONIZATION SOCIETY,... 285
CHAPTER XI.
EVANGELIZATION OF PAPAL COUNTRIES,...290
CHAPTER XII.
MISSIONARY EFFORTS PREVIOUS TO THE XIXTH CENTURY,. 295
CHAPTER XIII.
SOCIETY FOR THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOSPEL IN
FOREIGN PARTS,....     300




CONTENTS.                  Xl
CHAPTER XIV.
PAGE
ENGLISH BAPTIST MISSIONARY SOCIETY,            303
CHAPTER XV.
LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY,...           311
CHAPTER XVI.
CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY,..              321
CHAPTER XVII.
ENGLISH WESLEYAN METHODIST MISSIONARY SOCIETY,  330
CHAPTER XVIII.
MISSIONS OF THE SCOTTISH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES oe 338
CHAPTER XIX.
FRENCH, RHENISH, AND BASLE MISSIONARY SOCIETIES, e 344
CHAPTER XX.
MISSIONS OF THE UNITED BRETHREN AND THE SMALLER
GERMAN SOCIETIES,....         351
CHAPTER XXI.
AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS,......             360
CHAPTER XXII.
AMERICAN BAPTIST MISSIONARY UNION,  o          68




Xul                CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXIII.
PAGE
BOARD OF FOREIGN MISSIONS OF THE PRESBYTERIAN
CHURCH,.....         373
CHAPTER XXIV.
BOARD OF FOREIGN MISSIONS OF THE PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH,.                         78
CHAPTER XXV.
METHODIST EPISCOPAL MISSIONARY SOCIETY,...383
CHAPTER XXVI.
SMALLER AMERICAN MISSIONARY SOCIETIES,..  387
CHAPTER XXVII.
SOCIETIES FOR EVANGELIZING THE JEWS, o. 391
CHAPTER XXVIII.
CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY,...      393
APPENDIX,.......       397
INDEX.       o.....  415




CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER,
CHAPTER I.
POLITICAL CHANGES OF THE FIRST HALF OF THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY.
THE close of the XVIIIth century left Europe in a state of
extreme political agitation,-the influence of which was, in fact,
felt in a greater or less degree, to the remotest boundaries of the
Civilized World. The history of the last quarter of that century is unsurpassed in interest by that of any preceding period
of equal Iength in the annals of Mankind. Within it occurred
two Revolutions which will leave their impress upon the destinies of the human race in all coming time.
In the New World the Revolution of 1775-8S,-itself one
of the glorious fruits, as was the existence of the nation which
it made free, of the Great Reformation of the XVIth century,gave independence and a republican form of government to
THE UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA. In the Old World,
the Revolution of 1789 in France,-which was, in some respects, an effect of that which had just occurred in the Western
Hemisphere,-was the first of a great series of OVERTURNINGS
in the nations, of which, no prophet has arisen to tell us either
the number, the extent, or the duration. All Europe was convulsed to its centre. In that great struggle the Throne and the
Altar went down together in the country where it commenced,




14                CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
to be followed in succession by the Triumvirate and the reign
of Atheism, the Directory and the reign of Deism, the Consulate
and the reign of Military Despotism.
Such was the state of things when the present century was
about to open. On the North American Continent, with the
exception of some unimportant collisions between the United
States and the Aborigines, and a brief naval war between that
country and France, which was coming to a close, all was quiet.
Nor was South America agitated by war. The great countries
on that Continent which were in the possession of nations of European origin, were submissive colonies of Spain and Portugal.
In Europe, France, which a few years previously had, with tremendous energy, driven the hostile armies that had invaded her
territory from all quarters, but had afterwards lost ground almost everywhere through the incapacity of the men who were
in power, was just entering upon her wonderful career of victory
and of conquest. The " Man of Destiny," as he has been called,
had returned from his romantic expedition to Egypt and the
East, and the Revolution of 18th Brumaire (Nov. 9th, 1799)
had made him First Consul, with Sieyes and Ducos as his colleagues. The influence of this change was magical. An effective government was speedily established, which restored
order throughout all portions of that country; whilst abroad,
her armies once more marched to victory in all directions.
The battles of Montebello (June 10th), and Marengo (June
14th, 1800), reestablished the overwhelming influence of the
French in the northern and middle parts of Italy; whilst that
of Hohenlinden, on the 3d of December following, opened Germany to the conqueror, and compelled the proud House of
Hapsburg to accept the terms of peace which Napoleon dictated at the Treaty of Luneville.




AND REGISTER.                   15
SECTION    I.
POLITICAL CHANGES IN EUROPE SINCE THE YEAR 18J0o
THE aspect of Europe at the dawn of the present century was
exceedingly various. In the Centre, Germany was reduced to
the necessity of accepting the peace which was forced upon her
at the Treaty (Feb., 1801) just named; whilst in the South,
French domination was fast pressing the government of Naples
to a state of desperation; and in the North, the thunders of
British cannon at Copenhagen (April 2d), in conjunction with
violence in the Palace of the Czars, dissolved " the Armed
Neutrality."  Nevertheless, the demand of Humanity for the
cessation of the murderous strife which had convulsed that
portion of the world for the preceding decade of years, was
heard, and the Treaty of Amiens (March 27th, 1802) restored
peace for a while to England, France, Spain and Holland.
But this happy period was of short duration. The war was
renewed. Napoleon, who had been crowned Emperor of France
(Dec. 2d, 1804), prepared to invade England. But he was
soon compelled to adjourn the attempt, in order to look after
Austria. The great victory of Austerlitz (Dec. 2d, 1805) again
humbled Southern Germany; and the battles of Jena, Liibeck,
Eylau and Friedland in 1806 and 1807 prostrated Northern
Germany, and drove the Russians back to their own vast domain.
England, by the victory of Trafalgar over the combined fleets of
France and Spain (Oct. 21st, 1805), and the destruction of that
of Denmark (Sept. 2d, 1807), secured her ascendency on the
ocean. The Treaty of Tilsit (July 7th, 1807) gave a shortlived peace to a large portion of the Continent. At this epoch
the sun of Napoleon was fast ascending to the zenith. For a
little while not only France, but Italy, Spain, Holland, Germany,
Poland, Russia-in a word, almost the entire Continent-was




16               CHRISTIAN R'ETROSPECT
subject to his powerful will. But soon a dark and lowering
cloud was seen in the horizon. A war began in Spain, which
lasted five years, and ended with the expulsion of the French
armies from that country. In 1809, Napoleon again invaded
Austria, and by the battle of Wagram humbled for the fourth
time the House of Tapsburg, and tore from the brow of Austria
the proud laurels which her victories for three centuries, over the
Turks and other nations on her borders, had placed there.
The disastrous invasion of Russia by France, in 1812, not
only brought those two great powers into collision, but involved
almost all Europe. The invasion of Germany by France in
1813, renewed the gigantic struggle, which was ended by the
marching of the combined armies of Austria, Prussia, and
Russia to the gates of Paris, the abdication of Buonaparte, and
his exile in the Island of Elba. His escape from that island
again arrayed all Europe in arms; but the "Reign of One
Hundred Days" was ended by the decisive battle of Waterloo
(June 18th, 1815), which sent Napoleon to St. Helena (where he
died, May 5th, 1821), and eleven hundred thousand men, who
were on their way to France, back to their homes.
Since 1815 Europe has seen no general wars. Attempts
were made at Revolution in Italy in 1820, and the great Powers
intervened in Spain, in that year, and by means of French armies suppressed the popular movement, abolished the Cortes
and the Constitution, and restored the despotism of Ferdinand VIIth.
The Russians marched their victorious troops across the Balkan mountains to the gates of Adrianople, in the year 1828,
and would have advanced them to the walls of Constantinople,
if the other great Powers had consented. By this war Russia
extended her border from the Pruth to the Danube.
The Revolution in Greece, one of the bloodiest in the annals
of mankind, lasted from 1821 to 1828, and ended in the independence of that country. This result was greatly hastened by




AND REGISTER.                  1t
the battle of Navarino (Oct. 20th, 1827), by which the combined fleets of England, France, and Russia destroyed those of
Turkey and Egypt.
In France a dynastic Revolution took place in July, 1830, by
which the Duke of Orleans (Louis Philippe) was placed on the
throne of Charles Xth. This was followed by a Revolution
(Sept. 23i, 1830) in Belgium, by which that country was
severed from Holland, with which it had been united since 1814.
An unfortunate attempt at Revolution in Poland was made in
the autumn of that year, and after prodigies of valor had been
displayed by its brave inhabitants, was completely suppressed in
the year following.
In the year 1830, France conquered Algeria, and has maintained her dominion in that land-although it cost her a long
war with Abd-el-kader.
After having thrown off in a great degree the authority of
the Sultan, and conquered Syria, Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt,
prepared to invade Turkey. On the 25th of June, 1839, his
son, Ibrahim Pasha, gained a decisive victory over the Turks at
Nezib; but was compelled to retreat to Egypt, by the great
Powers, who required both him and his father to return to their
allegiance to the Sublime Porte.
In the year 1846 another attempt at Revolution was made in
Poland,-chiefly in Gallicia, or Austrian Poland,-which had a
most deplorable issue. More than sixteen hundred nobles were
cruelly massacred by the peasants, or tenants, whom the Austrian Government, for the purpose of making a counter-revolution, incited to this infamous.deed, by holding out to them the
hope of gaining the possessions of these landed proprietors!
Still more: the Government of Austria availed itself of the
pretext which this unfortunate attempt afforded to persuade
Russia and Prussia to agree to the annexation of the Republic
of Cracow-lying between the Polish possessions of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, and containing 140,000 inhabitants-to the




18               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
Austrian Empire, in utter disregard of the Treaty of Vienna, by
which the existence of that Republic.was guaranteed not only
by these three Powers, but also by England and France.
But the year 1848 was the most memorable of all in the first
half of the XIXth century. A Revolution broke out at Paris
(the 22d Feb.), which hurled Louis Philippe from the throne
of France, overthrew the monarchy, and led to the substitution
of a Republic in its place. This great and sudden movement
precipitated vast changes in Italy and Germany, of whose near
approach there had been, for three or four years, numerous and
most unequivocal indications. In the former, every government
seemed for a while to be on the point of becoming Constitutional. At one time there was the prospect that all the Italian
Powers would make a united and effective effort to drive the
Austrians out of Lombardy, and construct a Confederation of
States in that long-oppressed country. The King of Sardinia, as
being the only monarch, save the Pope, who was truly Italian
by descent, put himself at the head of this movement-a task
to which he was wholly unequal. Deserted by his allies, he was
driven back fiom Lombardy, defeated at the battle, of Novara
(March 23d, 1849), and nothing but the intervention of France
and England saved him from the loss of a portion of his own
patrimonial possessions. Overwhelmed with defeat and disappointment, he abdicated his throne, and died of chagrin (July
28th, 1849), at the city of Oporto, in Portugal.
In the meanwhile, Pope Pius Ninth, who, during the first
two years of his reign had inspired the Romans with the most
sanguine hopes, refused to yield to. the demands of the people
for Italian nationality, a constituent assembly (to form a constitution), and a new ministry. But the Quirinal being surrounded
by the people, and his prime minister, Sig. Rossi, having been
assassinated, his Holiness was compelled to submit. A few
days later (Nov. 24th, 1846,) he fled in the livery of a servant,
to Gaeta, in the Kingdom of Naples. Upon his refusing to re



AND REGISTER.                   19
turn, a Republic was proclaimed, with a Triumvirate at its head,
of which Sig. Mazzini was the most prominent member. This
Republic was overthrown by a French army (July 3d, 1849),
under General Oudinot. The government was carried on by a
Triumvirate of Cardinals until the Pope returned (April 12th,
1850) to the "Eternal City," from his sojourn in exile, at Gaeta
and Portici, of more than fifteen months. For the present all
has been lost-save the liberal ideas which many able newspapers diffused in Rome and throughout Italy, during the existence of the Republic, and, above all, the hidden influence of the
thousands of copies of the Word of God which were circulated
in Rome during the absence of his Holiness. The despotism
of the darkest ages, together with its legitimate auxiliary, the
Inquisition, has returned to the " City on the Seven Hills."
As might be expected, the reaction has extended over all
Italy, and every vestige of the Constitutions which had been
made, or were making at the close of 1848, had disappeared by
the end of 1850, excepting in the Kingdom of Sardinia, where,
we are happy to say, that a Constitution still exists, and is well
administered under the sceptre of the young monarch, Victor
Emanuel.
Revolutions broke forth almost simultaneously in Vienna and
Berlin, which led to the most serious consequences, especially
the former. The Hungarians, who had long been groaning
under the intolerable oppressiveness of the Austrian rule, and
who were prepared to act with promptitude, renewed and urged
their just demands for the redress of their grievances, and for a
more national and equal government. Their demands were at
first yielded to through fear, by the imbecile Emperor Ferdinand,
and afterwards the concession was retracted. This led to a
bloody, and, to them in the end, disastrous war. Driving the
Austrian and Croatian troops out of their country, they were
about to carry their victorious arms into the hereditary dominions
of the House of Hapsburg, and overthrow the Austrian Empire




20               ECHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
itself, when Russia intervened. With her overwhelming armies,
aided by domestic treason, she annihilated, for the present, the
hopes of Freedom in one of the fairest portions of Europe,
whose brave inhabitants had, for two centuries and more, formed
a rampart to protect Christendom and civilization against the
Mohammedan fanaticism and fury of the Turks. And Kossuth,
like Mazzini, was compelled to seek safety in exile.
In Prussia, a constitution was granted by Frederick William
IVth, and is now in operation. And although Germany is still
agitated, the issue will be, it is probable, that something like the
Diet which Germany had from 1815 to 1848, will be restored,
and that the influence of Austria and Prussia will be paramount
in it.
The revolutionary movement of 1848,-which affected, in all,
some seventeen states and countries, and which promised at one
time to secure constitutional freedom to nearly all Europe, has
almost completely subsided. And although the reaction has
been more or less triumphant everywhere, we are far from holding the opinion that nothing has been gained for liberty. The
nations have been made, to some extent, to know, from their
recent failures, the true sources of their weakness, and how to
overcome it. They have been taught that they have their
political education to make; that it can be acquired only by
painful experience; and that it is only through suffering that
nations, as well as individuals, can be prepared for the acquisition, appreciation, and enjoyment of the greatest blessings.
Above all, they have been made to see that in this great struggle for human rights, and a well-founded freedom, but little aid
is to be expected from Rome on the one hand, or Infidelity on
the other.
We will conclude this notice of the political changes which have
occurred in Europe since the present century commenced, with the
remark, that they have left it greatly changed in some respects.
Norway now belongs to Sweden, Finland to Russia; the kingdoms




AND REGISTER.                   21
of Poland and Hungary exist no more, the former being absorbed
in Russia, and the latter in Austria; Germany consists of thirtyeight states, instead of 354, as it did two hundred years ago,
or of eighty or ninety, as in the year 1800; Greece.is now an
independent kingdom; Malta and the Ionian Isles are under
the government of England; Belgium is an independent constitutional monarchy, instead of being held by Austria, France
or Spain; the Swiss Confederation embraces twenty-two Cantons, instead of nineteen, as it did in the latter part of the
XVIIIth century. Europe now contains twenty Kingdoms,
thirty-one Duchies, four Principalities, and nine Republics,-including the four Free Cities of Germany-in all sixty-four States.
This is a great advance towards the reconstruction of the governments on the basis of nationality,-to which things have
been tending for ages, and decidedly so during the last halfcentury.
SECTION II.
POLITICAL CHANGES IN THE REST OF THE EASTERN HEMISPHERE.
Asia.-The northern end of Asia, or the vast country of Siberia,
was under the dominion of Russia at the commencement of the
present century, nor has her dominion been much extended
in that direction since. The war with Persia, in the year 1826,
enlarged somewhat the Trans-Caucasian possessions of Russia.
That with Khiva, a country lying eastward of the Caspian Sea,
was unfavorable to the arms of Russia, and added little or nothing to her vast territories. The war with the Circassians in the
Caucasus has been prosecuted for a long period; nor does its
end appear to be near. In fact it would seem that Russia is in
no great hurry to conquer that mountainous region, or she
would prosecute the war with more vigor. As to Bokhara, an




22               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
extensive region lying south-east of the Caspian Sea, and between the Russian Provinces south of the Caucasus and tle
Province of Affghanistan, if Russia has ever seriously thought
of conquering that country, she has certainly kept her thoughts
to herself. When she shall have effected that conquest, and
England that of Affghanistan, then a collision, in Central Asia,
between these two great Powers will not be far distant.
But while the political changes in Northern Asia have been
neither great nor important, during the last fifty years, it has
been far otherwise in the southern portion of that Continent.
Within that period, the British empire in India has received
vast increase, both as to extension and consolidation. The native princes have been very effectually subdued; the great provinces of the Punjaub and Scinde and others have been added
within the last few years. The attempt to annex Affghanistan,
in 1840, to their immense dominions in India was unfavorable
to the English, and they were compelled to renounce, for the time
at least, the enterprise. At this moment, there must be all
of one hundred millions of people, in India under the government of Great Britain, and fifteen or twenty millions on the
confines, who are greatly under her influence. And this vast
empire has grown to its present enormous extent from small
beginnings within a period of one hundred and fifty years, and
mainly since the commencement of the present century.
In the years 1840 and'41 a war took place between England and China, which ended in the latter being compelled to
open five of her seaports to the English, and pay 21,000,000
dollars.
As to the other countries in Asia, with the exception of the
conquest and temporary occupation of Syria by the late Pasha
of Egypt, we know of no political.changes worthy of note that
have occurred during the present century.
Africa.-In the northern part of Africa political changes of
much importance have occurred since the year 1800. The




AND REGISTER.                   23
Pashalic of Egypt has been converted into a hereditary monarchy, acknowledging a certain allegiance and subjection to the
Sultan of Turkey. This was accomplished by Mehemet Ali,
the grandfather of the present Pasha Abbas. That remarkable
man annihilated the long-endured tyranny of the Mamelukes,
and set about the reorganization of the administration of the
country upon a more regular plan-extremely despotic, and
yet embracing a considerable element of European civilization.
The Barbary Powers-as Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers, and Morocco were formerly called-have been compelled since this century commenced, and chiefly within the last twenty-five years,
to abandon entirely their piratical habits. Nor do they now
dare to exact tribute from Christian nations. Since the year
1830, Algiers, with its territory, has been in the hands of the
French,-a state of things which has had a great influence upon
the adjoining states.
England took the southern end of Africa, or Cape of Good
Hope, from Holland in the year 1795, but restored it in 1802.
In 1806 she took it again from the Dutch, and her claim was
confirmed by the Congress of Vienna in 1814. Her possession
of it seems to be permanently established, and under her government the population is gradually increasing by means of
immigration from the British Isles. Civilization and Christianity are gradually penetrating northward into the interior,
although great hindrance is experienced from the savage tribes.
At various points colonies, chiefly composed of free negroes
from the United States, are planting along the western coast of
Africa, north of the Equator, which promise at a future day to
exert an important political, as well as moral and religious, influence upon that great but almost unknown continent.
The Insular portions of the Eastern Hemisphere.-Great
Britain possesses the large islands of New Holland, Van Dieman's Land, and New Zealand, besides others of less importance, in the Southern Ocean, and a great emigration from her




24               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
shores is annually making its way to them. Already there is a
large population in them-probably not far from a quarter of a
million-of Anglo-Saxon origin. Almost all this has taken
place since the opening of the present century. Who can tell
how great an influence the planting of these English colonies
will have upon the destinies of the human race in that portion
of our globe?
The Dutch still have the great and important islands of Java
and Sumatra, and the half of Borneo,-England having given
them up at the Treaty of Vienna. On many accounts this is
to be deplored, for the Dutch cannot be compared with the
English in capacity for planting and governing colonies; and
above all, they do almost nothing towards introducing into their
foreign possessions the knowledge of a pure Christianity, and of
the happy institutions to which it gives existence.
There has been but little political change in the smaller
islands of the Eastern Hemisphere. France has now the Society
Islands and the Marquesas. In many of them a happy moral
and social as well as religious change is going forward, through
the labors of Protestant missionaries.
SECTION III.
POLITICAL CHANGES IN NORTH AMERICA DURING THE FIRST
HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
United States.-At the commencement of this century,
twenty-five years had passed since the people of the United
States had risen and thrown off the yoke of England..The
present Constitution,-formed in 1787, adopted by most of
the States in 1788, become operative in 1789,-had been in
existence eleven years. The limits of the country in the year
1800 were: the British possessions on the north; the province
of New Brunswick, and the Atlantic, on the east; the Floridas




AND REGISTER.                   25
and Louisiana, on the south; and the Mississippi River on the
west. The number of the States was sixteen, namely, New
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut,
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland,
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee,
and Kentucky. Three of these-Vermont, Tennessee, and Kentucky-had been formed after the independence of the other
thirteen had been established. Besides these sixteen States,
there was the great territory north of the Ohio and east of the
Upper Mississippi River, an extensive territory lying west of
Georgia, and the small district of Columbia. The entire area of
the country was, at that epoch, estimated to embrace one million
of square miles.
In the year 1803, the government of the United States purchased of France what was called Louisiana, or all that country
bounded on the north by the British Possessions that lie west of
Lake Superior; on the east by the Upper and Lower Mississippi,
down to north lat. 31~, and then by the Pearl River; south by
the Gulf of Mexico, Texas, New Mexico, and Upper California;
and west by the Pacific Ocean. The price paid for this vast
domain was $15,000,000. It was called the Louisiana territory,
and its area was estimated at more than a million and a half of
square miles.
In 1819, a treaty was made between Spain and the United
States, by which the former ceded Florida to the latter for five
millions of dollars, the sum at which the spoliations upon
American commerce committed by Spanish vessels were estimated. Florida was taken possession of July 10, 1821. By
this cession the United States acquired a territory of 57,750
square miles in extent.
In the year 1845, Texas was received as one of the United
States, having established and maintained her independence of
Mexico. As she claimed the Rio Grande as her western boundary, her entire area was estimated at 325,500 square miles.
2




26               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
And, finally, at the close of the late war with Mexico that
country ceded to the United States, for the sumn of twelve
millions of dollars, and other considerations, New Mexico and
Upper California, containing 526,078 square miles.
These several acquisitions of territory added to the original
extent of the United States, would make its area to be 3,449,348
square miles. But by a treaty with England, made June 13,
1846, the northern boundary of Oregon, or that part of the
Louisiana territory west of the Rocky Mountains, was made to
lie on the 49th degree of north latitude, instead of 54 deg. 40
sec., as was originally claimed. This makes the area of the
United States to be about three millions and a quarter of square
miles! This is about 400,000 square miles less than the entire
Continent of Europe. The United States now stretch from the
Atlantic Ocean, on the east, to the Pacific, on the west, and from
the Gulf of Mexico, on the south, to the British Possessions on
the north. In point of extent it ranks next to the great Empire
of Russia.
Since the commencement of the present century the following
new States have been added, making the entire number of the
States in the Union thirty-one.
Names.                          Date of Admission.
Ohio,..........                Nov. 29, 1802.
Louisiana,..... April 30, 1811.
Indiana,......    Dec. 11, 1816.
Mississippi.......         Dec. 10, 1817.
Illinois,........ Dec.         3, 1819.
Alabama,........   Dec. 14, 1819.
Maine,.........         March 16, 1820.
Missouri,......  Aug. 10, 1820.
Arkansas,.......    June  15, 1836.
Michigan,........                "       "
Florida,.......       May     3, 1845.




AND REGISTER.                  27
Names.                         Date of Admission.
Iowa,.........               May   3, 1845.
Texas,........ Dec. 29, 1845.
Wisconsin,........ May              29, 1848.
California,.......            Sept.  7, 1850.
The territories are: Minnesota (organized in 1849), Nebraska
(unorganized), both lying east of the Rocky Mountains; Oregon
(organized Aug. 2-13, 1848), west of those mountains; New
Mexico and Utah (organized in Sept. 1850), and the district of
Columbia.
The population of the United States was 3,929,327 in the
year 1790; 5,305,925 in the year 1800; 7,239,814 in 1810;
9,638,131 in 1820; 12,866,920 in 1830; 17,100,572 in 1840;
and not much short of 23,200,000 in 1850.
Within the United States there are, it is estimated, between
400,000 and 500,000 aborigines. In the year 1820, there were
2,247 Indians in New England; 5,184 in the State of New
York; 47,783 north of the Ohio, and east of the Upper
Mississippi; and 65,122 east of the Lower Mississippi,in the States of Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia and
Tennessee. About this time the government of the United
States came to the conclusion, at the instance of some of the
wisest and best men in the country, to remove all these people,
as fast as it could be done, with their consent, to a territory
west of the States of Arkansas and Missouri, which was to be
their own without molestation. This it is proposed to do in order to place them beyond the limits of the organized States, and
on lands claimed by no States. This great task has been almost
accomplished. And large communities of the aborigines are
there formed, having organized governments of their own,
schools, academies, workshops, churches, etc., and other fruits
of civilization. This is particularly the case with the Cherokees
and Choctaws, and to some extent with the Creeks and some




28                CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
small tribes. It is possible that some of the aboriginal tribes
may organize their governments after the fashion of the States,
ask for admission into the Union, and become constituent parts
of the United States.
The government of the United States, under the Constitution,
has existed (at the time of this writing, March, 1851) nearly
sixty-two years. There have been thirty-one Congresses-each
elected for two years. And there have been thirteen Presidents.
Washington,              Van Buren,
John Adams,              Harrison,
Jefferson,               Tyler,
Madison,                 Polk,
Monroe,                  Taylor,
John Quincy Adams,       Fillmore, now the incumbent.
Jackson,
Harrison was President for one month; his death placed Mr.
Tyler in the chair for the remainder of the term. Taylor was
President during sixteen months; his death placed Mr. Fillmore in the chair. All the Presidents of the United States have
been men of respectable talents; some of them have possessed
distinguished abilities; with one or two exceptions, they have
been decided believers in Christianity, and regular attendants
upon public worship, and friends to every good work; and
some of them have been pious men. Thus far the nation has
had no reason to feel mortified at the comparison of its Chief
Magistrates with the rulers of any other people.
The United States have been happily preserved for near
seventy years from the evils of dreadful and long-continued
wars. In 1805, they had a short war with Tripoli. The arbitrary and unreasonable course of France and England in regard to neutral vessels, greatly injured the commerce of the
United States, from 1800 till 1812, and finally brought on a




AND REGISTER.                   29
war with the latter. This war was declared June 18th, 1812,
and lasted between two and three years. The battles on land
were none of them on a large scale. Those of Chippewa,
Bridgewater, Fort Erie, Plattsburg, the Thames, and New Orleans were the most important. On the sea and on lakes Erie and
Champlain the American arms gained some brilliant victories.
There was a war with Algiers of a few weeks' continuance in
1815; with the Creek Indians in 1814; with the Seminoles
in 1818; with Black Hawk and his tribe in 1832; again with
the Seminoles in 1839-44..
In April, 1846, hostilities commenced on the Rio Grande,
between the United States and Mexico, and continued nearly
two years. They were terminated by the Treaty of Guadaloupe-Hidalgo, Feb. 22d, 1848. The most noted of the battles
fought were those of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, Monterey,
Buena Vista, Sacramento, Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Contreras,
Molino del Rey, Churubusco, Chepultepec, and Mexico.
The most remarkable domestic difficulties which the government of the United States has passed through within the last
fifty years, were those growing out of Nullification in South
Carolina (1832), Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Island (1842). But
these affairs were happily settled without loss of life. A few
serious riots have occurred in Philadelphia, New York, Baltimore, and other places, anti-rent riots in the State of New
York, etc., but they are not worthy of notice. When it is considered that the government of the United States is one of Public Opinion-sustained by the institutions and influence of
Christianity-and not of Force, it is wonderful that so much
order and tranquillity have prevailed, especially when the vast
emigration from the Old World to our shores, and the character
of the emigrants, are taken into view. We certainly are not
without some serious apprehensions for the Future, and especially
in view of some of the embarrassing questions now before the
country: still, our hope is, that the God of our fathers will




80               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
carry the nation safely through them all, and preserve us a
united, prosperous, and happy people.
Changes in British Possessions in North America.-The Political Changes in this part of the North American Continent
have not been great since the commencement of the present
century. England's sway in that part of the world has not
been disputed by any one, unless we may consider the attempts
at invasion on the part of the United States, in 1812-15 in
that light. In 1837 there was an Insurrection in Lower Canada,
which extended to Upper Canada a few weeks later, but was
speedily suppressed. In the autumn of 1838, another and
more serious attempt at revolution was made in the vicinity of
Montreal, but without success. These movements excited not
a little sympathy in the United States, especially along the
frontier, and several hundreds of volunteers hastened to help
the insurgents. Much difficulty ensued, which demanded great
prudence and forbearance on the part of the governments of
England and the United States. About the same time troubles
broke out on the " Disputed Territory" on the borders of Canada and the State of Maine. Happily, all these difficulties were
arranged without the occurrence of collision between the two
nations.
Several years ago Upper and Lower Canada were united, and
have now but one Legislature. The government has been migratory-sometimes making Montreal the capital, sometimes
Kingston, sometimes Toronto. We learn that it is likely to become permanently established at Quebec.
A good deal was said, a few years ago, about uniting the
Canadas, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the other British
Possessions in North America under one Colonial Government;
but nothing has yet been done towards the accomplishment of
such a project. The population of these Possessions considerably exceeds two millions, and is steadily, and in some of them,
-especially in Canada West,-even rapidly increasing. The




AND RE-ISTER.                   31
Home Government has done much of late years to promote internal improvements in the Canadas. The openings of lines of
railroads from Portland and Boston to Montreal, and the great
increase of steamboats on the Lakes and on the St. Lawrence,
as well as the establishment of a line of steamers from Liverpool to Halifax, have all concurred to promote the prosperity
of these countries.
Mexico and Central America.-These countries separated
from Spain about the year 1820. Mexico now has an area of
1,100,000 square miles, and 7,661,919 inhabitants. The government is republican in form as well as in name. But faction
has succeeded faction, and demagogue succeeded demagoguefrom Iturbide (1822-24) to Santa Anna,-in the government
of that beautiful but unhappy and unprosperous country. And
there is little prospect of tranquillity and well-ordered government. It is said that the present President, Arista, has enlightened views on the subject of religious liberty, and is desirous of diminishing the enormous wealth and power of the
Roman Catholic hierarchy in that country.
South of Mexico lies the country of Yucatan, which has usually been connected with Mexico, and sometimes separated from
it. There is no well-settled government in it. The English
possess the country called Balize, lying south of Yucatan, on
the Gulf of Mexico. It has but a small population. West of
this lies the country of Guatemala. South of this lie the countries of Honduras and San Salvador. Next comes Nicaragua,
with the Mosquito Coast (on the east), and last of all there is
Costa Rica. All these countries, excepting Yucatan, form part of
what is called Central America; Guatemala, Honduras, San
Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica claim to be considered
Republics. But anarchy, civil war, and war with each other,
have long made tranquillity and prosperity alike unknown in
them.
The following tabular view gives the extent and population




32                CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
of each of these countries, which are destined to an importance
of which few have had a conception:
Guatemala,          28,000 sq. m., 935,000 population.
San Salvador,      24,000    "   3,63,000';
Nicaragua,         40,000'i   400,000      4
Costa Rica,        23,000    "   198,000'"
Honduras,          8.1,000   "   308,000'
Balize, Eng. Province, 62,l40  "   3,000 
SECTION IV.
POLITICAL CHANGES IN SOUTH AMERICA,
lVew Granada.-In 1819, New Granada, Venezuela, and
the Presidency of Quito united and formed the Republic of
Colombia. Simon Bolivar, the most distinguished of all the
South American chiefs, was the first President.  Venezuela
withdrew from the union in 18.28, and Quito in 1831-thus
forming three republics instead of one.
New Granada has an area of 380,000 square miles, and a
population of more than a million and a half. Upon the whole
it is better governed, and more prosperous than almost any
other country in South America. There is also a greater disposition to grant religious toleration than is found elsewhere on
that Continent.
Venezuela.-This country has an area of 450,000 square
miles, and a million of inhabitants. Caraccas is the capital.
Since 1831, it has been independent of New Granada. J. T.
Monagas is the present President. General Paez was the first
President. A deadly hatred has long subsisted between these
men, and has several times led to civil war. Paez is now in
this country as an exile.




AND lt GMotu. R3
Bcuador, or E'quator.-This country was formerly the Spanish Presidency of Quito, which is its chief city. It has been a
republic since 1831, independent of New Granada. It has an
area of 325,000 square miles, and 600,000 inhabitants.
Peru. —This country declared itself independent of Spain in
the year 1821. After years of civil strife, the country has become more tranquil, and is better governed than it was. It
has an area of 524,000 square miles, and a population of
1,373,000.
Bolivia.-This country was formerly called Upper Peru.
Since 1824 it has been independent of Peru. Its area contains
318,000 square miles, and its population is estimated at
1,700,000. Like Peru, and almost all the South American
Republics, Bolivia has been much troubled by factions.
Chili. —This country threw off the dominion of Spain in
1818. It is the smallest and best governed of the Republics
of South America. It has an area of only 144,000 square
miles, and a population of 1,200,000.
Buenos Ayres.-This country threw off the dominion of
Spain in 1816, and in 1819 adopted a constitution much like
that of the United States of North America. In 1826 it began to be called the Argentine Republic. In 1828 the confederation of States which formed this Republic was dissolved.
Since 1830 this country has been governed by a despot of the
name of Rosas, whose sway has been very tyrannical and sanguinary. The area of this Republic, if such it can now be
called, is 728,000 square miles, and its population scarcely
reaches 675,000.
Uruguay.-This country is also called the Oriental Republic. It is often called the Republic of Montevideo, from
the name of its capital. This Republic has an area of 120,000
square miles, and its population is only 140,000.  Rosas,
the Dictator of Buenos Ayres, has long been trying to conquer this little State, but hitherto in vain. The rulers of this
2*




84              OCHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
Republic are quite disposed to be liberal on the subject of Beeligious Toleration.
Paraguay.-This country became a Republic in 1813, and
separated from Spain. The next year a Dr. Francia made himself Dictator,-which office he held till his death in 1840,-at
the age of eighty years, He was a most extraordinary man,another Rosas,-and governed his country in the most despotic
and cruel manner. The country is now governed by President
Lopez. Its extent is 74,000 square miles, and its population
about 250,000.
Brazil.-This country was under the government of Portugal till the year 1822. King John VI. having been driven
from Lisbon in 1808, made Rio Janeiro his place of residence
till 1821, when he returned to Portugal, leaving his son Don
Pedro Prince Regent. The year following Brazil declared herself independent, and made Don Pedro emperor. In 1831 he
abdicated in favor of his son, who reigns still under the title of
Don Pedro II. Brazil is a constitutional monarchy, and in
many respects the finest, as it is by far the largest, country in
South America, Its area exceeds 2,300,000 square miles; its
population is supposed to be about 7,500,000.
The Guianas.-In the north-eastern part of South America
lie the following provinces-the only countries on that Continent which are subject to the dominion of any European country. Those belonging to France and Holland were, for a time,
severed from the mother countries in the early part of this century, but have, since 1815, sustained their former relations,
British Guiana,'76,000 sq. miles. 96,500 Inhabitants,
Dutch Guiana, 36,000    "      6,500    "
French Guiana, 21,648   "    18,000     "




AND REGISTER.                   35
SECTION V.
WEST INDIES.
THE only possessions which remain to Spain of all her once
vast empire in the American Hemisphere are the islands of
Cuba, Porto Rico, and some smaller ones which she held at
the commencement of this century.  In these islands no political, moral, or any other change has taken place, save the introduction of railroads in Cuba, and the running of a few steamers,
and they mostly in the hands of foreigners, between these
islands.
Nor have any political changes taken place, in the other
islands, since the year 1800, save that England has increased
hers by adding Trinidad and a few smaller ones. In 1835
England abolished slavery in her islands; and France did the
same in 1848. By these acts more than one million of people
of African origin obtained freedom and citizenship in the West
India Islands. Denmark and Sweden have taken measures to
secure the same blessings to their small islands. Long years
of transition will be necessary to bring about the changes in
character, occupation, enterprise, manners, trade, etc., which this
great measure has rendered necessary and inevitable in West
Indian society. A feudal state-a state in which the wealth,
the property, is in the hands of the few, and the masses possess
nothing but merely the means (food, raiment, and habitations)
of living, is henceforth impossible. The aggregate of property
will one day, however, be greater than in the days of slavery.
But the most remarkable political changes in the West Indies
have occurred in Hayti, or St. Domingo. This island declared
its independence in July 22, 1801, through the influence of
Toussaint, a mulatto. It was recovered by the French the next
year. Dessalines, a negro, next put himself at the head of




S6                CHRISTIAN RETROSPECTf
the enslaved race, and ordered, by public proclamation (March
29, 1804), the massacre of all the whites. This monster was
crowned King, under the name of Jacques I, Oct. 8, 1804, and
died, by assassination, Sept. 21, 1805. Christophe, a negro,
became President, in Feb. 1807, and was crowned Emperor
with the title Henri I., in March, 1811. He reigned at Cape
Francois, in the northern side of the island, and his empire was
very small, whilst Petion, a mulatto, ruled as President at Portau-Prince, in the western side. Boyer, a mulatto, succeeded
Petion, in May, 1818. Upon the death of Christophe, in 1820,
Boyer became President of the whole island. Upon his downfall in 1843, a state of anarchy or misgovernment ensued, which
exists still. Souluque, a negro, the fourth President since
Boyer, and elected March 2, 1847, caused himself to be proclaimed Emperor, Aug. 24, 1849. His absurd and oppressive
course has caused the people of the Spanish, or eastern, end of
the island to separate fiom the western, or French end, and set
up a Provisional Government of their own. It is probable that
this state of things will not last long, for the cruel and yet fantastic rule of his Imperial Majesty, Faustin L., is endured with
great impatience. Nothing saves him but his large army of
blackso
Such is the brief notice which the limits of this work allow
us to give of the Political Changes which have occurred during
the last half-century in the Old and New Worlds. Such a
sketch we have deemed appropriate to the nature and design
of this work. It will enable the reader to get, with but little
trouble, a coup d'ceil of the changes which the world has undergone the last fifty years, so far as political government is
concerned, as well as its present state.




CHAPTER II.
PROGRESS OF POLITICAL LIBERTY DURING THE FIRST
HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
SECTION iL
EASTERN HEMISPHERE.
Euirope.-At the commencement of this century the governments in Europe that had a constitutional form were the following:-Great Britain and Sweden, which were monarchies; and
France, Holland, Switzerland, and the four free cities of Germany, —Hamburg, Liibeck, Bremen, and Frankfort-on-theMain,-which were Republics. To these we must add the two
very insignificant Republics of San Marino* in Italy, and Andorra
in Spain.
The structure of the English Government, consisting of the
Monarch and a Parliament of two Houses, —that of the Peers
hereditary, and that of the Commons elective,-is too well
known to need any notice in this work. It has undergone no
essential change in its form during this century. The representation of the people in the House of Commons has been much
modified, and the right of suffrage greatly conceded in all of the
Three Kingdoms since the year 1830.
* San Marino embraces but 34 square miles, and has about 8,000
inhabitants. It has five villages, the central one of which is the most
elevated. This little Republic is governed by a Senate of 300 members, and two Captains (Gonfalonieri), or Consuls, who are elected every
three months.




38                CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
The constitution of Sweden is old, and the structure of the
government is quite too antiquated. The Diet, which formerly
met every five years, now meets once in three years, at Stockholm, the modern capital.of that country. This body consists
of four Houses or Branches,-the Nobles, the Burgesses, the
Clergy, and the Peasants. The first is hereditary, and the other
three are elected by the clergy and people. The House of Nobles
consists of nearly 1200 in number; that of the Burgesses or Representatives of the Cities and Towns, about eighty; that of the
Clergy about seventy-five, including the Archbishop and eleven
Bishops; and that of the Peasants or Farmers, about one hundred and forty. As they vote by Houses, each having one vote,
and the votes of three Houses being necessary to the enactment
of any law, legislation is necessarily a slow business in that
country. An attempt was made a few months ago to modify
the Diet, so as to have but two Houses, after the English form;
but the project failed, although the King warmly recommended
the measure. No House but that of the Burgesses voted in
its favor,-another fact to prove, what indeed the whole history
of Liberty has shown on every page, that it is from the inhabitants of the cities and large towns that the most enlightened
appreciation of its value, and the most effective support of its
claims, must be expected.
The Republic of Holland, a singular combination of the aristocratic and democratic elements, was in the last stages of its
existence-having been nearly ruined by the French interference-at the commencement of this century. Shortly after this,
it ended its career by giving place to the monarchy which Napoleon created for his brother Louis.
Switzerland was a collection of nineteen Republics in the
year 1800, rather than one united and compact governmenteach Canton having its Syndics, its Small or Executive Council,
and its Great Council or Legislative Assembly.
As to the Free Cities of Germany, they were extremely aris



AID REGISTE.                    89
tocratic in their organization-with their Syndics, Burgomasters
and Senates, all elected for life —the two former bodies chosen
by the Senate, and the Senate filling the vacancies in its own
number.
As to France, it certainly had the form of a Republic in the
year 1800, but was fast verging to a military despotism. And
though she had had for eight years what was called a Republic,
it is certain that the Executive Power, whether a Triumvirate,
Directory, or Consulate, so completely overshadowed, during
much of the time, the Legislative, as to make it manifest that
the government was republican in name, rather than in reality.
It appears, then, that at the beginning of the present century
there were but eleven governments in Europe that could with
any propriety be said to have a constitutional form, or to enjoy
any measure of liberty secured by written constitutions, and in
the making of whose laws, and in the administration of whose
affairs, the People had any influence whatever. There were
two monarchies, and nine republics-two of the latter, however,
almost too insignificant to deserve to he placed in the list. As
to the rest of Europe, there was nothing whatever that deserved
the name of constitutional or free government; for the concessions which some of the Princes of Germany, and even some of
the Emperors, had made under the title of " Capitulations" and
"Capitularies," by which certain rights were defined and guaranteed, certainly do not even approach to anything that merits
the name of a Constitution.
Aisa and Africa.-Nor was there the least vestige of Liberty,
or constitutional government of any denomination in the rest
of the Eastern Hemisphere. With the exceptions just enumerated, despotism, unlimited dominion, prevailed everywhere in
civilized and uncivilized countries in Eastern Christendom, and
beyond it.




40               CTRISTIAN RETROSPECT
SECTION II.
-WESTERN HEMISPHERE.
America.-And on this Western Hemisphere, with the noble
exception of these United States and the British Provinces,
there was nothing in the year 1800 that could be called free
government. To the south of our happy country, the entire of
America, so far as it was in the possession of civilized nations,
was governed by European Powers, and chiefly by Spain and
Portugal.
SECTION IiL
PRESENT STATE OF THE WORLD.
WIDELY different, in this respect, is the state of things in both
Europe and America at the present day.
In North America, we have these United States, now consisting of thirty-one commonwealths, organized, and members
of the Union, and several territories, which are in process of
preparation for entrance into it.
South of us are the Republics of Mexico, Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.  North of us
are the British Provinces, which not only enjoy the blessing of English laws, but have their own Legislatures, chosen
by the People, to which is committed the making of the lawr
that most concern their best interests and their happiness.
In South America there are nine Republics-New Granada,
Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, Buenos Ayres, Uruguay,
and Paraguay-and one Constitutional Empire. We are not
aware that the Guianas,-?British, French, and Dutch,-have




AND REGISTER.                   41
any legislative bodies, but they are all under European governments that are constitutional, and this is something.
It appears, then, that there are sixteen Republics on this
Western Hemisphere-seven in North America, and nine in
South America-one Constitutional Monarchy, and nine countries,-Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton,
Newfoundland, the Balize, and the three Guianas, —which are
under the rule of European governments, that have a constitutional form, and which extend to them a large amount of constitutional liberty. In fact, there is no civilized part of America,
North or South, over which despotic sway is maintained, with
the exception of that which is maintained by Russia, in the
North-West (in which there are not more than six or eight
thousand inhabitants who know anything of civilization), and
the Spanish Islands in the West Indies.
It is true that in most of the Republics, south of our own,
constitutional governments are far from being well established.
There is much, very much, to be deplored in the state of things in
Mexico, in Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua,
Costa Rica, Venezuela, Buenos Ayres, and other Spanish Republics; but there is, in most of them, some progress, though
very slow. In process of time, liberty will be better established.
Education will advance, a purer Christianity will enter and prevail. The example of this country and other constitutional governments will become better known, more highly appreciated,
and more successfully imitated.
And what shall we say of Europe, where only eleven constitutional governments, as we have just seen, existed at the commencement of this century? What a change has come over
that part of the world within fifty years! The Revolution of
1830, in France, gave a great impulse to the cause of Liberty
in the Old World; that of 1848, however, gave a far greater.
The case now stands thus:



42               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT.
CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENTS.
Monarchies.
Great Britain,    Denmark,           Saxony,
Portugal,         Norway,            Bavaria,
Spain,            Sweden,           Wiirtemnburg,
Holland,          Hanover            Sardinia,
Belgium,          Prussia,           Greece.
23 Duchies in Germany.
Republics.
France,              San Marino,
Switzerland,         Andorra, and
Ionian Isles,        4 Free Cities in Germany.
WITHOUT CONSTITUTIONS.
_Monarchies.           Duchies.
Russia,              Tuscany,
Austria,             Parma,
States of the Church,  Modena,
Naples,              5 Duchies in Germany.
Turkey.
Principalities.
Moldavia,            Servia,
Wallachia,           Monaco.
Making in all forty-seven Constitutional or Free Governments,
and seventeen which have no constitutions,-in other words,
are despotisms. Let us admit that there is much, very much
wanting in the Constitutional Monarchies and in the Republics
of Europe; that the amount of real Liberty in most of them is
small; the rights and duties of the rulers and the ruled are not
well defined, and that the people, in many countries, have not
been educated to freedom and free governments. Yet we must
rejoice that a beginning has been made, and we must believe
that Liberty, though destined to meet many reverses, will advance,
and in the end gain the victory over despotism in every form!




CHAPTER       III.
PROGRESS    OF  EDUCATION-COMMON        SCHOOLS —-COLLEGES, ETC.-IN    THE FIRST HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CFNTURY.
BY no one fact is the first half of the XIXth Century more
marked than the increased interest which the subject of education-especially that which concerns the masses, or what is
called Popular Education —has excited in all those portions of
the civilized world in which there is any real progress. Next
to this ranks the interest taken in Secondary Schools, or Academies, as they are commonly called with us. Nor have the Colleges and Universities failed to share in the general educational
movement.
SECTION I.
THE UNITED STATES.
THE founders of the colonies which were planted in what
is now called the United States,-with the exception of
Maryland, Florida, and Louisiana,-were Protestants.  And
even the first-named scarcely deserves to be considered an exception, for it was not long till the Protestants became the majority in that colony, as they were from the first in all the
other Anglo-Saxon colonies which laid the foundations of the
nation. All those Protestant colonies felt the importance of
promoting the education of the children and youth in the
knowledge of letters, as well as in correct moral and religious
principles. This was especially true of the Puritan colonies of
New England. Massachusetts, as early as 1647, required by




44                 CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
law that every township which had fifty householders should
have a school-house and employ a teacher, and that such as
had one thousand freeholders should have a Grammar-school.
And from the first, schools were supported by a properly regulated taxation.
From that time forward the subject of education has received
increasing attention, not only in the New England States, but
throughout the whole country, and much has been done to extend the principle of having Common or Public Schools supported by State provision, especially since the commencement
of this century. Not only have the Eastern or New England
States systems of Public Schools, but New York, New Jersey,
Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Wisconsin have followed
their example.* At no distant day the same thing will be true
of Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky,t and some other states.
In the Southern States, owing to the country being more
sparsely peopled in many cases, and to the peculiar state of society, the Governments have hitherto attempted little beyond
the making of provision-in some cases quite liberal-for the
education of poor white children.
We may safely say that education is a subject that has in* Massachusetts has a School Fund of $846,082; it increases at the
rate of $30,000 per annum. Connecticut has a School Fund of $2,075,000.
Maine has a small School Fund. In 1845 it amounted to $57,629, and
has not increased much since. Vermont, New Hampshire, and Rhode
Island depend wholly on taxation for the support of their schools. The
State of New York has a School Fund of $2,170,514, and a Literary
Fund of $265,306. New Jersey has a fund of $370,000, and Ohio
$1,520,000. Pennsylvania appropriates annually from its Treasury the
sum of $190,000, and the Townships raise $392,442 by taxation. Michigan has a fund which yields $30,000 annually for schools. Wisconsin
has a fund which is expected to yield $106,878 this year-1851.
f Kentucky has a School Fund of $1,299,268. Delaware, Virginia,
the Carolinas, and almost all the other Southern States do more or less
for the education of the poor, but have no school system.




AND REGISTER.                    45
variably occupied the attention of the Legislatures of all our
States, as one that is fundamental in importance. And every
year the interest in this subject is increasing. In the States of
Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York excellent Normal
Schools have been established, for the preparation of teachers,
partly at the expense of the Government of those States, and
partly through the munificence of individuals.*
Infant Schools were introduced into the United States in the
year 1827, but have never been extensively established among us.
They exist now chiefly as Sunday Schools for very small children.
Lancasterian Schools were for a time in considerable repute
in some parts of the United Statesj but there is scarcely one to.
be found now. Schools on the plans of Pestalozzi and Fellenberg have never succeeded with us, because they were found
not to accomplish what was promised, or to suit the manners
of our people, or the state of American society. Manual Labor
Schools, or schools in which young men can do something for
their support by laboring a few hours daily, have been established at various places in the United States, and enjoyed some
measure of success; but they have, with few exceptions, had a
short-lived success.
In all the States a good deal has been done for Secondary
Schools, or Academies; in many of which instruction in Latin
and Greek, as well as in the higher branches of a good English
education, is imparted. In many cases the State gives some aid
towards the founding of such institutions. In some cases they
owe their existence solely to private munificence.
* The late -Ion. Edmund Dwight of Boston gave, in 1838, the sum
of $10,000 to found one or more Normal Schools in Massachusetts.
This led to the opening of three such institutions —at West Newton,
Westfield, and Bridgewater. In 1849 the inhabitants of Berlin, in Connecticut, raised $16,000 for a Normal School in that place, which went
into operation in 1850. The largest and most complete Normal School
in the United States is the one in Albany, N.Y., established in 1844.




46                CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
Within the last twenty-five years a great deal has been done
to establish Female Seminaries, of a high order, in all parts of
the United States. Probably there has been more progress in
this branch of education than in any other in the whole country.
These institutions are now to be found not only in the chief
cities, but also in the large towns and villages. They are destined to exert an immense influence upon the best interests of
the country. Two or three years spent in a good seminary of
this class after she has acquired the elements of an education in'
the primary or common schools, seldom fail to have a great
effect upon the mind, the character, and the manners of a young
lady.
The Colleges of the United States have greatly increased
within fifty years. At the beginning of this century there were
scarcely twenty-five. There are now, it is believed, one hundred
and twenty.
In 1801, there was  1 Baptist     College, now 13
"   "   there were 2 Episcopal       "     "   10
"   "   there was  1 Methodist       "     "   13
"   "   there were 2 Roman Catholic  "     "  13
"   "   there were 19 Cong. and Presb."  "'71
In the year 1801, there were,
In New England,   7 Colleges,  now 14
" Middle States,  6    "        "  22
" Southern States, 9   "        "37
" Western States, 3   "         "  47
Many of these Colleges have been established within a very
few years, and are but poorly endowed. In many cases the
Professors are not men of much erudition. The libraries and
apparatus of many of these Colleges are on a very limited scale.
Some of the older Colleges are now beginning to be pretty well
endowed. This is the case with Harvard University at Cam



AND REGISTER.                   47
bridge, Mass., and to some extent with Yale College, at New
Haven, and the College of New Jersey, at Princeton, in that
State, the University of Virginia, and some others.
As a general proposition, it may be affirmed that the education of a country will always correspond with the wants of that
country. As intelligence advances among the people, it will
demand an advance in the studies pursued in the Colleges and
other seminaries of learning. There has been great progress in
this respect during the last fifty years, and especially within the
last twenty or twenty-five years.
Not only has the number of Colleges greatly increased since
the year 1800, but there has been a remarkable progress in regard to what may be called professional Institutions. In former
times, young men who desired to prepare themselves for the
Pulpit or the Bar, or for the Medical Profession, were compelled
to prosecute their studies under the direction of some distinguished minister of the Gospel, some able lawyer, or some eminent physician. Or at best, they might prosecute, to some extent, these studies with a Professor of a College. But at present there are forty-two Theological Institutions in this country,
twelve Law Schools, and thirty-seven Medical Schools. All
these seminaries, excepting three Medical Schools, have sprung
up since the year 1800.
Of the Theological Seminaries, six are Congregational, fifteen
Presbyterian, five Lutheran, two Dutch Reformed, one Methodist, three Episcopal, two Unitarian, and ten belong to the Baptist and other denominations. The Theological Seminary at
Andover, opened in 1808, was the first that was established in
the United States on the plan of having several professors.
Neither the number of Law Schools, nor of students in them,
bears any comparison to the Theological and Medical Schools
and their many pupils.
The Medical Schools have succeeded wonderfully. Those of
Philadelphia,-where there are three or four,-have become




48               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
quite celebrated, and are attended every winter by a very large
number of young men. That city may now be ranked with
Paris, Edinburgh, and Vienna, as one of the great seats of Medical knowledge.
The United States' Government supports only two schools,one the Military Academy at West Point, the other the Naval
Academy at Annapolis.
The former was projected in 1790 by General Knox, then
Secretary of War, recommended by President Washington;
went into operation in 1794, and was established at West Point
in 1802. The law allows one cadet to be nominated by each
Representative in Congress from his district, and ten by the
President of the United States. This would require 243, but
owing to the severity of the examinations, many are sent away
every year, and the complement of cadets is never complete.
There are thirty-two Professors and assistants. Each cadet receives $28 per month for his support. This institution costs
the United States from $125,000 to $150,000 a-year.
The Naval Academy was founded in the year 1842. It has
usually about sixty pupils, who are receiving a very thorough
training from thirteen Professors and assistants. The institution costs the United States the sum of $28,200 per annum.
SECTION II.
OTHER COUNTRIES IN AMERICA.
WE are not able to say as much in behalf of the progress of
education in other parts of this Hemisphere.
In the British Possessions, to the north of us, there has certainly been an increasing interest in the subject of Education,
and a growing attention to it. And yet there is no system of
public schools established in any one of those possessions.
There has been something done, especially in Canada, for the




AND REGISTER.                   49
opening of Colleges and the advancement of education in Secondary Institutions.
In Mexico we cannot report that much progress has been
made, and yet there has been some. Education among the
masses is far from being what it is in the United States; nor
are the Colleges and Universities advancing as fast as one could
desire. The modes and subjects of instruction are quite behind
the age.
The state of things in South America is various. In Chili,
New Granada, and Venezuela, the Governments have done
more to promote education than the others have done. There
has been some advance in all the countries of South America,
as well as in many of the West India Islands, since the commencement of this century,-enough to convince us that, with
proper efforts and encouragement on the part of the Governments, the best interests of education would soon begin to make
good progress among them all.
SECTION IIL
THE EASTERN HEMISPHERE.
Europe.-The education of the masses may be said to be
emphatically a subject of interest both to governments and philanthropists, only since the commencement of the present century. Whatever interest was felt in it in preceding times, was
confined almost exclusively to the Churches, and especially to
the Protestant Churches.
The first Public School System that was established in any
country, in modern days, so far as we know, was that of Scotland, and this, in its present form, dates only from the year 1616'
This system is a peculiar one. It provides for at least one
school for each parish, to be supported out of a portion of the
tiends or tenths, arising from certain lands which belonged in
3




50                CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
former times to the Roman Catholic Church, in Scotland,*
There are not far short of one thousand parishes in Scotland.
Most of them have but one school that is known by the name
of "The Parish School," and supported from   public funds.
Some of the larger and more populous parishes have two or more
schools which are supported by the parish. The other schools
in each parish are supported on the voluntary principle, and
just as if there were no parish schools.
The grand peculiarity of the Parish Schools in Scotland is the
fact, that they are taught by men who have almost without exception received a university education, and are therefore capable of teaching Latin and Greek, as well as the higher branches
of the Mathematics.   They are in fact Classical as well as
common English schools, and a large number of the youth who
frequent them  study Latin and Greek, and many of them go
from them to the Universities. It is to this state of things that
Scotland owes her great superiority over England and almost
all other countries, in the number of her highly-educated sons.
But this school system has not sprung up within the present
century, and it is the only one in Europe that has not.
As to England and Wales, it is only within a few years that any
attempt has been made to lay the foundations of a Public School
System for the benefit of all classes. But little progress has as
yet been made. Great difficulty has been encountered on account of the position in which ecclesiastical matters stand in
that country. The Established Church has contended for a
controlling influence over the proposed system of public schools,
which the Dissenters do not deem to be proper. This is a difficulty which is sure to exist, to a greater or less degree, in
every country where there is a national and overshadowing
* The Roman Catholic Church, it is believed, possessed in one way
and another, through its churches, schools, convents, etc., one half of
the lands in Scotland before the Reformation I




AND REGISTER,                   51
Church united to the State, and upheld by it. There is a vast
amount of very gross popular ignorance in the mining and rural
districts, as well as in the large cities and manufacturing towns
of England. And if it had not been for the Sunday Schools,
which have received their extensive establishment chiefly during
the present century, we hardly know how the poorest classes
of England could, in many places, have received any education
at all.
Ireland has had, for the last seven or eight years, a Public
School System, which is gradually establishing itself in the affections of the people, and gaining ground in all directions, notwithstanding the opposition which is so generally made by the
hierarchy of Rome. This School System promises to be a great
blessing to that long-neglected, misgoverned, and priest-ridden,
but warm-hearted, gifted people.
On the Continent, the first great movement in the cause of
popular education was made in Prussia, where a school system
was commenced nearly forty years ago, and perfected by the
late Monarch, that has been introduced into all parts of Germany, and even into the Germanic and Italian portion of the
Austrian Empire. Frederick the Great had established some
Normal Schools in Silesia,-and this is the only feature of the
Prussian School System which does not owe its existence to
the efforts of Frederick William III. This system is remarkably perfect in its details. The teachers are, for the most part,
highly competent, the school-books have been prepared with
great care, and there are legal provisions of such a nature as to
ensure with almost entire certainty the attendance of the children. As we have just said, the Prussian School System is
now established in all parts of Germany.
Holland has an excellent School System, which is, perhaps,
too much under the influence of the Reformed Dutch Church
to be entirely equal and fair towards all the denominations of
Christians. M. Cousin, of France, has given a very interesting




52                CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
account of the School System of Holland as well as that of
Prussia.
Denmark has likewise a very good system of Public Schools,
and so have most of the Protestant Cantons of Switzerland.
France has only had a system of Primary Schools supported
by law since the year 1833. It is modelled after the Prussian
system in a good degree. M. Guizot, who was at that time
the Minister of Public Instruction under the government of
Louis Philippe, was the author of this great measure. Nearly
sixty Normal Schools have been founded for the preparation of
teachers, and about two thousand persons leave them every
year to enter upon the business of teaching a school. The
schools are aided partly by the departmental governments, and
partly by the communes (or townships), whilst the teachers
must receive a portion of their support from the parents of the
children. The system is in the main a good one, or at least as
good as could be expected in so short a time. It encounters
many obstacles, one of which is the frequent change of Prefects
of the Departments.
The Government of Belgium established the excellent School
System of Prussia not long after the Revolution of 1830, which
is producing good fiuits. The Jesuits have given much trouble
-first by opposing the scheme, and then, failing in that, by trying to gain an undue influence over the schools. The Government
has not, however, been wanting in vigilance and impartiality.
The united Scandinavian kingdoms of Norway and Sweden
have no system of Public Schools, but will have, it is probable,
before long. Last year the enlightened Monarch of those countries sent a young Professor of Upsala to examine our School
Systems, and report fully upon them, for the purpose of preparing the way for the introduction of a plan of Public
Schools.
A great deal has been done n Russia, since the commencement of the present century, tc promote the education of the




AND REGISTER.                   53
masses. In the year 1846, the Minister of Public Instruction
informed us that the number of pupils in the schools on the
Public Domains, together with those in the schools in the army,
the students in the Colleges and Universities, the cadets (of
whom there were nearly 10,000) in the twenty-four Military
Schools, and those in the Naval was not far from half a million.
This statement includes those only who belong to the educational
establishments which are under the direction of the Minister of
Public Instruction.  The number of pupils in the private
schools in Russia we have not been able to learn.
In Spain and Portugal little or nothing is doing by the Governments for the promotion of schools, although we believe that
the subject has been somewhat agitated of late years.
In Italy, with the exception of Lombardy and Tuscany, there
was nothing that could be called a System of Public Schools a
few years ago. We are happy to say that the Government of
Sardinia is taking hold of the question of Popular Education
among its five millions of subjects with much zeal. It gives us
great pleasure to state that in the Protestant community of the
Waldenses, who have their "Mountain home" in that kingdom,
an admirable School System has been brought into operation,
greatly through the aid of British Christians, and especially of
General Beckwith, which now consists of 1 College, 3 Grammar Schools, 8 Girls' Schools, 15 Parish Schools, and 127
Hamlet Schools,-in all 154; in which there are 4,820 pupils.
The present Pope, at the commencement of his reign, showed a
very laudable interest in the subject of popular education. We
fear that his zeal has greatly diminished since the occurrences
of 1848 and 1849. It is to be expected that his Holiness will
henceforth prefer the old opinions and practice of the Holy See
in education, as well as in political affairs.
It is interesting to see that even the Turkish Government is
catching the spirit of the Age, and is talking of having a System
of Public Schools in its empire,-a task which will demand




54               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
all the energies of Reschid Pasha and the other ministers of
Sultan Abdul-Medjid.
But in no country in Europe has the cause of Primary Education made more cheering progress than in the little kingdom
of Greece, emerging as it is out of the ruin in which the Revolution of 1821-28 left it. When we were there, in 1846, there
were nearly four hundred Primary Schools, four Gymnasia, and
one University.*  And although there was a great want of
good school accommodations, and of books, slates, etc., it was
in the highest degree cheering to see the great desire of the
children and youth of that poor people to obtain an education.
All this beautiful movement is the fruit of a few years of National
Independence. The Government is doing much in behalf of the
cause, and wealthy Greeks, residing for the most part out of the
country-at Corfu, Trieste, Salonica, Smyrna, Constantinople, etc.,
-have done much for the land of their ancestors in this respect.
They have given most liberally to found the Gymnasia, as well
as the University, its Library, and its admirable Observatory.
From this survey, it appears that in Spain and Portugal, a
large portion of Italy, Turkey, all the Austrian Empire, except
the Germanic and Italian portions, and the entire Russian Empire, there is nothing which can be called a Public System of
Primary Schools, and that Sweden and Norway are only beginning to move in behalf of this great and fundamental measure, the true basis of all national prosperity and of national
freedom.
We can only add a few words respecting Secondary Instruction
in Europe. Since the year 1800 much progress has been made
in this direction also. In almost all countries in that part of
the world, a good deal has been done to encourage higher
schools and colleges. In Ireland the English Government has
* The University is at Athens, and has 26 Professors, and 250 students. Of the Gymnasia, one is in Athens, one in Chalcis, one at Patras,
and one in Syra.




AND REGISTER.                    55
established several Colleges within a year or two, to which
great opposition has been made by the Roman Catholic Hierarchy, under the pretext that the instruction which is given
in them is infidel. This is Rome's usual position. In other
words,-everything is infidel, or tends to infidelity, in the shape
of instruction, which is not in her hands,!
The London University, King's College, Durham University,
and several Colleges among the Dissenters, have been opened
in England since the commencement of the present century.
In France almost everything in the shape of Higher Instruction,
or Secondary Institutions, has been the work of the present century. In Belgium, one, if not more of the four Universities of
that country has been founded during this century. The University of Christiania, in Norway, was founded Several years
after the commencement of this century-we believe about the
year 1816.
The higher literary institutions of Germany, Austria, Russia,
Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Turkey,* have undergone but little
change since this century began. Those of Greece, as we have
said, have sprung up since the Revolution of 1821-28, which
liberated that country from the domination of the Turks.
Upon the whole, Education, Primary and Secondary, has
made much progress in Europe since the XIXth century commenced.
SECTION IV.
ASIA AND AFRICA.
THERE is little to be said respecting the progress of Education
in the rest of the Old World since the year 1800. The most
interesting progress has been in India, in Ceylon, in some islands
* The most interesting literary institution in Turkey is the College
at Bebek, on the Bosphorus, founded by the American Missionaries.




56'                CHRISTIAN RETROSPFECT.
in the Pacific Ocean, in our American colonies along the western coast of Africa, in the founding of Mission Schools by Protestant Missionaries.  Some of them are of a high grade, and
even deserve the name of Colleges.  Tbese institutions ought to
be dear to the heart of the philanthropist as well as the Christian, for such seminaries of learning will have a great bearing
upon the progress of Christianity and Civilization in those
countries.
Here we bring our remarks, respecting the Progress of Education in the first half of the XIXth century, to a close. It is
necessarily brief, but it will probably suffice to give some conception of the progress which the world has made in this respect during the period under review.




CHIAPTER IV.
FREEDOM OF THE PRESS-ITS PROGRESS-NEWSPAPERS
AND OTHER FORMS OF PERIODICAL INFORMATION
AND LITERATURE.
SECTION I.
AMERICA,
United States.-The liberty of the Press, so far as any action of the Government General or State is concerned, became
as complete as it could be in the early part of this century.
We are not aware that since the administration of Mr. Jefferson, which lasted from 1801 to 1809, any suit at law has been
brought against any editor or any one else, native or foreign,
by the United States Government. Nor are we informed of
any prosecution of this nature having been made by the State
Governments. The Government of this country —in other words,
our political institutions-is too well founded in the hearts of the
people, to make it necessary to notice anything which some
noisy declaimer, or any hostile editor, whether conducting a
paper for the use of Americans, or for the tens of thousands of
unnaturalized foreigners who sojourn for a while among us, may
be able to say or to publish. This fact demonstrates, on the
one hand, the stability of our political government, and on the
other, the wisdom of those who are intrusted with the task of
carrying it on. It may be said, therefore, with truth, that the
liberty of the Press is perfect among us,-as perfect as it can,
probably, be made,-being restrained only by the laws which
3*




8                 CRCRISTItAT RETROSPteC
guarantee the rights of individuals and the demands of morality
and propriety. As to the measures of the Government, General
or State, and the principles and conduct of parties, they are
subjects for unrestricted discussion; and so are the qualifications, and, to some extent, the characters of office-holders, and
candidates for the suffrages of their fellow-citizens.  There
may be, and there often is, gross abuse of this almost unbounded freedom of the Press, but the evil is not without counteraction in divers ways, and especially through the very freedom
in question. At all events, whatever may be the injury resulting from this freedom's occasionally degenerating into licentiousness, greater evils result, in every country that tries them, from attempts to prevent them by governmental interference with the
Press.
NEWSPAPERS.
The United States, as might be expected from the. great free&
dom of the Press which is enjoyed, is emphatically a newspaperproducing and newspaper-reading country. In the year 1800,
there were, it is believed, about two hundred newspapers published in this country, of which seventeen were issued daily,
seven three times a-week, thirty twice a-week, and the remainder once a-week. In 1810, there were three hundred and fiftyeight; in 1828, the number was eight hundred and two; in
1839, it was fifteen hundred and fifty-five; and in 1850, it is
believed that it was not less than three thousand&
In 1800, there were sixty-five newspapers in the six New
England States; in 1842, there were 223. The number in the
Middle States, in 1800, was 74; in 1842, it was 513.
In the year 1842, the State of New York had 245 newspapers; Pennsylvania, 187; Ohio, 123; Massachusetts, 91;
Indiana, 73; and Virginia, 51.
In 1850, there were 371 newspapers in the New England
States, and in the State of New York, 460. Of the rest of the
country we have not yet received the statistics.




AND'REGISTER. 
For a long time the newspapers of this country were conducted in a very economical manner. The proprietor was often
both editor and printer, and with the aid of an apprentice or
two, and perhaps a journeyman occasionally, was enabled to
get his small sheet, one half, and sometimes three fourth parts
of which were occupied with advertisements, through the press
once a week. And this is the case still with many of the papers published in the villages and country towns. But in the
large cities, great papers have, of late years, sprung up, which
require, especially those which are issued daily, a large number
of compositors and pressmen, and one, two, and sometimes
three or four editors and assistant-editors. And instead of publishing only items of news, domestic and foreign, they now often
contain elaborate articles on almost all subjects, written with
much talent, and furnished by editors or correspondents. A
wonderful advance has been made within ten years even; whilst
the difference between the newspapers published in our chief
cities at present, and those which were published twenty-five
years ago-to say nothing of fifty years ago-is immense. The
employment, too, of travelling and stationary correspondents in
the most important countries abroad, is a new feature in the
conduct of the newspapers of this country, as well as of England, France, and Germany, which is of great importance, and
of very recent origin.
In the early portion of the Colonial Era of what is now the
United States, there was not one newspaper in the country.
The first that was published was the " Bostosn News-Letter,"
commenced in 1704; the second was the "Boston Gazette,"
in 1719; the third was the "American Weekly Mercury," at
Philadelphia, in the same year. The first newspaper published in
the city of New York was the "New York Gazette," in 1725.
At the commencement of the American Revolution (1775),
there were but 37 newspapers in all the colonies. It would seem
that some of the Royal Governors looked upon the Press very




60                0CHRISTIAN RETROSPECI'
much as do some of the despotic rulers of our day. Governor
Berkley, of Virginia, in 1675, said: "I thank God that we
have no free schools nor printing presses, and I hope that we
shall not have any for a hundred years; for learning has
brought disobedience, and heresy, and sects into the world, and
printing has divulged them, and libelled governments.    God
keep us from both i" Lord Effingham, who was Governor of
the same colony, in 1683, was ordered "to allow no person to
use a printing press on any occasion whatever."
Newspapers are now made the vehicles of all sorts of intelligence.  There are more than one hundred and twenty religious newspapers, it is believed, in the United States, almost all
of which contain a considerable amount of secular and political
news in a condensed form, whilst the greater part of their contents consists of news relating to the cause of Religion, at home
and abroad.   Periodicals of an octavo, or quarto form, devoted
to religious matters, existed long ago in this country and in
Europe; but the first religious newspaper, it is maintained, of
the form which has now become so common in this country,
was published in Boston, in January, 1&16, and was called the
"Boston Recorder."* Since that day the number has increased
very rapidly, until there are now, as has been, stated, one hundred and twenty such journals. Some of these, such as the
New York Observer, the New York Evangelist, the Christian
* This is the position of Mr. Sidney E. Morse, who was the editor of the
Boston Recorder, at the time referred to, and who founded the NVew York
Observer, in the year 1823. But although this may be true, so far as a
first successful experiment of a plan may be, in some sense, a just claim
to the invention; it is, nevertheless, unquestionably true, that a religious
newspaper, conducted on the plan on which the Boston Recorder was
published, was printed at Chilicothe, Ohio, by the late Rev. John Andrews, as early as 1815, if not earlier. In fact, Mr. Morse stands very
much in the same relation to the Religious Newspapers that his excellent
brother, the Professor, does to the Electric Telegraph, or as Mr. Fulton
does tb) the Steamboat




Ast) Af:IMSK.                   61
Advocate, the Presbyterian, the New York Recorder, the Independent, and many others, have a very wide circulation. It
would probably be within the limits of the truth to say that
the weekly issues of the Religious Newspaper Press exceed half
a million copies. The influence of so many sheets, some of
which contain matter enough to make a duodecimo volume of
150 or 160 pages, if not more, must be very great, sent abroad
as they are to all parts of the land, and each of them containing,
besides much religious news, many excellent articles, original or
selected, on those doctrines and precepts of Christianity which
are at once the foundation and the fruit of a holy life.
Besides Religious Newspapers, we have now a great number
of papers devoted to the advocacy of many special measures
and objects, —such as Temperance Papers, Anti-Slavery Papers,
Moral Reform Papers, Agricultural Papers, Scientific Papers,
Educational Papers, Anti-Masonic Papers, etc. Every great interest or movement has its own paper to serve as an organ by
which its influence may be brought to bear upon the public
mind. We know not the number of such papers, but it must
be very great. Some of the Aborigines on our borders have
newspapers in their own languages. This is the case with the
Choctaws and Cherokees.
Although, as a general thing, the tone of the more respectable and well-conducted Newspaper Press is in the main decidedly salutary, it must be confessed that there is a class of papers, conducted with a certain degree of talent, and circulating
among the less educated, and less wealthy, industrial ranks of
society, which are exceedingly injurious to good morals. Some
of them are published on the Sabbath, or circulated on that
day. Quite a large number are published in foreign languages,
especially the German, and are very hostile to everything that
bears the mark of Christianity.?
* Some of the worst papers in this land are published in German, by
men who seem to rejoice in pouring forth in the columns of such pa



62                -CHRISTIAN R]TROSPEPOT
So great is the circulation of some of the daily newspapers in
our chief cities, that presses driven by steam are now demanded
to enable the conductors of them to supply the subscribers in
reasonable time. By means of this great power, and by the
use of Mr. Hoe's wonderful, press, which can be made to throw
off many thousands of sheets in an hour, the papers of the
greatest circulation can be printed and sent forth, in the course
of a few hours, every morning or evening. There is no department of art in the United States, in which greater progress
has been made during the last 25 or 30 years than in that of
printing, especially in printing newspapers with rapidity and
facility.
MAGAZINES, REVIEWS, AND OTHER MONTHLY AND QUARTERLY
PUBLICATIONS,
There were but few Monthly Publications of any description
in the United States before the commencement of this century.*
In 1810, it is estimated that there were twenty-six of this class
of journals amongst us; in 1835, it is supposed that there were
one hundred and forty; and in 1850, about one hundred and
seventy-five.
Within a few years, some periodicals of this description have
attained to a vast circulation in this country. Graham's Magcazine, Godey's Mcagazine, Sartain's lMagazine (all published in
Philadelphia), and some others, have from 15,000 or 20,000
up to 30,000 or 40,000. They employ the pens of some of
the most talented writers among us; but their contents are, for
the most part, articles in prose and poetry of a light and popular, but not very instructive nature. They make no pretensions
pers, now that they have reached a land of political and religious liberty,
their unmitigated hatred of everything like religion.
* Aitkin's Pennsylvania Magazine, the American Museum (from
1787 to 1792), the American Monthly Magazine (1745 to 1748), and
Massachusetts Magazine (1784 to 1'95) were the most noted.




to the character and claims of Reviews. This species of literature has wonderfully increased among us within the last twentyp
five years, and especially within ten years.
Of secular and literary Monthly Reviews, properly so called,
we have the Knickerbocker, the Southern Literary Messenger, Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, the Christian Examiner, the
American Review, the Democratic Review, and a few others,all of them highly creditable to the country.
Of Quarterly Reviews, whether literary or scientific, we have
not many. The North American Review, commenced at Cambridge, in 1815, and Silliman's Journal, commenced at New
Haven, in 1817, do honor to the country. The American
Quarterly Review (from  1827 to 1837), and the Southern
Quarterly Review (from 1828 to 1833), the former published
at Philadelphia and the latter at Charleston, were for several years very ably conducted; but both had a short existence.?  To these we may add the Boston Quarterly Review
(Browllson's), Massachusetts Quarterly, and Stryker's American Register.
The Religious Quarterlies have developed no inconsiderable
amount of talent, and their number has become quite respectable. The Biblical Repertory, published at Princeton, and
commenced in 1824, the American Biblical Repository, commenced at Andover, in 1831, united with the Quarterly Observer, in 1833, with the American Spectator, in 1839, and with
the Bibliotheca Sacra (an able critical, exegetical and literary
Quarterly, which was published in Andover, from the year
1844), in 1850. The New Englander commenced in New
Haven, in 1843, the Christian Review, the Methodist Quarterly Review, the Mlercersburg Review, and some others, belong
to this category.
* The Southern tReview was revived in 1842; but though ably conducted, it is not what it was in'the hands of the late talented and
lamented Legare.




-64               CHRISTIAN RETR(SPECT
There is quite a number of able Medical and Law Journals,
which are of much repute, and all of them, we believe, have
sprung up since the commencement of this century.
Four of the great Quarterly Reviews of England,-the London Quarterly Review, the Edinburgh Review, the Westminster
Review, the North British Review, together with Blackwood's
Magazine (monthly), are republished in the United States.
Besides this, there are such works as the Eclectic Magazine,
Harper's MAagazine, the International Mlagazine (and Littell's
Living Age, weekly, may be included), which are either wholly,
or nearly so, composed of articles selected from the British and
other foreign Periodicals. For a long time the London Christian Observer was republished in the United States,-one of the
best Religious Magazines the world has ever seen.
Taken in the widest sense of the phrase, the periodical literature of the United States, indigenous and foreign, is immense
-embracing the Newspapers, and the Monthly and Quarterly
Magazines and Reviews. The regular issues,-daily, tri-weekly,
monthly,* and quarterly,-amount to several millions; and the
entire number of copies, in the course of a year, must be many
millions.
SECTION IL,
OTHER PARTS OF AMERICOA
THE increase of newspapers and other forms of periodical
publication has been great, also, in other parts of the Western
Hemisphere. This has been the case in the British Possessions,
* The Monthly Magazines and Papers published by the Religious
Societies of the United States have a vast circulation,-amounting probably to not much less than half a million of copies each month. And
all this has sprung up long since'the commencement of the XIXth
century.




AND REGISTER.                   65
north of the United States, as well as in those in the West
India Islands. How great that increase has been we are not
able to say with precision. It would not be hazardous, judging
from such data as we have, to say that it has been four-fold, at
least. And many of these colonial journals are edited with
decided ability.
And although the number of newspapers and other periodicals published among the nations in America, North and South,
which are of Latin origin (Spanish, Portuguese, and French),
bears no comparison with that of those which are published
among the people of Anglo-Saxon descent, it is, nevertheless,
quite considerable, and cannot be overlooked. The number of
newspapers published in Mexico, the States of Central America,
Hayti, the Republics of South America, together with Brazil, is
incomparably greater than it was at the commencement of this
century. In fact, it was, at that epoch, almost nothing at all.
Now it is considerable, and constantly, though not rapidly, increasing. This is indeed cheering, and gives hope for the future.
SECTION III.
EUROPE.
Great Britain and Ireland.-The Press having been long
freed from all censorship in the British Realm, it may readily
be supposed that its issues in all the forms of literature, occasional and periodical, in books, in pamphlets, and in sheets,
would be exceedingly numerous. Heavy duties, in one form or
another, operate as a great drawback, especially in the case of
newspapers, on which there is a stamp-duty of one penny on
each copy.
Newspapers.-The number of newspapers published in England before the commencement of the 18th century, was very
inconsiderable. The first that was printed, although it bore but




66               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
little resemblance to the newspapers of our day, was the
" Weekly Xewes," published by Nathaniel Butler, in 1622. The
first paper that might be called a vehicle of general information,
was established by Sir Roger L'Estrange, in 1663, and was
called the Public Intelligencer. We have no means of knowing the number of newspapers in England in the year 1700.
In the year 1713 stamps were first employed. In the year
1753, the number of stamps was only 7,411,757, in 1800, it
was no more than 16,084,905; but in 1849, it was 76,569,285
-a fact that demonstrates how rapidly the circulation of newspapers has augmented in the United Kingdom since the commencement of this century.
At the epoch last named (1849), the number of newspapers
in Great Britain and Ireland was 603: namely, 160 in London,
282 in the counties of England and the Principality of Wales;
117 in Ireland, and 94 in Scotland. The number of advertisements, during that year, in the newspapers of the United Kingdom was 2,182,272, yielding to the crown a revenue of ~158,114 16s., or about $785,570.
Many of the newspapers published in the British Realm are
edited with great talent. In this respect the London Times
stands pre-eminent. In its columns constantly appear some of
the finest specimens of a vigorous and ornate style to be found
in the English language. The political influence of this paper
is immense, and yet there is, sometimes, a sad want of honest
principle, and of a reasonable, generous, and Christian spirit in
its editorial columns. The Morning Chronicle, the Herald, the
Standard, the Daily News, and others might be mentioned as
journals conducted with singular ability. Many of the newspapers published in Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dublin, Belfast, Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, and other principal provincial
cities and towns, display much editorial talent and skill, although
far from being equal to the great papers of the GREAT METROPOLIS.




AND REGISTER.                   67
Periodical Publications.-The Periodical Literature of Great
Britain and Ireland is very extensive, and has no rival in any
land. The number of Monthlies and Quarterlies,-Literary,
Theological, Legal, and Medical,-is very great, and many of
them are conducted with ability. The Edinburgh Review, the
London Quarterly, the Westminster Review (now united with
the Foreign Quarterly), the North British Review, the British
Review, the Dublin Review-all come into existence since the
commencement of the XIXth century,-have contained some
of the ablest essays on great questions in Literature, and Criticism, in Jurisprudence, Law, Science, and Art, to be found in
the English language. Many of the Monthly Magazines and
Reviews are conducted with scarcely less talent. The progress
of England, in this great branch of Human Effort, during the
last fifty years, has been incalculable, and that progress has had
a most intimate connection with the best interests of Christianity.
The Continent.-The Freedom of the Press is very unequal
in the different portions of the Continent. In those countries
which possess the largest amount of political liberty, there is,
as might be expected, the most freedom of the Press. The
Protestant countries have more of both than those which are
Papal.
Scandinavian Countries.-There is more political liberty in
Norway than in any other kingdom on the Continent, and there
the Press is unshackled. In 1840 there were about twenty
newspapers published in that poor but interesting country, a
few of which were dailies, and the others weeklies. Some of
them, especially those in Christiania, the capital, are conducted
by able men.* These newspapers have almost all sprung up
since 1814.
* There is a newspaper published in Tromsoe, a village on a small
island on the coast of Norway, in latitude 70~. There is no other
newspaper in the world published so far north.




68                CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
There are many newspapers in Sweden and Denmark, but
the Press labors under considerable restrictions, especially in the
former. There are, notwithstanding, some able and very independent journals in both those countries, and the number of
newspapers has much increased within fifty years.
There is quite a number of Monthly and Quarterly Magazines and Literary Reviews in the Scandinavian Countries.
Holland.-The Press is in a good measure unshackled in the
Kingdom of Holland, and newspapers and larger Periodical
publications have greatly increased there since the year 1800.
We are not able to give the number of either.
Germany.-There is much more freedom of the Press in the
Free Cities, and in Prussia, and the other Protestant countries
of Germany than in Bavaria, Austria, and the other Papal parts
of that country. The Press is not, however, entirely free in
any part of Germany, though it is under far less restraint than
it was at the commencement of this century, or than it was even
four or five years since. The number of newspapers has wonderfully increased within a few years, especially in Prussia, and it
is surprising to see with what ability and courage political questions are discussed in their columns, which a few years ago they
would not have dared to touch.
The number of Semi-Monthly, Monthly, and Quarterly publications in Germany, devoted to Literature, both Classical and
Modern, to Science, Art, Theology, Law, Medicine, etc., is large
and increasing. Until within a very few years, the German
mind, for want of other subjects on which it might employ its
energies, was shut up to the pursuits of Learning, both as a
means of living and of enjoyment. But a very different day is
coming, and has even now commenced to dawn.
France.-It is now a little more than sixty years since France
began to talk of political liberty; but up to this day she has
had but few intervals, and they very short, in which she has
had anything like real constitutional freedom. The Fress has,




AND REGISTER.                   69
of course, shared the fortunes of the State. When there has
been a moment of political liberty, the Press has flourished.
The first newspaper published in France was the Gazette de
France, established in 1631. But the number was utterly
insignificant before the great Revolution in 1789. Under the
Directory, the Consulate, and the Empire, the Press was under
great restraint. Nor was the state of things much better during the Restoration-from  1814 to 1830. In the reign of
Louis Philippe the newspapers rapidly increased for a while, so
that there were as many as 374 published in that country in
the year 1832. But soon the conduct of the government be
came extremely oppressive. In utter violation of the Charte, or
Constitution, of 1830, no less than 1,129 prosecutions were
issued against publishers and writers for the public press, during
this reign, the aggregate of whose punishment was 3,141 years
of imprisonment, and fines to the amount of more than $1,300,000! The Revolution of 1848 flooded France with newspapers, but the Reaction and the Presidency of Louis Napoleon
have swept many of them away. Still, the Press in France has
great boldness and energy, and enjoys a large measure of liberty
in comparison with its condition in the past.
France is far from excelling in great Periodicals in the shape
of Reviews. Excepting some Monthlies, and bi-Monthlies, of
which la Revue des Deux JMondes is the most important, and
several Medical, Legal, Scientific, Agricultural, and Theological
Magazines, she has nothing in this species of literature worthy
of mention.
Spain and Portugal.-There is a great deal more liberty of
the Press in both these countries than there was thirty years
ago, or even twenty; and by consequence newspapers have
greatly increased in number, and improved in character. Of
the higher periodicals there are several in both.
Italy.-Excepting in the kingdom of Sardinia, it cannot be
said that the Press now flourishes in Italy. In that kingdom,




to                CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
which enjoys a constitutional form of government, there is a
large amount of freedom of the Press, and quite a number of
ably conducted newspapers.
The Revolutions of 1848 opened the way for the sudden and
extensive establishment of a great number of newspapers in
Tuscany, in Piedmont, at Rome, and even in Naples and Sicily.
But those halcyon days were but few, and have passed away.
They will yet return to shed their happy influence upon the
now excited and inquiring mind of Italy.
The higher periodical literature of Italy is not extensive; it
is chiefly scientific and general,-not political.
Greece.-The little kingdom of Greece had, in 1846, when
we were there, twenty-four newspapers, all, with one exception,
published in the modern Greek. Eighteen of these newspapers
were published at Athens, and six at Patras, Chalcis, Syra, and
Napoli. Several of the papers published at Athens are daily
ones, and most of them are conducted by able editors. They
are quite equal in character and talent to ours. There is nothing in Greece more interesting than her Schools, Gymnasia,
University, and Newspapers. The Greeks still "seek after
wisdom."
Turkey.-There is nothing worthy of mention in the shape
of newspapers and other periodicals in Turkey. One newspaper in French, and not more than one in Turkish, constitute
the entire of this species of literature in Turkey in Europe.
Russia. —There is a considerable number of newspapers in
the Russian Empire, probably as many as 150; but they are
under a very rigid censorship. Their contents, beyond the official announcements of the government, its ukases, etc., consist
of items of intelligence of what is going on in foreign lands, but
so stated as not to inculcate anything dangerous to the state of
things in that empire.
There are several periodical works, relating chiefly to Science
and Art, Agriculture, etc.




AND REGISTER.                   71
SECTION IV.
ASIA, AFRICA, AND THE ISLANDS OF THE EASTERN HEMISPHEREE
THERE is not much to be said respecting the progress of Periodical Publications in the other parts of the Eastern Hemisphere, but that little is interesting.
Asia.-India, under British sway, begins to learn to appreciate newspapers, and several have sprung up there, published
in the languages of the native population. This movement will
exert a vast influence for good or for evil-for the former, we
doubt not-as the Future will soon demonstrate. Some of
these native newspapers are conducted with much talent, we
are told, and are read with great avidity. Among those which
are conducted by natives under Christian influence, the Samachar
Darpun is one of the most able. They will furnish an admirable medium for discussing the nature, evidences, and claims of
Christianity, before the people of Hindostan. Already, indeed,
the work has commenced; nor will it cease till the Truth has
triumphed over all opposition.
There are several English journals published in India and
Ceylon, and one or two monthly magazines. We will name
only the Calcutta Christian Observer, published monthly, under
the united direction of all the Protestant missionaries; the Calcutta Review, which appears quarterly, edited chiefly by Dr.
Duff, of the Scottish Free Church Mission; and the Friend of
India, a weekly publication of great interest, under the care of
Mr. Marshman, a son of the former excellent missionary of that
name.
The English and American Missionaries in China published
formerly a valuable monthly magazine, called the Indo-Chinese
Gleaner, which was read extensively by the English and American residents and sojourners in the several sea-ports, in which




12               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
Europeans and Americans are now allowed to trade with the
natives. It now exists under the title of the Chinese -Repository.
Africa.-There are English newspapers published at the
Cape of Good Iope, and French journals published in Algiers,
in the northern extremity of that continent. Whilst on the
western coast there are newspapers published, in the English
language, in Liberia, in Sierra Leone, and at Cape Palmas, for
the benefit of the colonies planting in those places. All this is
the result of movements commenced since the beginning of the
present century.
Islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.-We know not
how many newspapers in the Dutch language are published in
Java and other parts of Netherlands India, but we suppose that
there are not many.
There are several newspapers published among the English
colonies in New Holland, Van Dieman's Land, and New Zealand; and the number is increasing.
Several newspapers are also published at the Sandwich Islands,
edited by the missionaries and others, whose influence is extensive among the many foreigners residing in those islands, as
well as among the native population. And this, too, is one of
the evidences, as it is one of the fruits, of the Progress which has
characterized the last fifty years.
In concluding this survey of the advance of the Press during
the First Half of the XIXth century, we cannot but remark that
it has been wonderful. How greatly have the means been increased, within the short period of fifty years, of diffusing knowledge on all subjects that concern Humanity, both in relation to
this life and to that which is to come! There are, probably,
four or five times as many of these cheap vehicles of information, which we call newspapers, in the world as there were in
the year 1800. This is, indeed, a great progress. The grandest obstacle in the way of imparting the Gospel to mankind,




AND REGISTER,                   73
and of promoting their best interests even in this world, is IGNORANCE. And the more that facilities for dispelling it and for
diffusing knowledge among the human race, become increased
and made to bear upon all classes, the more certainly will the
Kingdom of our Lord be promoted,
We shall now advance to the consideration of the progress
of Science, in many of its branches, during the last fifty years.
4




CHAPTEE V.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF SCIENCE IN THE FIRST HALF
OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
THE Scientific history of the first half of the nineteenth century is exceedingly various and extended. In no department
has science been altogether stationary; each previous form of
knowledge has pushed its path further out into the wide unknown. Many branches of Science entirely unknown before,
have been created within this period. Meteorology, ElectroChemistry, Geology, Physical Geography-belong exclusively
to it. The relations between all the various departments of
Science have become much more prominent and distinct. The
applications of Science, to practical and useful ends, are innumerable and remarkable. The development has already become
so great, that the want of some general guide has everywhere
been felt; and Cuvier in France, Whewell in England, and the
gentlemen of the British Association, have offered histories of
recent progress, which afford us one principal means of preparing the sketch which we now proceed to offer.
SECTION I.
ASTRONOMY.
THE progress of Astronomy was not distinguished by any
very remarkable discoveries for some time after the commencement of the present century. At the beginning of that period
several important instruments were coming into use-as the




CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.         75
English theodolite and the French repeating circle-the principal part of the Mecanique Celeste was published; and the
theory of perturbations was beginning to be well understood.
The Observatory at Greenwich was the only one at which
regular observations were then systematically made; and a
mass of these was accumulating which surpassed all others
known in accuracy and value. A great number of observatories, however, have since been established; and many periodical
publications now make their observations accessible. One of
the latter was commenced by Zach, in 1800, which contributed
greatly to the progress of Science-and especially in respect to
the small planets.
In 1832 there were thirty-five well-furnished observatories in
Europe: of which six were in the British Isles, two in France,
one in Switzerland, seven in Italy, one in Norway, one in Denmark, ten in Germany, and several in Poland and Russia.
The East India Company has established two in India, and one
in St. Helena; private enterprise has erected and furnished one
in New South Wales.
Several have since been added to this number, in Russia,
Belgium, Spain, and Greece.
In America there was, in 1832, but one observatory,-that
of Yale College. Since then, however, most of our literary institutions have sought to provide them. Among these, Harvard College maintains an honorable distinction; its instruments being upon a level with the highest refinements of
mechanical skill in this department. Two observatories of very
high grade have been founded by the government-those at
West Point and at Washington. Several of our cities, Philadelphia, Brooklyn, and particularly Cincinnati, have established
similar institutions of great promise. The whole number of
American Observatories is stated by Prof. Loomis, at fifteen.
The progress of Astronomy during the past half-century has
been stimulated by a large number of societies; and is chron



7's6        aCHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
icled in a great many periodicals devoted to this subject, as well
as in many papers, both European and American, in scientific
journals of a general character.
Astronomy has owed much of the interest and success with
which its latest discoveries have been prosecuted, to the improvement which has been gradually effected in the construction
of instruments. The first Mural circle was erected at Greenwich in 1812-and its introduction marks a new epoch in the
science. Motion is now given by clock-work to the largest instruments; by which the same star may be kept constantly in
the feld of view. Achromatic lenses, which formerly could not
be made of any considerable dimensions, have since been constructed by Fraunhofer of nine inches diameter,-later by Canchoix of eleven or twelve,-and still later by Merz & Mahler of Munich, of fifteen. These instruments, especially the
first-named, may not be more powerful than the great telescopes
of the Herschells; yet, their diffusion has greatly promoted
scientific discovery.
At the beginning of the period under review, the only good
catalogue of stars, according to Prof. Airy, was that of Dr. Maskelyne. Since that period, many eminent astronomers have
greatly multiplied the number of the stars, whose positions, as
fundamental points of measurement for others, have been determined. New investigations of refraction, made by the most
distinguished men, have introduced an accuracy unknown before, into this branch of the Science. Tables have been computed and published by numerous authors for determining the
places and figures of the sun and moon, and the planets and
their satellites.
At the beginning of the century, the only bodies recognized
as belonging to the Solar System were the Sun, seven planets,
with their satellites, and Halley's Comet. On January 1st, 1801,
Piazzi discovered the planet Ceres,-in 1802, Olbers detected a
second of these bodies, Pallas,-in 1804 Harding detected a




AND REGISTER.                   77
third, Juno,-and in 1807, Olbers again distinguished himself
by discovering Vesta. These discoveries attracted great attention, and their orbits and perturbations were speedily computed.
The interest awakened by them arose in part from the fact that
the existence of a planet at that distance from the Sun, had
long been suspected; and it was greatly increased by a suggestion early offered by Olbers, that they might be fragments of
one original body. It was by investigations growing out of
this hypothesis that the last of the four was discovered.
Many observations were made in order to detect any other
bodies which might exist in the vicinity of these, but with no
success; and after 1816, the search was generally abandoned.
In 1845, however, another was discovered,-and the zeal of
discovery revived. Since that time six new planets have been
detected in this portion of the heavens. They are all much inferior in size to the four previously ascertained, and the discovery is doubtless due to the multiplication of instruments and of
observers. The present number of the certainly ascertained
Asteroids is thirteen; two more, however, are very recently announced.
An eighth satellite of Saturn was discovered, in 1848, by Mr.
Bond, of the Harvard Observatory; and the satellites of Uranus,
which had not been seen since Sir William Herschell's discovery
of them, are now again found and computed. A third ring of
Saturn has also been detected.
One of the most interesting chapters of astronomical discovery
relates to the theory of comets. Before the present century,
little was known of their true character; and only a single
comet, Halley's, was fully ascertained to belong permanently to
the solar system. With the introduction of improved methods
for the determination of cometary orbits, a new impulse was
given to the observation of these bodies; and in 1819, Encke
ascertained that a comet recently observed could revolve only
in an ellipse of short period. His first computations gave 1310




8                CCHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
days as the period of a revolution. The interest awakened by
this announcement was intense; and very great attention was
at once given to the subject. It was soon found that the orbit
of the new comet agreed with one which had been observed
before, and the identity of the two was fully established.
A new question, however, immediately arose. The orbit now
observed was perceptibly less than on the previous occasions of
its appearance, and the difference could not be accounted for,
except by supposing the existence, throughout the planetary
spaces, of a resisting medium. The return of the body was
most anxiously watched, in the hope that it would settle this
interesting point; and at its return, in 1829, the general opinion seemed to be that there could be no mistake about the reality, or the magnitude, of the resistance which it had experienced. This is, however, the only body that has fully indicated
such a resisting medium to us; and its indications do not extend beyond the orbit of Mercury.
A great number of comets has since been observed and computed; of which several have been discovered within the last
ten years-two of them in America.
The latter part of the past half-century has, however, witnessed the attainment of some results scarcely inferior in brilliancy and greatness to any others that astronomical history
records. Among these the discovery of another planet is, perhaps, the most remarkable achievement. The perturbations of
the most remote of the known planets of our system, Uranus,
had long attracted the attention of observers, and in 1840 they
were thoroughly computed by Bessel, who declared that without the supposition of an additional planet, yet more distant,
they were inexplicable. The problem was to find this disturbing body; a problem which the highest authority, Professor
Airy, pronounced utterly hopeless till after several successive
revolutions of Uranus. It was, however, attempted, the position of the unknown planet was fixed upon, and its mass and




AND REGISTER.                    79
apparent size determined, upon purely theoretical grounds; and
the first examination of its calculated place disclosed the reality
of its existence. This discovery has been held to indicate the
correctness of our astronomical theories, the minute certainty
of our knowledge of the planetary motions, and the perfection
of our instruments of observation, and has won for its author,
Le Verrier, immortal renown.
The knowledge of the fixed stars, too, has greatly increased.
At the beginning of the century, the only accurate knowledge
of double stars was contained in the papers of the elder Herschel, who discovered, in 1803, the fact of their revolution,
and subsequently enlarged greatly his catalogue of them.
Many more were observed by Struve and Bessel; but the most
accurate measurements of such bodies are due to Sir John Herschel's labors in 1830. The belief that some law of attraction
connected these remarkable bodies, led to many efforts to compute their periods; of which that of the last-named gentleman
was by far the most remarkable and useful. The computations
rendered possible by this method, have fairly resulted in extending the Newtonian law of gravitation across the immeasurable distance, as it then seemed, which separates the planetary
from the sidereal systems.
The step, however, which has given to Astronomy its greatest
extension, is the determination of the parallax of the fixed stars.
By this term is meant the apparent change of position, which a
distant body undergoes, from  a change in the position of the
observer. Hitherto no such change of the point of observation
produced the smallest perceptible effect upon any one of the
fixed stars. Even the vast change of position which the different places of the earth in its orbit, at different seasons, involves,
has seemed to produce no corresponding alteration in the relative positions of the stars. At length, however, such a change
has been detected. A series of observations by Bessel, in 183740, determined the position of one of the fixed stars to be deci,




80                 CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
dedly different in January from that which it occupied in June,
His observations determined the distance of the star to be
592,000 times the radius of the earth's orbit.
This successful attempt to bring the Solar System into relation with the stars, awakened the highest interest among astronomers. Henderson, of Edinburgh, soon ascertained a similar
parallax in another star; and Dr. Peters, of Pultowa, has extended the list, and verified Bessel's results. This great discovery may now be considered as established, and the vast field
to which it belongs is open to the improved observation of the
age.
Another achievement is the verification of Sir William Herschel's opinion, in respect to the motion of the Solar System in
space. A comparison of the motions of those stars, which were
best ascertained, suggested to him the idea that the Sun was
moving toward a point in the constellation Hercules.  A more
careful~ examination of a greater number of stars, and by several most competent observers, seems to establish this result?
and to indicate, that the Solar System  moves through space
with a velocity about one fourth of that of the earth in its orbit.
Whether this motion is rectilinear or orbital, whether the stars
participate in it, and what is the grand centre of it, can hardly
yet be eideide. Prof. Madler, of Dorpat, has discussed these
problems, and reached definite conclusions.  He marks the star
known as Alcyone in the centre of the Pleiades, as the true and
grand central s.n of the whole system.  He has even reached
some indication of the time in which our Sun revolves in this
vast orbit —18 millions of years; but his conelusions are yet involved in too much doubt to permit us to rely upon them.
In the resolution of nebule, astronomy has advanced to a
field of observation yet more remote. The elder Herschel observed, with his vast reflecting telescopes, many of these remarkable bodies; 500 were enumerated in a single paper, and
the number was greatly increased in 1811 and in 1817. The




Ai)b 13 I( TEiT.                 1'
chief improvement in this particular has been achieved by the
Earl of Rosse, whose gigantic telescope of twice the size of Herschel's, has revealed the character of many of these singular bodies, and shown them to be distant groups of distinct stars. A
great number of nebula have been thus resolved: though others yet retain their indistinct and hazy outline under all appliances, and remain problems for future solution.
The elaborate, various, and complicated processes of computation and observation through which such discoveries have
been achieved, it is impossible to indicate. Many hundreds of
stars-some thousands even, have been determined with precision, as points of reference for smaller ones; and of these
50,000 are recorded in the observations of Delalande alone.
The record of a single year's observation at the National Observatory at Washington, will give 12,000 to 15,000 stars,
most of them unknown to any existing catalogue; and the plan
contemplates the exact record of every star, down to thosb of
the tenth magnitude. Concerted observations of astronomers
at different positions, bring the whole heavens under constant
inspection; and the advanced state of Astronomical Science,
and the improved and powerful character of the instruments
employed, authorize the hope of a rapid and wide extension of
knowledge in this, the most advanced department, of Physical
Sciencer
SECTION It,
OPTICS.
AT the beginning of this century the Newtonian theory of
light-the emission theory, as it is called-was in the ascendant.
It owed its acceptance to the personal influence of its great
author; and did not rest on any accurate basis of experiment.
During the period under review several facts have been brought
4*




82               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
to light which enable us to test this, in connection with the rival theory of undulations.
The theory of undulations was adopted by Dr. Young, in
1801-3, as explaining the phenomena of diffraction; and in
1815, Fresnel in France coincided with this view. In 1809,
Young explained double refraction upon the same hypothesis.
The polarization of light was subjected to an elaborate
mathematical examination by Fresnel, in 1820; and a subsequent theoretical examination of the laws of internal reflection,
disclosed the very unexpected consequence of a circular polarization. This extraordinary result was immediately after verified
by experiment, and produoed a deep impression of the truth of
that theory.
The phenomena of dipolarization were discovered by Arago,
in 1811, and reduced subsequently by Fresnel, from the theory
which has served to explain so many of these otherwise inexplicable facts.
The coincidence of that theory with so many of the great optical laws, has produced a strong tendency among philosophers
of the present day, to its general adoption. It is, however, still
somewhat dubious; and the very recondite character of the
facts themselves do not seem to promise any very speedy settlement of the question. The comprehensive character of this
theory, the facility with which it has explained, and the correctness with which it has predicted, the curious phenomena of this
science, have given it a higher rank among physical theories
than any which has been proposed since Newton's theory of
gravitation, with which it is classed by philosophers of high
repute. Mr. Whewell does not consider it either in generality
or in certainty, of an order inferior to that of this celebrated hypothesis.




AND REGISTER.                    83
SECTION III.
METEOROLOGY.
THIS science which has for its objects the phenomena of the
atmosphere, has assumed its present form entirely within the
present century. At the beginning of that period it was characterized by two prominent circumstances,-one the possession
of the most important instruments of observation, the barometer, thermometer, hygrometer, &c.; and the other, the recent
determination of the uniform composition of the atmosphere at
all accessible heights, and in all countries.
Numberless observations have been made with each of
these instruments, to determine the variations of temperature,
humidity, &c., of particular places, and to ascertain the laws
of the atmospheric changes throughout the earth. In some
places these observations have been made hourly for long
periods of time. Observations of this kind for a period of two
years in Scotland, were discussed by Dr. Brewster, in 1827.
Many attempts have been made to ascertain the laws of terrestrial heat. The subject has been investigated mathematically
by the French philosophers, with their accustomed zeal. Several important problems have been earnestly discussed, such as
the specific heats of different substances-the proper heat of
the earth, &c.
Among the most interesting of these results, may be mentioned the conclusions, that equal volumes of the different gases
have the same specific heat-that no appreciable change of temperature in the Italian climate, has taken place for two hundred
years-that the earth has a proper heat of its own,-that its
temperature, at a given depth below the surface, is invariable at
all seasons, and increases with each succeeding increase of
depth.




84                CRCRIMT~A1 RmSTAiOSf
To Dr. Dalton. the world is indebted for some experiment
which have ascertained the dew-point, or the temperature at
which dew begins to be deposited. He has also determined
the composition of the air to be the result of a mechanical mixture, and not of a chemical combination, of its gaseous elements,
The law which governs the amounts of rain falhng in different districts of the earth, has been in some degree ascertained,
Arago, in 1824-5, traced its regular decrease from the Equator
to the poles. On the Malaiba coast 123 inches is the annual
amount, which is reduced in lat. 60~ to 17 inches. Annual
amounts have been ascertained in other places far surpassing
this: at Paramaribo, 229 inches,-in the Western Ghauts, south
of Bombay, 300 inches.
The phenomena of dew were ascertained by a beautiful series,
of experinients, in 18914, by Dr. Wells, in England. He succeeded in connecting them with temperature as their eause,
modified by the conducting power of the body on which moisture` deposited. The theory thus established speedily afforded
a solution of all the phenomena.
An ingenious classification of clouds into czrrzts, cumulus,
and stratus, (corresponding to feather-cTou d, —heap-cloud, —and
layer cloud, in German,) with their different combinations, was
proposed in 1803, by Mr. Howard. It has been generally accepted, and gives great precision to descriptions of atmospheric
phenomena.
At the beginning of our period there was no general theory
of Winds and Storms; and the want of such a theory was
much felt. Since then, however, the generra laws of the wind,
have, in some most important respects, been ascertained. The
constant winds of the tropics have been shown to be owing to
regular changes of temperature;'-the land and sea breezes to
the diurnal variations,-the monsoons, to the changes of the
seasons,-and the trade-winds, to the difference of climate between the equatorial and polar regions,




Aftb RTWMt  A 
A very interesting investigation has recently been conducted
by several eminent men, into the nature of the great American
Storms, which has already thrown much light upon this subs
ject. Until a very late period they were supposed to be merely
gales of wind, moving at a high velocity, and in a straight line,
Mr. Redfield, of New York, suggested that they were rotary,
and adduced many observations on the great Atlantic Storms,
which seemed strongly to sustain this view. It was adopted by
Col. Reid, of the British army, and supported by his very numerous observations upon storms in the East and West Indies.
A different theory has been advocated by Prof. Espy, who maintains, on similar grounds of fact, and upon established principles of science, that the direction of the wind in such storms,
instead of being rotary, is convergent towards a center. The
opinions of scientific men are yet divided on the subject; and
the discussion has developed some very interesting laws in respect to the causes, motions, and extent of such phenomena.
Many observations have enabled us to ascertain the mean din
rection of the wind at particular points. Farther investigations
in this direction have been undertaken by Lieut. Maury of the
Washington Observatory, who has ascertained, from a very extended comparison of the records of numerous ships, that certain winds prevail within given limits much more regularly than
had been supposed. The investigation promises great advan~
tages to mariners, as they may select the paths in which a favorable wind is most generally found; and some important results
of this kind have, it is believed, been already attained.
Meteorological observations are now made with great regularity and constancy, and over very wide areas. Two of our principal States, New York and Pennsylvania, have recently established stations for this purpose throughout their whole extent,
The character of the questions now open, and the number and
zeal of observers, give promise of results of high scientific interest, and of great practical value,




86               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
SECTION IV.
GEOGRAPHY.
THE last century was characterized by a very active spirit of
geographical discovery, extending over nearly the whole of that
period. While the Russian navigators (among whom Behring
stands conspicuous) achieved the exploration of the north-eastern
parts of Asia, and the seas between the Asiatic and the American coasts, the other European nations traversed, with similar
aims, the vast Pacific. The voyages of De Bougainville and La
Perouse, under the auspices of the French government, and
especially Cook's well-known voyages, together with numerous
other and less conspicuous adventures of the same kind, had
made known the general distribution of the great lands and
oceans of the globe. The discovery of New Holland, in 1770,
by Cook, is the most remarkable achievement of this kind.
The unknown portions of the Russian Empire had been illustrated, in some degree, by the efforts of Pallas and others, in the
employ of that government; while many others had contributed to extend the knowledge of other portions of the earth.
Among these Bruce in Abyssinia, Niebuhr in Arabia and Egypt,
Park in Central Africa, and Mackenzie in North America, were
particularly distinguished. Through the labors of such adventurers, the general surface of the earth was, at the close of the
last century, delineated with considerable exactness, and in some
detail.
The subsequent fifty years have extended such explorations
in almost every direction, and with many most important results. A very great portion of the Arctic coast of North America has been successfully explored and delineated by successive
expeditions of the British government for the discovery of a
North West Passage to the Pacific. The names of Ross, Parry,




AND REGISTER.                   8?
and Franklin will be long memorable in the annals of discovery
in this field, each of them having commanded several distinct
expeditions of this kind. At the present time, the first-named
of these gentlemen yet battles with the tempest and the ice of
those rigorous regions in an effort to discover and relieve the
last-named, now absent and unheard of for a period of five
years and eight months. In this humane undertaking no less
than four distinct expeditions are now engaged in company with
this veteran commander. Of these one is American, and one
French, and two have been sent out by the devoted exertions
which have immortalized the name of Lady Franklin.
Upon the continent of America, the Columbia River discovered a year or two earlier, was, with the Missouri, explored by
Lewis and Clark in 1804-5.
The sources of the Mississippi were examined in 1805 by
Pike, and in 1819-20, through the St. Peters to the Rocky
Mountains, by Long.
The investigations of Humboldt, in 1800-4, resulted in a
much more accurate knowledge of some portions of South
America and Mexico; while the southern extremity of the continent and its south-western shore have been carefully surveyed
by a British expedition of discovery conducted in the Beagle, —
a survey which has disclosed many important facts in various
departments of science.
The western coast of North America was carefully examined
through nearly its whole extent by the United States Exploring Expedition under Capt. Wilkes.
The interior geography of the continent has been recently
elucidated by the explorations of Lieutenant Fremont. His
first expedition (in 1842) terminated at Fremont's Peak, near
the South Pass,-two points which mark the highest elevation
and the lowest depression of the great chain of the Rocky Mountains. His second (1843-4) found its theatre west of that range in
Oregon and Northern California, and disclosed the existence and




88                 AffRtgiTIAU  IETRfOSiOT
character of the great Salt Lake. His third resulted in the
discovery of that remarkable peculiarity of the interior of Norm
them  California-the great basin-an area of 500 miles in
diameter, and from 4000 to 5000 feet in height, with its own
system of lakes and rivers. It disclosed, too, the singular chars
acteristics of the Sierra Nevada, with its fertile valleys on the
Pacific slope, and its arid and sterile regions on the east. These
explorations fill up a vast chasm in the geography of the continent, and connected with Capt. Wilkes's survey of the mouth
of the Columbia, present an accurate view of the continent from
the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean.
The great Australian continent is yet but very imperfectly
known. The whole central portion of it is still enveloped in
mystery.  At the visit of the United States Exploring Expedia
tion, it had been examined through only one fourth part of its
extent from the coast. A recent German traveller, fiom whose
exploration much information was expected, has now been absent for a period of three years; and, at the latest accounts, an
expedition was just preparing to set out from Singapore in
search of him.
In Africa, the explorations of Park had brought to light the
existence of a great river, whose probable course formed, for
twenty years, a problem of very difficult solution, in prosecution
of which that dauntless adventurer soon after lost his life. The
successful determination of this question was finally achieved by
Lander, in 1830.
In 1822, Denham and Clapperton extensively explored Northem Africa. To the latter is due the honor of being the first
European who ever traversed that continent from the Bight of
Benin to the Mediterranean. At alater day the Nigef was explored~
and its course determined, for a distance of two thousand miles
from the point where Park first saw it, in 1805, to its mouth.
The travels of Major Laing, in 1826, of Caille, in 1828, and
of numerous others, have given us some definite knowledge of




AND REGISTER.                   89
the geography, productions, and populations of this region so
long unknown. Much, however, yet remains to be ascertained,
and scientific observers are busy in exploration. A German expedition, under the direction of the Prussian government, is
conducted by Bath and Overweg; and is expected to increase
materially our knowledge, both geographical and scientific, of
this interesting country.
Oriental lands have been the scene of many researches and
discoveries, within the period of which we write.
Within the five years subsequent to 1812, Burckhardt traversed
Syria, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia; and through his extraordinary diligence and attainments, enriched and enlarged our
knowledge with a vast amount of important information.
In 1838-39, Dr. Robinson made his very elaborate researches
upon the regions of Sinai and Palestine. His labors have
given a new impulse to such studies, and determined some very
interesting questions of Biblical history. Our present ample
knowledge of the geography of Palestine proper, is due entirely
to his full and accurate observations. The subsequent examination, by Lieut. Lynch, of the United States Navy, of the Jordan and the Dead Sea, has given to the world its first reliable
and precise knowledge of these localities; and has furnished an
important contribution to the elucidation of the inspired narrative. His observations ascertained the region of the Dead Sea
to be the lowest portion of the earth's surface.
The vast field of Asiatic Russia was explored by Humboldt
throughout its central part, in 1837 to 1842, in a tour which
extended along the great Altai range, to the confines of China.
He has since given to the world the scientific results of his tour.
Still more recently, Ermand, a distinguished naturalist, has examined the northern portion of Asia, and his published journal
is full of valuable information upon the population, productions,
trade, and natural history of those regions.
Different Scientific expeditions fitted out by the principal Eu



90                CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
ropean governments, as well as by our own, have greatly contributed to extend geographical science. A vast number of the
most important positions, on distant and scarcely accessible
shores, have been thus examined.' Numerous islands and
groups in the vast Pacific,- the coasts of Central and South
America,-prominent channels in the China and Indian Seas,the Arctic and Antarctic extremities of the globe,-have all been
more or less carefully delineated. Three such expeditions,
French, English, and American, made nearly simultaneous discoveries, of the great Antarctic continent, in 1840.
Missionary enterprise has accomplished many results of the
same kind. English and French Protestant Missionaries have
enlarged our knowledge of the interior of Southern Africa.
American Missionaries have, in some degree, explored its equatorial region from the west; and Gobat has materially elucidated Abyssinia. Some very important observations in Turkey
and Persia, and in the Archipelagos of Malaysia and Polynesia
are due to the same source: while very numerous contributions
of a less striking kind have aided to swell the sum of such
knowledge in reference to the many remote and unknown localities to which these heralds of the cross have penetrated.
SECTION V.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
THE vast number and variety of facts ascertained by so extended and minute a survey of the earth's surface, could not
fail to suggest many striking views of a general kind. Heat
and moisture were found to be distributed very variously; and
the law which governs the distribution assumed a deep interest.
Different altitudes and exposures of the earth's surface stood
connected with results of the highest consequence to the organized tribes. Many peculiarities, too, of distribution, and varieties




AND REGISTER.                   91
of color and form in the organic world, demanded for their explanation a reference to some cause. The investigation of facts
and questions, as are here involved, gave rise to Physical Geography as a science.
In this philosophical geography the great ocean beds have
been classified-the marine currents. determined-the ocean
depths sounded, and the heights and length of the mountainchains measured or computed. The high table-lands-the vast
lowlands-the slopes and valleys which everywhere determine
the distribution of animals and plants, —all have received a careful survey. The warm and fertile regions which beget population, and the frigid and arid districts which repel it-the mountain ridges and iron-bound coasts which forbid communication
-the level plains and tranquil seas which facilitate it-all these
have been traced in their influence upon the history of the animal tribes, and of the human race.
Some of the most valuable of the observations which have
promoted its progress, are due to the labors of Alexander Humboldt. His journey through a great part of tropical and subtropical America, was undertaken upon a scale on which no
private scientific expedition had ever before been planned. The
enlarged views and high attainments of himself and his colleague, Bonpland, gave a value to his survey of nature in those
lands, which no similar work had possessed, and which few have
since attained. It is to his efforts that we principally owe the
determination of the magnetic equator, and of many of the
Isothermal lines which have since become well established, and
are of the highest scientific value.
The science has been carried onward to a far higher point by
Ritter and Steffens, in tracing the relations of the organic and
moral history of the earth to its physical conformation. The
great geographical work of the former surpasses every other in
comprehensiveness of detail, and in originality of observation.
Ten large octavo volumes had been published in 1846, of his




92                CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
geography, in its relations with nature and history; and yet
only Asia and Africa had been completed. His maps are
standard works over the world for their accuracy.
To Berghaus is due the praise of having furnished the finest
physical Atlas of the Earth which has yet appeared. It has
served as the basis of a very elaborate work of the same kind,
which has been published by Professor Johnson, of England.
His maps, too, of Asia and Africa possess the highest value.
To the moral relations which arise out of the earth's configuration much attention is now directed. Humboldt has himself contributed some important thoughts to the subject in a
recent publication, the "Cosmos;" and his pupil, Prof. Guyot,
has developed some striking and important aspects of the divine
Providence over human history in this connection. This most
interesting field has but recently opened, and each extension of
the natural history of the different regions of the earth now
promises to contribute something to our understcndng of the
designs of Providence.
SECTION VI.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY-ELECTRICITY.
IT is now about a century since observation had so far detected the prominent phenomena of Electricity, as to show its
claims to scientific investigation, and the interest which attended
the study. Electrical attraction had been long known; but it
was not till the beginning of the last century that electrical repulsion was observed and investigated by Dufay, in France. At
about the same period the distinction between conductors ark\
non-conductors was established by Grey, in England. If M:
add to these the discovery of the different kinds of electricityvitreous and resinous-and the curious fact of the electric shoc
as given by the Leyden jar, we shall have before us the science




AND REGISTER.                    93
of electricity as it was one century since. The chief peculiarity
of this last fact was, that electricity was shown to be capable of
transmission through a considerable number of persons, and to
a very great distance, without any appreciable interval of time.
Philosophers began at once to speculate and to experiment with
much interest upon these circumstances, and among these the
name of Franklin acquired great distinction by his clear and
satisfactory explanations of these electrical phenomena. Electricity by induction, and the identity of electricity with lightning, were soon after ascertained.
Subsequent investigation sought to develop a theory of electricity to ascertain the causes and the laws of these phenomena.
Epinus of Petersburg, and Coulomb in France, two of the most
eminent philosophers of the last century, labored to determine,
by the most careful mathematical calculation, the results of different theories. The first adopted the theory of one fluid,-the
latter that of two. Coulomb's theory has been calculated to its
results with the utmost precision and detail, and shows a most
striking coincidence with the facts of observation; yet in consequence, perhaps, of the highly abstruse character of his reasonings, it was not generally received. The law, however, that
the force of electrical attraction varies inversely as the square
of the distance, his calculations satisfactorily established.
Since the present century, the improved methods of mathematical investigation, which Laplace had invented for calculating astronomical problems, rendered a higher application possible of mathematics to electricity. In 1801, Biot determined thus the distribution of electricity upon the surface of a
spheroid with great exactness. In 1811, Poisson calculated
another of the problems to which many of Coulomb's experiments were referable, with very striking results of conformity.
Still later, in 1836, Mosotti, of Turin, has calculated with equal
profoundness and precision, the mathematical results of the opposite theory of Epinus, of a single fluid. As his results display




04                CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
not merely an accordance with observed facts, but open before
us some remarkable general views of the nature of the mechanical forces of cohesion, gravitation, &c., they have awakened
much interest, and scientific opinion is yet divided upon the
question of one or two fluids. Mosotti found that the particles
of the electrical fluid would, upon his theory, at the smallest
distances repel each other-at greater distances the repulsion
would vanish, while at all perceptible distances they would attract each other with a force inversely as the square of the
distance. There would thus be a certain point at which the
attraction and the repulsion would precisely balance each other,
and constitute a stable equilibrium between theparticles; and
this, he suggests, may be the circumstance on which the physical structure of bodies depends. So comprehensive a generalization has been felt to be worthy of careful inquiry, and at this
point the two electrical theories now rest.
At the same time the tendency of speculation in reference to
the other imponderable agents, light and heat, is strongly to
discard altogether the idea of a material fluid, and this tendency
may, perhaps, affect the theories of electricity also. However
this may be, the formulae thus elaborately calculated will stand
as expressions for the laws which govern the distribution and
action of electrical forces.
SECTION VII.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY-MAGNETISM.
THE history of magnetism bears a general resemblance to
that of electricity, and many of the same persons were employed
in the two trains of research. The general fact of magnetic attraction was known to the ancients; and it was early ascertained
that magnets have poles, of which the similar ones attract, and




AND RnEGISTMSE.                 95
the opposite ones repel, each other. The discovery of terrestrial
magnetism and of the compass, marks a grand advance of
knowledge on this subject; and by the seventeenth century several other facts of much interest were developed; those, for instance, of the dip, and of the local and diurnal variations of the
magnetic needle. The laws of this variation were first carefully
investigated by Halley, under the auspices of William and
Mary.
General magnetic theories were proposed in the last century,
by the same eminent men who discussed the two hypotheses of
Electricity, Epinus and Coulomb; and their theories bore a similar relation to each other. The former adopted the idea of one
magnetic fluid manifesting itself by excess and defect; the latter, that of two distinct fluids. Coulomb first ascertained that
here also the law of the force is that of the inverse square, in
opposition to the opinion of Newton, who imagined it to be inversely as the cube of the distance. Some other important
laws are due to his investigations, to which his invention of the
torsion balance chiefly contributed. The calculations to which
he submitted his theory developed some results of an important
kind, which experiment subsequently confirmed.
Within the present century the highest processes of mathematical analysis have been applied to this subject, by Biot, in
1811, and by Poisson in 1824. The result has been the attainment of the law which regulates the distribution of the magnetic fluid on an elliptical spheroid, by the former; and general
expressions for the attractions and repulsions of a body of any
form whatever, by the latter. Previously, however, Barlow had
experimentally ascertained some remarkable facts, and obtained
some important rules for determining the amount of the variation of the needle. He discovered that sensible magnetism resided only in the surface of bodies; and that a thin shell of iron
produced as much effect as a solid ball of the same diameter.
He was enabled, too, to correct the deviation of the needle, which




96               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
is caused by the iron fastenings of a vessel, by placing a small
plate of iron in a counteracting position near the compass-a
happy improvement in the use of that instrument. His experiments and formulae, are deemed to give a strong confirmation to
the theory of Coulomb; of which Barlow's was only a novel
aspect.
Terrestrial magnetism has been largely indebted to the elaborate observations of Humboldt, who successfully established the
line round the earth, at which the needle does not dip-termed
the magnetic equator. Biot's analysis of Humboldt's observations led him to the conclusion, that the earth, as a magnet, may
be regarded as having its poles near its centre. Captain Ross,
in his second Arctic voyage, reached the spot where one of
these poles is indicated, the dip there being so great that the
needle stood absolutely in a vertical position.
Hansteen showed that the observations compel us to suppose
"that there are four of these poles; two in the Northern, and
two in the Southern hemisphere; and that instead of being
stationary, they move with different velocities, and in different
directions. "This curious collection of facts," Prof. Whewell
observes, "awaits the hand of future theorists, when the ripeness
of time shall invite them to the task."
A more recent analysis, by Gauss, of the whole body of magnetic observations has introduced yet another distinction, which
materially elucidates the problem. He shows that there is but
one magnetic pole, properly so called, in each hemisphere, characterized by the vertical dip of the needle, though each hemisphere contains two magnetic foci of intensity. One of these is
in North America, and the other, somewhat less intense, in Siberia.
As the identity of magnetic and electrical actions have been
already ascertained, the question of the reality of a material
magnetic fluid is involved in much doubt. The history of the
discovery of this connecting link belongs to the next branch of
the subject.




AND REGISTER.                   97
SECTION VIILr
GENERAL CHEMISTRY-GALVANISM.
THREE successive discoveries in this branch of general chemistry characterize, according to Cuvier, the principal epochs of
its earlier stage. Of these, the first was its effect upon the animal system-discovered by Galvani, at Bologna, in 1790,-the
second, its nature and origin, demonstrated by Volta, another
Italian professor, in 1794; and the third, its remarkable chemical properties, discovered by Davy and Nicholson.
Galvani's discovery of muscular motion by electricity, came
at a period when electrical science was almost stationary, and
consequently excited great notice. As the cause was supposed
to be a peculiar kind of electricity residing in the muscles of
animals, it gave rise to many experiments, and to much speculation.
It was Volta, however, who ascertained philosophically the
conditions of its origin. He found that the electricity sprang
from the simple contact of two metals; and that the muscular
contractions which Galvani had observed, were only the ordinary effects of that fluid. He soon after discovered a method
of accumulating this electricity, the influence of which is similar
to that of the Leyden phial in common electricity. By a great
multiplication of the number of metallic plates, separated by wet
pasteboard, he found the two electricities developed at the two ends
respectively, of the pile thus formed. He proved that all the attractions and repulsions of the Leyden jar could be thus obtained;
and ascertained that the pile resembled the action of such a jar,
feebly charged, and constantly renewing its charge. He found,
too, that by this continued action the most remarkable chemical
changes were produced; many substances being rapidly decomposed under its influence. By enlarging the size of the plates,
5




98                 OCHRISTIA.N RETROSPECT
a great power of producing heat was developed, while a vast
power of decomposition resulted from a similar increase of their
number. These effects were severally ascribed to the different
states of the electric fluid-the former to its quantity, and the
latter to its intensity-distinctions which have since assumed a
high importance, and been much more fully investigated.
The attempts to connect magnetism with electricity, which
had nearly died away, were, in the year 1820, suddenly and
vigorously revived by Oersted, of Copenhagen, who then announced the discovery, that the needle suffers a decided change
from proximity to the conducting wire of a voltaic circuit. It
very unexpectedly appeared, that the needle tends to assume a
position at right angles to the wire. This singular fact greatly
stimulated scientific inquiry; many observers soon corroborated
the statement, and added new facts to those which Oersted had
observed in electro-magnetism. Among these Ampere was
prominent, who immediately inferred, and    soon  afterward
proved, that the earth, considered as a magnet, must, and does,
affect the position of the voltaic wire. He advanced rapidly to
a general theory of the subject, which implied that the voltaic
wires must attract and repel each other. This conclusion was
immediately tested and verified by experiment, and the laws
of the attractions and repulsions ascertained with ingenuity.
Another singular fact was brought to light by Faraday, in
1821,-that this force would cause a revolution in either of the
two bodies, the magnetic needle or the voltaic wire, about the
other; a fact which again gave rise to several curious inquiries.
It was soon ascertained that this force, so peculiar in its direction, followed the law of all similar forces, in being inversely as
the square of the distance.
As the needle assumed a position at right angles to the
wire, it might be supposed either that the wire was a collection
of transverse needles, or that the magnetic needle was a bundle
of transverse wires. In either case they would assume toward




AND   ECf ISTER,                9
each other the positions thus indicated. Ampere adopted the
latter of these suppositions, in opposition to most of the philosophers; and succeeded, not without some complex calculations,
in explaining by means of it all the classes of phenomena which
have been mentioned. The theory was for some time contested,
particularly by Biot, who had adopted a different view; but in
a succession of papers presented to the French Academy, and
extending through a period of nearly two years, Ampere vindicated his theory from all objection, and satisfactorily established its exclusive conformity to the various facts.
In 1832 a brilliant career of discovery was commenced by
Faraday. From the moment that magnetism had been proved
to be a particular form of electrical action it had seemed practicable to produce electricity by magnetism; and an experiment
of Arago's had even seemed to involve this effect. The revolution of a conducting-plate acted upon a magnet in its neighborhood. Following this suggestion, Faraday succeeded, after
some futile endeavors, in detecting a momentary effect in a
neighboring wire, at the moments at which a voltaic circuit
was formed or broken, and thus established magneto-electric induction.  Simplifying the arrangements, he soon ascertained
other important laws; and finally, that the earth itself might
supply the place of a magnet, and that the mere motion of a
wire would, in appropriate circumstances, produce a temporary
electric current. The various and peculiar facts which he had
discovered, he soon succeeded in reducing to a general law, by
referring the position and motion of the wire to magnetic
curves, which go from one pole of the magnet to the other. The
general view in which he has united these various discoveries,
is regarded as forming a most important step in the progress of
this science.
The subsequent history of these sciences, merges into that of
chemistry proper, under which head we shall again refer to them.




100              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
SECTION IX.
CHEMISTRY PROPER.
DURING the last century the chemistry of aeriform bodies
formed a principal subject of chemical investigation, and it was
through these investigations that the chief discoveries of the
earlier portions of that century were made. In 1755, Black, at
Glasgow, showed that the gases formed constituent elements of
solid and fluid bodies. In 1766, Cavendish pointed out the
peculiar properties of hydrogen gas, or, as it was then called,
inflammable air. In 1774, Priestley discovered oxygen, and at
about the same period nitrogen, and some other gases.' Finally,
in 1782, the brilliant experiments of Cavendish determined the
composition of water, and visibly combined the two gaseous
elements in the fluid form,-a result which was received with
general assent and admiration.
During this period, however, the general theory of chemistry
was that known as the phlogistic theory, which supposed combustion to take place by the extrication of an invisible substance,
termed phlogiston, from the burning body. However erroneous this theory may have been, it is generally now regarded as
having formed a most important step in the progress of chemistry, and from its adoption by Stahl, a German chemist, and
its promulgation in 1718, it enjoyed a wide and almost universal acceptance.
At length, however, as continued investigation extended the
body of known facts, the insufficiency of the theory became apparent, and the necessity of some other began to be felt. The
nomenclature, too, of the science was altogether empirical and
grotesque in itself, and inadequate to the exigencies of the occasion, when the facts to be classified, and the objects to be
anaed, had become very numerous. A new nomenclature was




AND REGISTER.                  101
proposed, in 1781, and was fully executed by an association of
French chemists, in 1787, which introduced great clearness and
connection into the facts of chemistry. In 1789, Lavoisier gave
to the world a treatise, in which the new nomenclature and the
new theory of oxygen were fully explained, and applied to the
whole body of the facts then known. A great degree of mathematical accuracy had been already introduced into chemical investigations, particularly by Bergman, in his mineral analyses,
-by Priestley in his experiments upon the gases,-or, as they
were then called, airs,-and especially by Cavendish.  The
beautiful experiments and happy explanations of Lavoisier commended the new system to the delight and acceptance of the
scientific world; and, though opposed by some of the eminent
chemists of the day, it soon secured a general adoption. Priestley,
however, in the last year of the past century, was yet earnestly
combating it, and never adopted either the scientific nomenclature, or the new theory of combustion.
From this time the science made most rapid advances. Many
new elements came successively to light. The number of known
metals, in 1789, was seventeen; of which platina had been
but recently discovered, and another, uranium, was detected in
that year. The year 1795 witnessed the discovery of titanium,
and 1798 that of tellurium; while, in 1797, Vauquelin made
the brilliant discovery of chromium.  Columbium was drawn
from a mineral of the United States in 1802; cerium was ascertained in 1801; four others of quite remarkable character were
detected in crude platinum, in 1805 and 1806. The list of
elementary metallic substances ran up soon to twenty-seven or
eight.
Several new earths were discovered, during the same period.
Five were known in 1789, and by the end of the century four
more were added to the number.
The mineral acids became known in the course of the eighteenth century; but the animal and vegetable acids were by no




102                CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
means as well ascertained.  Soon, however, under the influence
of the new systems, a very great number of these were brought
to light and carefully discriminated.
The various elements, acids, &c., thus discovered formed, of
course, even in their simplest combinations, a very great number of substances, which afforded to chemical investigation a
vast field of inquiry and research. The determination of the
respective quantities of the acid and of the base in the various
salts, required very long researches, especially in the case of the
metallic salts, which have been very carefully investigated, and
with many results of great utility in the arts. The same investigation was necessary to determine the precise amounts of the
different elements of each of the gases, while the different products, both solid and fluid, of the animal organizations, demanded numerous and laborious analyses, and offered in return many
novel and interesting results.
At about the same period an English chemist, Dalton, achieved a grand advance in this science by the discovery of the atomic
theory. Some of the principles involved in it had been suggested before, but had nowhere acquired due prominence.  The
essential points of this theory are three:-  That elements combine by weight in definite proportions; that these determining
proportions operate reciprocally; and that when, between the
same elements, several combining proportions occur, they are
related as multiples."  The last of these principles was entirely
new to the scientific world, and even the first had but shortly
before been called in question by Berthollet.  The discovery was
soon generally admitted, and was received with great admiration.
The theory received, immediately upon its introduction into
France, an important modification.  It was ascertained by Gay
Lussac, that the gases combine by volume, in very simple and
definite proportions.  With this modification it has received a
universal currency, and has been esteemed for the definiteness




AND REGISTER.                   103
and precision which it has introduced into the science,-a remarkable and most important step in its progress.
One of the most beautiful discoveries of the present century,
was the reduction by Davy, in 1807, of the fixed alkalies, soda,
and potash, to a metallic base. It had been suspected that
these were compound bodies, since the time of Berthollet's successful analysis of the volatile alkali, but all attempts to decompose them had proved vain, up to the period of Cuvier's Report
on the Natural Sciences, in 1808, in which they are still classed
as elementary. The value of this beautiful discovery lay not
merely in the knowledge which it afforded of the alkaline
metals themselves, but in the new laws which it revealed, and
in the new field which it opened,-at once enlarging the domain,
and correcting the principles, of science.
This discovery was shortly after followed by several others of
a similar kind; the effect of which was to concentrate the attention of the chemical world upon the investigations and
views fiom which they had resulted.  Davy had been for some
time engaged upon experiments designed to illustrate the relations between chemistry and some forms of galvanic and electrical action; and it was in pursuance of the theoretical- views
which he entertained upon these subjects, that these discoveries
had been made.
The decomposition of water by electricity, had been observed
in 1800; and in 1806, Davy announced his great discovery,
that " The combinations and decompositions by electricity, were
referable to the law of electrical attractions and repulsions;"
and advanced the theory, that chemical and electrical attractions were due to the same cause. This beautiful generalization
is regarded as one of the great events in the scientific history
of this period; and it was immediately recognized as such all
over Europe.   The author of it received the distinguished
honor of a prize of 3,000 fiancs, authorized by Napoleon, and
awarded by the French Institute, for the best experiments on




104               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
the galvanic fluid, though the two nations were at this period in
fierce hostility.
This theory of Davy, at first put forth in terms much too
general to satisfy the demands of science, received its full confirmation from the researches of Faraday. By a long series of
experimental investigations, he established a principle, through
which the definite measurement of the quantity of electrical
forces became practicable. By the application of this method
he succeeded in obtaining for each elementary substance, a
number which represented the relative amount of its decomposition-or in other words, its " electro-chemical equivalent."
The proportion of these numbers was found, upon inquiry,
to coincide with the atomic weights of the Daltonian theory.
The result of these investigations was the complete establishment of the great law which Davy had suggested-the identity
of electrical and chemical action; the widest and most comprehensive generalization to which chemistry has yet attained.
Since Davy's discovery of Potassium, in 1807, almost all the
earths and alkalies have been resolved into metallic bases,
though some have conceived that the base of silica is more analogous to carbon. The position, therefore, of this substance is
yet somewhat doubtful.
The unrestricted statement of the theory of Lavoisier, that
acids were formed in all instances by combination with oxygen,
was soon called in question; and an important modification was
suggested simultaneously by Davy, and by several of the French
chemists. In 1812, an experiment was performed by the
former, in the presence of several eminent philosophers at Edinburgh, the result of which was to satisfy them  that muriatic
acid was not so constituted. A new view of that subject has,
in consequence, been since taken by most chemists; and that
acid is regarded as a combination of hydrogen, with a peculiar
principle, called chlorine. The existence of one such acid suggested inquiry in respect to others; and several are now recog



AND ROGRsim                     10
nlzed as probably possessing a similar constitution. Four im*
portant principles, chlorine, iodine, bromine, and fluorine, are
now classed as analogous, among the elements of chemistry,
though the last of these has not yet been separately obtained.
The number of elementary substances was reported, in 1837,
by Prof. Whewell, to be fifty-three; since then, writers on
chemistry enumerate fifty-five, and some substances which are
yet but imperfectly known, carry it to not less than sixty.
A vast amount of chemical research has been expended in
the formation and analysis of salts. Some idea of the extent
of these researches may be formed from the fact, that more than
two thousand compounds of this kind have been described or
indicated, a great proportion of which have been largely investigated.
More recently the attention of chemists has been extensively
devoted to the ananlysis of organic products. Many of the results of the earlier inquirers of the present century, having
proved inaccurate, numerous attempts have been made to improve the methods of vegetable analysis, so as to secure more
constant and exact results. Through these improvements, the
existence of a very great number of vegetable acids has been
ascertained. In 1832, they were set down at eighty-two in
number. The list of vegetable alkalies included, at the same
time, no less than thirty-three.
The merit of the first great discovery of this kind is due
to Serturner, whose remarkable discovery in opium  of morphine, a vegetable alkali, to which the soporific qualities of that
drug are owing, took place at Edinburgh, in 1805, and led the
way to a train of discoveries to which much of our knowledge
in this branch is owing. He was followed by Pelletier and
Caventon, who soon after discovered strychnine, and detected
quinine, the active principle of Peruvian bark, in 1820.
Many important points, in respect to the nature of these proximate principles, are yet involved in much doubt. It is impos



106               CHRISTIAN.RETROSPECT'
sible yet to say whether they are or are not binary compoundswhether the alkalies do, or do not, contain ammonia —and, in
some instances, whether they really exist in the substances from
which they are der.ved, or are formed by the lengthened processes by means of which they are obtained.
Other vegetable principles, possessing neither alkaline nor acid
properties, have been extracted from a great variety of substances. Of these, twelve are described as coloring matters;eighteen as gums, resins, &c.;-and thirty-seven as indifferent
principles-neither acid nor alkaline. Besides which there is
a vast variety of vegetable oils, many of which are not characterized by properties sufficiently distinct to make their differences easily intelligible. Many of these substances have been
found capable of most important and extensive application in
the useful arts; and others have proved of the highest value in
medicine.
In Animal chemistry similar researches have been instituted
into the composition of the various products of the animal economy, with results, however, less numerous. The number of
proximate principles yet discovered is materially smaller. Animal chemistry has been chiefly studied in connection with
physiology; and most of the investigations have had reference
to the healthy or diseased functions of the human system. The
various products and tissues of the system have been carefully
examined. The blood, the bile, milk, albumen, fat, &c., have
each been the subject of careful and extended researches. Of
acid principles, twenty, and of indifferent and alkaline, thirtyfour, were, in 1832, reported, as well characterized, and established, to the British Association; besides a considerable number which were yet involved in some dbscurity. At that
period the fatty bodies were the only ones which had been
thoroughly investigated; and the name of Chevreul was honorably distinguished in their investigation.
The great number of specific principles thus established, in



AND REGISTER.                  10
volving a very wide extension of our knowledge of the chemistry
of animal and vegetable organization, has necessarily led to
much both of reasoning and of research in these departments.
Questions of the highest interest could not fail to be suggested,
as soon as any specific knowledge was obtained of the nature
and the variety of the products of animal and vegetable life.
The characteristics of these peculiar compounds,-the sources
from which they were derived,-the processes by which they
were elaborated,-the ends which they subservediin the organization that produced them,-these and numerous other problems of the same kind tasked the ingenuity and the resources
of the chemical philosophers to the utmost. The whole great
mystery of organic life, with its numerous and remarkable phenomena of respiration, nutrition, digestion,-of growth and decay,-of combination and decomposition,-demanded elucidation at the hand of this advanced science, which had already
penetrated to so many of the secrets of nature.
Among philosophers who have attempted the solution of such
ploblems, none has achieved greater distinction than Liebig.
His observations, which have been prosecuted with the highest
enthusiasm, have combined great acuteness of research with an
uncommon spirit of philosophical generalization. Some of the
most remarkable instances of philosophical deduction, which the
recent history of science records, are to be found in his speculations in organic chemistry. Thus, the capacity which chemical
action in a given substance had been observed, in some instances, to possess of impressing itself upon other bodies, and originating a similar action in them, has received in his hands a generalization of the widest kind; and the universal law which he
has sought thus to establish, furnishes an explanation of many
phenomena hitherto inexplicable. The pernicious influence of
malaria and of putrid substances,-the contagion of diseases and
the action of some kinds of poisons,-are, upon this theory, explained with great simplicity, and made to assume the character




108'             CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
of phenomena determined by one comprehensive law.    His
theory, too, of animal heat and of respiration, which regards
these phenomena, as results of the change of the iron in the
blood from one to the other of its oxides in the lungs, and back
again in the capillaries to its previous form, is regarded as a
beautiful application of the deductive method, completely explaining these mysterious phenomena. Upon the validity of
these speculations chemical science has not yet fully pronounced,
though there seems to be a strong disposition to impose considerable limitations upon Liebig's statements of the fundamental facts of his philosophy.
The extent to which subsequent investigation may carry these
modifications of his theories, it is, of course, impossible to conjecture; but there seems little reason to doubt that in many
important respects his views will long be regarded as beautiful
examples of scientific research which have extended the domain
of known chemical laws over some of the widest, most complicated, and most interesting phenomena of organized nature.
It is impossible to convey any idea within the brief limits to
which this sketch must be confined of the vast amount of observation and thought to which these various discoveries are
owing. It has been a prominent subject of investigation in
every intelligent community. England, France, Germany, Sweden, Italy, have all contributed to its development, nor has our
own country been without distinction in this brilliant career of
discovery. In each of these nations a host of ardent observers
has labored assiduously in the cultivation of this field. Countless analyses and experiments have been demanded for the discovery of each new substance; and every discovery has required
for its verification processes equally elaborate and extended.
The research has involved a degree of accuracy which nothing
but the most patient toil could have attained, and which, but a
very short time since, would have seemed incredible. A new
notation for the description by brief formula of the constantly



ANnY E.sOITS                    109
increasing number of new organic and mineral compounds has
been invented by Berzelius, and, with some modifications from
the German chemists, is now rapidly coming into use. Investigation has already ascertained, by numerous and oft-repeated
experiment, the precise composition of almost every product of
animal, or of vegetable life. The wood,-the bark,-the leaves,
-the fruits of each species of cultivated plants,-nay, of every
variety at every period of the year, and at every stage of its
growth,-have been analyzed and recorded. Each tissue of the
animal system,-the bones,-the muscles,- the brain, —the
blood,-each fluid secreted or excreted in the animal economy,each healthy and each diseased product of organic life,-has
been thousands of times analyzed, and the analysis verified by
countless observations.
Whatever may become of recent theories, the vast body of facts
which chemistry has already accumulated, must remain, together
with many of the established laws of a general kind, to form
the starting point for future observers. With such materials,
advanced to such a state of generalization as chemistry now unquestionably possesses, the highest general views cannot be very
remote, and we may anticipate a speedy solution of those mysterious phenomena of animal and vegetable life which are open
to physical investigation, the attainment of which seems now the
aim of chemical science in the future.
SECTION X,
MINERALOGY.
As mineralogy is peculiarly a science of classification, its
progress must be measured essentially by the systems of classification which have been adopted. The first of these had been
offered by Werner in the last century, and recognized almost
exclusively the external characters of minerals, as its basis. In




110               CHtRISTIAN RETROSPECT
the discrimination of minerals by differences of color, weight,
hardness, &c., this school gained great distinction, and furnished
materials of great value for future use.
The constancy of the angles of crystallization had, however,
impressed several minds during this period; and finally Haiiy,
a French mineralogist, proposed, in 1801, his system of crystallography. He discovered the importance of cleavage, and the
laws by which secondary forms are derived from more fundamental ones. I-e developed these principles into a detailed system, described a vast number of secondary forms, which he deduced by mathematical processes from the primary ones, and
examined the whole mineral kingdom in accordance with these
views. He showed that the crystalline angles are the criteria
of substances; and distinguished baryta and stontia, and identified the beryl and the emerald, before their chemical composition had been ascertained. His lectures were eagerly heard by
great numbers in Paris; and his views were speedily disseminated' throughout the world, and earnestly pursued by many observers.
The system  received a modification from Weissul, who proposed a system  of crystals, to which each individual might be
referred. This theory regarded the crystal as disposed about an
axis. This step constituted a real improvement, and soon found
confirmation from another quarter. The optical properties of
crystals, double refraction and dipolarization, were ascertained by
Sir D. Brewster to sustain a relation to these systems of crystallization; and the distinction was thenceforth established as
an important law (which farther discovery has confirmed), that
the geometrical symmetry corresponds with the optical properties of crystals.
While these investigations were going on in crystallography,
another system was in formation, which took the chemical composition as its basis, and arranged in the same class all minerals
which were found to be chemically alike. The necessity for a




AND REGISTER.                   11
new system arose from the fact now discovered, that the same
angle of crystallization sometimes characterizes different substances; and that what might be assigned by its crystallization
to one class of substances, was in reality wholly different. The
explanation of this fact is due to Mitscherlich, who showed that
one substance may sometimes accurately replace another in the
composition of a mineral, assuming precisely the same crystalline
form. This discovery of Isomorphism he promulgated in 1822.
Berzelius had, before this, constructed his system of purely
chemical characters, in which each substance was classed on the
principle of its chemical proportions, and particularly with reference to electro-chemical properties. He arranged all minerals
according to the electro-chemical character of their elements,
and the elements themselves as electro-positive or electro-negative in different degrees. But the same results followed his
systemi,-it was found impossible to conform  all mineral substances to it, and Berzelius himself gave up the theory, and attempted another. In this all were arranged according to the
same class of agencies, but wholly with reference to the electronegative element. Instead of classing together all varieties of
iron or of copper, all the sulphurets, all the oxides, &c., were
united.
The result, however, both of this and of other attempts of
the same kind, was unsuccessful; and the science now rests
upon a mixed method, in which all the characters of these various systems are employed for distinguishing minerals. This
method is of course very complex, and involves in each instance
questions of chemical composition-physical character-and
crystalline form. The mass of mineral species has now become
very great, and is continually increasing, and the difficulty of
discrimination in doubtful cases is by no means small. But
each of the systems we have mentioned has contributed essentially to our means of knowledge, and together they furnish a
valuable approximation to a complete system.




112              CHRISTIAN RaETTOSPf CT
SECTION XI.
GEOLOGY,
Ir was at the beginning of the XVIth century that geological
facts first awakened attention and inquiry; and within the next
two hundred years they had accumulated to a considerable
number, especially in Italy, and had given rise to much speculation. During the latter part of the XVIIIth century a variety
of theories had been proposed for the explanation of such facts
as were then known-theories which serve at present only to
indicate to what an extent the wonder and curiosity of inquirers
had been awakened. Buffon had proposed a theory which
found advocates till the close of that century. The two Bertrands had originated others in Switzerland and France; and
several theorizers in England and Germany had obtained similar distinction by the same means, These theories were of a
character the most visionary and capricious. The first, regarded
our earth as having been struck off from the sun, while in a
heated state, by a comet-another, as having been originally a
mass of ice-and upon each of them the few established facts
were explained, by calling in any agencies which might seem
adequate to such effects.
Other observers, however, as Saussure in the Alps, and Pallas
in Siberia, confined themselves to the collection of facts, and
accumulated materials which have proved of great value to
their successors. At the close of that century, the interest of
the scientific world was concentrated upon two theories which
long divided the suffrages of the learned. Werner, a Professor
in Saxony, contended that all rocks were deposited by water,
and this was known as the Neptunian theory; while in Scotland, Hutton taught that the unstratified rocks had been deposited in a melted state, and his theory was designated accord



AND REGISTER.                   113
ingly as the Plutonian. The latter of these views has, with
important modifications, been adopted by most subsequent
geologists; yet to Werner is due the credit of having extended
correct general views of the distinctions of classification of strata.
In 1793, an Englishman, William Smith, achieved a great advance in geology by his classification of the strata of some portions of his country; and in 1815 he gave to the world a survey of England, in which the strata were discriminated by their
organic remains. During this period many of the most ingenious minds were devoting themselves to similar researches.
In 1807 the formation of the London Geological Society took
place,-an association which has materially and most honorably
connected its name with the subsequent progress of Geology in
England.
In the mean time the study of fossils was pursued with great
genius and enthusiasm in various countries. Lamarck and Defrance determined the fossil shells in the neighborhood of Paris,
and in 1811, the memorable work of Cuvier and Brogniart, "On
the Environs of Paris," constituted an epoch in geological science.
Cuvier's discovery of many species of vertebrated animals in the
basin of Paris, some of them of immense size and of the most
extraordinary character, stimulated naturalists throughout Europe to more extended examinations of the tertiary strata, from
which they have since reaped an ample harvest of most important facts. The restoration of more than forty species of extinct
quadrupeds, principally of the pachydermata, attests the extent
and the success of his labors.
Another most remarkable group of animals,-the Saurian,was brought to light principally by the geologists of England.
In 1816, Sir Everard Home ascertained that, among the fossil
remains of England, were some which it was impossible to arrange with any known class of animals. The animal thus referred to was named the Ichlthyosaurus, as intermediate between
fishes and lizards. Another still more nearly approaching the




114               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
lizard, was discovered by Conybeare, in 1821, and named Plesiosamrzus. These were marine genera. At a somewhat later
day, Dr. Buckland designated another, and a terrestrial genus,
as the _?egalosauztrs, and, finally, Dr. Mantell brought to light
the most gigantic of them all-the Iguanodon-a herbivorous
reptile of nearly 100 feet in length.  There are now at least
eighty species of these fossil reptiles known, many of them of
immense size and some of extraordinary character. They have
been divided by Dr. Buckland into four groups,-the Marine,
Terrestrial, Amphibious, and Flying Reptiles.
The curiosity and wonder excited by such a series of discoveries greatly stimulated the ardor of inquirers, and a great number of observers now pursued investigations, which had proved
so fruitful of novel and brilliant results. Many of the most
acute and philosophical minds of the age have been, and still
are, engaged in efforts to solve the problems which geology
offers to our examination.  The investigations of Agassiz upon
the fossil fish, published in two separate works in Neuchatel, in
1834, and in England, in 1835, have resulted in a new and
admirable classification of that branch of physical science. More
recently the observations of the same gentleman upon the glaciers of Switzerland and the erratic blocks, have opened a new
field of investigation in the ice period.
The fossil plants were first fully investigated by Brogniart.
The number of species which he had ascertained, in 1836,
amounted to 527, which have since increased to about two
thousand. As a large proportion of plants would disappear
during the process of fossilization, fungi, mosses, &c., the aggregate, it is supposed, may have approached the existing number.
One half of the whole are contained in the caroniferous series,
before the great herbivorous quadrupeds existed.
The earliest well-characterized plants hitherto ascertained are
coniferous trees at the base of the old red sandstone. Their dis



AND REGISTER.                  115
covery is due to the protracted investigations of Hugh Miller, in
a field, whose fruitfulness he had the merit of discovering.
The species of fossil fish number about two thousand. They
have grown to this number under the hand of Prof. Agassiz.
The number which Cuvier had distinguished amounted to only
ninety-two.
The depth of British strata investigated and found to be
fossiliferous was estimated, in 1840, at six and a half miles.
Prof. Rogers, of Pennsylvania, estimated the American strata below the coal as of much greater thickness than the European.
Many important questions, which have arisen during the
course of these investigations, have been successfully solved.
Among these no single one was attended with greater difficulty
than that of determining the equivalence of the strata of different regions, a work which required the most careful examination
of the fossil remains of distant formations. The identity of the
compact marbles of Italy and Greece, with the loose limestones
which form the Oolitic series of England, was pointed out by
Dr. Buckland, in 1820, and his view has since been fully confirmed. The determination of hundreds of shells by most skilful
conchologists was requisite to decide the position of some of the
calcareous beds of Germany as compared with the formations
of Great Britain.
More recently, however, this effort has been so far extended
that the general system of the rocks is now universally agreed
upon, and is understood over the whole of Europe, and of eastern North America. In more distant countries, however, the
equivalence of strata with those already known is more doubtful, though investigation is rapidly enlarging our knowledge in
every direction. Humboldt has labored to extend the doctrine
of geological equivalence, as shown in the rocks of Europe, to
those of the Andes.
The equivalence of the strata of New York with those of Europe and northern Asia was determined, in 1846, by M. de




116              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
Verneuil, who determined the fact that no country offers so
complete and uninterrupted a development of the Devonian system as this State.
Geological science has been greatly indebted for its progress
to the accurate surveys which various governments have ordered.
The surveys of the European coast, undertaken for military and
commercial purposes, have furnished opportunity of geological
observation also. Extended geological investigations have been
accomplished of all the more important European countries.
American geology has been greatly indebted to the same aid.
The several States have almost universally instituted surveys for
economical as well as scientific purposes. Among the most distinguished of these are those of Massachusetts, which were made,
in 1833, by Prof. Hitchcock, and New York, which were undertaken, in 1836, by several gentlemen of scientific distinction,
and contemplated a general survey of the Natural History of
the State.
The United States Government has had geological surveys
made of some extended regions of the interior of the country;
and the Exploring Expedition, under Captain Wilkes, has made
a most valuable contribution to science in this branch, in the
work of Professor Dana.
There are in every department of geology questions of great interest awaiting their solution. M. de Beaumont has suggested
a theory of the contemporaneous elevation of parallel mountainchains, which has attracted much attention. More recently, a
different view has been taken, which attributes them to the contraction of the earth's crust.
Among the more interesting points which are regarded as
settled, may be mentioned the very recent appearance of man
upon the globe, and the termination of creation with the formation of man, as no single species can be shown to have originated since this modern period.
The highest authorities agree in denying the possibility of the




AND REGISTER.                  117
transmutation of lower into higher forms of organic life, and
generally in affirming the diffusion of each species from a single
point throughout its whole range.
Two theories at present divide the geological world, in respect
to the method and the agencies by which the earth's changes
have been produced. One view attributes the phenomena to
the violent action of causes not now equally influential; the
other, represented by Lyell, to the long-continued action of
causes such as those which are now raising the Scandinavian
peninsula. Facts at present are not sufficiently numerous to
authorize any confident conclusion.
SECTION XII.
BOTANY.
THE principal fact which has characterized the history of
Botany during the present century, is the acceptance of the natural system of arrangement. Previously, the prevailing method
was that of Linnaeus, to whom all departments of natural history owed very great obligations for the specific names-the
precision of language-and the comprehensive method which
he introduced into them. His system was founded upon the
number and position of the reproductive organs of plants, and
introduced an arrangement which was highly convenient for
reference, but altogether artificial.
Botanists still looked, therefore, for some system which should
group plants not merely according to a given number of stamens,
but in harmony with the higher affinities which prevail in nature. Such a system was proposed by De Jussieu, in 1789.
The principle of this system is the estimation of organs according to their importance. We observe some groups in which
certain organs are constantly present; and finding that the or



118              CHIRISTIAN RETROSPECT
gans which are constant in one family are constant also in the
others, these are assumed as of higher consequence than more
variable organs. Arranging upon this principle, we reach a
classification identical with the natural relations in which plants
stand to each other. An illustration of this process, and of its
results, is afforded by the distinction adopted in all the natural
systems between Monocotyledonous and Dicotyledonous plants.
In the former it is found that the wood is developed toward the
inside, in the latter, upon the outside of the tree. The distinction corresponds, therefore, to a grand fact in the organization of the plant.
This system was yet farther developed by a Swiss botanist,
De Candolle, who showed that this method affords a guide to
the knowledge of the properties of medicinal plants.
It has since been widely adopted, and is at present the fundamental principle of botany.
The science has extended with every year, till it embraces a
vast number of species. Exploration in every part of the globe
has been, and still is, adding to the catalogue. Some idea of
its growth may be formed, fiom the statement, that a century
since, Linnaus enumerated 7,300 species, which were increased
in his second edition to 8,800. In 1808, the number had
reached 30,000; in 1830 it was more than 50,000; and in
1850 they amounted to not less than 120,000.
The floras of Europe, together with those of many distant
portions of the earth, were undergoing at the beginning of this
century careful examination.  This has been continued till
beautiful and extensive works have been published, describing
and picturing the whole body of European, and a vast number
of foreign plants. Brown brought to England, in 1805, as
many as 4,000 species of Australian plants. Humboldt discovered a vast number in Mexico and Peru. Brazil has been
examined by many naturalists-the East and West Indies



AND REISTER.                   119
Bengal, Sumatra, Java, Abyssinia, China-all have been subjected to repeated inspection by eminent and laborious men.
By means of this extended investigation, botanists have been
able to divide the surface of the earth into a number of districts, which show with some accuracy, the general distribution
of plants. De Candolle established 20 botanical regions, which
Martius, of Munich, has extended to 51; of these, 5 are in Europe, 11 in Africa, 13 in Asia, 3 in New Holland, 4 in North,
and 8 in South America, besides a number more limited in
extent. Humboldt gives the following view of the distribution
of plants, both as to height and latitude:
The equatorial zone is the region of palms and bananas.
The tropical, of tree-ferns and figs.
The subtropical, of myrtles and laurels.
The warm temperate, of evergreen trees.
The cold temperate, of deciduous trees.
The subarctic, of pines.
The arctic, of rhododendrons.
The polar, of alpine plants.
The three great classes of plants are, the cryptogamia, fungi,
mosses, &c., whose flowers are invisible, and which are the
lowest in organization; the monocotyledonous, as grasses and
ferns, and the dicotyledonous, or flowering plants-the most numerous, and the highest in organization. The first class characterizes the vegetation of high latitudes; the second flourishes
in the tropical regions; while the third has its chief development in the temperate zones.
The flora of tropical America is the richest of the world;
Europe has about half the number of species; Asia less than
Europe; Australia, still less; and Africa, fewer vegetable productions than any equal area of the globe. Wherever the
species of plants are generally identical in different countries, it
is proved by Prof. E. Forbes that the regions were once connected. The agents of the diffusion of plants are currents of




120               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
water, winds, birds, quadrupeds, and man. The cryptogamia,
whose minute seeds, sometimes invisible, are transported by the
winds, enjoy the widest diffusion, while very few dicotyledonous
plants are common to two distant countries, and in many instances their diffusion can be traced with the highest probability
to the causes above mentioned.
SECTION XIII.
ZOOLOGY.
THE progress of Zoology within the present century is mainly
due to the grand impulse given by Cuvier. Previously the
general system of Linnaeus was adopted, which failed to distinguish a natural order. The great epoch is the appearance of
the Regne Animal, or Animal Kingdom    of Cuvier, in 1817.
Since that period naturalists have felt themselves in the true
path of nature, in treading in the steps which his genius indicated.
Lamarck divided all animals into vertebrate and invertebrate,
the general analogies of the former class being sufficiently obvious. But the latter it was reserved for Cuvier to illustrate.
He separated early this class into several, instead of dividing
them, as Linnseus had done, into two,-insects and worms. In
1801, Cuvier distinguished a class of the latter, which have red
blood, and finally, in 1812, he distributed the invertebrates into
three classes, each co-ordinate to the branch formed by the vertebrata. This classification marks them:
The Vertebrata-Characterized by a spine and skull, with
lateral appendages, which enclose the viscera and support the
muscles.
The Mollusca-With muscles attached to the skin, and no
bony skeletons, embracing shell-fish, cuttle-fish, &c.
The Articulata-Consisting of insects, lobsters, &c., charac



AND REGISTER.                  121
terized by a head and a number of successive portions of the body
jointed together.
The Radiata-Comprising the zoophytes, in which the members radiate from a central axis. This system was fully developed, in 1817, in the "Regne Animal," and has since been universally adopted.
The animals being thus reduced to four general types, naturalists have, in some instances, sought to simplify the result and
bring all animals of each class to a single type. Such views,
however, have hitherto failed to secure any general concurrence,
and Cuvier to the last resisted the attempt. Prof. Oken, in
1807, labored to resolve the skull into vertebrae, and with some
success, for many naturalists adopted and carried out his views,
and both Cuvier and Owen countenanced the effort. It is supposed by Whewell to have been fully acquiesced in by the best
physiologists; but it has recently been very vigorously attacked
by Hugh Miller, and on grounds which, if they are not decisive
against the theory, bring up the question at least for renewed
discussion.
Vertebrata.-The different classes of this grand division have
been very largely investigated, and the number has greatly increased in every department.
Among the mammalia, the 300 species of Buffon had grown,
inl826, to 700, as estimated by M. Desmarets. We have now 207
described by Bachman, in North America alone. Africa, India,
and South America are constantly sending us new ones. In
their distribution the quadrupeds of the southern extremities of
the continents differ far more widely from each other than those
of the northern; while the Polar animals of all the continents
are identical in species.
There are 480 species of mammalia peculiar to the American
continent, scarcely one of which is capable of easy and useful
domestication. Asia has 288, among which occur almost all the
domesticated animals.
6




122               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
fIerpetology.-The Reptiles have been distinguished into four
conspicuous natural groups.  Their numbers are far greater as
we approach the tropics, and they form a principal characteristic
of the American continent. Their range is generally limited,
and the species are not numerous.
Ornithology.-In ornithology, the extreme beauty and very
wide range of many species have made them the subjects of
much study.    Six natural orders are easily discriminated.
Many naturalists, as Vaillant in Africa, and Temminck in South
America, have, with great assiduity, penetrated the wildest and
least accessible regions to observe the species of these lands.
The ornithology, too, of Europe and North America has been
elucidated by names too familiar to require any mention.
The wide range of many birds is interesting as throwing light
upon the general problem of the distribution of animals. It is
found that the species of birds which, for the purpose of rearing
their young, annually visit the Polar regions, where the different
continents approach each other, are identical in Europe, Asia,
and America. Of the others, which are confined to lower latitudes, none are identical on opposite sides of the ocean.
Great attention has been given to the anatomy of the vocal
organs, so remarkable in this class.
The number of ascertained species is about 6000.
Ichthyology.-In ichthyology materials had accumulated
greatly at the close of the last century, and Bloch, in a great
work on the plan of Linnoeus, attempted to systematize them.
He was unsuccessful, however, in his arrangement, and Cuvier
was the first to indicate a philosophical path in this department.
His grand distinction is taken fiom the character of the skeleton, and he makes two classes, the bony or osseous, and the
cartilaginous fish. The characteristics of the orders have been
taken from the jaws, gills, and fins.
This classification was in part rejected by M. Agassiz, who,
in forming a new system, founded the distinctions of it upon the




AND REGISTERo                   123
scales alone, and made four orders, not coincident with any
previous division.  This system  has peculiar advantages in
geology, as in many instances only the bony scales have been
preserved.
It enables us to assert general propositions of a very striking
kind, such, for instance, as that only the two first are found
geologically below the chalk, and has, for geological purposes,
very great merit. It was at first doubted whether this was a
true natural method, but naturalists very generally adopt at
present some, at least, of the distinctions which belong to it, and
appreciate the system very highly.
The number of species of fish is certainly increasing with the
investigation of distant seas. The European species number
about 650, of which 210 are fresh-water species, and the remainder marine-60 of these go up the rivers to spawn.
Some remarkable peculiarities have been ascertained in respect to the depth at which they live; and several distinct zones
of depth are now discriminated, each having its own class of
fish. Their distribution is limited; most large lakes have peculiar species: and many tropical rivers. The different continents
and oceans possess species entirely distinct; and the rivers
and lakes of remote regions rarely possess the same.
The species already ascertained amount to about ten thousand.
Mollusca.-The class of mollusca have undergone very careful and extended examination during the present century. The
attention bestowed upon this class arises not so much from
their inherent beauty or interest, as from the abundance of their
fossil remains, and the value of their shells in determining the
relative ages of the strata in which they occur.
The divisions of Linnaeus in this department were few and
imperfect, and his genera were subsequently greatly subdivided
and increased in number, by Lamarck. More recently the system itself has been greatly changed. The shell, or external




124               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
skeleton is no longer made the basis of classification, since it
was found that this principle classed together animals whose
structure and habits were entirely distinct. The organization
of the animal itself furnishes now the basis of a system which
bears the mark of Cuvier's master hand.
The existing species numbered about 6,000 in 1840, and
more are continually coming to light.
Radiata.-The remaining branch of zoology, the radiata, has
been perhaps less investigated than either of the others. Recently, however, it has begun to receive more attention. The
corals have been arranged anew by Prof. Dana, of the United
States Exploring Expedition, in his Report, and a vast number
of new species added, many more indeed than were previously
known. M. Agassiz, too, is engaged in an investigation of
them in our Atlantic waters, and on the Florida coast.
Articulata.-This branch of natural history has been greatly
indebted to Cuvier's arrangement, which was subsequently carried
out by several naturalists of distinction. Latreille developed an
admirable natural system, in which the group is separated into
the three great families of crustacea, arachnides, and insecta.
Anatomical investigation has alone rendered this division
practicable; and it is incredible to what an extent this branch
of study has been carried. The anatomy of a single caterpillar
occupied Lyonnet ten years; and Strauss ascertained 494 muscles, 24 pair of nerves, and 300 pieces of the outer envelope,
in a cockchafer, of an inch in length. Cuvier stated that, in
1827, naturalists were already becoming frightened at the vast
number of species in entomology.     They numbered then
50,000, and some thirty years were thought requisite for a minute acquaintance with even their external forms. Now the
number is raised to 300,000,-by far the largest in any department of science, and it is impossible to tell where the increase
will end.
It will be perceived, from the brief sketch that we have pre



AND REGISTER.                  125
sented, that scientific investigation has been active and earnest
in every year of the half-century just past. Philosophical knowledge has advanced in every direction, and in many branches in
directions previously inconceivable.  Amid movements so extended arkd so peculiar, it must be a question of deep interest to
the Christian: " How is all this accumulation of knowledge to
bear upon the religious faith of the world?"  To this, it is believed, an answer may be given more favorable and with greater
confidence than in respect to any similar development in previous ages. Vast as the body of science now is, it is in almost
every great department thoroughly Christian in its radical principles, and in the sincerest and deepest convictions of those by
whose labors it has been formed. There is no greater name, and
there are no higher achievements in modern science, than those
of Cuvier; and his highest efforts were made under the control
and by the inspiration of a belief in an intelligent and beneficent
God. The principle of all his astonishing restorations was, that
each peculiarity of an animal form was designed to subserve an
end to enable it to fulfil what he designated as " the conditions
of its existence:" and for the scientific validity and value of this
principle he strenuously contended against the opposing school of
St. Hilaire, who refused to allow the principle of final causes. His
achievements have vindicated his method, and shown that the
belief of an all-wise Author of Nature lies at the bottom of all
sound scientific investigation.
The eminent leaders of science in other lands have shared
this belief, and no highly distinguished name among the students of nature seeks now to place Science in conflict with Revelation. The vast array of facts and laws which make up science
as it is, Christianity has already so far assimilated to itself, that no
apprehension is now felt in respect to the issue of any debated
questions in their bearing upon either the Evangelical or the
Mosaic history. Nay, many among the most ardent and conspicuous cultivators of science count it among their highest duties and delights to reconcile all apparently conflicting develop



126              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
ments of Science and of Faith, and pursue their investigations
to promote at once the happiness of man and the glory of God.
Starting from such principles and moving for such ends, science could not fail to create results-of the highest interest and
moment in practical life, and these, it will be our endeavor to
sketch, in the next two or three chapters.
SECTION XIV.
MORAL ASPECTS OF SCIENCE.
THE history of science presents an aspect towards religious
truth which contrasts very strongly with that which it wore in
the last century. Much that was most eminent in the science
of that age presented itself in the attitude of open hostility to
Revelation. "Astronomical records have been fabricated or
misrepresented," says a writer,* at the beginning of this century,
"for the purpose of discrediting the sacred chronology; the
natural history of the earth and man investigated to disprove
the Scripture; Chemistry, to find Materialism and deny a first
cause; and Moral and Political Philosophy to strike at evangelical truth."  It was characterized, not exclusively indeed, but
in very great part as "an age of infidel Philosophy."
The more complete and scientific form which knowledge has
taken, in our day, has totally reversed the character of science
in this respect. More extended investigation has harmonized
many seeming discrepancies, and science in every branch proffers support to the Gospel in its relations to nature and history.
The materialism of former days has given place to a more spiritual philosophy, and atheism and infidelity find, when undisguised, few reputable advocates. Ethnology and ethnography,
the natural history of the human race and of human language,
already indicate the original connection of all the languages,
* Dr. Miller, in his Retrospect.




AND REGISTER.                   127
and the original unity of all the varieties of mankind. Moral
sentiment assumes a far higher place in the philosophical speculations which are current with the present generation.
Geology,-the most comprehensive of all the modern sciences,
and also perhaps the most popular, which, in the crude state in
which it was a century ago, offered many objections to the
Bible, has decided many such questions in favor of revealed
truth,-has been carried to its present height by names as eminent for their Christian faith as for their scientific attainments,
-and interests some of its most ardent votaries in efforts to
establish a yet more complete harmony with the Word of God.
Even the scientific speculations, which are hostile to Scripture,
are seldom presented as such. The hold which the Bible has
at length gained upon the mass of each great class of society
forbids such writers to indulge the hope of any speedy acceptance of views which are seen to be at variance with it.
Such an achievement as this Christianity has never before
accomplished in this field. The body of science has already become very vast. Many conclusions are firmly established, and
many minds in the most distant moral conditions are ceaselessly
philosophizing on the facts thus ascertained. The thorough
Christianizing of such a development of human thought, extending over the whole field of man and nature, is wonderful.
Much remains yet to be accomplished; but Christians can approach the task, however great it may be, or may become, with
the confidence derived from  numberless victories in the same
field. The promise is as hopeful for the future as the progress
has been great in the past. From this progress there is reason
to hope that all real truth shall yet vindicate and sustain Divine
rTruth; that all the science and the wisdom of the world shall
do homage to the infinite wisdom and knowledge of God, and
that all the benevolence and humanity of society shall acknowledge their obligations to that love of God in the Gospel, which
is their only efficient source.




CHAPTER VI.
APPLIED SCIENCE.
SECTION I.
MEDICINE.
IN none of the practical applications of science have greater
improvements been effected in the course of the period under
review than in Medicine. Until the concluding years of the
last century medicine was disfigured by theories of a kind altogether unscientific, which referred the phenomena of life and
disease to "animal spirits," " humors," &c. This tendency gave
place to a more just system of observation and reasoning in
which many eminent minds participated, among whom Cullen
and Hunter were particularly distinguished.
Chemistry has wrought important changes in medical practice; it has enabled the physician to obtain the active principle
of a vegetable substance in a more condensed form-an effect
exemplified in morphine, quinine, and strychnine, &c. Metallic
preparations, too, are now obtained with far more ease and certainty; and the recent methods enable us to combine them
without impairing, and even so as to increase, their activity.
Iodine was discovered in 1813, and bromine in 1826, and both
were brought into use in France.
To Liebig and the German chemists we are indebted for much
valuable information in respect to the changes which take place
in the blood and air in many important vital actions, such




CHRISTIAN IAETROSPECT' AND REGISTEI.        129
as the change of venous into arterial blood, the phenomena of
respiration, the maintenance of heat, &c.
One of the earliest and most distinct improvements of this
era, is the elucidation of those fundamental questions in Physiology relating to the theory of disease, which has been furnished
by investigating the causes of sudden death. The first clear
and precise information on these points is due to the labors of
Bichat. Ile referred all the causes of death to the brain, the
lungs, and the heart,-designating these organs as the Tripod
of life. Though it is seldom in disease that life ceases in so
simple a manner as in the instances of violent death, yet the
scientific treatment of disease has owed much to the clear ideas
thus obtained in Pathology. It is now fully understood, that
all causes of sudden death act by arresting the flow of arterial
blood through the system.
In physiology a host of ardent laborers have furnished most
important additions to science. Andral, Wagner, and Jones
have investigated with success, the blood in different states of
health and disease. The vital action of the heart has been elucidatedl by Hope, Williams, and others; while the processes of
nutrition, secretion, &c., have received important illustration from
the experiments of Dutrochet.  Much light has been thrown
upon the ultimate structure of organic substances, particularly
in respect to the general tendency of substances which are the
result of vital action to assume the form of globules, or cells.
In the anatomy of disease some great improvements have
been effected, which have afforded materials for more correct
reasoning upon the nature of diseases, and given increased precision to the rules of medical practice. The investigation of,
organic diseases, or those dependent upon permanent alterations
of structure, has been fruitful of useful results, as the knowledge
of their predisposing and exciting causes affords a means of
often preventing their occurrence. This remark is strikingly
illustrated by the ingenious application of acoustics for deter6*




180               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
mining diseases of the chest, which we owe to Laennec. He
originated auscultation,-a method in which these diseases are
discriminated with great certainty, by means of the sounds of
the organs of the thorax. This method, though carried very
far by the inventor of it, has been greatly improved since. The
name of an American, Dr. Jackson, of Boston, is honorably connected with perhaps the most important addition to it,-the discovery of one of the earliest indications of consumption.
Our own country has furnished a number of the observers to
whose labors the advance of medical science has been owing.
Hosack, Physick, Dewees, Chapman, Horner, Warren, have
contributed in an important degree to its progress. The introduction of antesthetic agents into surgical operations took place
in Boston, in 1846. The first surgical operation upon a patient
rendered thus insensible to pain, was performed by Dr. J. C.
Warren, Oct. 17, 1846. The discovery gave a great impulse
to investigation in this direction, and a new agent was discovered
by Simpson, of Edinburgh, in 1847, to possess the same property
of producing temporary insensibility-chloroform. It is now
generally adopted in such operations in preference to the sulphuric ether originally employed. The chloroform is itself an
original American discovery, which was brought into medical
use as a diffusible stimulant, by Prof. Silliman, of New Haven,
before its accurate determination by the French chemist, Dumas,
in 1835.
There have been a number of particular improvements in
medical science within this period, limited in their scope, but
exceedingly important. Among these is the general acceptance
of vaccination, which, though proposed in 1798, by Jenner,
came into general use not till some years later. Its universal
prevalence has banished from every well-regulated community
one of the most dreadful of diseases. The United States Government has widely disseminated it among the Indian tribes of
the continent; and American Missionaries have introduced it




AND REGISTER.                   1 81
successfully into the remote East Indies, at quite a recent
day.
Another of these improvements consists in the new treatment
of Insanity. This consists in the substitution of uniform kindness for bolts and bars-in moral restraint instead of stripes and
fetters-in surrounding the patient with new and pleasing associations, &c. A great number of important facts have been
ascertained which facilitate the cure of the disease; such as the
early symptoms, the distinctions between the different kinds of
insanity, the causes which induced it, &c. Under the extended
observation and improved methods of the new system, the
number of cures has increased from 30 per cent., which was
nearly the average number at the commencement of this century, to more than 60, in our best institutions. The very early
attention to the disease promises yet happier results than these;
as in some instances 82- per cent. of recent cases have been restored to mental health.
The frequency of insanity is found to bear a direct ratio to
the advancement of civilization; it is always greater in the
more cultivated communities.  While it is in most instances attributable to some form of moral disorder, of sin, the religious
sentiment is sometimes closely connected with it; a circumstance
which has led some persons to believe that religion is to be considered a frequent cause of it. That this view is erroneous is
evident from two facts: one, that a legitimate and judicious in~
fluence of the gospel is an essential means of recovery; the
other, that M. Esquirol, the highest French authority, referring
to its increased frequency after the wild changes of their First
Revolution, says, " The changes in our moral sentiments and
habits have produced more instances of madness than all our
political calamities." The moral restraints of a sound and efficient religious training has thus been determined to constitute
one of the most important preventives of insanity, in the
grandest series of experiments which society has yet witnessed,




132              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
Medicine has owed its improvement to the co-operation of a
great number of laborers in many lands. France, Germany
Italy, England, our own country, each has contributed a host
of writers and observers, whose united efforts have amassed a
very great body of facts. Among these the French philosophers are more eminent in pathology, in pharmaceutical chemistry, and in anatomy. The Germans are chiefly distinguished
in physiology and anatomy, and more recently in organic chemistry. The English, and with them our own physicians, in
medical practice. There are fewer useless articles retained, and
more decision judgment and success in the use of remedies, in
the American and English practice than among any other class
of physicians.
The progress of medical science displays some very gratifying
results. We observe a constant increase in the average term
of human life, which is attributable in great part to such improvements. The annual average of deaths, too, has been constantly diminishing for 150 to 200 years. The following table
will indicate briefly this result:The proportion of deaths was annually,
In England, 1690, as 1 to 33.  In 1848, as 1 to 47.
"France,   1776, " 1 " 25.     " 1848," 1 6 42.
" Germany, 1778, " 1 " 32.     " 1848, " 1 " 42.
London, 1690, " 1 " 24.       " 1844, " 1 " 44.
" Paris,   1650, " 1 " 25.     " 1820, " 1 " 32.
The same result is strikingly indicated by a recent statement
of Baron Dupin made to the French Academy, in respect to
the mortality of children during the first five years of life. At
the end of the XVIIIth century only 5,832, out of 10,000 survived five years, on a general average; whereas, in 1850, 7,292,
out of even the least favored classes, reach the sixth year. In
the first half of the last century only 6,695 out of 10,000 attained that age from the more fortunate classes.




AND REGSTSRT.                  83
It must not be supposed, that the whole of such improvement is due to the control of active disease. On the contrary,
a large proportion of it undoubtedly arises from the improved
knowledge of the causes of disease, and the conditions of health 
and disease is thus prevented perhaps as often as it is cured.
Medical schools have contributed greatly both to the creation
and to the diffusion of juster views in this department. The
English institutions could scarcely be said to afford the means
of a complete medical education, till the establishment of the
London University, and the King7s College. In our own country
such institutions have multiplied with great-perhaps too great
rapidity. The one or two which existed at the beginning of
this century, have increased to more than thirty.
Medical publications have become quite numerous, and embody a vast amount of facts and reasonings of high value,
Those of Paris are particularly distinguished; while London is
excelled in this respect by both Edinburgh and Dublin.
The history of medical improvement during the period under
review presents some striking moral lessons. The occurrence
of the yellow fever at the close of the last century in our northern ports, and its dreadful prevalence during the first quarter
of this century in Spain; the occurrence of the cholera in
1832-4, and again in 1848; the diseases connected with the
famine of 1846-7 in Ireland, and with the vast emigration that
was consequent upon it,-all point with very great directness
and force to the importance of the moral condition of a people
to their physical health and prosperity. In respect to the firstnamed of these diseases, a memoir read to the French Academy, by Audouard, presents a striking view of the origin of that
terrible pestilence. The author, who had witnessed the last two
epidemics of yellow fever in Spain, in 1821, at Barcelona and
the Port du Passage, inferred the origination of this disorder
from the filth generated in the holds of crowded slave-ships,
and afterwards subjected to the heat of the sun. This sugges,




134               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
tion was made to the authorities of those ports, in 1824, and
the strict guard which has since been maintained in all the
ports of Spain, against vessels which had been engaged in that
trade, has prevented its recurrence there since that date.- In
twenty-eight years previous this scourge had carried off 140,000
of the inhabitants, and the single great epidemic of 1800,
60,000 in Andalusia alone. The northern states of this union
have been almost exempt from it since the prohibition of the
slave trade. Should this view of the subject be correct, how
terrible a retribution has this monstrous wrong inflicted upon
the Christian communities which tolerated and practised the
African slave trade!
The cholera, too, in its repeated visits, gives new demonstration of the physical importance and value of sound morals, and
humane social arrangements. It has prevailed in every community in exact proportion to the degradation, physical and
moral, which it found there.  Wherever the ordinary laws of
health in respect to cleanliness, diet, and exposure were seriously
violated, there the disease found victims; and wherever the
crowded haunts of vice added to these violations of moral law,
in intemperance and licentiousness, there it almost depopulated
the locality. The errors and vices of society show thus their
fatal influence upon social prosperity and welfare. The generation of disease in depraved and degraded vicinities afflicts, with
something of similar force, the more elevated neighborhoods
around, and shows us how great an interest the wealthy and
favored classes have in the moral and social improvement of the
destitute and wretched. Both must prosper, and both must
suffer in sympathy with each other.
The woes of Ireland point, with equal distinctness, to the
moral condition of the people as their most efficient cause.
Doubtless, oppressive civil and social arrangements have had
much influence; but even these have derived their power in
great part from the extremely rapid multiplication of an igno



AND REGISTER.                  135
rant and debased population, one million of whom have perished
within a few years. The moral elevation which refuses to assume the responsibilities of the conjugal and parental character
without some adequate provision in prospect-without some
home and some assured support-would have saved Ireland
from her heaviest sufferings. On every hand we are assured
by the progress of events, that each form of wrong and each.
indulgence of human depravity works its bitter retribution of
suffering upon the offending people that perpetrates or connives
at it. Providence is more and more displaying the importance
in all the disclosures of history of man's moral nature,-the existence and the evil of human depravity-and the priceless
value of that Gospel which furnishes our only means of combating and subduing sin, and its indispensable necessity to the
temporal as well as the eternal benefit of mankind.
SECTION II.
A GRI CULTURE.
AGRICULTURE constitutes another prominent application of
the sciences so important in medicine. Both relate to living
objects, and chemistry and physiology, not to speak of other
branches of science, occupy the front rank among the causes
which it is important to understand in each.
Much thought had been bestowed by the beginning of our
era upon the general facts of agriculture,-principally, however,
in the way of simple observation. Very little had then been
done, or even attempted in the investigation of causes, or even
of the less obvious laws of agricultural phenomena.
Attention had been attracted to the value of particular varieties of animals, as the Merino sheep and the hornless cow;
but such varieties were few. Varieties of fruits and vegetables




136              CH RISTIAN khETSROSft
were better known. Some analyses of woods and grains of
various kinds were made early in this century; but the imperfection of vegetable chemistry rendered them necessarily defective. The principles on which plants are nourished were
almost unknown, and the practice of renovating soils by fallowing;-that is, by leaving the soil unoccupied to recover
from its exhaustion-was almost universal among practical agriculturists.
One of the earliest scientific efforts for the improvement of
agriculture was made by Sir I. Davy, who delivered a course
of lectures annually, from 1802 to 1812, before the Board of
Agriculture. They were published in 1814, and contain much
that is still deemed valuable. He investigated vegetable chemistry and physiology, and made some useful analyses of soils,
manures, &c., and also to some extent of the ashes of plants.
The low state of this department of knowledge in the early part
of this century may be judged from the fact, that this was the
only work upon agricultural chemistry which was published in
England in a period of forty years. The importance of ammonia to the growth of plants was at that time unknown, and
Davy speaks of its use as probably efficacious in repelling insects. The value of nitrogen, too, was not discovered till a later
day. Yet his work contains many valuable records of experiment and observation, some of which were on quite an extended
scale.
The progress of chemical analysis has established a great distinction between the organic and the incrganic substances of which
all plants are composed. The former are the compounds formed
by the agency of living organs,-the latter are generally of
earthy or mineral substances. The organic portion amounts
generally to from 75 to 99 per cent. of their whole weight in
the dry state. It consists almost exclusively of four elements
in various states of combination,-carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,
and nitrogen. Of living plants oxygen is found to constitute




AND REGISTER,                  137
one half the weight. In the dry state, carbon approaches one
half the whole weight; oxygen one third; hydrogen amounts
to 20 per cent.; and nitrogen to about 2 per cent. The combinations of these elements in various proportions form a very
numerous body of organic compounds, on the investigation of
which great labor has been bestowed. We have already specified these results under the head of chemistry.
The great predominance in amount of these organic substances, and the very small proportion of the incombustible and
mineral elements, for a long time led to an erroneous estimate
of the importance of the latter. It was long supposed that the
substances remaining after the organic portion of the plant had
been burned away, were, doubtless, derived from the soil accidentally, and were too inconsiderable to affect materially either
the growth or luxuriance of the plant itself. Careful and repeated experiments, however, showed that the quantity and the
quality of this ash were nearly identical in the same species of
plant,'however various the soil might be, and that the ash of
one species was separated by a marked and constant distinction
of its elements from that of every other.
This view of the constancy of the inorganic portion of plants
has shed new light upon every branch of agriculture. The establishment of it is due to Sprengel. It explains the relation
which subsists between the nature of the crop and the chemical composition of the soil, the manner in which some crops
impoverish land, and some manures enrich it, and showing
that the plant is nourished in part by these mineral substances, it suggests numerous and most valuable agricultural processes.
This development of the general nature of the inorganic composition of plants has led to a vast number of analyses of vegetao
ble products. Each of the cereal grains has been thus examined,
and its mineral elements ascertained with the nicety which results from oft-repeated and exact experiments. The grains of




138               CCHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
different soils, and of different varieties of the various parts of
the plant-the straw, the husk, the grain-the wood of our
different kinds of fruit and forest trees-in all stages of its
growth and from all parts of the tree-these have been the subjects of innumerable analyses. The result has been the discovery of the exact mineral composition of these substances, and a
knowledge of the ingredients which require to be supplied to
the soil to enable it to produce freely any desired crop. In
consequence of these discoveries, it is now practicable to calculate accurately the amount of any mineral substance removed
from an acre of land by any particular crop, and to ascertain
thus what kind and amount of manure must be supplied to the
soil to maintain its capacity.  Such at least are the views of
Prof. Johnson, though other British authorities place by no
means so high an estimate upon these discoveries of the inorganic constituents of plants. The mineral manures, prepared
and patented by Liebig, to afford by slow decomposition the
supply which crops require, failed to answer the very high expectations which had been formed of their value.
Since the discovery of the chemical constitution of plants,
agricultural science has been advancing with great rapidity.
Animal chemistry, too, and physiology have been brought into
striking and beautiful relations with agriculture.
One of the most interesting of these is the discovery of Liebig, that the flesh of animals is not formed in the process of
digesting food, but exists antecedently in the food itself. The
albumen, gluten, and casein, which chemistry detects in our
cultivated grains, are identical in composition with the principle
of the muscular fibre.
The discovery of a large proportion of nitrogen in fibrin or
animal muscle has led to a different appreciation of the articles
of food in which this element abounds, and this again has given
a new value to the various articles which supply nitrogen as a
manure.




AND REGISTER.                  139
The progress of knowledge in this respect is remarkable. In
1814, Davy pronounced fallowing altogether useless; but experience confirmed the common belief of its advantage. Later,
De Candolle supposed that the roots of a plant might excrete
some substances injurious to the same crop if immediately repeated, but useful to others, and that these latter might prepare
the former again. This, however, is without any support from
careful observation. It is now ascertained that the ammonia
of the atmosphere is brought down by the rain, and absorbed
by porous soils; that this is one of the principal fertilizers; and
that the benefit of this restorative process can, by a judicious
application of our knowledge of the chemistry of plants, be
attained without the loss of a single season.
Such investigations have been prosecuted with great interest
by several eminent chemists, among whom we may mention
Boursingault and Payen in France, Mulder in Holland, Liebig
in Germany, and Johnston, Kane, and Anderson in England.
The results of their labors have been in many instances of
marked value,.and have raised greatly the general average of
returns from agricultural labor in Europe. It is estimated, by
Sir J. Sinclair and Radcliffe, that on lands long cultivated, and
now renovated by the new agriculture, the average production
is as follows:Wheat,  Oats.  Potatoes.
In England, per acre,. 28,    58,    350 bushels.
" Scotland,   ".32,      56,    400    "
" Flanders,   ". 32,     52,    350    "
The average of American production on old lands is greatly
inferior. It is estimated that in Duchess and Columbia counties of New York, the corresponding amounts are 15 bushels
of wheat, 30 of oats, and 150 of potatoes. A very recent and
exact census, however, of Seneca county, indicates a decided




140               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
improvement,-the average of the wheat crop being 20 bushels
to the acre, and the better class of farms reaching 25 bushels.
At the present time there is every indication of most rapid
improvement. The public mind in Europe and America is becoming very fully alive  to the importance of Agricultural Education. Almost every European country has established schools
of instruction in scientific and practical agriculture. They
amount now to 22 superior institutions, 54 intermediary, and
14 connected with universities, besides some hundreds of primary schools devoted to this branch. Two of our Legislatures
have taken up the subject, and plans are under consideration for
efficient institutions in New York and Massachusetts, to be supported by the State. Probably four fifths of the European institutions have come into existence within the last seven years.
The numerous agricultural societies which now exist have
diffused intelligence, and awakened interest on this subject very
widely. The field of science involved in intelligent agricultural
labors is very extensive.  Besides the chemical and physiological investigations of which we have spoken, geology must pronounce upon the soil, physical geography upon the climate, and
natural history in its various branches must indicate the characters of the plants, animals, insects, &c., with which agriculture
has to do. The subject has already attracted attention in several of our institutions of learning,-and when institutions of
high grade shall be devoted to instruction and investigation on
this subject, we may hope for a more general diffusion of education, and an elevation of the agricultural community, as well as
a more profitable working of the soil.
It is one of the hopeful indications of our age, that society is
becoming aware of the pecuniary loss which is inevitably connected with an ignorant and degraded state of the laboring
population. The value of intelligence and thought-of the
elevated character and sound morality which these alone can
diffuse through the masses of a State, is beginning to be deeply




AND REGISTER.                  141
felt. This public appreciation of the value of education has received both a new impulse and a new direction from the recent
discoveries in agriculture. The superiority of skilled and instructed labor is now widely acknowledged; and this fact
promises to awaken, an interest in public education in those
secluded rural districts, into which other influences do not easily
penetrate. The scientific aspect which practical agriculture is
daily more and more assuming, supplies a new impulse to the
cause of education among the class which must ever be the
most numerous and influential, as well as, perhaps, the least accessible in any State.
SECTION III.
APPLIED SCIENCE: TELEGRAPHS.
ANOTHER of the prominent applications of science is found in
the modern system of telegraphic communication. The discovery of electro-magnetism, and the development of a class of
phenomena which obviously were capable of being used as
signals from points somewhat distant, created a very general
interest in such an application of them. Many inquirers were
soon engaged upon the problem thus set before them. Some
doubts however yet hung over the subject at one or two points.
It was doubtful, for instance, whether the phenomena observed
in the laboratory could be relied upon when the apparatus
should become very extended. This question suggested itself
to Barlow, who undertook some experiments for the purpose of
determining it. He satisfied himself that with a length of 200
feet of wire in his galvanic circuit, the power was dissipated so
rapidly as to preclude the probability of using it for telegraphic
purposes at any distance. His account of these experiments was
published in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for 1825.
His conclusions were re-examined by Prof. Henry, now of




142              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
Washington, who succeeded in obtaining an opposite result.
He announced in Sillimnan's Journal for 1831, that the magnetic
action of a current is not diminished by passing through a long
wire; and that this fact "is directly applicable to Mr. Barlow's
project of forming a telegraph," &c. Prof. H1. also determined
that with a long wire a battery of a number of plates was
necessary to give projectile force; the neglect of which had
probably occasioned Barlow's error.
These facts being established, the ingenuity of many inventive
minds was tasked to contrive some practical application of them;
and the result has been the invention of several systems of
telegraphing, which have already come into extensive use.
Prof. Morse was engaged in such efforts as early as 1832; and
the English system of Cooke and Wheatstone was formed not
long after.
Oersted's experiments in electro-magnetism, disclosed several
phenomena of that subject which might be employed for distant communications. The fact was ascertained, for instance,
that the passage of the galvanic current, through a wire extending from one to the other of the poles of a battery, deflects a
magnetic needle placed near, and parallel, to it, into a position
at right angles to the wire. It was found too that the direction
of the poles of the magnetic needle is decided by the direction
of the current in the wire, and that the north pole of the magnet
could thus be made to turn either to the East or the West, at
the will of the operator. Two needles thus arranged constitute
the indicating apparatus of the English telegraph. An operator
controlling a galvanic battery in London, deflects, by means of
a wire extending to Edinburgh, a needle at the latter station;
and the different combinations of two such needles constitute a
conventional alphabet. To call the attention of the correspondent at a distant station, another application of the same agent
is made to ring a bell. The instrument however does not form
any permanent record of the messages transmitted through it.




AND REGISTER.                   143
In this respect it is altogether inferior to the several American
systems, each of which accomplishes this desideratum.
By far the most simple and practical system, however, is that
of Prof. Morse. This was perfected in 1838 and 1839, and
brought into use by aid of an appropriation from Congress, in
1843. It employs a different property of the electro-magnetic
fluid. The passage of an electric current through a coil of wire,
communicates magnetism to a piece of soft iron in the center of
that coil,-an effect which instantly ceases upon the interruption
of the current. Thus a coil of wire in New York properly
connected with a battery in Philadelphia constitutes a piece of
iron placed within the coil, a magnet; and causes it to attract a
small bar of iron near it. This latter is connected with a lever,
by which as often as the bar is attracted a steel point is pressed
upon a strip of paper which is moved past it by machinery at a
regular rate. Dots and lines are thus impressed upon the paper
which constitute a permanent record of the communication.
A  modification of this apparatus has been devised which
gives it great efficiency. The power derived from the original
battery, distant perhaps 100 miles from the spot where the
communication is to be recorded, is in great part lost from the
imperfect insulation of the wires through which it passes; and
the residue is too weak to impress the characters with sufficient
force upon the paper register. To remedy this inconvenience
the main battery is combined at each receiving station with
another, which performs the work of registering. The local
battery is worked by the main battery; which latter is confined
to the office of closing and breaking a galvanic circuit. This
requires only so small an expenditure of power that a single
main battery is able to complete the circuits of a great many
local ones, on a long line of communication, and thus to record
the same message in many distinct places at a single transmission.
This valuable improvement was patented by Davy, an English
inventor in 1839. Though not much employed in that country




144               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
it is very extensively used in our own; and contributes greatly
to the superior efficacy of the American Telegraphs.
Other applications of the same power have been employed for
the same purpose. One of these depends upon electro-chemical,
instead of electro-magnetic, agency. The electric current has
the power of decomposing certain salts. In this system of telegraphing, it is caused to pass through a fabric chemically prepared in accordance with this property. The decomposition of
the salt, at the precise point where the current passes through
it, is indicated with surprising distinctness, by an instantaneous
change of color. This principle, which is that employed in
Bain's telegraph, formed also a part of Davy's patent. The
beautiful arrangement through which the communication is, in
this system, recorded by the spiral movement of a wire upon a
circular disk, is believed to be due to Prof. Mitchell, of Cincinnati.
One of the most finished and elegant inventions for this purpose, is that of House's printing telegraph. In this, the ordinary letters of the alphabet are arranged on the circumference
of a wheel, to which a very rapid motion is given, by means of
condensed air. The electric agency interrupts the revolution, at
the will of the operator of a distant station; and the letter
which he thus selects is instantly printed, by an ingenious
mechanical arrangement. The machinery, though extremely
ingenious, is yet somewhat complicated, and of course, liable to
some derangements. It operates, however, with great celerity,distinctly printing, when working at the maximum rate, 3,000
words an hour. It is in use upon three main lines, extending
from New York to Boston, Buffalo, and Philadelphia. Other
lines are in progress in numerous directions; and among them
one from New York to St. Louis.
The lines upon which Morse's instruments are used, extend
almost over the whole country, and connect all the principal
towns of the Union. Their total length is about 15,000 miles;




AND REGISTER.                   145
and they extend without interruption, from Halifax to New Orleans, and thence to Galena, and to New York again.
In no other country do telegraphs reach the same extent, and
in no other are they in such free and constant use. In England
there are about 2,000 miles of telegraph, and the cost of its
erection is stated to be ~150 per mile. The cost of the American lines is only one fifth of this amount. The high cost, together with the slower working of the English system, which
does not exceed 1,200 words per hour, makes it more expensive
than ours. The limited distances, too, of that country, the
rapidity of railroad communication, and the cheapness and swiftness of the mail, render it less important to them. One of its
chief uses, indeed, in England, is for railroad signals, which are
rendered necessary by the extreme speed at which their express
trains travel. In many instances, an explicit provision is inserted by the government, in the charter of a railroad company,
requiring the construction of a telegraph upon the line, for such
purposes. Some of those roads it would be absolutely impossible to operate without it. The cost of messages in England is
from 8 to 16 cents per word; the cost in America is from 2 to
10 cents a word. This maximum rate pays for the transmission
of messages from New York to New Orleans.
This great cheapness of communication leads to a very extended employment of the telegraph. Reports of the state of
the market are daily exchanged between the great cities and
the interior towns; foreign news is telegraphed, on the arrival
of each steamer, from Boston or New York, to Washington and
New Orleans; important proceedings of Congress are instantly
despatched to every part of the country. Such despatches are
generally paid for by associations of the newspapers of each
city. In this way the President's annual message has been telegraphed at once to 17 distinct stations, on the line of 325 miles
from New York to Buffalo; and more recently, from Philadelphia to St. Louis and Galena-with only the interval of half an
7




146               CHRISTIAN RE'TROSPECT
hour. Communications of public interest are constantly traversing these extended wires. The exigencies, too, which arise out
of the commercial transactions, and domestic relations, of individuals, require this rapid intercourse between distant points,
and afford constant occupation to several distinct lines.
In Prussia, some 1400 miles of electric telegraph are in operation. The wire is there generally enclosed in tubes, and buried
in the ground, some of that portion which was exposed having
been destroyed by the populace in the recent political disturbances. It is first protected by a coat of gutta percha, which
affords the most perfect insulation of the wires yet attainable.
In England the whole telegraphic system of the country is monopolized by a single company. In America many private companies are occupied in working the various lines. On the continent of Europe the governments either retain the apparatus
in their own hands, or rigidly superintend and control its operation. The statistics of European telegraphs are scarcely accessible yet in this country. The instruments generally used there
are those of Prof. Morse.
The same general system of arrangements has been applied
with great success to the determination of some important scientific questions. The instantaneous transmission of intelligence
enables observers at two distant points to communicate with
each other absolutely at the same instant; and this circumstance
obviously affords the means of signalizing at distant points the
precise moment at which any astronomical fact takes place.
The transit of a star over the meridian at Boston can be signalized in New York at the very moment of its occurrence; and
its subsequent transit, a few minutes later, over the meridian of
the latter place affords another opportunity of comparing the
two. By very numerous comparisons of this kind the differences of longitude of many of our principal cities have been determined with a degree of accuracy unattainable by any methods
previously known. The astronomical observatories of Washing



AND REGISTER.                   14T
ton, Philadelphia, New York, and Cambridge, were connected
by telegraphic arrangements, and their relative positions thus
ascertained, in 1847 and 1848. Within the two years subsequent to these, the same system has been extended as far as
Cincinnati and Charleston.
An astronomical clock invented by Dr. Locke, of Cincinnati,
which acts upon the same principles of electro-magnetism,
gives great facility to sidereal observations. A telegraphic communication being effected between several stations, the clock
breaks and closes a galvanic circuit simultaneously in them all.
The beats of the clock can be thus observed at all the stations,
and the occurrence of any astronomical event simultaneously
recorded. The extreme rapidity with which the record can be
made, permits the observer to register many more observations
within the same time than before. Prof. Loomis considers the
value of a year's labor with the telegraphic system of recording
to be seven-fold that of the former method.
Arrangements have also been devised for regulating by similar means the public clocks of a city. Such a plan invented by
Mr. Speed, of Detroit, makes all the public clocks mark the
hours with absolute uniformity. By similar means the clocks of
any number of railway termini in a city, or at distant stations,
may be brought to a uniform time; and a clock for purposes of
this kind has been patented by Bain.
The period is yet too short,-seven years only having elapsed
since the first successful telegraph was established,-for any full
disclosure of the moral influence of this strange and remarkable
class of phenomena. It has given a stimulus and a certainty
to commercial operations, and facilitates and extends trade.
Already it serves as a most important auxiliary in the administration of justice, and in consequence of its active and far-reaching
agency, crime has fewer chances of escaping punishment.
But the applications of this power are yet only in their con



148      ICRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.
mencement. The report of the Patent Office announces the
forthcoming of numerous inventions which will multiply its
agency, and we cannot doubt that the next half-century will
enrol erectricity in its various forms among the active promoters
of the civilization and welfare of mankind.




CHAPTER VII.
PROGRESS IN THE ARTS OF INTERCOMMUNICATION.
SECTION I.
STEAM NAVIGATION.
THE arts of locomotion have attained a development which
seems as much as any other peculiarity characteristic of the
present age. The first great improvement of this kind was the
introduction of steamboats.
At various periods in the last century, efforts were made to
apply the power of this recently discovered agent to the purposes of transportation by water; and the names of Hull in
1737-Miller, in 1787-and Symington, in 1801-who were
the chief English experimenters, and of Evans, in 1768-Fitch,
in 1784-and Rumsey, in     1785, equally distinguished in
America, will ever deserve honorable mention.
The practical application of steam for this purpose however it
was reserved for Fulton to achieve; and his boat, the Clermont,
made the first trip on the waters of the Hudson in 1807, since
which time steam navigation has never ceased. Though the
idea was familiar long before his time, Fulton is undoubtedly
entitled to the full credit of having perfectly accomplished this
end, and that too in the face of the general distrust and contempt which the failure of all previous attempts had cast upon
the enterprise. The first voyage, which was made to Albanyin
32 hours, having demonstrated the triumph of perseverance and




150               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
skill over obstacles so long insurmountable, Fulton proceeded to
construct other boats, under a monopoly from the State of
New York for the navigation by steam of her waters. Improvements were rapidly effected in the construction and working of
these boats, until river navigation reached on this original
theatre of its success a point which is perhaps not far below its
absolute climax. The boats of the Hudson have been from the
first hour, the models of such navigation on the Atlantic rivers.
Their size and power have constantly increased till they now
reach a length of 375 feet with a breadth of 35; and attain an
average speed of 18 miles per hour, which is capable of being
increased to 20 or 22 miles. The newest of these boats, the
New World, has a cylinder of 76 inches in diameter and fifteen
feet stroke; it is worked with 40 lbs. pressure in the boiler with
the steam cut off at half stroke. The wheels are forty-five feet
in diameter, and make sixteen revolutions per minute. According to Dr. Lardner's calculations, she may be estimated at 2,640
horse power.
The new invention possessed a most striking applicability to
the wants of the new world in which it originated; and spread
rapidly throughout the country. The Atlantic streams were
soon alive with vessels; and the great lakes of the North began
to be traversed by them. Ere long the steam paddle vexed the
waters of the Mississippi and its tributaries; and penetrated into
the vast and silent forests of the mighty West, at once the product and the precursor of the civilization which providence had
prepared for them. The first boat on the Western waters was
built by Fulton at Pittsburgh, in 1812. The Mississippi was
first navigated by steam in 1815; and 28 days were required
for the voyage from  New Orleans to Cincinnati. The first
steamboat on the Missouri was in 1817.
The aggregate number of steamboats is now estimated at
2000, and their aggregate capacity at 500,000 tons. They have
pushed their way almost to the remotest navigable rivers of the




AND REGISTER.                  151
continent, bearing population and commerce with them. Since
the Mexican war, the Rio Grande has steamboats-since the
California discoveries the Lake Nicaragua is provided with one,
for the transportation of passengers across from ocean to ocean.
They have been recently introduced into South American
waters, from this country.
In October 1849 the first steamboat began her trips upon the
inland waters of California; by the close of the next year they
numbered 47-varying from 20 to 800 tons each.
The invention thus achieved in America, was speedily imported into England; and boats were soon established upon the
principal rivers and coasts of Great Britain. The first was the
Comet, which plied for passengers upon the Clyde in 1811.
It was some time however before they were adopted upon the
continent of Europe. It was not till 1816 that steamboats
sailed up the Seine to Paris. The first steamboats constructed
in France were built by American enterprise; and plied upon
the Garonne, in 1818. In 1822 steam navigation was established upon the Loire, and a year or two earlier upon the lake
of Geneva. It has continued to spread till every European
river and every European sea, is traversed now by steam.
The maritime character of the British waters soon impressed.
a change upon their steam navigation, and the Steamship was
the result. That which had, in America, been adapted and confined to the tranquil and extended rivers of this continent, now
took a new adaptation, and expanded to oceanic navigation.
The first steamship crossed the Irish Channel in 1818. Lines
of steam-packets soon crossed the channels which separate England from Ireland and France; and a very extended system of
Sea Steamers gradually connected Great Britain with every part
of Europe. The first steam-vessel crossed the channel from
Brighton to Ilavre, in 1816.
When this system had become tolerably complete, the question of crossing the Atlantic by steam, naturally suggested it



152               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
self. At first the enterprise was doubtful, and to many it
seemed impossible; but vessels were constructed to test the
practicability of such an enterprise. In 1838, two steam-vessels, the Sirius, of Cork, and the Great Western, of Liverpool,
left England for a voyage across the Atlantic. The purpose and
the time of their departure was known in New York; and
watchers on this side the Atlantic, who remembered the first
voyage of "Fulton's Folly," hailed with delight, the dim smoke
in the distance, which announced the success of the undertaking.
Both vessels arrived on the 23d of April, after voyages respectively, of 18 and 15 days. This achievement signalized
the first year of the reign of Victoria.
The navigation companies of Great Britain immediately ventured upon experiments for the improvement of their steam-vessels; and a gradual and almost constant success has attended
the effort. The fate of the President, in 1841, of which no
tidings reached either shore, and the wreck of the Great Britain,
on the Irish coast, were painful and significant drawbacks; but,
in the hands of Mr. Cunard, the Atlantic mail service of the
British government has attained a regularity, a speed, and a
safety, altogether wonderful. France and America have followed in the same career of progress. Steam-ships form part
of every well-appointed navy; and the most distant shores of
the earth are now visited by. them. The East India Company's
steamers connect all the important ports of British India with
Suez. The latest English extension of the system is, from Great
Britain to the Cape of Good Hope; while the Pacific shores
are traversed by the American steamers. At the close of 1850,
two steamships connected San Francisco with Oregon-and
eleven with Panama; while thirty noble vessels linked New
York with the ports of Europe, the West Indies, our Southern
States, and Central America. The first American line plied to
Southampton and Bremen; and the second, consisting of vessels
of 300 feet long, 3,000 tons burthen, and 1,000 horse-power



AYD R.aEGSTEtt.                153
the largest, most powerful, and it is believed, the swiftest to be
found in the world, connect New York and Liverpool.
Steamships have been built in England for many of the European governments, and in 1849, one was fitted out at Portsmouth, for the Pacha of Egypt. Others have been constructed
in America, for the South American and Russian governments.
While steam frigates of many nations occasionally cross the
ocean, no regular trans-Atlantic line has been established, except
those of the British and American governments, for the transmission of the mails between the two continents, These are
owned by private companies, but commanded by naval officers,
and are paid at a high rate for the mail service which they render,  The Cunard line receives ~145,000 per annum, for
forty-four voyages, carrying a mail each week, except during
four winter months, when it is carried once a fortnight. The
Collins line receives fiom the United States government
$383,000 per annum, for twenty voyages. These rival lines
made many of their best passages in 1850 in 10 to 11 days,
and their very shortest, in something less than 10 days, from
port to port, across the Atlantic.
The number of British steam-vessels, in 1848, was 1,253,
of 168,000 tons burthen,-one tenth of which amount was
built in that year.  Thirty-one sea-steamers, amounting to
42,000 tons burthen, were either wholly or partially built in
our own country during the year 1850. Propellers have been
recently introduced into steam-navigation, and are gaining much
favor. The first very successful trial of them, was in the steamship Archimedes; and after many other attempts, the Ericson
propeller was satisfactorily employed in the United States steamship, Princeton. Though not generally employed for steamships, this is becoming a favorite method of propelling boats on
our inland waters. There are eight lines of propellers, numbering
22 vessels, in New York alone, besides many upon the other
7*




154              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
Atlantic waters, and the great lakes. On the Mississippi highpressure boats are employed exclusively.
SECTION IT.
RAILROADS.
TIE modern railroad dates from the opening of the Liverpool
and Manchester line in 1830; and is due, like so many of the
modern triumphs of combined skill, capital, and enterprise,
entirely to England. The advantages of the level roadway had
been fully foreseen and could be definitely calculated; it had
even been experimentally tested; but the value of steam as a
moving power was yet undiscovered. While some deemed it
impossible to use any other than stationary engines for the
draught of loaded cars, others spent a vast amount of labor and
ingenuity in contriving methods by which the engine might be
made to move upon the rails. It was generally believed that
the smooth and hard surface of the narrow rail would not allow
sufficient adhesion to the wheel to enable it to draw any considerable weight; and plans, which now seem   exceedingly
curious, were devised to accomplish motion in some other mode.
The most remarkable was one which proposed to move the car
by means of iron feet, and limbs, which moved with ludicrous
resemblance to the human knee. A reward however was
offered by the company for the best method of applying steam
power; and the mechanical skill of English engineers, gave to
the world the Locomotive engine. This improvement was
achieved by the distinguished engineer Robert Stevenson in
1829; and its chief peculiarity consisted in the tubular arrangement of the flues that traverse the boiler-an arrangement
which has since come into universal adoption.
At this period, though high anticipations had been formed,
there was no adequate idea of the amount of traffic which would




AND REGISTER.                 155
pass over such a road; nor of the speed at which it would
require to be transported. The rails were therefore deemed to
be of ample strength at 35 lbs. the yard; and the engine and
tender weighed t7 tons. The traffic however, soon increased
beyond all estimate; the possible velocity exceeded all previous
expectation; and the demand of the public for augmented speed
constrained every exertion to attain it. This however required
an increased power, and the engines rose rapidly to 10, 12, and
15 tons. The appetite for speed continued to increase; and
now one company in England owns 36 engines weighing with
their tenders 40 tons each. One engine in that country weighs
with its tender full freighted, about 60 tons. The average rate
of speed attained in 1831 was 17 miles per hour; it gradually
increased till in 1848 it was 30 miles. The speed of the fastest
trains, which in 1831 was 24 miles, in 1848 was on one line 40
miles, and on two others 50 miles, per hour. In 1831 the
average weight of a goods train was 52 tons-in 1848 it varied
fiom 160 to 176 tons.
The number of trains has within the same period, and in the
same country, increased from 150 to 250 per cent.; the weight
of the engines increased 114 per cent.; the weight of the
carriages 30 per cent.; the average speed 90, and the average
weight of the trains 350 per cent.
For such increased work the rails originally employed were
found totally inadequate; they were therefore taken up, and
replaced by others of 62 and 65 lbs. per yard. These have
since given place to yet heavier ones; 72 and 75 lbs. have been
employed; and the latest rails laid down in England reach 80
lbs. and some, even 92 lbs. per yard.
The number of trains passing over the English railroads has
become very great: upon the Grand Junction line it was in
1849, 38 daily; upon the London and Birmingham, 44; and
upon the Liverpool and Manchester it reached 90 trains per
lay.




15-6             CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
The extreme. speed of the fastest trains is not unfrequently 75
miles per hour; though it is believed that in no country except
Great Britain has such a velocity been reached. According to
the experiments of Dr. Hutton, the velocity of a cannon ball is
300 miles per hour —only four times as great.
The success which attended the early efforts at railway
locomotion led to an immediate and rapid extension of the system throughout Great Britain. This has continued to the
present time,-at some periods with a most extraordinary
rapidity. The number of miles open for traffic on the 1st
January, 1849, according to a report of the royal commissioners
amounted to 5,007 miles; of which there were in England
3,918,-in Scotland 728,-and in Ireland 361 miles. The
following table will indicate the rate at which the construction
of railroads has advanced within the seven years extending
from 1843 to 1849 inclusive.
Number of miles open Jan. 1.  Miles opened during the year.
1843....     1857..         95
1844....        1952....        196
1845....      2148....        293
i846....       2441....       595
1847....        3036.       o   780
1848...    3816... 1191
1849....       5007....
On the 1st Jan., 1849, there were in process of construction
2160 miles, the greater part of which was of course completed
within that year.
The whole amount of railways authorized by Parliament up
to that day was 12,012 miles; of which 5007 were open for
traffic,-2160 in process of construction,-and 4800 yet to be
commenced. Of this last amount, the commissioners deemed
that nearly one half would never be built. If 2800 of this




AND RE'GISTER.                 157
4800 miles should be soon constructed, the total extent of the
English railway system would be nearly 10,000 miles. Their
present extent cannot be less than 6000.
Upon the construction of these roads, it appears by a parliamentary return that ~200,000,000 had been actually expended;
of which ~156,500,000 had been paid in as capital, and
~43,600,000 had been obtained as loans. To complete 2400
miles more would require an addition of ~75,000,000; so that
an extent of 9500 to 10,000 miles will have absorbed the sum
of ~275,000,000 to ~300,000,000.
The average cost has been already ~30,500 pet mile; and,
as many allowances must yet be' made for unfinished roads ineluded in this estimate, the aggregate will, it is supposed by
Dr. Lardner, equal ~40,000 per running mile.
The dividends upon these enormous investments have not, in
some instances, been as great as it was expected that they
would be, though the better class of them are sufficiently productive to pay very well. Ten of the principal lines paid, in
the first six months of 1849, an average dividend of ~3. 8s. Gd.
per cent., and this is, perhaps, a fair indication of the average
rate of the whole.
The total number of Er,3lish companies amounted, in 1848,
to 170; and the whole number of persons employed upon the
roads was, upon those open for trafic, 52,080;-upon those in
process of construction, 188,000. The total annual revenue of
British railways is estimated at not less than ~12,0100,00;,-a
greater sum than the annual revenue of many important States.
The number of passengers transported by this vast system
of communications is, of course, immense. The number, in
1843, was 23,468,000. The annual increase has varied fiom
one sixth to one third, tilly in 1848, it amounted in all to
58,000,000; and, by the close of 1850, to more than
60,000,000. The average distance travelled was, by first class
passengers, 27 miles; by second class, 16; and by third classy




158              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
14 miles. The daily average number of passengers has increased, within the same period, from 64,000 to 160,000.
The average rate of fare, as compared with the coaches previously employed, is computed at about two fifths of the amount.
The whole saving in time, expenses and fare, upon such a number of passengers is estimated at not less than ~17,000,000 in
two years.
The success of railway transportation on the Liverpool and
Manchester line stimulated American enterprise to the earliest
effort in this direction, which was made out of Great Britain.
Several lines were projected between our principal cities, which
were soon constructed and tested.
A very few years sufficed to bring it into practical operation
in New England and New York, and, once commenced, the
progress of the system was extremely rapid. As early as the
year 1843, there were more than 4000 miles of railroad in
operation, before any European country,-even before Great
Britain itself,-possessed such communication to any similar extent.
In the year 1830, there were some short roads in existence,
amounting to about 176 miles in length.  They were worked,
however, by horses. Steam power was first introduced upon
the Mohawk and Hudson Road, in the year 1833. By the
close of 1840, there were in operation 2380 miles, costing
$70,000,000; in 1845, 3650 miles, costing $111,550,000;
and in 1848, there were 5258 miles, at a cost of $153,420,000.
At the close of 1849, there were in operation 8797 miles, at an
aggregate cost of $286,500,000. The average cost is not far
fiom $32,000 per mile.
The very great cheapness of the American roads as compared
with the English, has led many to imagine that their structure
is inferior, and that they must rapidly deteriorate; but this is
regarded as an error.
The annual deterioration beyond ordinary repairs is less upon




AND REGISTER.                   159
well-constructed roads than one per cent. on the capital. The
cheapness of these lines is due to several circumstances, such as
the following: —an entire exemption fiom  parliamentary expenses in obtaining a charter,-the moderate cost of land,-the
low rate of legal expenses,-and the facts that our lines are
generally surface lines,-without expensive cuttings, viaducts,
&c., and with single tracks, except where business requires them
to be double. The average rate of fare is nearly 5 cents per
mile; though in the Northern States it is generally materially
less than this. In no case, in the State of New York, does the
average rate for transportation of different classes of passengers
exceed 3- cents-generally it is less than three cents.
The extent of railway lines in the different sections of the
country, was in July, 1850, nearly as follows:Miles.
In New England,........               2465
In the Middle States,....... 2510
In the Southern States,......         1549
In the Western States,......          1053
Of these sums 1049 miles were in Massachusetts, 1306 in
New York, 635 in Georgia, and 390 in Ohio; these states
standing highest in the several divisions. During the last six
months, nearly one thousand miles have been brought into use,
principally in the West; and the extension continues with perhaps yet greater rapidity than this.
The main coast line extends fully one thousand miles from
Portland, Me., to Wilmington, N. C., with a single break on the
line of the Potomac from Washington to Fredericksburg, Va.about 40 miles.
The principal northern cities are all centres of railway communication. Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore,
are all connected with each other by main lines,-each has
numerous local lines around it,-and each is rapidly opening




160               CHRiSTIAN 1ETROSPECt
communications with the great interior of the continent. Boston is connected by lines now in complete operation with Ogdensburgh, on the St. Lawrence, a distance of some 400 miles;
and by Albany, with Lake Erie at Buffalo, a distance of 525
miles. New York is rapidly connecting with Montreal, and
with Lake Erie at Dunkirk-though the lines are not yet complete. Philadelphia and Baltimore are aiming to connect with
the Ohio; and Charleston and Savannah with the Mississippi.
The latter link is complete from these two cities to the Tennessee river, a distance of about 400 miles from the coast. No
road of any extent has yet been completed west of the Mississippi.
The remarkable adaptation of the Western continent to railroad communication has suggested many great enterprises of
this kind. The connection of the Eastern cities with the upper
Mississippi is fast approaching completion; the connection of
the Gulf of Mexico and the great lakes by way of Mobile and
Chicago is seriously contemplated, and is now under survey,
along the valley of the Mississippi, while all these Immense
projects are thrown into the shade by the proposed Pacific railroad of Mr. Whitney. In this it is suggested to cross the continent, and connect the two oceans-an enterprise so vast that
nothing but the whole value of the soil through which it passes
could profitably complete it. The position of the government
of this country is now such that the gift of these lands will accomplish the construction of the mightiest and most valuable
industrial work, which ever human hands achieved, or human
genius planned. This highway of the world's traffic may be
left a legacy to the generations of the future, that will forever
claim their admiration and their gratitude for the generation
whose noble foresight planned, and whose wise economy secured
it. How long shall its construction be delayed and jeoparded
by indifference and neglect?
After the English experiments had demonstrated the value




AND REGISTER.                  161
of the railroad system, Belgium was the first European country
to adopt it. The impulse given to Belgium by her attainment
of independence stimulated her government to a grand project,
which the commercial necessities of the country, now cut off
from the mouth of the Scheldt, the natural outlet of its commerce, seemed to require. It was accordingly proposed to construct two great lines, which should intersect each other at Malines; and each branch of which was to connect by side lines
with the principal places near its route. The project was announced in May, 1834, and was received with such enthusiasm
by the people, that the work was commenced on the 1st of
June of the same year. In 1840, there were 190 miles open;
in 1841, 212 miles; in 1842, 246 miles; in 1843, 300 miles;
in 1844, 347 miles-the whole distance of the original plain.
These roads have been constructed entirely by the government, through a commission empowered to take all necessary
steps for the purpose. They are of especial note, as the government has put forth annually the most complete and satisfactory
report of their management yet published by any nation.
Through these reports a great variety of very important questions relating to the economy of railways have been more fully
elucidated than by any other statistics of this subject.
The total cost of these roads is about $31,500,000; and the
average cost per mile $90,000. Their average speed is 18 miles
per hour including stops-and 25 miles their running speed.
France was the next to appropriate the system, though not
without a considerable interval. In 1837 a small line was completed by a private company from Paris to St. Germain, 13
miles. This circumstance, together with the rapid progress of
the English roads, constrained the government to take up the
subject; and a commission was appointed to devise a system of
roads for France. A report was prepared in 1838, looking to a
comprehensive system for the whole country; and based on the
principle that the government should construct the great lines,




162              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
and leave the smaller ones to private companies. Some change
however took place il the public mind on this point; a long
delay occurred before the question could be settled; and in the
interval private companies came forward and offered to execute
some of the most important.  Under these auspices the work
was undertaken; and by the joint action of the government and
of stock companies it has advanced to a considerable extent.
In 1842 a new system of lines was proposed in the Chamber
of Deputies, and was adopted as the basis of the French works.
By this plan seven principal roads were determined uponradiating from Paris-the first leading to the Belgian frontier,-r
the second to one of the channel ports,-the third, to one of the
Atlantic ports,-the fourth and fifth to the Spanish frontier of
Bordeaux, and Perpignan,-the sixth to the Mediterranean by
Marseilles,-the seventh to the Rhine by Strasbourg. Two
other great lines were also fixed upon-from Marseilles one to
Bordeaux-the other by Lyons to the Rhine.
This system has been in part carried out. The total length
of road projected is 3,573 miles, of which 1,722 miles are open
for traffic, and 1,274 are in construction: 577 miles remain to
be commenced.
A very extended system of roads has been projected in the
German States. In the north of Germany including Prussia,
Hanover and Saxony, there are already in operation a great
number, covering with a close net-work of railways a tract of
country 400 miles in length from East to West, and 200 miles
in depth fiomn North to South. Of this system Berlin is the
great centre; and seven great lines radiate fiom it in all directions.
Another great system with this, follows the four principal
valleys of Germany south into Switzerland and Austria.  It is
designed to lead the main lines across the Alps, and connect
thus the Baltic and the German Ocean on the North, with the
Mediterranean and the Adriatic, by Turin and Genoa-Verona




AND REGISTER.                  163
and Venice-Vienna and Trieste. The latter alone of these
communications is yet completed; and by means of it the
traveller crosses Europe from Hamburg to the Adriatic in 60
hours. Numerous independent lines intersect Germany in every
directijn; and branch roads extend to and from every considerable city.
These roads are constructed very much upon the model of
the American, with high gradients, numerous curves, and a
single track. Their cost has been about $65,000 per mile; and
the whole amount invested in them is not far below $70,000,000.
There were 5,342 miles open in 1849, and 800 miles more in
process of construction. In Prussia they have been constructed
almost entirely by private companies, with some government
aid,-in Austria and in Southern Germany, generally by the
government, which exercises also a very rigid supervision of
them. In 1850, the different German governments owned
1500 miles of railway.
Russia is projecting a vast system of railroads, consisting of
five principal lines. The only one of these yet in operation is
that from Cracow to Warsaw; which is to be completed to St.
Petersburg, a distance of 683 miles. The only one at present
actively prosecuted is that connecting the two capitals of St.
Petersburg and Moscow-a distance of 450 miles. This is
constructing under the supervision of Americans, and at the
expense of the Emperor's government.
In Spain, a single line of 18 miles in length, connecting Barcelona with Mataro, is all that has been constructed. In Italy,
several small roads exist, of which the principal is that from
Venice to Vicenza, 40 miles. None yet exists in any part of
the Papal States; but there are several small ones in the vicinity
of Naples, and also in Lombardy, Sardinia, and Tuscany. The
total length of the Italian roads is about 150 miles.
The influence of such systems of communication as we have
described, it would be difficult to exaggerate. They form one




164               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
of the most marked, important, recent, and therefore, characteristic, elements of the civilization of our age. They indicate its
progress with greater truth than at first sight appears. Not
only do they facilitate communication, but they hold a most
important relation to the whole capital, and productive industry,
of a people. Many articles of great use have no commercial
value, from the impossibility of transporting them-thus, ice at
mid winter is of no value in New England, its value depends
upon the means of preserving it. The tropical fruits are of
value only within the limited distance to which they can be
transported in a sound state; every extension of that distance
increases in a corresponding degree, the value of such articles.
The fish of the coasts acquire a new value when they can be
carried far into the interior; and the game of the interior wilds,
when it can be brought down to the coast. Such facilities of
transport, therefore, give an increased value to the whole productions of an extended region; and tend thus to the rapid
multiplication of capital, and stimulus of industry.
The great cities no longer depend for their daily supplies upon
the little ring of land immediately around them; distant tracts
daily send milk, butter, fiuit, and vegetables-remote districts
supply fuel and'food to the great centres. The agriculture of a
whole State becomes, in consequence, more valuable. Cumbrous articles from the forest and the mine, which were valueless before, receive a new value from the opening of any avenue
of trade which gives them access to a market. The wilderness
is penetrated, the forest is felled, the mine is sunk, because now
the timber and metal can be sold at a profit. Thus populations
settle on the mountain-side, and civilization subdues the primeval wild.
The total amount of Railways constructed and in progress,
in Europe, in 1848, was about 20,000 miles-of which nearly
half was in Great Britain. An amount equal to that of Great
Britain might be set down very safely for our own country.




AND REGISTER.                  165
Two thirds, therefore, of the railways, and almost the whole of
the Oceanic steam navigation, of the world, which is applicable to
commercial purposes, were in the hands of these two nations.
A similar proportion of the capital which such traffic creates,
must centre in their marts, and go to increase their efficiency
and their influence.
Within the first half of 1849, one thousand miles of road
were brought into use in the United States. This rate of increase would indicate a growth which, in the course of ten
years will make the American roads equal in length to the
whole of those existing in the rest of the world. In England
then, and especially in our own land, wealth, trade, and the social advancement and political influence which they beget, are to
find their chief places of abode in the half-century to come. In
these Protestant lands, these lands distinguished among Protestant lands, for their evangelical faith and zeal-the means of
influence are to accumulate and abound. Can there be a doubt
that He who does his will among the host of heaven, and the
inhabitants of the earth, is furnishing to Protestant Faith and
Puritan Piety, the means of moulding the generations that are
to come? Is not Providence affording us the means of stamping our own peculiarities of mind and character upon the less
earnest and active nations which we have left so far behind us
in social development, and whose backwardness in this respect
only indicates that yet more ruinous state of spiritual depression
out of which the defects of their civilization arise?




CHAPTER      VIII.
SOCIAL PROGRESS IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY.
SECTION I.
HISTORY OF JURISPRUDENCE.
THE progress of jurisprudence, during the past half-century,
constitutes one of the most marked phases of social improvement. Changes so radical, so wise, and so humane, have never
before been witnessed, save only in the divine Institution of the
Hebrew code.
During the last century, there was little activity in the reform of legislative enactments; indeed in many cases the tendency seemed retrograde. In England, where alone there was
any freedom of remonstrance and reform, the public mind seemed
almost satisfied with the attainment of constitutional liberty;
and the national energies were devoted almost exclusively to the
physical and external advancement, which formed so marked a
characteristic of that era. Political abuses were without number,-the press was greatly at the mercy of the government,criminal law tended only to increased cruelty,-the prisons
were in a shameful condition,-education was nowhere to be
obtained by the masses,-and capital punishments were multiplied with a dreadful frequency, and a most criminal indifference. One hundred and sixty offences were by law punishable
with death! Yet the most eminent legal and political writers
of that period, Paley and Blackstone, thought it not unworthy
of them to vindicate such jurisprudence.




CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.        167
The first writer who seriously proposed the general reform of
this system, was the celebrated Bentham.  Possessing the
keenest powers of reasoning, and a most extraordinary memory,
he gave himself to unwearied labor to become acquainted with
the ancient and the modern systems alike. His eminent attainments were controlled by a humane and benevolent spirit; and
for fifty years, from 1780 to 1830, his publications led the way
in the improvement of legal science. They were translated into
French by Dumont the Genevan, and gained a very wide circulation in France and throughout Europe, where indeed some of
them were first published.
One great reform in the last century England owed to the
labors of Erskine. In several brilliant efforts, and at considerable personal sacrifice, he assailed the principle of constructive
treason; and by his courage, devotion, and eloquence, he obtained a revisal of the rule which forbade juries to decide upon
the question of a law in suits for libel: only since that period
has the English press been absolutely free. This principle is
esteemed of so much value that it has recently been embodied
in the new constitution of the State of New York.'The principles developed by Bentham were assiduously spread
through England by his followers-among whom Mr. James
Mill and Dr. Bowring were conspicuous. In Parliament, Romilly, Mackintosh, and Br3ougham labored to incorporate them
into the legislation of that country. The effort was both a difficult and a protracted one.
Romilly introduced in 1808 a bill repealing the law which
made it a capital crime to steal from the person anything of the
value of twelvepence; and succeeded in carrying this, and another enactment of a similar kind, through Parliament. But
his avowal of an intention to attempt, however cautiously, a
general reform of the penal code, awakened the utmost alarm
and hostility, and he was forced for the time to abandon the
design. In 1811 he succeeded in abolishing capital punishment




168              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
in cases in which soldiers and sailors were found begging without regular certificates of discharge. He subsequently exposed
many, and corrected some, of the endless abuses of the Court of
Chancery.
In 1819, Sir James Mackintosh, as chairman of a committee
for the revision of the penal law, brought in six bills abolishing
the punishment of death in certain cases of forgery, robbery, and
larceny, and for other important amendments; but the effort
was again a vain one. Not disheartened, the same accomplished
statesman introduced in 1823 resolutions looking to a reform
yet more thorough; and though these were formally defeated,
the growing sentiment of the nation in favor of such reform
compelled the government to undertake the same work, and
soon a measure was enacted abolishing the death penalty in
some fifty instances.
In the year 1828, Brougham delivered his memorable speech
in the House of Commons on " The Present State of the Law."
It assailed the system of civil procedure, and exposed unsparingly the delays, abuses, defects, and the consequent vexations and oppressions of this remedial portion of the law; and
suggested measures for their removal and correction. The result was the appointment of two commissions of inquiry,-one
into the state of the common law,-the other into the condition
of real property. Upon these commissions twelve of the ablest
lawyers of the kingdom labored; with what success may be understood from the fact that in 1840, Lord Brougham stated that
out of sixty most important defects which that speech pointed
out, fifty-five had been effectually remedied.
A few years later a third commission was appointed, to which
the thorough reform and codification of the criminal law were
referred; and very numerous improvements in the penal code
through the last fifteen years, attest the extent and value of
their labors. The reports of these three commissions have displayed great learning and ability, have introduced radical and




AND REGISTER.                  169
beneficent changes into the English law, and have been studied
and quoted in our own country as of the highest authority and
value.
The progress of legal reform constitutes one of the most interesting chapters in the recent history of France. During the
last century, until the Revolution, the legal system of that country stood in urgent need of a reconstruction. The Roman or
civil law was universal throughout the country; but its chief
application was to the regulation of contracts. The rights of
property in married people, and the tenures of landed property,
varied in the different parts of the kingdom; and numerous
local customs prevailed with the force of law in every community.
Feudal rights, too, remained in such numbers and of such a
character as to be greatly vexatious and oppressive to the mass
of the nation; a circumstance which was one of the causes of
the violence of the Revolution. But such was the attachment of
the higher classes to these feudal privileges, and such the prejudices of the people in favor of their local laws, that any general
and just system was impossible while society retained the form
it then had. These numerous and perplexing systems continued
therefore till the grand change in French society at the close of
the last century. The South was more under the sway of the
Roman, the North, of the German law. Of the particular
systems of law prevailing in the great feudal Provinces, that of
Normandy was the most important, as it became after the conquest the basis of the feudal law of England; the next was that
of the city of Paris.
When the frantic violence of the Revolution had trampled
down all the hereditary rights and institutions of the nation, a
renovation of the system became possible. Napoleon, seven
months after his elevation to the consulate in.1799, on his return
from the brilliant campaign of Marengo, named a commission
of four eminent French jurisconsults to whom the work was
8




170               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
entrusted. In seven months more their task was completed and
printed, March 15, 1801.
It was first submitted to all the courts of Appeal of France;
and when reported upon by them, it was taken up in the Council
of State, where it was debated in Napoleon's presence at length;
and where it received some modifications from himself.'In
March, 1804, it was promulgated.
It consists of six distinct parts, —st, the civil code; 2d, the
code of civil procedure; 3d, the code of commerce; 4th, that of
criminal procedure; 5th, the penal code; 6th, that of woods and
forests. The latter is, from the wants of a country denuded of
its forests by long occupancy, a matter of much more concern
with the European nations than with us.
This system of laws received the name of the Code Napoleon,
and was regarded by him as his chief gift to France. It
equalized the administration of law throughout that country,
upon a basis of justice and wisdom. It established courts of
commerce for the speedy settlement of disputes between mercantile men; and introduced the trial by jury,-though without
the obnoxious rule (which goes so far to annul the benefits of
that institution among us) of requiring unanimity in order to a
verdict.
At the Restoration the code was untouched, though its name
was changed. It has since received various modifications, of
which the chief respected the article permitting divorces.
This was the first great effort in that direction which modern
history records. Austria and Prussia had made some attempts
at systematizing their laws in the last century, but with little
result. A code was put in force by the former in 1786, in
Gallicia; and after many improvements it was extended to
Lombardy and Venice in 1815. But the constitution of the
state-fiscal rights-feudal and local privileges-the iarmycommerce-and the Jews were exempt from its application. This
constitutes it is believed at the present day the Austrian code.




AND REGISTER.                   171
In Spain a code of commerce was promulgated by Ferdinand
VII. in 1829. Before that time a variety of royal ordinances,
and of local usages, perplexed commerce in the Spanish ports.
The Cortes in 1822 decreed the formation of both criminal and
civil codes; the former was suppressed, and the latter very
imperfectly executed, by the government in 1836.
The code Napoleon being based upon the civil law, has
naturally attracted great attention in all those nations whose
jurisprudence rested on the same foundation. It has accordingly
become the model of legal reform throughout a great part of
Europe. Prussia, Sardinia, Geneva, and the Sicilies, have formed
similar systems; and Russia is taking steps in the same
direction. On this continent it was early copied in the codes
of Hayti and Louisiana; both of which communities had derived
their laws from the same origin. More recently Brazil moulded
its jurisprudence into a similar form.
It is gratifying to witness this extension throughout so many
of the modern nations, of a system so far in advance, both in its
methods, and its principles, of all the legislation which had preceded it. The uniform and high appreciation in which it has
been held furnishes an assurance of its ultimate prevalence in
all the civil law countries of the world. It is an example of the
good which a wise and kind Providence ever brings out of evil,
that this lasting benefit of Society should have had its source in
the revolution which for a time threatened the overthrow of all
institutions. It suggests, too, the thought that revolutionary
violence is sometimes less destructive and hopeless than it seems,
when we find what reforms grow out of those dark hours, and
how permanent, and universal, is the good, when the evil has
passed away.
Simultaneous with the legal reforms to which we have referred, in Great Britain, was a series of progressive movements
second in importance to none which history records in the progress of British freedom. One of these was the important meas



172              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
ure of Catholic Emancipation. This term denotes the removal
of the restrictions under which persons of that Faith were laid.
The first great movement in this direction took place, in 1793,
when Catholics were allowed the elective franchise, and were
permitted to hold office, and to bear commissions in the army
and navy. They were, however, still excluded from the three
highest grades of the service, from thirty public offices, and
from Parliament,-principally by two statutes known as the
Corporation and Test Acts, and were still legally liable to various severe and degrading conditions.
The Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland took
place in 1801, and the Catholics commenced from that period
a series of movements designed to effect the removal of these
restrictions. Under Pitt's administration, all Parliamentary action was prevented by the hostility of the king to any such
changes. In 1822, a motion of Canning's for Catholic Relief
passed the House of Commons, but was lost in the House of
Lords; and the same fate befell similar measures introduced in
1825 and 1827.
Public opinion, however, was rapidly coming round to the
approval of such a bill, and the Catholic voice was earnestly
demanding it. At length the government found that it could
not safely be longer withheld. The bill was finally advocated
by Sir Robert Peel, and passed under the administration of the
Duke of Wellington. By this law Catholics were made eligible
to all offices except those of Lord Chancellor, Lord Lieutenant
of Ireland, Commissioner of the Church of Scotland, and Regent
of the Kingdom; and from presentations, courts, and offices
connected with the Established Church. The year 1829 witnessed this termination of a series of measures long the reproach
of the British name, and the scandal of her Protestant freedom;
and the statute book of England bears no longer any penal
enactments, nor with the single exception of the exclusion of the




AND REGISTER.                   173
Jews from Parliament, does it impose any civil disabilities upon
its subjects on account of their religious belief.
Another of these important measures was that known as the
Reform Bill. The constitution of the House of Commons had
been unchanged for a period of six hundred years. In this
period places formerly populous had become deserted, and great
cities had sprung up on desolate moors; but the latter were unrepresented, and the former retained all their original importance on the rolls of Parliament. In one of these ruinous places,
which acquired an immortality in the discussions of the Reform
Bill, a recent writer observes,-" Not a tenement had been seen
there since Columbus discovered America."  Yet old Sarumn
had its representative, while cities, where the commerce of the
world had centered, were unknown within the walls of Parliament. This mockery of representation had long scandalized the
liberal and reforming spirit of this century, and the French
Revolution, of 1830, breathed a new impulse into the progressive party, which expressed itself in a general and urgent demand for a reformation of Parliament. The Duke of Wellington and Sir R. Peel resisted the measure, but were driven from
office. Earl Grey, with a liberal ministry, undertook the government, and Lord J. Russell introduced a bill into Parliament
for a reform. It became the signal for a conflict such as had
not agitated the country since the Revolution.  The King was
obliged to dissolve the Parliament and appeal to the people in
an election. In the new Parliament the bill was passed by a
majority of 109. The Lords met it with a hostility which
seemed desperate-which resisted all argument-and was deaf
to appeals of surpassing power. It was only upon the threat
of a measure, which would have revolutionized the House of
Peers itself, that the passage of the bill was permitted, and
something like a popular representation became, in fact, though
very imperfectly, the constitution of Great Britain.
Another reform of the same era was that which marshalled




1'74             CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
the British power on the side of freedom against the negro
slavery of the Western World. Such slavery had been declared
illegal, in the last century, under the auspices of Clarkson and
Sharp.   The same philanthropic men pursued their labors
against the African slave-trade, till, in 1806, it was condemned
by Parliament, and in the succeeding year all legal tolerance
of it was taken away.
The public mind of Great Britain had, however, become too
much enlightened on this subject to rest there, and the agitation still went on. The slavery of the British West Indies appealed strongly to the humane spirit now thoroughly aroused
in many a heart, that, amid the discussions of the former conflicts, had learned to cherish a deeper sympathy with the oppressed.  Clarkson and Sharp supplied the materials which
Wilberforce and Buxton used in Parliament. Through their
writings the public mind was instructed, and through their public addresses it had already become excited; and the shameful
persecution of the missionary, Smith, who was sentenced to
death by the planters of Demerara for an alleged participation
in an insurrection, greatly inflamed the popular hostility to
slavery. The anti-slavery sentiment which had already found
expression in a resolution by Mr. Canning, in 1823, declaring
the expediency of preparing the blacks for freedom, rapidly settled now upon the doctrine of immediate emancipation. In
1824, O'Connell and Brougham powerfully enforced this view.
The French Revolution of 1830 gave a new impetus to the
progress of freedom, when the cause of emancipation was again
powerfully aided by the extreme violence of the Jamaica planters, in suppressing an insurrection. Many hundreds of slaves
were put to death, and the missionaries who were instructing
them were driven to the mountains, their chapels torn down,
and themselves hunted and banished. Their arrival in England
greatly excited the public sentiment, and carried it forward to
such a pitch, that, to avoid a decree of immediate emancipa




AND REGISTER.                  17 T
tion, the ministry were obliged to propose a gradual one. The
bill became a law Aug. 28, 1833, and proposed an apprenticeship which should last for six years; but this was ultimately
found impracticable, and on the 1st of August, 1838, negro
slavery finally ceased through the broad empire of Great Britain.
This consummation has been happily effected without violence
or blood,-has been followed by a general improvement in the
character and condition of the negro population which it enfranchised,-and stands a lasting monument of honor to the
men and the nation who consented to pay $100,000,000 for its
peaceful accomplishment. Is it too much to say that it is for
such purposes as these that so great a portion of the earth has
been given into their hands?
Other reforms belong to this period, of no inferior interest, but
our limits forbid more than the briefest allusion to them. In
1848, the Corn Laws were abolished, after a preliminary change
some years before, which greatly reduced the duties on the importation of provisions. In 1849, a great measure for the relief of trade, was passed, in the Free Navigation Act. And
still the public mind of Britain is agitated with the discussion
of reforms of which it yet stands in urgent need. The history
of the past fifty years is unparalleled. Never before have reforms so great been so peacefully effected. Never before have
reforms so numerous been crowded into a period so brief. Never
has the world so learned the value of the right of free discussion,
and the power of peaceful agitation. Who can look back upon
this period, without tears of joy for all the justice that society
has rendered to the oppressed, and all the rights and privileges
that humanity has won; or, without mighty and thrilling hopes
for the achievements of future years.
Legal reform in America has been very constantly progressive.
Many of our States have revised, since the present century began, their constitutions, and all have improved their laws. One
half of our States have abolished negro slavery; and public




1 ^6    ~    CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
sentiment is daily giving assurance of further progress. The
great State of New York has been a pioneer in legal improvements. The severity of our system of imprisonment for debt
had long been felt, and in 1831 it was abolished, and a certain
amount of property declared exempt from execution. Contrary
to the predictions of many strenuous opposers of the measure, it
has approved itself to the public experience, and no one now advocates or desires a return to our former system. The abolition
has been imitated in almost every one of our States.
The experience of the happy results of this change led to a
farther enactment, in 1842, exempting an additional amount of
property-in all $150-from execution. Advancing yet farther,
the public mind is now deliberating on a homestead exemption
law, which will permit a man to hold his residence free fiom
legal process for debt. Such a law was passed in this State,
in 1850, exempting property to the amount of $1,000; and
several other States have adopted the same measure.
Perhaps the most important of these changes, however, is the
adoption of the new constitution of the State of New York, in
1846. The common law system was dear to the people of this
State, whom it had given an amount of freedom and security,
such as no community on earth had ever surpassed. But the
rapid growth of the State crowded its courts with more business
than they could possibly adjudicate; and many applications
called upon the Legislature for relief. A revision of the constitution was in consequence ordained, without which, a reorganization of the courts was not possible; and a convention was
accordingly summoned for this purpose. They met in July,
1846, and prepared a draft of a constitution, with important
provisions for legal reform-, which was submitted to a popular
vote, and adopted, in the November following.
The constitution provides for a revision and simplification of
our whole law, both civil and criminal, in all its departments;
and commissions were soon appointed to execute the provision.




AND 1t r4ISi'R.                 17f
The commission on the code of procedure has reported a system
which is already in operation. It embraces two codes-one of
civil, the other, of criminal procedure; and inaugurates methods
which are believed to be a great and necessary reform. It abolishes all forms of declaration in commencing, and all forms of
action in continuing, a suit; allows no more pleas of delay, and
requires only a simple declaration by the plaintiff, of his cause
of action, and of the remedy he seeks, which is met by the
specific denial of the defendant-both verified by oath. It
abolishes all mere forms of pleading, and blends legal and equitable jurisdiction in the same court,-all which are pronounced,
even with all the difficulties of a new system, by high authority,
desirable reforms. It provides, too, for an examination of parties
themselves, in civil cases, and gives a summary remedy in cases
of commercial paper. The court of chancery is abolished by
the constitution itself.
Besides the requirement of a codification of the law, the
constitution makes other changes of a most important character.
It forbids the creation of any debt of magnitude without the
consent of the people; appropriates certain branches of the
public revenue, and establishes an elective judiciary,-changes
which, however experience may decide upon them, must be recorded as forming an epoch in the history of constitutional law.
This code is the first in any common law country, and is substantially original and independent in its character. It adopts
the principle of courts of arbitration, which are authorized by
the constitution itself. It has already been adopted in Missouri,
California, and Mississippi. A code conformed to it has been
reported in Kentucky, Iowa, Michigan, and Massachusetts; and
the new constitution of Ohio and Indiana modelled upon that
of New York, tend strongly to a similar result. It will doubtless have an important effect in harmonizing, while it systematizes and improves, the legislation of the thirty-one sovereignties of our Union. It has attracted much attention among that
8*




178              CHIRISTIAN RETROSPECT
portion of the British bar who are aiming at a reform in their
own jurisprudence.
This brief review of legal history, shows an unwonted aspect
of the subject. Law, formed more and more in the light of
public discussion, rests now, as never before, upon justice and
truth. How must it educate the conscience of the world for
all acts of the public will, to disclaim any other foundation than
that of absolute right! And what pledges of public morality
and public humanity are not given in that fact, that henceforth
the nations of the earth are aiming to enact and enthrone Justice /
SECTION II,
THE POST-OFFICE.
ANOTHER of the great elements and interests of civilization
which has taken quite a new form within our period is the Postoffice. Itself the product exclusively of the modern civilization,
it assumed its character as a great public convenience, first in
the time of Cromwell; under whose administration the regular
conveyance of a public mail first became a function of government. It was not till the beginning of the present century that
the magnitude and necessity of the institution became generally
apparent. In 1728, the mail travelled once a fortnight from
London to Edinburgh, occupying ten days in the journey, and
bringing sometimes no letters but those which related to the
business of the office. By the end of that century the mails
departed daily, and the ten days' travel had diminished to three.
The yearly revenue at the beginning of this century was about
~85,000.
From this period it has grown in importance and in public
estimation, till now no agency of government is more universally




AND REGISTER.                  179
recognized as essential to the public welfare. The mail routes
were extended to every village and hamlet, and the Post-office
receipts formed an important part of the public revenue. The
whole receipts were in 1839, ~2,346,000; from which the government obtained, after deducting the expense of management,
the sum of about ~1,500,000 annually.
In the year 1837, an English gentleman, Mr. Rowland Hill,
published a pamphlet on postage reform, in which the advantages of cheap postage were suggested. The author showed
that the revenue of the Post-office no longer increased with the
increase of the population and business of the country, and
pointed out the necessity of some change.
It had been in 1815, ~1,557,291; it was in 1835, ~1,540,300.
Mr. Hill showed that while the duty from stage-coaches had
increased 128 per cent., that from letters had undergone no
change in a prosperous period of twenty years. The contraband conveyance of letters was found to be from six to twenty
fold that of the mail in many parts of the kingdom.
The suggestion thus made produced a strong impression on
the public mind. In three months a petition in favor of it was
presented to Parliament signed by a large number of the business men of London; and the Society for the Diffusion of
Knowledge urged the reform upon the Lords of the Treasury.
A committee was appointed by the House of Commons, which
gave the subject a thorough examination in a laborious session
of sixty-three days. Their report was published in 1838, and
the number of petitioners soon rose to 262,000. The public
mind of the nation set so high a value upon the proposed reform, that members of the government who deemed it impossible for the Post-office to support itself with the reduced rates,
consented to the change as a matter of political necessity, and
consented to forego a clear revenue of one million and a quarter
in order to effect it. On the 10th of January,. 1840, the new
system went into operation. One of the most beneficent changes




180              UtORISTIAN RET OSPE CT
of modern times was successfully inaugurated in three years from
the day of its first suggestion,
The system now introduced was distinguished by great simplicity and economy. As the average cost of transporting a letter was found to be only the ninth part of a farthing, the idea
of graduating the price by the distance was abandoned; and
the great principle substituted of a uniform rate of ld. for all
letters of a certain weight. Letters not prepaid were charged
double; and facilities of prepayment are afforded by the sale of
free stamps in the forms of labels, envelopes, and wrappers. All
privileges of any particular classes of persons, in the mails, were
abolished. To promote still farther the public convenience, the
Post-office was authorized to sell money orders of a value not
greater than ~5, for which a small commission was charged.
Nothing can exceed the public convenience of these simple provisions.
Under this system, the letters have risen in number almost
incredibly. In the last year of the old system they were
80,000,000, the next year 170,000,000, and in 1848, they had
risen to 350,000,000. The net income which in 1839 was
~1,646,554, fell to ~447,664 under the new law.  It has
steadily increased with the increase of the mails to about
~750,000 in 1848. But though not pecuniarily useful to the
government, the measure has been unspeakably advantageous
to the people for every purpose of science, intercourse, business,
and social improvement.
The success of this radical and beneficent change, which converts a public burden into a public privilege, early attracted attention in our own country. The difficulty of maintaining our
post-office system by our postage receipts was constantly increasing with the rapid multiplication of distant routes through the
newer portions of the country, which increased at an average
rate of 450 miles per annum. At length it became apparent
that something must be done, and several able and earnest




AND REGISTER.                   181
writers urged the subject upon the government and the public~
The routes which in 1832 amounted to 9,205,000 miles, had
reached in ten years 13,778,000; and the expenses within the
same period rose from $2,266,000 to $4,443,000, nearly double
the former amount. The high rates of postage led to the establishment of many private mails between our principal cities;
which, carrying at very low rates, and with great speed and
certainty, absorbed a great portion of the revenue on what had
been the most productive routes. In 1844, these circumstances
compelled the attention of the government, and a highly useful
though very imperfect measure of reform was carried through
Congress. As first proposed, it established a uniform rate of
five cents, without respect to distance; but this provision was
altered in the House, and a double rate imposed on all letters
carried more than 300 miles. It reduced, however, the average
rate of postage from 15 cents to 7-; and established the capital principle of charging letters by weight, instead of by the
number of pieces.
Unsatisfactory to all who valued the philosophical beauty and
efficiency of the English system, our own could scarce be regarded
otherwise than as an experiment in the right direction, which
must after a short time give place to a system that affords
the amplest facilities that government can yield to the intercourse of the people. When letters of affection and fiiendship
-letters of business and science-letters of benevolent enter
prise became multiplied four-fold through our extended borders, it was inevitable that yet another link should be added to
the bonds which make us one people.
Accordingly, Congress went one step farther in its session of
1850-51, and decided that the prepaid postage on letters weighing Iiot miore than half an ounce, shall be, after July 1, 1851,
three cents for any distance less than 3000 miles, and six cents
to any place more distant; and that unprepaid postage shall be
five cents for any distance within 3000 miles, and ten cents to
places more remoteo




182              CHRISTI &N RETROSPECT
SECTION III.
MECHANIC ARTS.
THE general history of the industrial arts during this period
is far too comprehensive to be compressed into the limits of such
a sketch as this. We can only allude to a few of its more
prominent characteristics.
Among these the wide introduction of machinery into industrial operations is a very conspicuous circumstance. In every
department of labor, mechanical forces have been substituted for
human hands; and machinery has been invented and adopted
for the application of them.
The only agents yet extensively applied in this way are water
power and steam. The application of these however has now
become very general, and indeed for certain great purposes
almost universal. Since the perfection of the steam-engine by
Watt, it has been used more and more extensively-and for
mechanical operations of the most diverse kinds; while in some
parts of our country the cheaper power of running water has
caused every little waterfall to be pressed into the service of
human industry. At present the whole body of the textile
fabrics, which employ so much labor in the manufacture of
woollen and cotton goods are woven by such agencies-acting
through the power loom, the spinning-jenny, and other similar
inventions. The result is an immense production-an unlookedfor perfection, and a wonderful cheapness of such fabrics.
A similar change has come over the manufacture of many
other products of industry. The ivory comb-the carpet tackthe metallic card for cotton and wool-the common nail-even
the pin, so long proverbial for the illustration which it furnished
of the nice division anud adjustment of labor-are with the thou



AND REGISTER.                  183
sand other minute conveniences of social life and of industry
manufactured in endless quantity by the turn of a wheel.
In every branch of labor similar expedients are employed to
aid the operations of human hands.    In every workshop
machinery accomplishes some portion of the toil, from the ponderous trip-hammer which forges the massive shaft of a steamer,
to the delicate arrangement which stamps and slits the pen with
which we write. Even the primitive toil of agriculture takes a
new efficiency, and a new interest, from the novel and numerous
implements which now diversify its labors, and multiply its
rewards. The invention of machinery is already one of the
highest achievements of human ingenuity; and the manufacture
of it one of the most extended branches of profitable industry.
What other motive powers another generation may discover-whehether the lightning of heaven shall stoop to labor, and
the ocean's swelling tides be subdued to the use of man, is
beyond conjecture; but society is fast changing in both its
spirit, and its form, under the influence of the mechanical
agencies we already possess. The inventor takes higher rank in
society since Watt, and Arkwright, and Fulton, and Whitney
have lived. The wide extension of industry, and the vast
accumulation of capital consequent upon their labors, have given
us new views of the importance to society of stability, good
government, and freedom. The vast and rich commerce of our
age has taught men new lessons of the wastefulness and unprofitableness of war, and the incalculable advantages of peace.
Labor itself, so long despised as the fit occupation only of slaves,
has become honorable when vigorously and generously directed
by intelligent minds to the great interests of society.
This great multiplication of manufactured products stands
connected with an equal extension of industry in two other
directions. On the one hand, commercial arrangements of great
scope are required to diffuse, and dispose of them; on the other,
agricultural labors of equal magnitude must provide both the




184              CHRISTiAN RETROSPECT
raw material of the manufacture, and the food of the workman.
It is in Great Britain and in our own country that these changes
are most decided, and here accordingly we must look for their
effects. It appears that in the last year the former nation
employed in her traffic with the world 33,672 sailing vessels and
1,110 steam vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of 4,000,000.
The number of seamen employed was 236,000. Calculating the
value of each vessel as it was estimated before Parliament at
~5,000, the capital thus invested amounts to ~174,000,000.
The quantity of cotton manufactured in 1800, was 56,000,000
lbs.; this has increased in 1850 to 775,000,000, more than
1200 per cent.
The other circumstance to which we referred-the stimulus
of agriculture for the supply of the raw material, is chiefly
exemplified in the cotton cultivation of the Southern States of
our Union, which began to assume some importance about the
commencement of this century. The sea island cotton was first
brought to public notice about 1789.
Under the growing influence of this system of manufactures
the crop has continually and steadily increased. The average
of five years gives for this crop the following results;From 1825 to 1830...    848,000 bales perannum.
"   1830 " 1835... 1,075,000    "     "
"   1835 " 1840           1475,000      " "
"   1840 " 1845... 2,037,000   6"     "
"   1845 " 1850... 2,351,000    "     "
Of the crop of 1849, cotton was exported to the value of
$66,000,000.
Out of this extension of manufacturing industry some of the
highest social and moral questions of our day have arisen.
Great marts spring up, of commerce, or of production; vast
populations gather in a limited space; the moral influence in
such communities is often far behind the wants of the popula



AND REGISTER.                  185
tion, especially if they have grown up with great rapidity; and
public necessities arise, of educational and religious instructionof social and domestic arrangements —which call into requisition
all the knowledge, and skill, and benevolence of the age to
supply them. The wide agricultural diffusion, too, of which we
have spoken, brings up similar new and important aspects of
social and religious questions. Thus the extension of the cotton
cultivation has widely enlarged the area, and increased the influence, of the early slave system of our country; and given to
that institution an industrial importance and a pecuniary value,
which are at the bottom of all the painful dissensions which now
agitate the country upon that subject. The slave population
which is engaged in this wide cultivation has risen to 3,070,000;
while the emigrant population of the northern states increases
by fully 300,000 annually.
It is gratifying to know, that, rapid as is the growth of population, both in these crowded haunts and over these wide areas,
the multiplication of the intellectual and religious agencies,
which are to cultivate and sanctify men, is yet greater. In
Great Britain, for instance, the population has increased within
fifty years from  11,000,000 to 20,000,000,-almost double.
The children in the schools of that country have increased from
500,000 to 2,000,000, four-fold, exclusive of 2,000,000 of scholars in their Sunday-schools. The number of stamped newspapers,-which affords a very fair test of the spread of popular
intelligence,-has risen from 16,000,000, in 1801, to 72,000,000
in 1850,-more than four-fold. A yet greater ratio than this
would be required to express the increase of institutions for the
preservation and the improvement of the means, the morality,
the health, the comfort, the instruction of the mass of society.
In the United States a similar state of things exists in a yet
more marked degree. Education has become far more general,
public morality has on the whole improved, public intelligence
has incrP.sed the multiulication of religious and benevolent in



186               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
stitutions has been unexampled. The Sunday School Union has
spread elementary and religious instruction over the wide West,
Home Missionaries-a thousand of whom have been sustained
year after year by a single Society-have carried the Gospel
through all the newer and more destitute portions of the coun.
try. Religious publications constitute now a far greater pro,
portion of the annual issues of the press than ever before, while
three million of members of evangelical churches,-forming a
larger proportion of the population than at any previous period,
-attest the inherent efficiency, and the Divine acceptance of
these extended labors.
Two recent and remarkable structures will serve to illustrate
the peculiar character, the degree of perfection, and the public
estimation of the mechanic arts of our day. One of these is the
Brittannia bridge, near the original iron structure over the
Menai Straits. Like its predecessor, it is entirely of iron, but it
differs from every other in the singular novelty of its form. It
is a square tube, made of plates of wrought iron rivetted together, and has a double roof designed to resist the pressure by
which the weight of such a structure, when supported only at
the ends, tends to crush in its upper surface. It spans in one
compact tube distances of 460 feet, and sustains the passage of
a loaded train of cars, weighing 248 tons, without suffering a
depression from the enormous weight of more than two thirds
of an inch. Two such spans, together with a smaller one of
half the length at each end and the approaches, make its total
length 1841 feet. Portions of this immense tube, 472 feet long,
were constructed on a scaffolding below, and, weighing 1600
tons, were raised 102 feet over a rapid stream, and united at
that elevation.
The other great example of the mechanics of our own age is
the Crystal Palace, the edifice designed to receive the products
sent forward for exhibition at the World's Fair, which is to open
in London, in May of the present year. It is constructed of




AND REGISTER.                   187
two substances exclusively, neither of which, until within twenty
years, had been used in the structure of any edifice,-iron and
glass. Its length in feet indicates the year when it was proposed,1848. A transept 108 feet high divides it into two equal parts,
and encloses a row of large trees. Its width, 408 feet, gives it
an area of eighteen acres, which marks it as the largest edifice
ever constructed for any purpose. Its arrangements for drainage
and ventilation are ample and admirable. In this extraordinary
specimen of the modern architecture, the choicest products of
the world's industry are to be exhibited to the world's inspection, and the four quarters of the globe are already sending
forward their contributions. What prevalence of peace, —what
perfection of arts,-what appreciation of industry,-what completeness of communications,-what universal confidence in the
good faith of the suggestion, must concur to the accomplishment
of a design like this!
Important improvements have been made in all that relates
to that highest of all arts, the art of printing. The manufacture
of paper has undergone essential changes. The enlarged production of cotton has supplied unlimited material, and the paper, instead of being laboriously formed by dipping frames for
each sheet, streams from a vat in the fluid state, forms itself
into an endless sheet, is dried upon steam-heated cylinders, and
is at once ready for the press. The use of stereotype plates, introduced in 1795, has become exceedingly common. All standard works of literature, all approved school-books, and many
other works, especially on the subject of religion, are immensely
stereotyped.
The use of steam power for printing has greatly aided the
multiplication of books. While the common hand press gives
250 impressions per hour, the London Times has been printed
by steam, since 1814, at the rate of 4000 impressions per hour.
More recently other inventors, among whom Mr. Hoe, of New
York, is conspicuous, have greatly exceeded even this limit, and




188        CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.
presses are now built that print from cylinders at the rate of
12,000,-and, even it is alleged, 20,000 per hour. Our great
newspaper issues are brought out by these means.
What elements of power are here entrusted to us! These
arts of printing that multiply the Word of God literally with
every minute,-these accumulations of capital still active, still
accumulating,-these means of communication over sea and
land,-through the broad earth,-who does not hear the voice
of God in all these? That voice which said, "Go teach all
nations," and which furnished languages and gifts to the messengers it chose, is it not speaking to us in all the gifts with
which we are endowed? And, as we are coming in contact
with the broad tide of human life the world over, and must
communicate, whether we will or not, of our civilization to their
barbarism, is it not our duty thoughtfully to dedicate these vast
endowments to the high claims of Heaven, and the spiritual
interests of men, and sow broadcast the seed which shall spring
up and bear its fruit to life eternal.




PART II.
CHAPTER I.
THE   ENLARGEMENT OF CHRISTENDOM          DURING   THE
FIRST HALF OF THE XIXTH CENTURY.
THE growth (if we may use the word) of Christendom, during
any period in the History of the Christian Religion, is an interesting subject of inquiry and of study. But in no period has it
been more so, since the earliest centuries of the Christian era,
than during the half century which has just terminated. Let
us look at it in detail, premising, however, that the growth of
Christendom has respect not only to territorial enlargement,
but also, and especially, to the increase of population, civilization, science, commerce, military power,-in a word, to everything that gives one portion of the world, or of the human race,
influence over the rest.
SECTION I.
THE EASTERN HEMISPHERE.
Europe.-Of the three continents which belong to the Eastern Hemisphere, Europe is the most under the influence of
Christianity.




190               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
The population of Europe cannot be less than two hundred
and fifty millions. Of these, if we estimate the number of
Mohammedans in Turkey (in Europe) and       Russia to   be
6,250,000, that of the Jews to be 3,000,000, and that of the
Pagans* to be 750,000, we shall have two hundred and forty
millions who profess the Christian religion, under one denomination or another.
There has been no territorial enlargement of Christendom in
Europe during the last fifty years, but a decided increase of the
population, and of all the resources which constitute power and
confer influence. The great Christian nations-England and
Prussia (Protestant), France and Austria (Roman Catholic), and
Russia (Greek)-have wonderfully advanced in civilization and
strength within this period; whilst Turkey, the only government not Christian, has remained stationary, if she has not retrograded. In most nations there has been a vast increase of
population and material wealth; whilst in some, —such as Spain,
Portugal, and Italy-this advance has not been so manifest.
Upon the whole, the Europe of 1850 was greatly superior in
all that constitutes progress to Europe of 1800. And this advance is steady as well as marked. The steamboat, the railroad, and the electric telegraph, are great exponents of that
progress, and among the many fruits of it.
Asia. —Russia possesses and governs the northern end of
Asia, or Siberia, (as it is more frequently called,) including more
than a fourth part of that continent.  And although heathenism  and Mohammedanism prevail greatly among the inhabi* There is a considerable number of Pagans in the south-eastern parts
of Russia in Europe. In the same category the Nomadic and very singular race called the Gipsies, must, for the most part, be placed. Their
number is not known with certainty, but is supposed to exceed half a
million. In some countries, a portion of them profess to be Christians,
but the number of those who have much knowledge of the Gospel is
very small.




AND REGISTER.                  191
tants, we apprehend that at least a nominal Christianity is gradually gaining ground, partly by immigration, partly by the
natural increase of the Russian population in that vast, and for
the most part, very inhospitable region.
And whilst Russia has extended her sway over the northern
end of Asia, England has possession of the southern end, with
one hundred and twenty millions of inhabitants, among whom
Christianity, under her shield, is making sensible progress, and
Hindoo forms of heathenism losing their hold upon the minds
of the people, especially of the better educated classes.
And although England has not yet gained any territorial
possessions on the eastern coast of Asia, she has compelled
China to open to her commerce and to the commerce of the
world, five important ports, through which European civilization
and Christianity will find an entrance into that great but almost
unknown empire.
Africa.-Christendom begins also to include portions of
Africa.
England has possession of the Cape of Good H-ope, as the
southern end of that continent is called.' She is planting colonies along the north-eastern coast, towards the Mozambique
Channel. As has happened elsewhere, her colonies are coming
into deadly conflict with Kaffirs and other indigenous tribes;
nor can the issue be doubtful. Civilization will enable avarice
to gain the ascendency over barbarous men. Alas! with the
exception of a few cases, Christianity will follow after, instead
of leading the way, and by her happy influences prevent extirpation. Just as certainly as that the Anglo-Saxon race has
dispossessed the aboriginies of much of their Great Domain in
the United States, and will take possession, by extirpation or
fusion, of the remainder, will the same race take possession of
all Southern Africa! The recent discoveries made by missionaries and others in that country, tend to demonstrate that it
must be, in its interior, a very beautiful and fertile one-a coun



192               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
try of hills and valleys, of mountains and plains, of extensive and
charming lakes, of pleasant streamlets and majestic rivers.
Whilst England is extending her possessions in the south,
France is desirous of gaining possession of some of the best
portions of the north, and has already established herself between
Mount Atlas and the sea. And although she is far from having
yet colonized the entire of Algeria, who can tell how soon she
may resolve to seize the whole Mediterranean coast, from the
Nile to the Pillars of Hercules?
At the same time colonies of civilized negroes are planting
under American and British auspices, from the Gaboon to Sierra
Leone, on the western coast-the first of a line which will one
day adorn that entire coast, with flourishing cities, thriving villages, and cultivated fields. In this way, Christianity will invade the western side of Africa, and bring it also within the
pale of Christendom.
The Islands of the Eastern Hemisphere.-South-east of Asia
lies an immense group of islands, many of them very small.
England owns that which bears the name of Singapore, and
several small ones which lie near by. But Holland owns,-at
least to the exclusion of all other European claimants,-the
magnificent islands of Sumatra and Java, together with half the
great island of Borneo, and sundry small ones adjacent. These
vast insular possessions bear the name of Asiatic Archipelago,
and sometimes that of Netherlands-India.  In these islands
there is already a considerable European population-nominally
Christian; for the most part Protestant, and constantly increasing. Thus the way is preparing for the entrance of the pure
Gospel, and a great enlargement of Christendom is going forward in that direction.
Farther south, in the same vast oceanic domain, lie the islands
of New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, New Zealand, and many others which constitute what is now commonly
called Australasia. Of this vast Archipelago, New Holland is




AND REGISTER.                  193
by far the largest, and has an extent almost equal to that of
Europe. England claims this great island, and her colonies on
the eastern and southern coasts, contain more than one hundred
thousand inhabitants. Flourishing villages, towns and even
cities are springing up, whose early population was chiefly composed of convicts banished from England. Extensive English
colonies also exist in Van Diemen's Land, as well as in New
Zealand. England, in fact, looks upon this whole archipelago
as in some sense hers, and an Anglo-Saxon race, Christian, and
in the main Protestant, will one day have the entire possession
of it.
On the other hand, the almost innumerable, but, for the most
part, small islands in the great Pacific Ocean between Asia and
the two groups or archipelagos just named, on the one hand,
and the continents of North and South America on the other,
-which bear the euphonious name of POLYNESIA,-have been
objects of great missionary interest during the last fifty years,
and Christianity is gaining a foot-hold in them. This is particularly the case in the Sandwich Islands, the Society Islands, the
Fegee Islands, and many others. In the extensive group called
The Philippines,-for the most part belonging to Spain,Christianity, not however of a high character, has a wide prevalence. But these islands fire commonly reckoned to belong to
the Asiatic archipelago.
It will be seen, from this statement, that the insular extension
of Christendom has been great during the first half of the XIXth
century, and the foundations have been laying for a wide spread
of the Christian religion in that direction.
Thus much for the growth of Christianity in the Old World
during the last fifty years: let us now turn our attention to the
New.
9




194               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
SECTION II.
THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE.
IN North America, Christianity has enlarged her domain
greatly, within fifty years, by the colonization of the immense
western districts of the United States, and the vast increase of
the population of the country, which has augmented from less
than 5,000,000 to 23,138,000.
The broad wave of population rolls steadily onward from the
Atlantic States towards the West.  At the epoch of the Revolution, (1775-83,) it had scarcely transcended the Alleghany
range of mountains. It has since spread over the eastern side
of the great VALLEY OF THE MIssISSIPPI, where it has already
created fourteen States and two Territories, with a population
of more than eight millions. It has been calculated that this
grand movement of colonization and civilization makes the average rate of seventeen miles per annum! The immensely extended column is pursuing its westward way towards the Rocky
Mountains. Even now there are not much less than two hundred thousand inhabitants, possessing the manners and the arts
of civilized life, on the Pacific coast, in California and Oregon.
The foundations of great States are now laying in these vast western districts of our immense country, where five years ago in the
former, and ten in the latter there was scarcely an American to
be found.
But these extreme western commonwealths, at whose feet the
broad Pacific rolls and dashes, will contain a mixed raceAmericans, emigrants from all parts of Europe, and natives of
the islands in the Pacific Ocean. It is probable also,-or, rather, we should say, quite certain- that there will be a vast immigration to those shores from eastern and south-eastern Asia!
And what a wide door will this open for the spread of the Gospel,




AND REGISTER.                  195
and for the extension of Christendom in that direction! And
who can predict the results which are to flow from all this?
A similar, but not equal increase, has taken place in the British Provinces, north of the United States, where the population
has greatly augmented within fifty years, especially in CanadaWest and New Brunswick.
There has been a decided increase in the population of Mexico, Central America, South America, and the West Indies.
This increase has not been uniform. Whilst it has been steady
and not very rapid in Mexico, it has been great in Brazil, and
even remarkable in Chili and some of the other South American
States. The domain of Heathenism in South America has,
doubtless, decreased during the last fifty years. Nevertheless,
the enlargement of Christendom in the Southern as well as the
Northern Continent of this Western Hemisphere, during that
period, has arisen mainly from the growth of the civilized nations of European origin.
With the exception of the extensive, but sparsely peopled
regions north of the British Provinces and west of those Provinces and of the United States, still occupied by the Aborigines,
the entire North American Continent may be said to be Christian, so far as the religion which is professed is in question.
And with the exception of the middle and extreme portions
of South America, all that continent is to be considered as a
portion of Christendom.
Including the Danish Provinces in the North-east, and the
Russian in the North-west,-the former having, it is estimated,
6500 inhabitants, and the latter 6000,-the entire population
of North America down to the Isthmus of Panama, of a European origin and professedly Christian, is 35,563,768.
That of South America, excepting the central and extreme
southern portions-occupied by Pagan tribes-is 16,246,000.
Whilst the population of the West India Islands is believed to
be 3,549,512.




196               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
The entire nominally Christian population of the Western
Hemisphere is, therefore, 55,359,280.
It would be fair within the boundaries of strict accuracy to
say, that this is twice as great as the nominally Christian population of this hemisphere was in the year 1800. We do not
know the number of people of the American hemisphere that
are Pagans, but it can hardly be five millions. That of the
Jews may be one hundred thousand.
It appears from this statement, that Christendom now ineludes, with some exceptions of no great magnitude, three of
the five great continents, the largest and most populous islands,
and also some important portions and points of the other two
continents. A great amount of this extension took place during the first half of the XIXth century; and the prospect of
further extension during the remaining half, is certainly most
encouraging, especially in North America, in the Insular world,
and in Asia and Africa.
ANOTHER VIEW.
The population of the world is estimated by M. Balbi to be
about one thousand millions. Until within a few years, it was
not supposed to surpass eight or nine hundred millions. But
let us suppose, that M. Balbi's estimate is as near the truth as it
is possible for such a conjecture to be; and let us see how
Christendom stands, in point of population, in comparison with
the Unevangelized World,-as the non-Christian portion may
be termed. The result will be as follows:The Protestants are more than eighty-two millions.*
* This will appear from the following estimate, which will hardly be
questioned:England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, at least... 21,000,000
France, Switzerland, and Italy, at least......  3,000,000
Germany, and Holland, and Belgium.......      22,500,000
Hungary and Poland, more than........       3,000,000




AND REGISTER.                     197
The Roman Catholics, two hundred millions.*
The Christians of the Oriental Churches, at least, sixty millions.t
These numbers, when combined, give us 342,000,000, as the
number of nominal Christians in the world.    That is, rather
more than one third part of the entire human race profess to be
followers of our blessed Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ.  We
are now speaking only of outward profession, or, of what they
call themselves, in distinction from Jews, Mohammedans, and
Heathen.
STILL AN'OTHER VIEW.
Christendom now governs the world, directly or indirectly.
Her military and naval strength is overwhelming.   What are
The Scandinavian Countries..........              8,250,000
Russia (exclusive of Finland)..........          1,000,000
United States-North America, all of....... 20,500,000
Canada and other British Possessions in America (including the West Indies)............                2,250,000
Australia, New Zealand, Van Diemen's Land, Cape of
Good Hope, and other English Possessions in Asia,
Africa, and Polynesia, at least.........         450,000
Converts in the Sandwich Islands, Society Islands, other
islands, and among the Aborigines, at least....   50,000
Making in all.... 82,000,000
* This is the estimate of his Holiness, Pius IX., who surely ought to
know, inasmuch as he is the shepherd of this great flock! Nevertheless, it is very difficult to find more than one hundred and seventy or
eighty millions of Roman Catholics in the world, even including several
millions of people who are really infidels, in France, and other papal
lands.
f The Oriental Churches are the Greek, Armenian, Nestorian, Syrian,
Coptic, and Abyssinian. The number of their adherents cannot be put
down at less than sixty millions, if the most authentic data which we
have can be relied on.




198               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
the Heathen nations, in this respect, at present? The empire
of the Great Mogul (with all the rest of India), once so formidable in Southern Asia, is in the possession of England. China
may have three hundred millions of inhabitants,-it matters little whether she have more or less-but she has no military
strength comparable to that of any one of the great Christian
Powers. England, by sending a few ships of war, and an army
of less than 15,000 men, compelled the Chinese Government, a
short time since, to accept such a treaty as she chose to dictate!
And what other pagan nation is there in the world that can be
said to have any military power or influence?
And as to the Mohammedan world, the case is not widely
different. The only Mohammedan country which has any
power or influence, is the Turkish Empire. And yet, that empire, before which all Christendom trembled less than two centuries ago, has now scarcely the real strength of one of the thirdrate Powers in Christendom. Holland, with little more than
three millions of inhabitants, possesses more of the elements of
national prosperity and strength, than the Turkish empire, with
its twenty-six millions. Every one of the five great European
Powers,-England, Prussia, France, Austria, Russia,-is incomparably stronger than Turkey. Such progress have they made,
whilst she has remained in almost the same Asiatic barbarism
that characterized her when the crescent first floated from the
minarets of St. Sophia,-that even Russia, the least civilized of
the five, could annihilate the Turkish empire in one campaign,
and drive the followers of the Prophet of Mecca across the
Bosphorus and the Dardanelles into Asia, whence they came.
Christendom has not only the military strength of the world,
she has all the commerce worth speaking of. If she has not
all the wealth,* she has a very large share of it. To her be* There is no doubt much wealth in China and in India, and some in
Turkey and Persia-but what is there elsewhere out of Christendom?




AND REGISTER.                  199
long the Sciences, the Arts, the Literature, the Press, and all
the high Civilization of the world. Her ships sail on every
sea and every bay. Her steamboats are now found in all quarters of the globe, and will soon be seen on every navigable
river of the whole earth, carrying the products of civilization,
the fruits of Christianity, and the missionary of the cross, into
all parts of the world. Her telegraphs will, before long, transmit intelligence with lightning speed, to all countries of the
civilized world; and her railroads will soon cover, as with a net-.
work of iron, all the lands in which stable governments prevail. A great deal of this wonderful development has taken
place within the last fifty years.
And what we must not fail to remark is, that those nations
in Christendom in which the Papacy binds the minds of men
most firmly in its chains of ignorance and superstition, are precisely those in which there has been least of progress; and this
holds good in the exact ratio of the strength of that bondage.
Mexico, Central America, South America, Spain, Portugal, Italy,
and Ireland demonstrate this. Even Russia, with all the ignorance and superstition which the Greek Church embraces and
cherishes, is advancing rapidly, and is extending its influence
and its colonies far and wide. There is no papal nation that
has any colonies, of much account, nor is there the least prospect of their having any. France, Spain, Italy, Austria, Portugal have few or no colonies, nor are they doing anything to
extend Romanism in that way. But what is the case with
Protestant Holland, England, and the United States? Their
colonies are numerous and important. England and Holland
have all the great islands in the Indian and Pacific oceans.
England, especially, is extending her influence and her Protestantism immensely, by means of her vast Colonial Possessions
in the Old and New Worlds. Whilst it will be the destiny of
the United States to people almost the whole North American
Continent with an Anglo-Saxon-an English-language speaking




200              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
race. Nor is it by any means certain, that that race will not
extend its dominion over South America, or very important
portions of it.
It is remarkable, that those countries in Christendom, which are
blessed with the Protestant religion-though far from being as pure
and powerful in its influences as it ought-have the greatest
prosperity, in every sense of the word. England, Holland, Prussia,
and the Protestant States of Germany, the Protestant Cantons
of Switzerland, and the Scandinavian Countries, in the Old
World, and the United States and the British Possessions, in
the New, establish the truth of this assertion.
England and the United States now have nearly the one
fourth part of the habitable globe under their control! England sways a sceptre over one hundred and fifty-four millions of
the human race; whilst the United States govern nearly twentyfour, —making a total of almost one hundred and seventy-eight
millions; or, between a sixth and a fifth part of mankind! The
population of Great Britain, and especially of her vast colonies,
is increasing at a very rapid rate; and will long continue to do
so. And, as to the United States, it is probable that by the
end of the XIXth century, they will have a population of not
less than ONE HUNDRED MILLIONS! And if the Protestants of
this generation and the next do their duty, this hundred millions will be, by an overwhelming majority, PROTESTANT.
The same thing will be true of the great British Empire, if
English Protestants do their duty to their divine Master, and
His cause, as we firmly believe they will. What a glorious
prospect! And does it foreshadow the DECLINE OF PROTESTANTISM? Decline of Protestantism! this is about the last
proposition which we should like to be doomed to establish.
From the influence of physical causes alone, it would seem that
it must continue to increase, and to extend its influences in all
directions. Protestantism has even now more of the elements
of real strength, of an effective civilization, than all the rest




AN'D REGIST R,.                201
of Christendom combined-certainly than all the Papal World,
with its two hundred millions of inhabitants.
The first grand desideratum of this time is the revival of a
pure faith and holy zeal amongst all Protestants. And the
next, the resuscitation of primitive, apostolical doctrine throughout the Papal and Oriental churches. In other words, the great
want of this age is the regeneration of Christendom! May it
please the Saviour to implant deeply in the hearts of all His true
followers this conviction; to excite them to put forth every exertion
in behalf of this great object; and to smile upon and prosper
the great Honme Missionary work of Christendom. If there
were but as much true Christianity throughout all the Christendom of the old world, as there is even in England or Scotland; if there was as much in Mexico, Central America, and
South America, as there is in the United States,-what a
mighty work the Church could do in the earth, and how soon
the Gospel would be carried to every portion of the human
race! It shall be our object to show in the succeeding chapters
of this work, that there are many favorable omens, which should
lead us to increased prayer, joyful expectation, and more vigorous exertion.
9*




CHAPTER II.
PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY.
OF all the advances made by mankind during the first half
of the XIXth century, none has been so important as that
which relates to RELIGIOUS FREEDOM; for it lies at the foundation of all the great ameliorations which humanity can demand.
It is conceded by all the ablest writers on the subject of Government and Jurisprudence, that the prevalence of sound Morality
is essential to the sustentation of free governments. And that
true Morality cannot prevail among any people unless it have
the support of Religion, is a proposition which few will venture
to deny. But how Religion is to flourish in any country without Religious Liberty, is what it is not easy to conceive of.
SECTION I.
WESTERN HEMISPHERE.
United States.-There has been little room for progress in
regard to Religious Liberty, in this country, so far as thepreaching of the Gospel is concerned. In no part of the United States
is it forbidden by the government,-general, state, or municipal-to proclaim to men,-to all classes of men,-the glad
tidings of Salvation. No prudent minister of the Gospel will
experience any difficulty in his appropriate work, in any part of
the country, Oral instruction may be imparted to people of all




CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.         203
classes, and in all sections of the country. This is the greatest
of all our spiritual blessings and privileges. We would rejoice
to be able to say that it is permitted to teach all classes to read
the Word of God;* but we would not lose sight of, nor undervalue, the inestimable right which all enjoy, of hearing the Gospel preached, if they live within its sound.
At all events,-and this constitutes what is more particularly
embraced in the idea of Religious Liberty, —all religious sects
and denominations of religionists are put on the same footing
with us. Any man may hold, profess, and propagate such
opinions as he prefers on the subject of religion, without hindrance from  the government. The Protestant, the Romanist,
the Jew, the Mohammedan, and the Pagan may all have their
worship, and employ such efforts as they think proper to persuade others to attend it, if they choose. The government protects all, —equally, impartially, and effectively. Like the Carthaginian queen it says:
"'.os Tyriusque mihi tnullo discrimine agetur.'
There are but two States we believe, —those of New Hampshire and North Carolina,-in which the Israelite may not enjoy all the political rights of citizenship; but there is not a
State in the Union in which he may not profess and propagate
his religious faith and practise its ceremonies.
In the United States there is now no union of Church and
State. This cannot be said of any other portion of Christendom, we are sorry to say. In such of the Southern States as
had, in the Colonial era, maintained this unhallowed alliance, it
was dissolved either during the Revolution, or not long afterwards. Whilst in the Northern, it came to an end in Connec* In nine of the fifteen slave-holding States it is not allowed by law
to teach those who are in bondage to read. Nevertheless, some are
taught, if not publicly, at least privately, by masters or by fellowservants.




204              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
ticut in 1816, and in Massachusetts in 1833,-the only portions
of the United States in which it saw the beginning of this century. It is now almost twenty years since the last ligament
that bound the Church to the State in any part of this country
was severed, and it would be hard to find a man among us who
regrets the fact. Indeed, we have not seen or heard of more
than one native American who is now an advocate-and he a
very uncertain one,-of the union of Church and State.
And yet it must not be inferred that the government with
us, whether general or state, is indifferent,-much less hostile,
-to the Church, or what concerns religion. This is not the
position of things in the United States. "In your country,"
wrote one of the monarchs of Europe to the author of this volume, a few years ago, " if I understand the case, the State treats
the Church as a stranger, and pushes her from it; but here [in
Europe] the Church is the slave of the State." His majesty
was speedily informed that his opinion respecting the state of
things with us was wholly incorrect; alas, it was too true in relation to the Old World. No enlightened American could wish
the government to do more for the Church than ours does,protecting it in all its rights of property, defending it in all its
modes and seasons of public worship, maintaining and enforcing
the observance of the Sabbath, almost as far perhaps as it can
well do without interfering with that degree of natural liberty
which must be allowed in every well-ordered commonwealth.
To do much more might provoke enmity, hostility, and reaction
-results which would be greatly disastrous to the cause of
truth and righteousness. Men cannot be made Christians by
penal laws, or by police regulations. And it is the highest attainment of wisdom to ascertain and define the proper boundary
of human legislation on this great subject.
We think that Christianity never had a fairer field than that
which it possesses in the United States, on which to show what
it cani do, when relying on the Grace of its Divine Author-and




AND REGISTER.                   205
its own native energies. And although we are far from believing that the Church with us is fully awake to her responsibilities
and advantages, yet the experiment thus far has been anything
else than a failure.
British Provinces.-There is toleration-we may even say, Religious Liberty-in these Provinces; but the great amount of
real estate and other property secured to the Roman Catholic
Church in Canada-East by the Treaty of Paris 1763, that
transferred the Canadas to England, gives to that Church an
overshadowing influence in that country. At the same time
the Episcopal Church has claimed an undue pre-eminence
in Canada-West. This state of things has led to many and
very animated discussions in the newspapers, in the religious
bodies, as well as in the Legislature of those portions of the
British Provinces within the last few years. The ultimate
influence of these discussions cannot fail to be good. The
Presbyterians, Wesleyans, and other Protestant Churches in all
these Provinces enjoy entire protection in their rights of worship
and of property, and are steadily increasing in numbers and
strength. Upon the whole the cause of Religious Liberty has
advanced considerably in these Provinces of late years.
Mexico and Central America.-There is no Religious Liberty
in Mexico and the States of Central America. We are not
aware that the slightest advance has been made in this direction
by these countries, It is said, however, that there is a small
but effective and increasing party in Mexico, who are in favor of
religious fieedom, and disposed to make exertions to attain it.
Nor will the subject be allowed to slumber in Central America.
South America.-The question of Religions Liberty has excited a good deal of attention in the Republics of New Grenada,
Venezuela, Chili, Paraguay, and in the Empire of Brazil; and
some progress has been made. Prudent efforts to distribute the
Sacred Scriptures would meet with no insurmountable obstacles
in those countries. In this respect all the Spanish and Portui




206               CHIRISTIAN RETROSPECT
guese portions of the American Continents are in a much more
favorable condition than they were when colonies of the mother
countries. In none of them, however, is there anything that
approaches to complete Religious Liberty. Direct efforts to
spread Protestantism in any part of South America, by way of
forming churches composed of natives of those countries, would
not be allowed. And yet the day when this will be practicable
is much nearer than it was fifty years ago.
The West Indies.-There is now a great amount of Religious
Liberty in the British portion of the West Indian Archipelago.
In this respect the state of those islands is very different fiom
what it was before the year 1838,-the epoch of the Emancipation of the slaves in those islands. As the Established Church
of England is also the favored Church in the British West
India Islands, as in all the other foreign possessions of the
United Realm, it cannot be said, with the strictest propriety, that
there is perfect religious liberty in any of them. Nevertheless
all denominations of Christians are protected in their worship,
and in their efforts to propagate their doctrines, and increase
their adherents.
The Island of St. Domingo, or Hayti, has made great progress in respect to religious liberty. That important island is
now  remarkably open to judicious efforts to propagate the
Truth. This is one of the fruits of the progress of civil and
political freedom and republican institutions in that land. That
progress has been real, notwithstanding the wild scenes of
massacre and rapine through which it has been achieved. We
cannot but believe that the way has been wonderfully prepared
in that island for the introduction and spread of true Religion
during the last fifty years. In the Danish and Dutch Islands
there is a large amount of Religious Liberty; in the Swedish
and French a little; and in the Spanish none at all.




AND REGISTER.                  207
SECTION II.
THE EASTERN HEMISPHERE.
Great Britain.-The question of Religious Liberty has not
made as great progress in England and Ireland, during the last
fifty years, as one might have reasonably expected. The Established Church of those portions of the British Realm, Episcopal
in both, has exerted an injurious influence upon the Dissenting
Communions. And although some forms of vexation and oppression have been abated, yet there is much still to be deplored. We
should indeed be grateful that such a large amount of religious
freedom is enjoyed in those countries, yet we cannot but pray
that the day may speedily come when that entire liberty of
conscience and worship shall be enjoyed, by all the inhabitants
of those favored lands, which the principles of true Protestantism
demand.
The "Disruption," as it has been called, which took place in
the Established Church of Scotland, in the year 1843, was one
of the most important events that characterized the first half of
the XIXth century. That nearly 500 pastors, 200 licentiates,
and 200 students-in all 900 men either in the ministry, or
soon to be-followed by a million of the inhabitants, should
abandon the Established Church in one day, as it were, and form
a "Free Church," is one of the most striking evidences of the
progress of Religious Liberty within that period of which it is
possible to conceive.
France.-Religious Liberty has made great progress in France
within the XIXth century. Great opposition has been encountered
firom the government at times, and from Rome always. And
yet its sacred principles have been constantly gaining ground in
the hearts of a large portion of the inhabitants, especially of
all those who are the friends of civil and political liberty. Nor




208               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
can we for a moment doubt what will be the issue of the struggle now going forward in that important country, however protracted or violent it may be.
Belgium.-In no country in Europe has there been more
progress in regard to Religious Liberty than in Belgium. And
this will appear the more extraordinary when we consider that
Flanders, as that country was formerly called, was for a long
period the most thoroughly papal country in the world. The
Constitution of that country guarantees religious liberty to all, —
although the Roman Catholic Church is still emphatically the
Established Church of that country. This greatest of blessings
has been secured by the Revolution of 1830, when Belgium
dissolved the union with Holland.
lHolland.-In the early part of this century Holland was under the government, direct or indirect, of France, for nearly fifteen
years, and felt the influence of French laws and French opinions.
During this period Religious Liberty may be said to have existed without restraint. Upon the overthrow of Napoleon and
the succession of William I. to the throne, the four Protestant
Communions (the Reformed Dutch Church, the Lutherans, the
Mennonite Baptists, and the Remonstrants), as well as the Roman Catholics, were put on the same footing by the constitution
and the laws. But no provision was made for those who might
dissent from all these recognized religious bodies. The consequence has been that much oppression, and even disgraceful
persecution, was suffered by thousands of excellent people who
could not conscientiously remain in any of the Protestant bodies,
fiom the year 1836 to 1848. Several thousands emigrated in
the years 1845,'46, and'47 to the United States, and settled
in Michigan, Iowa, Wisconsin, and New York. The great convulsions which occurred in so many nations in Europe, in 1848,
so far affected Holland as to lead to some important modification of her laws, and now religious liberty is much more fully
enjoyed, and tranquillity has been restored.




AND REGISTER.                  209
Germany.-It is no easy thing to give a clear and definite
view of the state of things in Germany at this moment, either
as respects the State or the Church. During the greater part
of the first half of the XlXth century, there was nothing like
real religious liberty in either the Papal or Protestant parts of
that country, though there was more quiet and effective toleration in the latter than in the former. In neither was there
entire freedom of religious worship and action. Men were persecuted in Silesia,-Protestants even,-in 1836,'37, and'38,
and only because they would not conform to the Church of the
State. Even in Hamburg, Baptists were persecuted in 1839
and'40. Whilst in Bavaria, and the Roman Catholic portions
of the Austrian Empire, Protestants were oppressed, and their
efforts to propagate the Truth hindered, and even prevented.
Nearly 500 Tyrolese were expelled from Zillerthal, in 1837, for
no other offence than the renunciation of the Papal superstitions
for the Protestant Faith. The government of Prussia gave
these exiles an asylum in Silesia,-in the country from which,
at that very moment, it was compelling the "Old Lutherans"
to emigrate to America!
The Revolution of 1848 has unquestionably done much to
loosen the bonds which unite the Church to the State, in the
Protestant countries of Germany, and to increase the toleration
which, to some extent, existed previously. But in all the unholy alliance still remains, and so long as it continues entire,
complete religious liberty will be impossible. That great progress has been made in the right direction in Germany, and even
to some extent in the whole Austrian Empire, may be asserted
without the fear of contradiction; but it is not easy to indicate
it in detail, or to measure its influence.
Switzerland.-At the commencement of the XIXth century
Religious Liberty was far fiom prevailing in the land of William
Tell In all the Protestant Cantons there was a union of Church
and State, without provision for Protestant dissent. Roman Cath



210               (HRISTIAN RETROSPECT
olics were tolerated in all of them. In the Roman Cotholic Cantons there were almost no Protestants at all, nor was Protestantism
tolerated in most of them. The recent revolutions in that country
have done much to weaken the union which subsists between
the Church and the State in all parts of it. The monastic establishments have been, for the most part, broken up in the Papal
Cantons. The disgraceful conduct of the government in the
Protestant Canton of Vaud caused a secession to be made, by a
large number of pastors, from the Established Church, in the
years 1845,'46, and'47. Much suffering ensued. The seceding ministers were greatly persecuted and hindered in their
efforts to promote the Gospel. This storm  has now, we are
happy to say, passed away in a good degree, and tranquillity is
restored. Upon the whole, we are inclined to believe that the
cause of Religious Liberty has begun to make real progress in
Switzerland within the last few years.
Denmark.-The constitution of Denmark, given in 1848,
guarantees Religious Liberty to a good degree, though there is
much to be desired. Before that event, there was no toleration
of any form of Protestantism save that of the Lutheran Church,
whilst a few Roman Catholic Churches existed by special favor,
or by sufferance, rather than by any other rule.
Norway.-Norway was detached from Denmark and united
to Sweden in 1814. An equal degree of intolerance reigned
in that country as in Denmark, Sweden, and Finland, the other
portions of what is called Scandinavia. Nothing but the Lutheran Church was acknowledged. But the Storthing or Legislature,
about the year 1845, made a law (which the King of Sweden
approved) by which any Norwegian, who was nineteen vears of
age, may quit the Established Church, and have, in conjunction
with others, such a religious worship as he may prefer, but for
whose support the State will not be responsible. He must,
however, continue to bear his share of the burden of sustaining
the National Church. Imperfect and unjust as is this enact



AND REGISTER.                  211
ment, it is the commencement of what must one day end in entire religious freedom in Norway.
Sweden.-Thequestion of Religious Liberty has been much
discussed in Sweden, but to this day nothing of importance has
been done. No form of Protestantism is tolerated but the Lutheran. If a Swede becomes a Roman Catholic, he is liable to
20 years' imprisonment, or to banishment! Indeed he will be
liable to the same punishment if he become a Protestant of any
other Communion than that connected with the State. A Mr.
Nillson has lately been sentenced to banishment, because he has
become a Baptist! This is disgraceful to the cause of Protestantism. The King feels it to be such, for he has hitherto refused to approve the decision of the court.
Russia.-We are not aware that the question of Religious
Liberty has made any progress in Russia since the commencement of this century. The Established Church of that great
Empire is the Greek, which embraces more than 47,000,000 of
the 66,500,000 of the population. In that vast country all
other forms of Christianity-Protestant, Armenian, and Roman
Catholic-as well as Judaism, Mohammedanism, and Paganism,
are tolerated. It is allowable to Protestants to convert Jews,
Mohammedans, and Pagans, but the converts will be expected
to join the great Russo-Greek Church, with all its-errors and
corruptions, which are almost as great as those of Rome itself.
Nor is it permitted that any one quit that Church, for any other.
The law is less rigidly enforced in Poland, the Baltic Provinces,
and Finland, than in the rest of the Empire. And yet there is
an open door in Russia for the circulation of Religious Tracts,
and to some extent, for the diffusion of the Sacred Scriptures.
Spain and PortuZal.-The constitution of neither Spain nor
Portugal contains a word in favor of Religious Liberty. Nevertheless, the laws of Portugal are not so stringent as to prevent
the existence of Protestant chapels at Lisbon and Oporto, for
the benefit of foreigners. A converted priest has even preached




212               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
the Gospel to as many of the native population as chose to
come and hear him, at the former city, for the last five or six
years. There is not a Protestant place of worship, so far as we
are advised, in all Spain. At Gibraltar, beneath the British
dominion, there are several Protestant churches and chapels.
Much can be done in Portugal, and something in Spain, with
prudence, to circulate the Word of God.
Italy.-In no part of the world has Religious Liberty been
less known or enjoyed than in that which claims to be the
centre of Christendom.  The "Bishops of Rome" have ever
been bold enough to demand, and ready enough to accept,
liberty to propagate their system of religion, but never disposed
to concede the same advantage to others. In this respect one
is at a loss to determine which is the more astounding-their
arrogance, or their utter want of all sense of justice.
No part of Italy has for fifteen centuries known the blessings
of Religious Liberty, excepting the Valleys of the Waldenses,
and that little district only at intervals, and as the purchase of
much blood, aid of the most dreadful sufferings. But even
Italy is not to be despaired of. Light is breaking into that
beautiful land,
" Where every prospect pleases."
The Revolutions of 1848 did not occur wholly in vain. Most
important discussions took place in the newspapers of Sardinia,
Tuscany, the Papal States, and even of Lornbardy and Naples,
during several months-discussions which related to the entire
subject of liberty,-political, civil, and religious. These discussions have not been without good results. Although no governments in Italy are now Constitutional governments, excepting the Kingdom  of Sardinia and the little Republic of San
Marino, yet there is practically a far greater amount of religious
liberty, or toleration rather, in the Kingdom of Sardinia than
any part of Italy had ever before seen. This is the more remark



AND REGISTR.                  213
able, when we recall to mind the fact, that the Waldenses live
in that Kingdom-that martyr-race who suffered so much for
the cause of Truth, from the very ancestors 6f a monarch who
now protects them. Let us be thankful that something like a
beginning has been made in Italy, in regard to this most important subject. We ought to add, perhaps, as a sign of
progress, that his Holiness has permitted an American Protestant Chapel to be opened in Rome itself-a privilege which was
never granted before in Rome within-the-walls.
Greece.-There is, properly speaking, no religious liberty in
the kingdom of Greece, but the subject has awakened the attention of not a few well-instructed minds, and the day is evidently drawing near, when governmental jealousy and priestly
hostility will yield to the influences of truth and justice. Even
now a great deal can be done-a great deal is doing by American and English and German missionaries to make known the
pure Gospel in that small but interesting country-so dear to
the classic scholar as well as to the sincere Christian. Had
Greece been papal to the same extent that it is an adherent of
the Greek church, we have reason to believe that nothing could
be done to replace superstition and perverted doctrine by the
glorious truth of God's Word. More than two hundred different religious tracts and books have been published through the
exertions of the missionaries just referred to, in the Modern
Greek, and have been widely circulated.
Turkey.-But in no part of Europe has there been so great
a change, in this respect, as in the Empire of Turkey, within the
last few years. The Sultan is determined to put Christians
upon the same footing with the Mohammedans, as to the enjoyment of their religious, and probably, also, all their political
rights. A recent act of his government has placed Protestants
in as favorable circumstances as could be desired. This, under
God, has been owing to the happy influence which our own
American missionaries have exerted there, and also to the zeal



214               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
ous but prudent efforts of Sir Stratford Canning, the English
ambassador.
Other portions of the Old World.-It may not be amiss to
remark, that in the English possessions throughout the Old
World, as well as the New, there is now a very large amount
of religious liberty. Nor has this been brought about without
much effort. The time has been when those who carried on
the government of the British Possessions and of British Colonies, were jealous of the efforts and influence of Protestant missionaries.  A great contest on this subject was carried on in
India in the early part of this century. In that important discussion, the Rev. Dr. Claudius Buchanan took a most important
part, as did the American missionaries at Bombay at a later
day. The result has been all that could be desired. Instead
of being ordered out of them,-as were the first American missionaries who went to India,-Christian teachers are now freely
admitted, and even welcomed, in all the possessions and colonies
of England.
We are sorry not to be able to say as much of the colonial
possessions of Protestant Holland and Papal Spain. Commercial jealousies in the former, and dread of the Protestant religion
in the latter, concur to make them almost close up the avenues
by which light and truth might penetrate into them.
The reader will gather from the foregoing survey of the state
of things throughout the world, that Religious Liberty has
made decided progress in both hemispheres since the commencement of the XIXth century. This is a fact of the utmost
importance. There can be no view taken of Christendom more
consolatory or encouraging than this. We see in this incipient
and wide-spreading progress of religious freedom, that preparation of the way of the Lord which precedes and announces
His speedy coming. Surely all this breaking down and removing
of barriers which formerly, and for long ages, prevented the




AND REGISTER.                  215
spread of the Truth, will soon be followed by a vast impulse of
spiritual life and effort in all directions, which will not cease till
Christendom  shall be regenerated and the world subdued by
the Gospel. In fact, we already see the commencement of this
work-whose consummation is so devoutly to be desired —as we
shall attempt to show in the next chapter.




CHAPTER III.
PROGRESS OF EVANGELICAL CHRISTIANITY DURING
THE FIRST HALF OF THE XIXTH CENTURY.
WE have spoken of the enlargement of Christendom and the
Progress of Religious Liberty during the first half of the XIXth
century. We come now to what is the most important of all:THE ADVANCE OF EVANGELICAL RELIGION in the Protestant
Churches during the period under review. This is a subject of
vital importance, compared with which all others diminish into
comparative insignificance.
It must be admitted that the state of Religion in the Protestant Churches was far from being encouraging at the commencement of the present century. In the United States, a long
period of spiritual death had oppressed the churches of almost
every denomination. It is true that there had been seasons of
cheering revival in some parts of the country, especially in New
England and some of the Middle States. The visits of Whitefield and Wesley, the labors of the Tennents, of Edwards, and
other faithful servants of Christ had done much to keep alive
the piety of the churches during the middle portion of the last
century. But as a general statement, it must be said that true
Religion was in a very low condition in the churches in all parts
of the country, and had long been so. The conflicts of the
Colonies with the Aborigines; the " French War," as that between
England and France (1756-63) which ended in the conquest of
Canada by the former, was called; the exciting disputes with
the mother country, from 1765 to 1775; the war of the Revolu



CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.        217
tion (1775-83); the years of prostrated commerce and industry,
of bankruptcy, and of disunion (1782-89) which preceded the
formation of the Constitution and the organization of the present
Government; the succeeding difficulties with England and
France, leading to a temporary collision with the latter, (179299) together with several wars with the Indians:-all combined to injure and depress the interests of Evangelical Religion.
To this must be added the unhappy effects of the union of
Church and State which so long existed in the most important
of the Colonies-now States-both North and South, developing
themselves in the manifestation of most dangerous errors in the
former, and in a chilling and worldly formality in the latter.
Blessed be God, in some parts of New England, especially in
Connecticut, the horizon began to lighten up a little, during the
last decade of the last century. Some precious revivals took
place, and the spirit of Missions, especially in relation to the
Home field, began to manifest itself. But it was not until the
XIXth century had opened, and especially when the war with
England, and some severe ones with the Aborigines (1812-15)
had passed away, that the glorious era of our spiritual prosperity
as a nation was fully ushered in.
In Great Britain very much the same thing occurred. The
resuscitation of Religion, commenced by the labors of Wesley
and Whitefield, and continued during the long life of the former,
was strengthened and protracted by the labors of Romaine,
Newton, Rowland Hill, Fuller, Cecil, Scott and others. As a
fruit of this movement, the spirit of Missions, especially in reference to the Foreign field, sprang up among the Baptists and
Independents first, and afterwards among the Evangelical portion of the Established Church, between the years 1790 and
1800, and led to the formation of the Baptist and London
Missionary Societies. This glorious operation of the Spirit received a further development in the formation of the British and
Foreign Bible Society in 1804, and of other kindred institutions
10




218               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
which came into existence in the British Realm about that
epoch.
Let us now trace the Progress of Evangelical Religion from
this point, or rather from the commencement of the century, and
notice some of the land-marks which may indicate both the
extent and the rate of the movement, both in the Old and the
New World.
SECTION I.
THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE.
The United States. —The blessed influences of the Holy
Spirit, which began to be felt in great power in our Churches, as
we have said, in the early years of this century, and especially
after the restoration of peace and tranquillity in 1815, have ever
since in a good degree pervaded almost all parts of the country,
and produced the happiest effects. The piety, the knowledge,
the zeal, and the devotedness of Christians were greatly augmented. The standard of duty and of personal holiness became
more elevated. Christians began to feel more deeply that each
had a work to do for Christ, and for humanity, as well as to
secure the salvation of his own soul. The distribution of the
Word of God, and of Religious Tracts, the instruction of the
youth and uneducated adults in Sabbath-schools and Bibleclasses, began to be appreciated and vigorously prosecuted.
The outpouring of the Spirit fiom on high was seen to be the
greatest of blessings, both for the individual and for the entire
community. It was accordingly sought with heartfelt earnestness, and very richly and extensively enjoyed. "The churches
then had rest" throughout all the land, " and were edified; and
walking in the fear of the Lord, and in the comfort of the Holy
Ghost, were multiplied."
This spiritual prosperity was confined to no section of our




AND REGISTER.                  219
country, although it was most marked, as may well be supposed,
in those parts where the means of grace were the most abundant.
Nor was it limited to any particular branch of the one true
Church of God among us, although it was most visible in those
portions of it in which the Gospel was preached with the most
simplicity, discrimination, fervency, and faithfulness.  Every
evangelical branch of the Church felt the life-giving influence
of the blessed movement. The number of individual churches
rapidly increased. Societies were formed to assist those who
emigrated to the new settlements in the West, to establish
among them, even before they had felled the forests around
them, the institutions of the Gospel. Whilst the rapidly-increasing population of our large cities began to call forth new
and extraordinary efforts to multiply the number of places of
worship, and secure the religious instruction of the people.
As might be expected, the visible Church in the United States
received a great and rapid enlargement during the half-century
which has just passed away, and especially during the last
thirty-five years of it. A very brief notice of the several Evangelical Churches will prove this. It will be seen that some entire denominations have come into existence in this country
within the last fifty years, and others have increased from small
and insignificant beginnings until they have become powerful
bodies. What, for instance, was the Methodist Episcopal Church
in the United States, in the year 1800? We cannot speak
with precision, but it probably did not have 40,000 members;
now it has almost a million and a quarter! What were the
Baptist Churches? What were the Presbyterian at the commencement of the XIXth century? They were small, feeble,
and insignificant bodies in comparison with what they now are.
The same thing may be asserted of the Protestant Episcopal
Church, although it is the oldest of all the churches in this
country. Even the Congregational body of churches, and the
Reformed Dutch, which rank next in point, of age, and which




220              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
have increased less rapidly than many others, have, nevertheless,
increased very greatly, and are several fold more numerous and
powerful than they were in the year 1800.
The Cumberland Presbyterian Church did not exist until
several years after the commencement of this century, and now
it is a numerous and important body. The minor Presbyterian
bodies* were extremely feeble at that epoch; but now, when
taken as one body, they present a very highly respectable and
commanding phalanx. The Lutheran and German Reformed
Churches have received a greater increase in numbers by immigration from the Fatherland than almost any other; whilst several smaller bodies of Germanic origin have come into existence
during the period of which we are speaking.
To make this subject more intelligible, we will present, under a
general view, the several evangelical bodies as they were fifty
years ago (if they then existed), as far as we can ascertain, and
then state their present position as to number of members,
ministers, and communicants.
THE PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH.-This body had, in
1800, four bishops, and probably 250 ministers. In 1832,
15 bishops, and 583 ministers. In 1850, it had 27 dioceses, 26
bishops, and about 1500 other ministers, and nearly 72,000
communicants.
THE CONGREGATIONAL CHURCHES.-We have no definite
knowledge of the number of these churches in 1800, but we
suppose they did not exceed 400 or 500, having as many pastors,
and probably 75,000 communicants. In 1850, there were 1971
churches, 1687 ministers, and 197,196 members.
THE REGULAR BAPTISTS.- We know not what their number
was in 1800,J but their increase has been wonderful. In 1850,
* The Associate, Associate Reformed, and Reformed Presbyterian.
f In the year 1784, they had 471 churches, 424 ministers, and 35,101
members. In 1790-92, they had 1150 churches, 891 ministers, and
65,345 members. Even in 1810-12, they had only 2164 churches, 1605
ministers, and 172,972 members.




AND REGISTER.                 221
their churches were estimated at 8406, their preachers at 5142,
and their communicants 680,807.
MINOR BAPTIST BODIEs.-These were very insignificant in
the year 1800. The last mentioned in the list but one did not
exist. They are as follows:-Freewill Baptists, having, in 1850,
1252 churches, 1082 ministers, and 56,542 members.  Seventh
Day Baptists.-They had, in 1850, 63 churches, 58 ministers,
and about 7000 communicants. In the year 1800, there were
but few in the country. The Disciples of Christ, Reformers,
or Campbellites, as they are interchangeably called, did not
exist until the year 1816. Now they are reported to have
1898 churches, 848 ministers, and 118,618 members. The
Six-Principle-Baptists have now about 3500 members. There
are one or two other small Baptist bodies, whose statistics we
have not been able to obtain; but they would not affect much
the general estimate, which is all that we can aim at here.
The Mennonites (German) have about 400 little congregations,
240 preachers, and the number of their members we do not know.
THE PRESBYTERIANS.-This body was an influential one,
even in the time of the Revolution. In 1800 it had increased
to about 300 ministers, 500 churches, and 40,000 members or
communicants. In 1850, including the two bodies into which
it was divided twelve years previously, it had 4093 churches,
3333 ministers, 863 licentiates, and 337,438 communicants.
MINOR PRESBYTERIAN CIURcHES.-The Cumberland Presbyterians commenced in 1812; they had in 1850, about 500
churches, nearly as many ministers, and not far from 75,000
members.-Reformed Dutch Church.-This body had, in
1784, only 82 congregations, and 30 ministers; in 1850 it
had 282 churches, 299 ministers, and 33,780 members.-The
Scottish Presbyterian Churches scarcely existed in 1800; now
they have, in all, about 550 churches, 430 ministers, and 57,000
members.-The German Reformed Church has now about 600
churches, 260 ministers, and 70,000 communicants.-The Lu



222              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
theran Church had, in 1850,1,603 congregations, 663 ministers,
and 163,000 members. Both these denominations were quite
small in 1800, and almost confined to the State of Pennsylvania;
they are now found in all the Middle States, and are numerous
in the South and West.
THE METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH had, in 1850, including both branches, 5,646 preachers, and 1,160,830 members.
In the year 1784, this Church was organized, and had then 83
ministers, and 14,986 members!
THE MINOR METHODIST CHURCHES.-These have all originated, with one or two exceptions, since the year 1800. —The
Protestant Methodist Church (organized in 1826) has 1,200
preachers, 500 places of worship, and about 62,000 members.
-The Wesleyan Methodist Church (organized in 1842) had
in 1850, twelve Conferences of ministers, and about 20,000
members.-The United Brethren in Christ (German) arose
about 1790, held its first Conference in 1800, and had, in 1850,
about 1,800 places of worship, 600 preachers, and 67,000 members. The Evangelical Association (German) founded in 1800,
had, in 1850, 312 ministers, travelling and local, 900 places of
preaching, and about 17,000 communicants.
THE MORAVIANS, or UNITED BRETHtREN.-This body has increased less than any other in the United States during the last
50 years. They have about 23 churches, 27 ministers, and 3,000
communicants.
FRIENDS.-This body has not increased much. The orthodox
portion is estimated to have about 300 congregations.
The preceding statements, though very general, will show
that what are considered to be truly Protestant Churches, holding to the great doctrines of the Reformers, have rapidly increased in number since the year 1800. We think that it is
easy to show that the number of evangelical churches, ministers,
and members, was much greater in 1850, in proportion to the
population, than it was in 1800: as to efficiency in all that re



AND REGISTER.                  223
lates to the work of extending the knowledge of the Gospel,
the contrast between the churches of the two epochs is still more
striking, as the succeeding chapters of this volume will show.
British Possessions in America. —We have not the means
of measuring the progress of Evangelical Religion in the British
Provinces north of us, and in the West India Islands; but we
have no doubt about its reality. There is much more of vital
piety and efficient action in the Protestant Churches in the Canadas, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Prince Edward's Island, as well as in the English Possessions in the
West India Archipelago, and in Guiana, than there was at
the commencement of the present century,-unless we have
been altogether misled by the documents before us.
SECTION II.
THE EASTERN HEMISPHERE.
Great Britain and Ireland.-That there has been a great increase of Evangelical Religion in England and Wales within the
last 50 years, is the testimony of every well-informed Christian
of those parts of the British Realm, with whom we have ever
conversed, during the repeated visits which we have made
to them. In the Established Church this increase of true piety
and zeal has been very visible. The present alarming manifestation of a tendency Rome-ward in the unevangelical portion of
that Church, does not disprove this assertion. The case is deplorable, but the Saviour will cause it, in some way or other, to
work for the purification and strengthening of His true Church
in that land. The formation of a pure, evangelical, and free
Church must, sooner or later, be the result.
There has been a decided increase of enlightened piety, sound
doctrine, and earnest zeal, among the various Dissenting Bodies.
This is confessed on all hands, by well-informed men in England.




224               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
And what shall we say of Scotland? There has been unquestionably a great resuscitation of the Truth in the land of
John Knox. How strikingly the wonderful movement which
issued in the disruption in the National Church, and the formation of the Free Church, illustrates and establishes this fact!
The interests of true Religion have made wonderful progress in
North Britain since the year 1815. The Minor Presbyterian
bodies there, and also the Independents, the Wesleyans, and
other Dissenters, have felt the genial influence, and are manifesting effects in their increased exertions in behalf of the Kingdom
of their Lord.
As to Ireland, true religion has decidedly increased among
the Presbyterians in the North, as well as among the 1600
ministers and congregations of the Established Church. More
is now doing by pious Protestants in that country for the diffusion of the Truth and the conversion of the adherents of Rome,
than had been attempted for a long time. This is encouraging.
Nor are their efforts without success.
The Continent of Europe.-If we cross over to the Continent,
we shall find that the same blessed resuscitation is going on in
every Piotestant country-slowly, silently, but surely. There
is evidence of this in Holland. The spirit of true piety and
sound doctrine is gaining ground in the several Protestant Communions in that country, and especially in the Reformed Dutch
Church, the most important of them all.  Within a few years,
much has been done to spread the sacred Scriptures and religious tracts in that country, by means of colportage. Two of
the most active Christians in that land are Messrs. Da Costa
and Coppadoce, converted Israelites.  It is said that there are
about 120 churches, mostly small, composed of those who have
within a few years separated from the Established Church, because they could not find that spiritual instruction there which
they needed.
The state of things is deplorable enough in Germany; but




AND tEGfSTE a.                 225
that true religion is looking up in the " Land of the Reformation"
is certainly undeniable. Error, as in England, becomes greater,
-in its greater departure from the truth, and not really in the
augmented number of its adherents-whilst truth becomes more
developed. There is a far greater number of professors in the
more than twenty universities of that country, who teach the
doctrines of the Reformation; and there is a far greater number
of students who receive them, and of pastors who preach them,
than there was at the commencement of this century, or than
there was even twenty years ago. What number, however, of
the more than 16,000 Protestant ministers of that country hold
and preach the primitive Gospel, God only can know. We
have heard it estimated very variously-at fiom 1000 up to
2000. We do not believe that there were 200 at the beginning of this century.
The same thing may be asserted of the Scandinavian counq
tries-Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland.     The last
named is now a part of the Russian Empire, but enjoys in a
great degree her own laws, and almost exclusively her own religion, which has been Protestant since the days of Gustavus
Vasa, when Finland was united with Sweden.
In all those countries the Truth is gradually recovering the
ground which it had lost. This has been brought about by the
increased circulation of the Sacred Scriptures, and by the diffusion of religious tracts, through the agency of the Bible and
Tract societies. The writer of these lines has been several times
in all the Scandinavian countries since the year 1836, and can
assure the reader that he but expresses the opinions of many of
the best men in them all, whom it has fallen to his lot to meet
with.
This same blessed work is silently going forward, slowly indeed, but steadily-among the Protestant churches in Poland,
in Hungary, in the Germanic parts of Austria, and in the Baltic
Provinces of Russia.
10*




226        CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND IROISTER.
It has been more visible in the Protestant Cantons of Switzer.
land, among the Protestants of France, and amid the Waldenses
in Italy.
These statements are general, but they are true, and should
excite to grateful thanksgiving to God; to earnest prayer in behalf of the good work, that it may advance more rapidly; and
to co-operation, in all practicable ways, whenever our aid-can be
made to advance the interests of truth in those countries. The
conversion of the world demands the regeneration of Christendom, and the regeneration of Christendom  will be effected
through the recovery of the truth and power of the Gospel on
the part of the Protestant churches.
In the chapters which follow, we shall show what have been
the effects of this blessed resuscitation of true religion in the
Protestant churches, —in both hemispheres-upon Christendom
and the World.




CHAPTER IV.
SOCIETIES FOR THE DIFFUSION OF THE SCRIPTURESEASTERN HEMISPHERE.
EFFORTS for the diffusion of the Holy Scriptures were coeval
with the revival of pure Christianity in every part of the world
where it occurred. But the organization of religious associations
for this purpose is comparatively a modern enterprise. Several of
the societies founded in Great Britain, during the eighteenth century, for the diffusion of Christian truth, contemplated as a part
of their work the dissemination of the Scriptures. The Societies
"for promoting Christian Knowledge" (founded 1696), "for the
Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts" (1701), "for promoting Religious Knowledge among the Poor" (1750), and the
" Society in Scotland for promoting Christian Knowledge"
(1709), were all of this character. There was also a Bible Society (founded 1780) for the supply of the Army and Navy of
Great Britain, another (1792) for the Circulation of Bibles in
France, and an association "for the Support and Encouragement of Sunday Schools" (1785). These, however, were efforts
either limited to particular districts, or secondary to a distinct,
though homogeneous enterprise.
SECTION I.
Great Britain.-The primary occasion of those measures out
of which grew the BRITISH AND FOREIGN BIBLE SOCIETY was
the scarcity of Bibles in the Principality of Wales. This scarl




228               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
city had attracted some notice as early as the year 1787, and
letters were written on the subject by several clergymen with a
view to obtain a supply. "When I was in Wales last," says
one of these writers, "I heard great complaining amongst the
poor for want of Bibles, and that there were none to be had for
money."   The first attempts, however, to meet this exigency
were unsuccessful. In 1799, the Society for promoting Christian Knowledge, issued an edition of the Welsh Bible to the
amount of ten thousand copies, with two thousand extra Testaments. But thirty years had elapsed since the printing of the
last edition, and this supply was altogether inadequate to the
demand. The new edition was almost immediately bought up,
and large districts were still unprovided for. If the joy of those
who were successful in obtaining copies was excessive, the grief
of the many who failed of it fell little short of anguish. " Their
expressions of regret," stated a clergyman who had witnessed
this disappointment, " were truly affecting."*
It was in this connection that occurred the touching incident
which seems to have been the immediate occasion, under God,
of the plan which resulted in the formation of this society. In
the year 1802, the Rev. Thomas Charles, of Bala, in Wales,
was walking in one of the streets of that town, when he met a
child who attended his ministry.  He inquired if she could repeat the text from which he had preached on the preceding
Sunday. Instead of giving a prompt reply, as she had been
accustomed to do, she remained silent. "Can you not tell me
the text, my little girl f" repeated Mr. Charles. The child wept,
but was still silent. At length she said, " The weather, sir, has
been so bad that I could not get to read the Bible." This remark surprised the good man, and he exclaimed, " Could you
not get to read the Bible! how was that?"  The reason was
* Owen's History of the Origin and First Ten Years of the British
and Foreign Bible Society, chap. I.




AND   EaGIMtsR.                229
soon ascertained. There was no copy to which she could gain
access, either at her own home or among her friends, and she
was accustomed to travel every week seven miles over the hills
to a place, where she could obtain a Welsh Bible, to read the
chapter from which the minister took his text. But during that
week the cold and stormy weather had prevented her usual
journey. Surely "the Word of the Lord was precious in those
days" to this lamb in the Saviour's fold.?
The proposition was first made in December, 1802, by Mr.
Charles and Mr. Tarn, at a meeting of the Committee of the
Religious Tract Society, to form a separate society, whose design should be, "to promote the circulation of the Holy Scriptures in foreign countries, and in those parts of the British dominions for which adequate provision is not yet made." Various
measures succeeded this resolution, until, in January, 1804, the
conductors of the enterprise, prominent among whom were the
Rev. Messrs. Hughes and Steinkopf, and Mr. Joseph Tarn, convened a public meeting for the 7th of March, in that year. At
this meeting, held at the "London Tavern," the BRITISH AND
FOREIGN BIBLE SOCIETY" was established, and a committee of
thirty-six members elected. The Society received before long the
approbation of many of the prelates of the English Established
Church, and of several Synods of the Scottish Establishment,
and secured the faithful co-operation of its first excellent president, Lord Teignmouth.
A correspondence was forthwith opened with leading men in
various countries of the Continent, with a view to ascertain the
want that might exist in those quarters, of such operations as
the Society contemplated. As the first fruits of this correspondence, the Nuremburg Bible Society was founded. Among
the replies elicited, was one of the most friendly nature from a
* JUBILEE MEMORIAL of the Religious Tract Society: London, 1850,
p. 46.




230               CHRISTIA;1 RETROSPECT
Roman Catholic priest, in Suabia. A Roman Catholic Bible
Society was shortly after established at Ratisbon. The Berlin
Society (1806), the Russian Society (1813), and the Danish
Society (1814), followed.
The British and Foreign Bible Society has encountered at
different periods, but especially within the first few years of its
existence, no small amount of opposition. The source of this
opposition has been almost wholly among the less evangelical
portion of the clergy and members of the Church of England.
The ground of it lay chiefly in the fact, that the Society was not
a " Church" institution, and that Dissenters were associated in it
with the members of the Established Communion. It may be
added, that although the Bible Society has never been without
its warm supporters among the clergy of the Church of England, the larger number of its prelates have stood aloof from
the enterprise. Of this party the "Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge" is understood to be the organ.
A more reasonable motive for disagreement, was to be found
in the early position of the Society relative to the uncanonical
books of Scripture. Previous to the year 1826, it had aided in
circulating (more particularly in Roman Catholic countries, and
with a view to facilitate the dissemination of the Scriptures under Roman Catholic auspices) editions of the Bible containing
the Apocrypha. This course could not but be distasteful to
many of the friends of the institution at home; and the agitation of the subject resulted finally in the adoption of three resolutions, which confined the Society, for the future, to the circulation of the canonical books.
We cannot enter at any length into the history of the operations of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Their extent
and importance would claim too large a space in this sketch.
We must be satisfied with a brief view of the results of this
great and blessed institution, as they may be gathered from the
following statistics.




AND REGISTER.                  231
The number of languages and dialects, in which the British
and Foreign Bible Society has promoted, in whole or in part,
the distribution, printing or translation of the Scriptures, is one
hundred and forty-four. This has been done: directly, in eightyfive languages or dialects; and indirectly, in fifty-nine. The
whole number of versions made (omitting those which are
printed in different characters only) is one hundred and sixtysix. Of these, one hundred and fourteen are translations never
before printed.
The number of copies of the Scriptures issued by the Society, from the beginning, has been twenty-three million one
hundred and ten thousand and fifty. Of this amount, over
eight million eight hundred and forty thousand were copies of
the Bible; and the remaining number of the New Testament
only. The issue for the last year alone, was one million one
hundred and thirty-six thousand six hundred and ninety-five.
The expenditures of the Society, from the beginning, amount
to no less than three million six hundred and forty-eight thousand pounds sterling, or $17,800,000. Its annual expenditures
have risen as high as one hundred and thirty-three thousand
pounds; for the last year, however, they were ninety-seven
thousand two hundred and forty-six pounds ($464,560).*
Connected with the British and Foreign Bible Society, there
are three thousand six hundred and seventy-eight auxiliaries,
branches, and associations, in Great Britain and the colonies.
This number does not include the auxiliaries of the Hibernian
Bible Society, which has four hundred and ninety-nine; nor
the various independent societies that have arisen under its fostering care, on the continent of Europe, and in India and America. These societies, sixty-two in number, have sprung up for
the most part in the German States. We shall speak of them
with greater detail in another chapter.
The Edinburgh Bible Society was originally an auxiliary of the
* Forty-sixth Report of the B. and F. Bible Society, 1850.




232               CtRISTIAN   RETROSPIECT
British and Foreign; having been organized in the year 1809;
but in 1830, the controversy respecting the Apocrypha occasioned its separation, and since that time it has been entirely independent. It has a number of auxiliaries, and has been very
successful in promoting the circulation of the word of God.
Besides its operations through the medium  of these corresponding bodies, the Bible Society employs, in various countries,
its agents and colporteurs for the more immediate dissemination
of the Holy Scriptures. Its foreign agents, having the superintendence of Bible depots, are stationed at Paris, Brussels, Amsterdam, Breda, Frankfort, Cologne, Stockholm, Christiania, and
other towns in Norway, and at St. Petersburg. There are also
depots at Odessa, Constantinople, Smyrna, Athens, Corfu, Malta,
Gibraltar, and other places. The agents' are, for the most part,
men of great activity and zeal, whose names are well known
among us, such as M. Pressense, at Paris, M. Tiddy, in Belgium, Dr. Pinkerton, in Germany, Mr. Lowndes, at Malta, and
others. The celebrated George Borrow was for some years an
agent of the Society, in Spain and elsewhere. Its colporteurs
are generally men of humble circumstances, but of good character, who spend their whole time in visiting families and places
of resort, to offer the Scriptures for sale at reduced prices.
Eighty-one of these laborers are employed in France alone;
twenty in Germany; and several in Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, Sweden, Italy, and Hungary;-in all, about one hundred
and thirty. Of the fruits of this system of Bible dissemination, we
cannot speak at large. They are already visible to a most encouraging extent, in France and Italy more particularly, in the
increase of interest in religious matters, and of readiness to receive and embrace the Gospel, which is evinced so generally
throughout the population.
The British and Foreign Bible Society is at present under the
presidency of Lord Bexley; its first efficient president having
died in 1834. In the course of that year and the preceding




AND REGISTER.                   283
one, this institution also lost three of its most devoted friends 
Joseph Hughes, its first Secretary; William Wilberforce, one of
its Vice-Presidents; and Hannah More.    It now numbers
among its officers nineteen prelates of the Church of England;
the excellent Archbishop of Canterbury being one of them.
The names of the Treasurer, and Secretary-John Thornton,
Esq., and Rev. Mr. Brandram-are also widely known.
The interests of this noble association are dear to every
Christian heart. If there be one organization whose history is
peculiarly identified with the commencement and progress of
the century in which we live, and whose prosperity we regard
as intimately connected with the increase of pure religion in the
present age, it is certainly the British and Foreign Bible Society.
Long may it continue, with its kindred societies, to carry forward the standard of our Reformed Faith, in the spirit of its
ancient motto: " THE BIBLE is the Religion of Protestants."
SECTION II.
Other countries of Europe.-On the continent of Europe there
have been formed at various periods since the origin of the
British and Foreign Bible Society, a number of independent
societies of a nature similar to it; nearly all of which have borne
more or less intimate relations with that body.  We have
mentioned several of these associations in a preceding connection; and at the conclusion of this chapter will be found a list
of the Bible Societies extant, with the date of their formation
and the amount of their issues.
Of the more important of these Bible Societies on the continent, we will here mention only the French and Foreign Bible
Society, instituted at Paris in 1833. The comparatively feeble
churches of France have nobly engaged in almost every branch
of Christian benevolence; and although their efforts cannot be




234               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
measured by those of British and American Christians, they are
more than proportionate to their resources. At the time of the
foundation of this Society, there already existed in France a
"Protestant Bible Society," instituted in 1818, and which still
continues. But by a singular provision in its constitution,
that association is restricted to the circulating of Bibles among
professed Protestants. The evangelizing of the Roman Catholic
population formed no part of the plan adopted by those who
founded the Protestant Bible Society; and indeed it has been
supported mainly by that portion of the French Protestants who
are not regarded as evangelical in their religious principles.
The French and Foreign Bible Society has been considerably
assisted in its operations by the British and American Societies.
The former, in addition to its liberal grants to the French Bible
Society, supports at Paris an agency, which during the year
1849-50 put into circulation over one hundred and eight thousand copies of the Scriptures; and has circulated in all nearly
two millions of copies within the last seventeen years. The
latter has from time to time made large donations to the
French Society; in the year 1848-9 it voted a grant of ten
thousand dollars; and has promised another similar grant.
The number of copies of the Scriptures issued by the French
and Foreign Bible Society during the year 1849-50 was eightyseven thousand eight hundred and forty-nine; making the total
amount of its issues from the beginning nine hundred and five
thousand eight hundred and thirty-nine.
The income of this Society for the last year was one hundred
and eleven thousand four hundred and seventy-three francs
($20,622). In the circulation of the Scriptures it employs
a number of colporteurs; an instrumentality which has been
remarkably successful in France, where more than one hundred
and fifty of these laborers are at present supported by the Bible
Societies, and the Evangelical Society of Geneva.
The president of this Society is the talented and pious Count




AND REGISTER.                  235
de Gasparin; among its secretaries and directors, are Count de
Laborde, Rev. Mr. Burnier, and Rev. Drs. Monod and Grand
pierre.
SECTION III.
Asia.-In the several " presidencies" of British India, there
have been formed, from time to time, associations corresponding
with the British and Foreign Bible Society, for the dissemination
of the Scriptures in that country. The first of these, in order of
date, was the Calcutta Bible Society, instituted in 1811. This
society, with its various branches, has distributed more than six
hundred thousand copies of the word of God. The Bombay
Society, established in 1813, has distributed about one hundred
and eighty-two thousand copies; the Madras Society, established
in 1820, five hundred and seventy-four thousand; and the
North India Society, instituted at Agra in 1845, nearly thirtyfour thousand copies.
In the island of Ceylon, there are two Bible Societies-at
Colombo and Jaffna-the former of which, instituted in 1812,
has a number of branches. The amount of their issues is about
one hundred and thirty thousand copies.
A correspondence with these bodies has lately been entered
into by the committee of the parent society, on the subject of a
proposition made by the Rev. W. Arthur, to give to every family in India a portion of the word of God. Communications of
much interest have been received in reply; but the prevailing
sentiment seems to be, that the measure is not at present practicable in its full extent; whilst the earnest desire exists to carry
it out as far as circumstances may allow.
In nearly every other country occupied by the various missionary societies of Europe and America, as a field of labor,
there have been extensive efforts for the distribution of the
Scriptures; and in many of them, associations auxiliary to the




236              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
British and other Bible Societies, have been formed and successfully carried on. Thus in New South Wales, Australia, New
Zealand, and the South Sea islands, there are flourisning auxiliaries; as also in British North America. It is unnecessary,
however, to enter into detail respecting their operations, as they
are included in the general statements already made respecting
the British and Foreign Bible Society.
SECTION IV.
WESTERN HEMISPHERE.
United States.-The earliest movement of any importance in
the United States, for supplying the people with copies of the
Holy Scriptures, was made by the Congress of 1777. In answer to a memorial on the scarcity of Bibles throughout the
country, that body proceeded to appoint a committee to advise
as to the expediency of printing an edition of thirty thousand
copies. It was thought best, instead of printing, to import a
sufficient supply; which was accordingly ordered. Again, in
1781, the subject was brought before Congress; and a resolution was adopted, approving and recommending to the people
an edition of the Bible then just published at Philadelphia.
These interesting historical facts show, that there was no
want of attention, even at this early period, to the importance
of disseminating the word of GOD in this country.
Prior to the formation of the AMERICAN BIBLE SOCIETY,
there existed various local associations of a similar nature. The
example of English Christians, and the loud call for a more extensive plan of operations, had also enforced upon many minds
the necessity of forming a general, national organization for the
systematic distribution of the Holy Scriptures.  The subject
was agitated for several years; until in 1815, a project to this




AND REGISTER.                  237
effect was drawn up by the New Jersey Bible Society, and was
sent to the sister societies for concurrence. A general meeting
was finally appointed, to be held at New York, in May, 1816.
Of the causes which prepared the way for the establishment
of the American Bible Society, the Rev. Dr. Beecher, one of its
earliest friends, says:-" The first, no doubt, was the existence
and prosperous operations of the British and Foreign Bible Society. The second was the foreign missionary spirit that was
awakened a few years anterior; and the organization of the
Foreign Missionary Society. The primary agent in this movement, I am well assured, was the Rev. Samuel J. Mills; in
whose heart the fire of foreign missions first burned for several
years. In his travels West and South, he had the organization
of an American Bible Society at heart. It was by personal
conversation, I doubt not, with thousands of the most influential
men all over our nation, and addressing, when he had opportunity, ecclesiastical bodies, that he prepared the way for a harmonious concurrence in favor of the organization when the convention met."*
At this convention, on the 11th of May, 1816, the American
Bible Society was organized. "It was a sublime spectacle,"
says the writer from whom we have just quoted. "Each one
had his own mind prepared by an agency which he had scarcely
recognized, and of whose ubiquitous influence he had no knowledge. We came to the meeting in great weakness, humility,
and prayer; feeling the difficulties in combining all denominations; and feeling every one the necessity of keeping his heart
and tongue, and walking very softly, lest a spark of unhallowed
fire falling on a train, it should explode. We felt that the
place was holy where we stood, and that GOD was there; and
our fears were not realized, and our hopes were surpassed exceedingly abundantly, so cordial was our unity."
* History of the Am. Bible Society; by W. P. Strickland; p. 26.




238, CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
The first president of the Society was the Hon. Elias Boudinot. Among the vice-presidents were some of the most eminent statesmen of the day. The secretaries were the Rev. Drs.
Mason and Romeyn.
The local societies which were in existence at tle date of the
formation of the national society, speedily connected themselves
with it as auxiliaries. During the first year of its existence,
eighty-four associations were thus annexed.
The operations of the American Bible Society at home have
been mainly carried on through the auxiliary associations connected with it. One of its regulations has been, to distribute
no Bibles gratuitously, except through the auxiliaries, as the
proper media of its benefactions. The number of these associations has increased yearly at a rapid rate, and now amounts to
more than twelve hundred, with about twenty-five hundred
branches, located in all the States and territories of the Union.
Among the more important of them we may mention the New
York, New York Female, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Cincinnati,
and Louisville Bible Societies. To organize such associations,
explore unoccupied fields, and collect funds, agents are employed; of whom there are at present twenty-seven. Much of the
prosperity of the institution has been owing, under the Divine
blessing, to the faithful labors of these agents. No colporteurs
or distributors of Bibles are employed directly by the Society;
but under the direction of the auxiliaries, a number of such
laborers are at work.
Through instrumentalities of this nature, the Scriptures have
also been widely circulated among special classes of our population,-in the prisons and hospitals,-among seamen and boatmen,-in the army and navy,-among the colored people in
the South,-and the Indians in the West.. Through the various missionary organizations, too, the American Bible Society
has contributed largely to the distribution of the Scriptures in
the Roman Catholic countries of Europe, South America, and




AND REGISTER.                  239
Mexico, and in China, India, Ceylon, Africa, the Levant, &c.
This has been done partly by grants of books, and partly by
appropriations in money, for the specific purpose of Bible distribution. The total amount of remittances made, in money,
has been about $330,000, which must have put into circulation
some 700,000 Bibles, or portions of the Bible, in about sixty
different languages.
Of the versions of the Bible issued by the British and Foreign
Bible Society, the American Bible Society has aided in publishing, or has purchased and circulated copies of several. It has
also been at the sole expense of publishing the Armeno-Turkish
Bible and the Modern Syriac, the Hebrew-Spanish Old Testament and the Modern Armenian Bible. It has, moreover, published the entire Hawaiian Bible at the Sandwich Islands, the
Modern Greek New Testament, the Ojibwa Testament, and the
Choctaw Testament, two of the Gospels in the Sioux Dingon
tongue, the books of Genesis and Isaiah in Mohawk, one of the
Gospels in Seneca, two in Cherokee, one in the Grebo, and the
book of Acts in the Arrowacb.*
The number of copies of the Scripture issued by this Society,
from the beginning, has been six million nine hundred and
eighty thousand five hundred and thirty-five. Of these more
than two million seven hundred and fifteen thousand were
Bibles, and the remaining number Testaments. For the last
year alone the Society issued six hundred and thirty-three thousand three hundred and ninety-five copies.
The receipts of the Society for the last year amount to two
hundred and eighty-four thousand six hundred and fourteen
dollars. This sum shows an increase of thirty-two thousand
seven hundred and forty-four dollars over the receipts of the
preceding year (1848-9). It is also considerably larger than
the income of any previous year. The total amount of the So* Thirty-Fourth Report of the Am. Bible Society, 1850.




240              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
ciety's receipts, from the beginning, is three million eight hundred and forty-four thousand four hundred and eighty-six dollars.
Nearly all of the officers appointed at the organization of the
American Bible Society have been removed by death. The
present president is the Hon. Theodore Frelinghuysen, LL.D.
Amongst the vice-presidents are several distinguished jurists and
statesmen. The secretaries are the Rev. Drs. Brigham and
Holdich.
This institution is at present in a highly-flourishing condition.
The ability and efficiency of its conductors, and the liberality of
its friends, have been already blessed of God in its great prosperity and usefulness. Its operations and influence are still on
the increase, and the firm hold which it has secured upon the
general confidence of the churches, encourages us to hope that
a wide and glorious career is yet opening before it.
American and Foreign Bible Society.-The American and
Foreign Bible Society was formed by the secession of members
of the Baptist denomination from the American Bible Society.
This secession occurred in the year 1836, and under the
following circumstances. A letter was received from Mr. Pearce,
a Baptist missionary at Calcutta, inquiring whether aid could be
obtained in printing the Bengalee Scriptures, translated on the
principle adopted by the American Baptist missionaries in
Burmah. This proposition was submitted in August, 1835, to
the Board of Managers, and was by them referred to a committee; who reported that it would be inexpedient to recommend appropriations, until the Board should settle a principle
in relation to the translation of the word baptizo. This report
was concurred in; and another committee was appointed, who
reported that it was inexpedient to appropriate the funds of the
Society in aid of translating or distributing the Bengalee New
Testament or any other version containing translations of the
Greek word baptizo and its cognates. The reasons given for




AND REGISTER.                  241
this decision were chiefly that such a translation would necessarily impede the operations of missionaries of other denominations in India; and that it was not competent for the American
Bible Society to assume a sectarian attitude by favoring the
denominational views of any particular church, whether at home
or abroad. A protest against this decision was presented by
the dissenting members of the Board; and it was forthwith
resolved by them to call a convention of the Baptist denomination for the purpose of forming a distinct Bible Society.
Accordingly, such a meeting took place at New York on the
12th of May, 1836, and the American and Foreign Bible
Society was organized.*
Much of the labor of this Society has been expended upon
foreign fields, in connection with the missions of the Baptist
denomination. Thus its appropriations for the last year, to the
American Baptist Missionary Union, for the issue of the Karen,
Assamese, Siamese, Chinese and Teloogoo Scriptures, and for
Bible distribution in Germany and France, amounted to nearly
seventeen thousand dollars. The largest grant was to Mr.
Oncken, in Germany, where the operations of the Society are
the most extensive.
Besides direct appropriations to missionary fields, the American and Foreign Bible Society acts through the medium of
auxiliary associations, of which there are three hundred and
sixteen in connection with it. By this instrumentality also the
funds of the institution are to a great extent collected.
The receipts of this Society for the year 1849-50 amounted
to forty-one thousand six hundred and twenty-five dollars;
being an advance of more than three thousand dollars over the
income of the preceding year, which was itself larger than that
of any previous one. The number of copies of the Scriptures
issued by it, from the beginning, is seven hundred and ninetyfour thousand three hundred and ninety-eight.
* Proceedings of the Bible Convention in 1837.
11




242               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
A controversy has lately arisen in the American and Foreign
Bible Society, the result of which has been the formation of
another association, by some of its leading members. This
secession was occasioned by the refusal of the Society to publish
a new translation of the Scriptures in the English language,
with a view to a more correct rendering of the original. Such
a translation, it was contended by the advocates of the measure,
was required in consideration of the defects of the authorized
version, and from the fundamental principle of the Society, to
diffuse the Scriptures in the most faithful and accurate translations. To carry out this purpose, the " American Bible Union"
was organized at New York on the 10th of June, 1850, under
the presidency of the Rev. Dr. Cone, former president of the
American and Foreign Bible Society. The new institution held
its first annual meeting in October of the same year; at which
date its subscriptions &c., amounted to thirteen thousand three
hundred dollars. Of its operations little can be said as yet;
so short a time having elapsed since its foundation. The
avowed object of the Union is sufficiently expansive-" to procure and circulate the most faithful versions of the Sacred
Scriptures in all languages throughout the world."
SECTION V.
LIST OF BIBLE SOCIETIES, WITH THE AMOUNT OF THEIR ISSUES.
Bibles and Tests.
1. British and Foreign Bible Society, instituted
1804........      23,110,050
2. American Bible Society, instituted 1816..  6,980,535
3. American and Foreign Bible Society, instituted
1837............      794,398
WESTERN EUROPE.
4. Protestant Bible Society at Paris, instituted
1818, with 132 Auxiliaries..     254,673




AND REGISTER.                 243
Bibles and Tests.
5. French and Foreign Bible Society at Paris, instituted 1833, with Auxiliaries..    905,839
6. Strasburg Bible Society, instituted 1815(chiefly German Bibles and Testaments).'71,503
NORTHERN EUROPE.
7. Icelandic Bible Society, instituted 1815.  10,445
8. Swedish Bible Society, instituted 1809, with
Auxiliaries...........                  638,427
9. Norwegian Bible Society, instituted 1816.  32,189
10. Stavanger Bible Society, instituted 1828. o  7,017
11. Finnish Bible Society, instituted 1812, at Abo,
with many Branches.....         110,561
12. Danish Bible Society, instituted 1814, with
Auxiliaries...........                  193,692
CENTRAL EUROPE.
13. Netherlands Bible Society, with Auxiliaries.  403,448
14. Belgium and Foreign Bible Society, at Brussels, instituted 1834.....              7,623
15. Belgian Bible Associations, instituted 1839.  14,909
16. Antwerp Bible Society, instituted 1834..   439
17. Ghent Bible Society, instituted 1834...   8,980
18. Sleswick-tIolstein Bible Society, instituted
1815, with Auxiliaries.......           125,826
19. Eutin Bible Society, instituted 1817, for Principality of Liibeck........             5,296
20. Liibeck Bible Society, instituted 1814..  11,972
21. Hamburg-Altona Bible Society, instituted
1814, with Branches.......              93,792
22. Bremen Bible Society, instituted 1815, with
an Auxiliary.......                      26,913
23. Lauenburgh-Ratzeburgh Bible Society, instituted 1816..........                  10,675




244              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
Bibles and Tests,
24. Rostock Bible Society, instituted 1816..   19,154
25. Hanover Bible Society, instituted 1814, with
Auxiliaries.........     125,539
26. Lippe-Detmold Bible Society, instituted 1816   3,569
27. Waldeck and Pyrmont Bible Society, instituted 1817.........       2,800
28. Hesse-Cassel Bible Society, instituted 1818.  30,000
29. Hanau Bible Society, instituted 1818...     3,316
30. Marburg Bible Society, instituted 1825..     7,832
31. Frankfort Bible Society, instituted 1816..'73,565
32. Hesse-Darmstadt Bible Society, instituted
1817, with Auxiliaries.......       31,484
33. Duchy of Baden Bible Society, instituted 1820,
with Auxiliaries.........                  18,585
34. Wiirtemberg Bible Society, instituted 1812,
with Auxiliaries.........                 552,627
35. Bavarian Protestant Bible Institution at Nuremberg, instituted 1821, with Auxiliaries  155,989
36. Saxon Bible Society, instituted 1814, with
Auxiliaries...........                   173,302
37. Anhalt-Bernberg  Bible  Society, instituted
1821............                  4,786
38. Anhalt-Dessau Bible Society....             3,310
39. Weimar Bible Society, instituted 1821.       3,773
40. Eisenach Bible Society, instituted 1818..      4,938
41. Brunswick Bible Society, instituted 1815..    700
42. Prussian Bible Society at Berlin, instituted
1805, with Auxiliaries.......           1,566,660
Issued to the Prussian troops, since 1830.  327,000
SWITZERLAND AND ITALY.
43. Basle Bible Society, instituted 1804...  418,855
44. Schaffhausen Bible Society, instituted 1813.  13,179




AND REGISTER.                 245
Bibles and Tests
45. Zurich Bible Society, instituted 1812, with
Auxiliary at Winterthur......       15,163
46. St. Gall Bible Society, instituted 1813..  37,436
47. Aargovian Bible Society, instituted 1815..  19,454
48. Berne Bible Society.....          44,646
49. Neufchatel. Bible Society, instituted 1816.  6,430
50. Lausanne Bible Society, instituted 1814.   32,000
51. Geneva Bible Society, instituted 1814...  36,651
52. Glarus Bible Society, instituted 1819...  5,000
53. Coire or Chur Bible Society, instituted 1813.  12,267
54. Waldenses Bible Society at La Tour, instituted 1816..........                     4,238
GREECE AND TURKEY.
55. Ionian Bible Society, instituted 1819 at Corfu,
with three Auxiliaries.......            7,377
RUSSIA.
56. Russian Bible Society, Petersburg, previous
to its suspension by an imperial Ukase, in
1826, had 289 Auxiliaries, and had printed
the Scriptures in various languages; the
circulation of which is still allowed...  861,105
57. Russian Protestant Bible Society at St.
Petersburg, instituted 1826, with numerous
Auxiliaries...........                  250,325
INDIA.
58. Calcutta Bible Society, instituted 1811, with
various Branches........              602,266
Serampore Missionaries...             200,000
59. North India Bible Society, at Agra, instituted 1845.....                  33,900
60. Madras Bible Society, instituted 1820...  574,154




246        CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.
Bibles and Tests.
61. Bombay Bible Society, instituted 1813..  182,115
62. Colombo Bible Society, instituted 1812, with
various Branches in Ceylon...      36,114
63. Jaffna Bible Society.......               94,091
Total of copies of Scriptures..40,414,879




CHAPTER V.
SOCIETIES FOR THE CIRCULATION OF RELIGIOUS BOOKS.
SECTION I.
EASTERN HEMISPHERE.
Great Britain.-The Rev. George Burder, minister of a
congregation at Coventry, was, under the providence of GOD,
the originator of the London RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY. Having felt the need of popular tracts of a more decided religious
character than those of Mrs. More, which were then in circulation, he prepared six essays of this nature, under the title of
"Village Tracts;" which were committed for publication to a
bookseller in London. The failure of this publisher interfered
with the circulation of the tracts, but led its author and his
friends to consider the importance of forming a society, which
should attend to the preparation and publication, at a cheap
rate, of such productions as those which had been attempted.
Accordingly, on the 10th of May, 1799, the Religious Tract
Society was organized, at a meeting of gentlemen held at the
St. Paul coffee-house, London. The committee elected on that
occasion embraced among others the celebrated Rowland Hill,
together with Alexander Waugh, Matthew Wilks and Joseph
Hughes.
The early friends of the institution took a decided position in
reference to its catholicity. Nothing was to be published that
in any way reflected upon a particular denomination of evangelical Christians. The great object which it contemplated




248               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
from the outset, was " to hold forth to view those grand doc-.trinal and practical truths which have in every age been mighty
through GOD in converting, sanctifying and comforting souls."*
This catholic spirit has been'maintained in all the subsequent
proceedings of the Society. The union which has prevailed in
its councils has been a pleasing evidence of the Divine blessing
upon the labors of its conductors.
The Religious Tract Society has numbered among its friends
and officers many of the most eminent Christians of our times.
The excellent Legh Richmond became, in 1813, one of its
Secretaries. Several of his invaluable tracts were written for
publication by the Society; and the others were reprinted by it.
So intimately has the Tract cause been connected with that
of the Bible, that nearly all of the more prominent advocates of
the latter were members of this institution. Hughes, Steinkopff,
Bogue, Henderson, Pinkerton, Bickersteth, were earnest friends
to both of these enterprises.
It is not practicable, and would be unnecessary, to enter
into much detail respecting the internal history of the Religious
Tract Society. Its course has been quiet and unobtrusive, but
steady and prosperous. The opposition it has encountered from
time to time, has been upon grounds of too little importance to
require specification here. The progress of the cause, and its
fruits thus far, can be better displayed by a brief statistical
statement, than in any other way.
At the semi-centennial celebration or Jubilee of the Society,
which occurred in 1849, upon the completion of its fiftieth year,
the results of the enterprise were given as follows:f
The total amount of receipts for the first fifty years of the
Society's existence, was one million two hundred and two thousand two hundred and forty-two pounds sterling ($5,860,000).
* DR. BOGUE; in his first Sermons for the Society.
t JUBILEE MEMORIAL of the Religious Tract Society; London, 1850.




AND REfiSTE,                   24R
The total amount of issues of publications, within the same
term of years, was five hundred millions. These publications are
in one hundred and ten different languages and dialects; and
have been distributed in all parts of Europe, in Persia, India,
Ceylon, China, Polynesia, Afiica, North and South America, &c.
The total amount of grants to these various countries is one hundred and fifty-five thousand three hundred and seventy-two
pounds sterling.
The number of the separate publications of the Society, is five
thousand one hundred and forty-eight. At its anniversary in
1848, the Report strongly urged generous offerings to the
institution on the completion of its fiftieth year, to be devoted
to the issue of publications calculated, by the divine blessing, to
counteract the unchristian and demoralizing tendency of a vast
portion of the cheap literature of the day, and to the promotion
of an enlarged distribution of the Society's works in Ireland, and
in the countries opening to its labors on the continent of
Europe. The result of this special appeal has been the liberal
contribution of eight thousand six hundred and fifty-nine pounds
sterling.
From the fifty-first annual Report of the Religious Tract
Society, we learn that its receipts for the last year-1849-50amounted to sixty-one thousand three hundred and twenty-seven
pounds sterling ($299,270). The issues of its publications
during the year were nineteen millions two hundred and fortyfive thousand four hundred and forty-one; making the total
circulation of the Society's tracts and books, in one hundred and
ten languages, including the issues of affiliated societies in foreign
lands, about five hundred and twenty-four millions.
With regard to the mode of this Society's operations, in the
distribution of its publications, the following statement is made
in its last report. "In applying the funds contributed to the
Society, care is taken to secure as wide and as promising a field
of operation as can be attained. By the aid of missionaries
11*




260               CHfRISTIAN ARTROSPECT
abroad, and disinterested friends at home, the gratuitous circulation is carried forward without any charge or expense for agents.
By a carefully arranged system, in the concerns of the Depository, the sale of the publications is made to cover all the expenses
of producing them, and of the necessary establishment of the
Society. Thus the whole amount of subscriptions, donations,
and contributions is applied to the gratuitous circulation of its
publications, without any deduction or charge whatever; and
the favor with which the works have been received by the
Christian public, has enabled the Committee, of late years, to
distribute to a larger extent than the sums received; so that the
Society has rendered back to the public an amount exceeding in
value what has been thus contributed. In this course, the
Committee trust the Society will be enabled to proceed, without
risking its important and fundamental object, of presenting a
large and varied list of works, at such prices as the religious
public have a right to expect."*
As early as the year 1806, the Religious Tract Society, having issued three or four millions of tracts, including a cheap
narrative series with cuts, adapted to counteract the influence
which a flood of infidel and other vile publications was exerting
upon the lower classes, gave attention to the formation of Tract
Societies in foreign countries. In the preceding year, the Rev.
Drs. Patterson and Henderson, forbidden by the East India
Company to go to India, went to Denmark to seek liberty to
station themselves at Serampore. This being denied, they
obtained the translation of" The Great Question Answered" into
Danish; which led to the extensive Tract and Bible operations
in the north of Europe, under the labors chiefly of the Rev. Drs.
Pinkerton and Steinkopff."There is one view of the Society's foreign labors," says the
* Fifty-first annual Report of the Religious Tract Society: 1850.
t Quarter-Century Reminiscences; American Tract Society.




AND REGISTER.                  251
author of the Jubilee VMemorial, already quoted, "which it
would be improper here to overlook; namely, the manner in
which they have extended the influence of Christian writers
through the world. Authors who only contemplated the improvement of their own countrymen when they composed their
works, have had their thoughts conveyed into languages, the
very names of which were unknown in their days. Little did
John Bunyan foresee that in future times missionaries would go
forth to the heathen, and by twenty-eight different translations
of his enchanting volume interest the people of many nations,
the civilized and the rude, so that the learned and polished
inhabitant of France and Greece, the tawny wanderer of Arabia,
the persecuted believer in Madagascar, the sunburnt Kaffir, and
the degraded Hottentot, should read with avidity the book
which is the delight of the lowly cottagers of our own land.
"The pious writer of the touching narrative,'Poor Joseph,'
in all probability only contemplated its usefulness within the limits
of his own country: how surprised he would have been if one
endowed with prophetic vision had told him that his'halfwitted man' would speak in seventeen languages, and be the
means of teaching the knowledge of Christ to the Chinese in
the east, the Greek in the west, the Esquimaux in the north,
and the African in the south. Neither did the amiable and devoted Legh Richmond, when employing his persuasive advocacy
and active labors for the Society, imagine that he was sustaining
an agency which would convey his' short and simple Annals of
the Poor,' through twenty-one languages, to the Russian, the
Armenian, the Arab, the Icelander, and the Turk. Nor did the
esteemed writer of the'Anxious Inquirer Directed and Encouraged' suppose, when he sent out that useful production, that
his affectionate appeals would find an utterance in five continental tongues, in one of the most difficult dialects of India, and in
the words of the islanders of the Pacific Ocean. In a similar
manner, also, other Christian authors, as Baxter, Doddridge,




252               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
Pike, Stokes, Keith, and Barth, have had their influence extended and perpetuated to an extent they could never have anticipated."
SECTION II.
FROM England the beneficent influence of a religious literature
has extended over nearly all parts of the continent; and the example of the Religious Tract Society has given rise, in several
of the countries where Protestant institutions exist, to similar
enterprises of benevolence. Some of these we proceed to mention, giving, however, only a brief statement of their statistics.
France.-The Paris Religious Tract Society has circulated
during the last year about six hundred and five thousand tracts,
besides one hundred and thirty thousand copies of the " Almanac of good Counsels." The receipts have amounted to 45,842
francs, and the expenses to 42,593 francs.
The Toulouse Religious Book Society has issued during the
past two years, eighty-nine thousand five hundred books. In
the same period, about sixty-four new libraries have been either
formed or assisted. This aid has not been confined to France,
but has been extended to other lands, including Africa, Greece,
Canada, and Russia. During the past year various new works
have been issued.
Holland.-Rotterdam Tract Society. The colporteurs meet
with much acceptance among the people, and are greatly encouraged by finding that sinners have been led to God through
the tracts distributed. The Society has translated twenty-eight
of the handbills of the Parent Society, and in a few months upwards of 22,000 were sold. The total issues in the year were
127,800 tracts and children's books.
Germany.-The Lower Saxony Tract Society, at Hamburg,
has printed 638,000 tracts: out of which 524,853 have been




AND REGIStER.                  253
distributed. The total circulation in twenty-nine years has been',054,792.  Several new tracts were printed in the year, and
among them one addressed to soldiers on Mr. Gossner's.recommendation.
In addition to the extensive labors of the Lower Saxony Committee, there have been large appropriations of tracts to numerous emigrants; and pious colporteurs have conveyed them
to thousands who are living in awful ignorance of the way of
salvation. The receipts of the society for the year have been
~563, which include the grants received from the Religious
Tract Society.
The Hamburg Tract Society. The issues in the year " have
reached 500,000 copies of different tracts, and these have led to
the circulation of upwards of 22,000 copies of the Scriptures,
the employment of forty missionaries and colportears, and the
issue of several thousand copies of larger publications."  In
Hamburg, nearly forty brethren are regularly engaged as loantract distributors, and others visit neighboring districts.
The Berlin Tract Society is now employing colporteurs for
the circulation of the Scriptures and religious tracts. Mr. Elsner,
the secretary, writes:-" The revolution of last year has roused
in many places the hearts of men for a more willing reception
of the word of God, and we have never distributed so many
copies of the Scriptures as in the present year; and we are enabled to report the same of our tracts."  The Rev. G. W. Lehmann, of Berlin, has given an encouraging report of the circulation of the Society's works voted to him.
Russia.-The friends at St. Petersburg have not been able
to circulate their tracts and books to the same extent as in former years. Although a somewhat smaller number of publications has been sent from the depot, yet the sales have considerably increased.  The tracts received in the year amount
to 180,335, in Russ7 Finnish, German, English, French, Swedish, Dutch, and Danish, about 147,800 having been printed




254               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
at St. Petersburg.  These, added to the stock on hand in
1849, made the supplies for the year to be 464,210. The issues have been 186,730; of these, 100,493 were sold at the
depository. The total issues, in various languages, amount to
3,822,830.
SECTION III.
THE UNITED STATES.
American Tract Society.-The cause of Tract distribution
belongs, in this country, to the present century exclusively. As
early as 1803, the Massachusetts Society for promoting Christian Knowledge entered upon the systematic publication of
tracts and books; and in succeeding years various associations
with the same design, sprung up in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and other chief cities of the Union. All
these societies had, in 1824, printed about ten millions copies
of religious publications; of which the greater portion were
issued by the Tract Society at Boston, founded in 1814.
In the autumn of the year 1824, a correspondence was commenced between the New York Religious Tract Society and
the American Tract Society at Boston, which resulted in a public meeting held in New York, at which the plan of an American
Tract Society, to be submitted to the principal Tract Societies in
the country, was adopted; and subscriptions were raised to the
amount of $25,000 for erecting a Tract House.
May 10th, 1825, a convention of Delegates fiom   Tract
Societies throughout the country was convened in New York,
the Rev. Dr. Milnor being chairman, at which a constitution
was recommended for adoption; and on the following day the
Society was solemnly organized, with public religious exercises,
and proceeded to lay the corner-stone of its present edifice.
$. V. S. Wilder, Esq., was elected President; Rev. William A.




AND REGISTER.                  255
-Hallock, (then Assistant Secretary of the Society at Boston,)
corresponding Secretary; and Moses Allen, Treasurer.
The last words which the lamented SUMMERFIELD spoke in
public, were uttered in an enrapturing address near the close of
the meeting for organizing the Society. "In all the anniversaries," said he, "which I have ever attended in Europe or
America, I have never been so conscious of the presence of the
Holy Spirit, and Christian love pervading every heart. Again
and again I could not refrain from weeping. The very atmosphere we breathe is the atmosphere of heaven; one which
angels come down to inhale, and in which God himself delights
to dwell."
Previous to commencing their operations, the Executive Committee issued an address to the Christian public, constituting
Tract No. 1, in which they specify the following great doctrines
of the Gospel as those in which they all harmonize, and which
"constitute the basis of their union:" viz. " Man's native sinfulness; the purity and obligation of the law of God; the true and
proper divinity of our Lord Jesus Christ; the necessity and
reality of his Atonement and Sacrifice; the efficiency of the
Holy Spirit in the work of renovation; the free and full offers
of the Gospel, and the duty of men to accept it; the necessity
of personal holiness; and an everlasting state of rewards and
punishments beyond the grave."
The American Tract Society at Boston, at its annual meeting
during the same month, resolved to become a branch, and
transferred its stereotype plates to the new institution; to which,
like all the other Tract institutions in the country founded on
kindred principles, it has since given its cordial and efficient
co-operation.
The Society's operations were commenced by issuing a series
of Tracts and Children's Tracts; but attention had already been
directed both to the issuing of volumes like those of Baxter and
Doddridge, and to operations in foreign lands. The question




%2b50        c     CHRISTIAN RETROSPtUC
occurred whether its title should not be the American Tract and
Book Society, or the American and Foreign Tract Society; but
the institution formed in London in 1799, had simply the title,
"Religious Tract Society;" the term TRACT, Latin tractum, a
TREATISE, or thread of discourse drawn out, was equally applicable to a larger or smaller publication; and it was conceived that
the term AMERICAN might imply exertion wherever American
benevolence should reach. The same views governed the Board
in applying for the act of incorporation.
The Society's first Report recognizes the imperative claims of
pagan lands, and the second contains the principles on which
foreign pecuniary grants should be applied. Those principles
were drawn up and presented to the Society by one of its
earliest and most steady friends, the lamented JEREMIAH EVARTS,
Esq., then Secretary of the American Board of Commissioners
for Foreign Missions. Appeals from some foreign stations had
already been received, and in the two following years the
Society's first foreign pecuniary grants were made to the missions
of the Board of Commissioners in Malta and Ceylon, the mission
of the Protestant Episcopal church in Greece, and the mission
of the American Baptist Board in Burmah.
In its third year it entered on the volume circulation, by
stereotyping Doddridge's Rise and Progress, which was ere long
followed by issuing the Saint's Rest, Call to the Unconverted,
Pilgrim's Progress, and kindred works.
In the fourth year, attention was drawn to systematic Tract
distribution. A deep interest had been awakened in behalf of
the destitute of our country, especially in the Western States, and
a meeting of gentlemen convened to raise funds, when one of
them, previous to subscribing $1,000, said he wished to give at
least two Tracts to every family at the West; and as the effort
to obtain means was prosecuted by the Secretary, the question
occurred, why not supply the accessible population of the East
as well as the West. The work was soon entered upon by the




AND REGISTER.                  25T
New York City Tract Society, and in various places throughout
the country.
After two years the thoughts of some of the laborers, and
especially the late HARLAN PAGE, were turned to the necessity
of connecting with the distribution faithfulpersonal efforts for
the souls of men; which greatly increased the interest and
efficiency of these endeavors, and were prosecuted to some
extent in most of our principal towns and villages, and in
numerous congregations. The Society's energies were directed
to the extension of these means of grace throughout the country
generally. The branch societies in New York city, Philadelphia,
and other important cities, towns and villages, have persevered;
the former having now more than 1,000 visitors, and having reported an average for the last ten years of about three hundred
hopeful conversions, besides abundant incidental good.*
Of late years the American Tract Society has adopted another
instrumentality for the dissemination of its excellent publications;
one which had long been in use abroad, particularly in France,
where it has been attended with great success; we allude to
the system of colportage. By employing men of ordinary
education but well-attested piety, in visiting families and conversing with individuals on the subject of religion, and introducing to their attention the religious volumes or tracts which they
carry with them, an influence has been exerted throughout the
country, but especially in the remote and sparsely-settled parts
of it, which perhaps could be obtained by no other agency. In
1841 the Society's annual report directed attention to the
religious destitution in portions of the South and West, and
urged the importance of extending the circulation of its publications in those quarters. An appeal having been made, for wellqualified laborers to go to such destitute places, several young
men responded; and in the course of the year eleven colporteurs
* Instructions for Agents. American Tract Society.




258        CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.
were commissioned. This number has rapidly increased. During the year 1849-50, the Society employed no fewer than five
hundred and eight colporteurs, for the whole or a part of the
year. The aggregate number of families visited by these agents
within that period, was 428,300. Of these 44,800 were Roman
Catholic families.
The American Tract Society extends its influence to foreign
countries, through the missionary and other associations who occupy foreign fields, as well as through committees at various
missionary stations. Its appropriations in this way, for the year
1849-50, amounted to fifteen thousand dollars. The Society,
and the institutions which it aids, have issued publications in one
hundred and ten languages and dialects. The total amount of
sums appropriated for foreign distribution, since the formation
of the Society, is $239,626.
The whole number of the Society's publications' has been
1,528; of which 284 are volumes. The whole number of
pages printed and circulated, from the beginning, has been
2,483,793,562. The receipts of the Society, for the year 184950, were $308,266; the whole receipts from the beginning
amount to $2,771,038.




CHAPTER VI.
SOCIETIES FOR HOME EVANGELIZATION.
SECTION I.
WESTERN HEMISPHERE.
THE necessity for Home Missions is, of course, most obvious
and urgent in a newly settled country; and hence, in this department of our statement, we shall give prominence to those
movements which have taken place in the United States, instead
of commencing with the European institutions, as we have done
in previous chapters.
American Home Missionary Society. —Various Domestic Missionary Societies had sprung up in the United States before the
formation of a national association; among which was the United
Domestic Missionary Society, out of which the American Home
Missionary Society was formed, in the year 1826. During its
first year, it supported one hundred and sixty-nine missionaries;
its receipts being about twenty thousand dollars. The president
of the Society at its institution was the Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer; among its vice-presidents and directors were many of
the most distinguished clergymen of the day.
It was not designed that the American Home Missionary Society should supersede the local associations already existing,
but draw them into affiliation with it, as it did in a short time.
There are at present connected with it fourteen important and
flourishing state auxiliary societies and agencies, by which funds




260               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
are collected and missionaries supported, in connection with the
parent society.
The progress of this institution, during the twenty-four years,
is well illustrated by the following facts:
"Beginning with 169 missionaries, in ten years it increased
the number to 755; and in twenty-four years to 1,032. It
sought to "lead out the enterprise of the churches in pursuit
of our emigrant population; and has kept pace, in a good degree, with the crowds of pioneers who have pressed on, year by
year, further towards the setting sun. For some twenty years,
the progress of the line of settlements was at the average of
seventeen hundred miles from north to south, and two thousand
from east to west."*
In a field so extensive, and so promising, we are naturally led
to inquire, what efforts have been and are now put forth for its
entire evangelization, how many laborers are now engaged in
this work, and what have been the results of their exertions.
The number of ministers of the Gospel, as well those who have
been engaged in superintending the missionary work, and those
who are connected with the auxiliary boards and agencies, as
those who are personally occupied in discharging the peculiar
duties of home missionaries, amount, as we have already seen,
to upwards of a thousand. So large a body of ministers, whose
support is either wholly or in part furnished by this Society,
must exert a powerful influence in their respective fields of labor. Of these brethren, 677 have been during the past year
the pastors or stated supplies of single congregations; 229 have
ministered to two or three congregations each; and 126 have
extended their labors over still wider fields-the destitute localities of a county, or of several contiguous counties, or those
within the limits of an ecclesiastical body. In this way not less
than 1,575 congregations and missionary districts have been
* Home Missionary, Feb., 1861.




AND REGISTER.                  261
supplied either in whole or in part, at stated intervals; and
many others have, at the same time, enjoyed the occasional
preaching of the word of life.
The labors of the Home Missionary Society have not been
restricted to the mass of our population who speak the English
language, or to the white inhabitants only. Five missionaries
have been commissioned as pastors or stated supplies of churches
of colored people; ten have preached to Welsh, and twenty-eight
to German congregations; one to a congregation of Norwegians;
and one to a congregation of Swedes. 
Nor have the missionaries neglected the establishment of
Sabbath-schools, and the imparting of religious instruction to
the rising generation, who are soon to hold in their own hands
the destiny of their country. At least 75,000 children and
youth have been connected with the Sabbath-schools, under the
care of the missionaries of this Society, during the last year.
The missionaries have likewise paid much attention to the progress of temperance in those communities among which they
have resided; and the number of those who have pledged
themselves to temperance may be estimated at 93,000. They
have been careful, however, to base all their efforts on moral
principle, witnessing as they frequently do the inefficacy, if not
the injurious tendency, of all other motives. Their efforts have
not been fruitless. In Wisconsin, where the Society has for
years been laboring with much encouragement, a law has been
enacted by the legislature, making the vender of intoxicating
drink responsible for all the injury which his iniquitous traffic
inflicts upon the persons, the property, and the peace of the
community. But though this law has met with much opposition, it has been made still more effective by an amendment recently passed, which renders it obligatory on the town supervisors to prosecute all cases of its violation. Its happy effects have
already become visible in the increase of sobriety and good
order throughout the state.




262              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
The contributions of many of the churches, assisted by the
Society, to benevolent objects, have not been inconsiderable; in
512 congregations, they amounted to $21,756, or more than
one third of the amount expended during the past- year to aid
these congregations in sustaining the ministry.
Yet the number of hopeful conversions and ad3itions to the
Church, as it is so closely connected with the mnh'ionary work,
is also the most interesting sign of the effectivesnes of the operation of this Society. During the year 1849-50, the additions
tp the churches, as far as they were ascertained, amounted to
6,682; of whom 3,815 were admitted upon profession of their
faith, and 2,867 upon letters of recommendation from other
churches. This is a larger number than Tlis been reported in
any one year since 1844, and has been e7 reeded only in three
years since the formation of the Society. The missionary stations seem to have been remarkably blczsed by the influences
of the Spirit of God; and revivals are relorted to have occurred,
by no less than seventy missionaries. L,,ss than one third of the
missionaries report 3,108 cases of hopefil conversion.
The external prospects of the churcl es are likewise cheering.
Numerous church edifices are every jear raised, and not less
than forty congregations, which have hitherto depended, in part
at least, upon the Society for the support of their pastors, have
become independent, and are now enabled to sustain them by
their own contributions.
The receipts of the Home Missionary Society for the year
1849-50, were $157,160 78 cts.; and for the twenty-four years
which have elapsed since its formation, $2,054,417 91 cts.
SECTION II.
WE proceed to mention some of the operations of denominational societies and boards in our own country, in the field of
domestic missions.




AND REGISTER.                  263
Presbyterian Board of Domestic Missions. —The Presbyterian church (old-school organization) sustains, through its Board
of Domestic Missions, an important part in this great enterprise.
During the last year, the number of ministers supported in
whole or in part by this body was five hundred and seventy;
and the number of feeble congregations aided, and missionary
stations supplied, so far as reported, was 1461.  These operations extend over twenty-five States of the Union. The additions to the church within the year amount to about five thousand; the sum contributed by the mission churches to foreign
and domestic missions, was about ten thousand dollars. The
receipts of this Board'for the year were $79,049.
Protestant Episcopal Board of Domestic Missions.-The number of laborers at present supported or assisted by the Domestic
Board of the Protestant Episcopal Church, is ninety-six; of
whom three are bishops, ninety presbyters and deacons, and
three laymen. About the same number of stations are occupied
by these missionaries; extending through twenty States and
Territories. The receipts for the last year were $30,657.
Domestic Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church.Under the separation between the Northern and Southern portions of the Methodist Episcopal Church, the Home Missionary
work, as well as the Foreign, has been divided. The Missionary Society of the Church, North, sustains, in the sphere of domestic operations, missions among the German and Swedish immigrants, the Indian tribes, and our own population. Among
the Germans, it supports one hundred and eight missionaries,
at ninety stations, principally in the West, comprising one hundred and fifteen churches, with 7128 members. The Indian
Mission, likewise located in the West, consists of twelve stations,
occupied by seventeen missionaries, and containing 1075 church
members. Among the Swedes, a missionary is supported at
New York, and another in Illinois. In the destitute portions
of the various districts of the church, this Society employs 337




264               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
missionaries, at 320 stations, containing 30,438 church-members. Total number of missionaries, 464; and of church-members, 38,882. Appropriations for the past year (to Home Missions), $58,070.
The Missionary Society of the Church, South, restricts its
operations to the home field almost exclusively, having but two
missionaries abroad. Its missions are distributed among the
destitute fields at home, the colored population, the Germans,
and the Indians. In the first of these departments it supports
117 missionaries, at 124 stations, in which are included 20,921
church-members. Among the colored population are employed
104 missionaries, at 116 stations, containing 34,459 members.
Among the Germans eight missionaries are at work, chiefly in
Louisiana, and among the Indian tribes there are thirty-nine
missionaries. Total number of laborers, 273; and of churchmembers, 59,707. Receipts for the last year, $60,871.
Baptist Home Mission Society.-This Society employs, in
fifteen States and territories, and in Canada, one hundred and
eighteen laborers. Of these, twenty-two are stationed in Illinois,
eighteen in Michigan, and sixteen in Canada. Since the formation of the Society, 1432 ministers have received its commission. Its receipts for the last year were $30,369.
The Southern Baptist denomination sustains, in connection
with its Convention, a Board of Domestic Missions, which
employed, during the last year, fifty missionaries. Many of these
are laboring among the colored population. Receipts for the
year, $10,692.
Evangelical Lutheran Home Missionary Society.-Under
the direction of the General Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran
Church in the United States, this Society was organized in 1845,
and now supports twenty-two missionaries in the States of Maryland, Illinois, Indiana, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, and Ohio. The
receipts for the three years (in the interim of the Synod's convention), ending April, 1850, amounted to $2,081.




AND REGISTER.                  265
Free-Will Baptist Home Mission Society.-Ten churches
have received aid from this small, but growing association, during the last year. The amount of its income was $5,525.
The Seventh-Day Baptists, and some other denominations of
Christians in this country, have their own organizations for the
extension of religion in their peculiar spheres; but it is needless
to go into further detail.
SECTION III.
EASTERN HEMISPHERE.
England and Ireland.-There are in Great Britain several
religious associations in operation, whose design is the evangelizing of the native population, whether in Great Britain or in
the colonies. Three of these societies are comprehended under
the title of " The British Missions;" namely, the Home, Colonial,
and Irish Evangelical Societies.
The Home Missionary Society, which was founded in 1819,
employs, at present, in whole, or in part, one hundred and sixteen missionaries or agents, and nearly one hundred lay-preachers, who have, as their weekly coadjutors, 1652 Sunday-school
teachers, and whose ministrations are attended by upwards of
forty-one thousand hearers, and about twelve thousand five hundred Sunday-school scholars. The chapels, or preaching-rooms
of the Society's laborers, number nearly four hundred and fifty,
and are scattered among four hundred and forty towns, villages,
and hamlets. The entire receipts of the Home Missionary Society for the year 1849-50, amounted to ~6,159, or $29,810.
Its expenditures exceeded this sum by ~200.
The Irish Evangelical Society, founded in 1814, employs in
Ireland twenty-four pastors and missionaries, and twenty-six
Scripture readers and teachers.  Its receipts last year were
12




266               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
~2,791, or $13,508; but this sum  being inadequate to meet
the engagements of the Society, it is obliged to diminish the extent of its operations.
The Colonial Society was founded in 1836. The sphere of
its labors is in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, the Canadas, New
South Wales, Australia, and Van Dieman's Land. For the
last year, the number of its agents in these colonies was thirtyseven, the number of its stations being the same. Its receipts
were ~2,765, or $13,382.
Kindred to these bodies is the Christian Instruction Society,
instituted in 1835, whose operations for the year 1849-50 are
thus specified in its last annual report. " One hundred and five
churches are united as associations with the parent society, and
two thousand one hundred and fifty Christian men and women
are visiting fifty-two thousand one hundred and five families,
for the purpose of Christian instruction by book or word. By
the personal efforts of the visitors, two thousand and sixty-three
children have been reclaimed from the streets, and are found in
Sabbath-schools, 1655 adults have felt the force of Christian
persuasion, so as to go from the once Sabbath-neglecting homes
to the house of prayer, 2782 of the distressed, among whom
are many of' Christ's brethren,' have had their temporal necessities relieved, and 442 copies of the Scriptures have been distributed.  Religious services are conducted on Sabbath and
week evenings in ninety rooms and cottages in the various districts of the associations. In the Tabernacle district alone, 300
services have been held at such meetings. The tents have been
much in requisition during the year, and much good has been
the result of the services held in them; 150 sermons and addresses have been delivered during the season in them. In the
open air, too, attempts have been made to call on men to repent and believe the Gospel. One of the most interesting and
successful undertakings has been the delivering of lectures to
the working classes, in various halls and schools, in different




AND REGISTER.                   267
parts of the metropolis.  Fifty-two thousand religious books
have been circulated among as many families at the stations;
thirty thousand tracts were distributed during the visitation of
the cholera." Receipts for the last year ~784, or $3,795.
The London City Mission, with the same general object, was
established in 1835. Its statistics for the last year are'given as
follows: Number of Missionaries employed, 242; number of
visits made, 1,018,436; of tracts distributed, 1,197,953; of
meetings for prayer and familiar exposition, 19,931; of adults
prevailed on to attend public worship regularly, 2,803: of children sent to school, 5,168; of individuals admitted through the
instrumentality of the missionaries, to the Lord's Supper, 554.
The receipts of this association were ~20,320, or $98,350.
The Baptist Home Mission sustains, in whole or part, one
hundred and seven missionaries; it numbers three hundred
stations; in connection with which there are 23,000 hearers,
113 Sabbath-schools, and 7,600 scholars. During the year,
639 persons were baptized and added to the mission churches.
The receipts were ~4,521, or $21,890.
The Irish Church Mission employs, in Ireland, fifteen missionaries, and eighty-one agents. Within the year 1849-50,
four hundred and one persons were converted from Romanism
in Galway alone; and in Dublin, Dungarvon, and other districts, equally gratifying results have attended the labors of
the Society's agents and missionaries. Its receipts were ~5,798
or $28,070.
The Church Pastoral-Aid Society, founded 1836, is an institution for the support and assistance of clergymen in destitute parishes, and the establishment of churches and chapels
in such localities. Since its formation, it has sustained 798 clergymen and lay-assistants, and has led to the erection, or use as
places of worship, of 298 churches, chapels, and public halls. It
now aids in supporting 581 clergymen, besides 91 lay-assistants,
Receipts for the last year, ~35,660, or $172,635.




268              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
SECTION IV.
Scotland.-The home missions of the Established Church of
Scotland are chiefly directed towards the aiding of unendowed
churches, and the employing of missionaries. Something, however, is also done towards church extension, and the assisting of
young men to prepare for the ministry. Last year there were
under the charge of the committee 124 places of worship deriving assistance from them; of which 64 were churches, and
about 60 missionary stations. The expenditures were ~4,995,
or $23,176.
The Free Church of Scotland is prosecuting, with the energy
and earnestness that characterize its foreign operations, the important work of evangelizing those parts of the home population
which are destitute of adequate means of grace. Its HomeMission, Church-Extension and Sustentation schemes, are faithfully advocated and supported. Up to the year 1848, the number of new churches built, since the disruption, under the
Church-Extension scheme, was seven hundred and one; and the
receipts for that purpose during the year, amounted to ~1,125.
The following are the statistics of these departments of the
Free Church domestic missions at the present date: The expenditure of the Home Mission and Church-Extension scheme for
the year 1850-51, is estimated at ~2,500, or $12,000. The
receipts of the Sustentation fund for the seven months ending
December, 1850, amounted to ~49,925 19s.; and may be estimated for the year, at ~85,600.
SECTION V.
On the Continent.-The evangelical Christians of France and
French Switzerland sustain several institutions, whose object is
the promotion of pure religion among the Roman Catholic




AND REGISTER.                  269
population, the principal of which are the Evangelical Societies
of France and Geneva. But as these efforts belong more particularly to another head of our subject, we will speak here only
of a society which is designed for the evangelizing of the Protestant population. This is the Central Protestant Society, the
aim of which is to increase the means of instruction and preaching for dispersed Protestants. The committee employ special
agents, who go from place to place to seek out isolated members of the Reformed communion, and bring to them the good
tidings of salvation. They also sustain a preparatory school for
the training of young men who are looking forward to the ministry.
In Germany, various associations have been formed for home
evangelization in different regions of that country. Among
them is the Gustavus Adolphus Society, established in 1841,
at the instigation, and under the patronage of the King of Prussia. Its object was mainly a home missionary one; and it soon
extended its labors in various directions, accomplishing a great
amount of good. It did much for the dispersed Protestants in
the Papal portions of Germany, particularly in Austria and Bavaria. It also extended its efforts abroad,-to some degree in
Australia, and in a few instances, in this country. It was unfortunate, however, that in the formation of this society, men of
heterodox, as well as orthodox sentiments, were associated in its
direction; and consequently its action did not give entire satisfaction to either party.
At the Wittemberg Conference, in 1848,-a convention of
evangelical ministers and laymen, for consultation on the interests of religion-a Committee for Home Missions was formed,
with a view to uniting and superintending these several enterprises. This measure was warmly sustained by a number of
excellent men-particularly by a Mr. Wichern, with whom the
design originated. An auxiliary association was forthwith
formed at Hamburg, and several individuals came forward to




270               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
offer themselves as laborers in this important work. In the
programme of the Central Committee of the " German Home
Mission," published, in the early part of 1849, the objects of the
society were stated as being, 1st, The combining and organizing
into one harmonious whole, the hitherto isolated, and consequently, ineffective efforts of a home missionary nature throughout Germany; and 2dly, the formation of new spheres of operation, in places hitherto unoccupied.
One of the fields towards which the new society first directed
its attention, was the German population in some of the foreign
cities, particularly London and Paris. Another, and to us, most
important one, was among the many thousands of German
emigrants, who yearly leave the seaports of that country for our
own, and for other lands. A third, and very interesting enterprise upon which the society has entered, is the evangelizing of
the district of the Schwarzwald, particularly in the neighborhood of Neukirch, where the labors of the missionary, Wilhelmi,
have already produced happy results.
At the Conference of 1850, which met in September at
Stuttgart, the Committee of Home Missions made its report for
the year. We learn that the number of its laborers at present
is one hundred and fifty; scattered over the various states of
Germany, and actively engaged in the home missionary work.
Sixty-one associations are connected with the Central Committee
as auxiliaries. But in addition to these important instrumentalities, the Committee operates in other ways for the evangelization of the country; such as the publication of religious books,
the dissemination of the Scriptures, colportage, itinerancy of
preachers, chapels established for the benefit of workmen on the
railroads, the foundation of asylums and schools for orphans,
&c. Respecting the last of these departments it is stated, that
within the past year alone, forty houses of refuge for neglected
children were established, in eighteen different states of Germany.
This home missionary enterprise is of a most hopeful and




AND REGISTER.                   271
encouraging nature. We trust we shall soon hear of its firm
establishment and rapid development, as a successful instrumentality in the spread of the Gospel throughout the destitute portions of that country.
We here terminate our statements respecting the work of
domestic evangelization in Protestant lands. It will be seen,
how small and insignificant are these efforts, compared with the
extent of the wants that exist for them. Yet there is much to
excite high expectation and earnest prayer, that the next fifty
years may witness a great improvement in these respects.




CHAPTER VII.
SUNDAY-SCHOOL SOCIETIES.
SECTION I.
England.-We shall not enter at any length upon the history
of the Sabbath-school enterprise, in its commencement and early
history in England. The labors of Robert Raikes of Gloucester,
and William Fox of London, are well known. It was in 1785
that the "Sunday-school Society" was established, for the purpose of organizing and sustaining Sunday-schools throughout
Great Britain. This society still exists and prospers; though
its operations are not so extensive as those of some other bodies.
Its expenditures for the last year amounted to ~112 10s. 5d.;
the number of schools assisted was one hundred and three.
The total number of books granted to schools, from the commencement of the institution, has been 52,297 Bibles, 217,684
Testaments, and 1,610,551 class-books.
The Sunday-school Union, in England, is a much larger and
more efficient association. It was established in the year 1803.
Its expenditure for the last year amounted to ~1,251 9s. 6d.;
sales ~6,595 15s. 8d. The number of schools in connection with
the Union is six hundred and twenty-three; of which five hundred are in London. The total number of scholars is 123,949.
The Committee opened, some years ago, a reading-room and
library for the use of Sunday-school teachers; an excellent plan,
which we should be glad to see adopted in our cities and large




CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTERa       2TS
towns. The number of subscribers to this reading-room is more
than one thousand.
The Church of England Sunday-school Institute was established in 1844. Its income for the last year was ~907 8s.
The number of its schools is 191, most of which are located in
London and suburbs. The number of scholars in London is
12,640.
Ireland.-The Sunday-school Societyfor Ireland was formed
in 1819, and is one of the most flourishing and successful in
existence. Many thousands of ignorant, neglected children has
it been instrumental in bringing to a knowledge of religious
truth. We are not informed as to the present number of its
schools and scholars. Its income for the last year amounted to
~2,394.
The Continent.-On the Continent of Europe, very little has
been done for this enterprise. Some interest in it has been
awakened in France, Switzerland and Germany; but we believe
there are but few Sunday-schools in either country.
SECTION II.
The United States. —In our own country, the Sunday-schooi
cause has received its most extensive development. The first
permanent organization of which mention is made was the
"First-day or Sunday-school Society," established in Philadelphia
in the year 1791. Various denominations of Christians united
in its support, and its first president was the late Bishop White,
The New York Sunday-school Union was instituted in 1816.
It continues to the present day, as an auxiliary body, and is one
of the most active and efficient organizations of the kind. The
"Philadelphia Sunday and Adult School Union" was formed
in 1817.
These societies, in 1824, were merged into the American
12*




274               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
Sunday-school Union, established at Philadelphia, a society
whose object and plan have been to unite Christians of the
several evangelical denominations in the work of establishing,
sustaining and supplying Sunday-schools throughout the country, particularly in destitute portions of it. The affairs and funds
of the Union are intrusted to a Board of laymen, consisting of
officers elected by the managers, and Managers elected by the
Society. One of the instrumentalities of this Society's operations
has been the employing of agents, to visit remote settlements
where no Sunday-schools exist, and by personal labor to organize
such schools. Another is, the furnishing of these schools with
the requisite books. The publication of religious books for the
young, both for instruction in the school and for reading in the
family, has been an important department of the Sunday-school
enterprise. The number of library books thus issued is more
than seven hundred; and the total number of the Society's
publications nearly two thousand. During the last year alone
fifty-five volumes were issued. The number of agents employed
was one hundred and three; they established during the year
1,238 new schools, and visited and re-organized 2,345 others;
embracing altogether, in round numbers, 20,000 teachers and
157,000 scholars. The receipts of the Union for the last year
were, from donations $52,151: from sales &c., $207,764.
Although the Sunday-school Union is supported by Christians
of all the principal religious denominations, two of them have
separate societies, which are of a denominational character. The
Methodist Episcopal Church sustains a Sunday-school Union,
with which are connected 7,334 schools, and nearly 400,000
scholars. The library published by this Society numbers 860
volumes; the total number of its publications being 1,885.
Receipts for the year 1849-50, $5,150; the amount of sales is
not given.
The Sunday-school Union of the Protestant Episcopal Church,
was formed in 1826. The number of its publications is about




AND REGISTER.                  2 15
three hundred. This Society is sustained by many of the members of the Episcopal Church; a large portion of them, however,
adhere to the Union at Philadelphia.
The Massachusetts Sabbath-school Society is another very
important organization, for the establishment of Sunday-schools
and the publication of suitable books and other requisites. The
total number of its publications is over three thousand. The
business of the depository for last year amounted to $21,056,
being an increase of $2,000 over the preceding year. Donations, $4,676.




CHAPTER VIII.
EDUCATION SOCIETIES.
SECTION    I.
THE Education Society is an institution of comparatively recent date, whose design is to assist pious young men of good
qualifications, but having small means, in preparing for the ministry of the Gospel. Of such institutions there are but few
abroad; of which we shall speak at the close of this chapter.
The principal societies of the kind are to be found in the United States; we will briefly notice them.
United States.-The American Education Society was formed
at Boston, in 1816. It was not of a denominational character,
but had for its object the assistance of pious students for the
ministry in any of the evangelical churches; imposing upon the
recipients of its bounty no conditions save an engagement to go
through a full course of collegiate and theological education in
some approved college and seminary, and to refund the sum
advanced to aid them, should they acquire the means to do so.
It has accordingly rendered help to young men belonging to
eight different denominations; and the number of its beneficiaries at one time amounted to eleven hundred. The sums
granted by this Society to those assisted by it, vary from fortyeight to seventy-five dollars a year. Its funds have from time
to time been liberally augmented by bequests from its friends;
the late Dr. Porter, among others, bequeathed to it the sum of
fifteen thousand dollars. Many of our most eminent ministers




CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.       27'
of the Gospel have received assistance from it; and a large proportion of the missionaries of the American Board obtained their
preparatory education under its patronage. Of late years, however, the number of young men supported by the American
Education Society has very much diminished; a fact which is
to be accounted for partly by the establishment of separate educational societies by several of the denominations who formerly
united in it. Its expenditure for the last year was $30,181 53.
This Society has permanent funds of a considerable amount under its control. The number of young men aided during the
last year was 436; of whom 207 were receiving a classical, and
229 a theological education.
The Societyfor the Promotion of Collegiate and Theological
Education at the West, has been in existence seven years. Its
object is " to afford assistance to collegiate and theological institutions at the West, in such a manner and so long only as,
in the judgment of the Directors of the Society, the exigencies
of the institutions may demand." The main ground of this
Society's claim upon the support of the religious community is
in the fact that the colleges which it aids are almost exclusively
the fruits of home missionary labors; that they were founded
mainly with the view of raising up a ministry for the West;
and that all efforts made for the founding of such institutions
go upon the supposition that an educated and evangelical minitry constitutes, under God, the great central instrumentality for
the evangelization of the West. The field of the Society at
present embraces the four states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and
Wisconsin. Six colleges have been aided during the year
1849-50; and the receipts for the same year amounted to
$44,623 31.
The Board of Education of the Presbyterian Church (Old
School), is another very efficient and successful organization for
the education of young men for the ministry. The whole number of students whom  it has carried through a preparatory




278               CHRISTIAN. RETROSPECT
course, from its foundation in 1819, is 1,876. During the past
year it has assisted 373 young men. This Board has also the
charge of the Assembly's schemes for parochial schools, presbyterial academies, and colleges. The number of parochial schools
already established is 100; of academies, under the superintendence of different Presbyteries, 32; and of colleges, strictly under
the supervision of the Church, 11. Of the colleges, seven have
received aid from the Board. The seminaries at Alleghany and
New Albany have also been aided. Receipts, &c., for the year
1849-50, $35,975 81.
Other religious denominations, as we have already intimated,
sustain their own educational enterprises; of which, however,
we have not space to speak in detail.
SECTION II.
Europe.-There is but little for us to say of Education Societies abroad; for there is not much doing in this way either in
Great Britain or on the Continent. There are, indeed, in England several societies for the education of children and youth,
such as the Home and Colonial School Society, and the Ragged
School Union, as it is called, and in Ireland the Church Education Society. But our subject refers more particularly to the
education of young men for the ministry.  In the English
Establishment, there are, as is well known, scholarships in the
Universities for the support of young men, who have not the
means of obtaining an education, and provision is also made
in some of the Dissenting Colleges and Seminaries for the same
purpose. The Church Missionary Society has, at Islington, an
institution, which would come under this designation, for the
training of young men for the missionary work. This institution numbers at present nineteen students.
The Established Church of Scotland has, among its benevo



AND REGISTER.                 279
lent enterprises, an Education Scheme, whose income for the
last year amounted to ~6,453 9s., or $31,234 52. Its operations, however, are mainly directed to the education of the
young.
The number of its schools is 214, with an attendance of sixteen to seventeen thousand pupils. Its Normal Schools for the
training of teachers, contain 207 young men and women. The
Free Church has a similar scheme, the operations of which we
are not able to state in particular. Its income last year was
~12,196 15s. 5d., or $59,032.




CHAPTER IX.
THE TEMPERANCE REFORMATION.
AMONG the fruits, as well as the exponents of the Progress
of Evangelical Religion during the first half of the XIXth century, we must place what has been called THE TEMPERANCE
REFORMATION. This movement should be ranked with those
moral reforms which have exerted the most benign influence
upon mankind in our times.
SECTION I.
THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE,
The United States.-The steady and dreadful increase of int
temperance in the United States, during the early part of the
present century, excited great solicitude in the minds of many
good men of that day. As early as 1804, Dr. Benjamin Rush,
of Philadelphia, published a tract, entitled: "An Inquiry into
the Effects of Ardent Spirits upon the Human Body and Mind,"
which called the attention of the public, especially the religious
portion of it, to this fearful subject. Ecclesiastical bodies passed
resolutions, discouraging the habitual use of ardent spirits, at
different times after that epoch. The "Massachusetts Society
for the Suppression of Intemperance," was formed in 1813.
Iiscourses by the Rev. Dr. Lyman Beecher, Dr. Humphrey,
and others, about this period, created a deep impression in regard to the evils of intemperance.




CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.        281
On the 10th of January, 1826, the first Temperance Society
was formed at Boston, the members of which pledged themselves
to abstain entirely from the use of distilled liquors, except when
prescribed by a physician. This was called "The American
Temperance Society." From this event we may date the great
Temperance movement in the United States, and in the world
entire. The Rev. Drs. Hewitt and Edwards were among its
earliest advocates. By means of the pulpit, the public meeting,
and the press, this noble cause was ably and zealously advanced.
Temperance Societies were soon formed in many places throughout the country. State Temperance Societies, County Temperance Societies, City Temperance Societies, were speedily organized. The number of the members of these societies increased
rapidly, until it was estimated that in less than ten years it had
reached two millions! In 1840, successsful efforts began to
be made to reform inebriates. The first society composed of
such persons was formed in Baltimore. Mr. John Hawkins,
who was a member of that Society, travelled extensively in the
United States, and was eminently useful in forming what are
called " Washingtonian Societies," composed of those who had
once been drunkards. Great success attended, for several years,
this movement. Many intemperate people were saved.
The American Temperance Union was formed in 1837, and
soon became the leading society of the land. Its agents, and
its monthly periodical and other publications, have done a vast
amount of good.
Among those whose writings have contributed much to advance this blessed work, we may mention those of Drs. Beecher,
Humphrey, Edwards, Cheever, and Marsh, among the clergy;
Drs. Rush and Kittredge, and L. M. Sargent, Esq., among the
laity. Among the eloquent and effective public speakers, who
have advocated it, we may name Messrs. Hewitt, Kirk, Gough,
Marsh, Hunt, and Jewett.
Almost all the Presidents of the United States, a great num



282             C(HRISTIAN RETROSPECT
her of Members of Congress, Governors of States, Judges,
Clergymen, Physicians, and other persons of influence have enrolled themselves under the banners of these societies. Thousands of distilleries have ceased. The consumption of intoxicating liquors has greatly diminished. Hundreds of thousands of
men have been rescued from the drunkard's end. Crime and
pauperism have been wonderfully restrained. The best interests
of mankind for this life and that to come have been signally
advanced. And yet, such is the depravity of human nature,
that this work must be constantly performing! It is like weaving Penelope's web. But so it is with every other species of
moral reformation. It is to be always done till the close of the
career of the human race on this globe of ours.
British Possessions in America.-The Temperance movement soon reached the British Provinces, and numerous societies
sprang up in the Canadas, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince
Edward's Island, Newfoundland, as well as in the remote settlements in the northern part of the continent of North America.
Everywhere the Temperance Reformation has been most salutary in preparing the way for the reception of the Gospel.
SECTION II.
THE EASTERN HEMISPHERE.
Great Britain and Ireland.-The Temperance movement
soon extended to Great Britain and Ireland, and Temperance
Societies sprang up in all parts of the " three Kingdoms."  But
for a long time their progress was not rapid. The usages of
society, the power of fashion, and the inveteracy of habit were
great obstacles. To this perhaps, ought to be added the unfavorable influence which the characters of some of the prominent advocates of the cause in England, in later times, have
exerted upon it.




.AND REGISTER.                 283
In Ireland the labors of such men as the Rev. Dr. Edgar,
were not without happy effects. But those of Theobald Mathew,
a benevolent and zealous Roman Catholic priest, have been
attended with wonderful success. Several millions have taken
the pledge from his hand to abstain from all intoxicating drinks,
and whilst many have fallen again, vast numbers have adhered
faithfully to it.
The Continent of E.urope.-A little was done in Sweden at
an early day, in the way of establishing Temperance societies on
the plan of the Massachusetts Society for the suppression of Intemperance; but they accomplished little good. It was not
until the year 1836 that the Temperance cause was placed on a
proper basis, and began to make substantial progress, under the
auspices of the late King, and his son the present monarch.
In 1840 and'46, the author of this volume visited Sweden a seeond and third time. During the latter visit, he attended a grand
Temperance Convention at Stockholm which lasted three days,
and which was attended by the King and Queen, the Heirapparent, and many of the most distinguished persons connected
with the Court. At that Convention, it was reported that there
were nearly one hundred thousand members of the Temperance
Societies in Sweden, many thousands in Norway, Denmark and
Holland, and more than a million in Germany! The number
in the last named country has since increased to more than a
million and a half!
A little progress has been made in Russia, Poland, Switzerland, and France; but it is not worthy of special notice.
Other portions of the Old World.-Temperance Societies
have sprung up also in the British Possessions in India, at the
Cape of Good Hope, in the Colonies on the coast of Africa, as
well in Australia and other islands in the possession of the
English. They have also been formed in the Sandwich Islands,
whose monarch, like the King of Sweden, has taken a deep interest in the good work, and attends in person the public




284       CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.
meetings of the National Society. It is to be deplored that
Louis Philippe did not feel a like interest in this blessed cause;
for had he done so, French brandy would not have been forced
at the point of the bayonet, upon the poor people of these
islands, recently converted to Christianity.




CHAPTER X.
AMERICAN COLONIZATION       SOCIETY.
IN this chapter it is our intention to speak of the colonizing of
the colored race on the Western Coast of Africa only in its relations to the great work of extending the kingdom of God in this
world; the planting of Christianity on the Western side of that
vast but benighted Continent, whence their ancestors were
carried away by violence to the Western Hemisphere.
Of the influence of the American Colonization Society upon
the great and very difficult question of Slavery in the United
States it is not our intention to say anything. Its friends
maintain that it opens the way for the discussion of the subject of Slavery and all its evils, even in those portions of the
country where there is the greatest reluctance, or rather an
utter impossibility at present, to discuss the subject in a direct
and abstract manner at all; that it enables those slaveholders
who desire to liberate their slaves to send them to a country
where there is more prospect of their doing well than in the
Northern States; and that it opens a surer pathway for the
elevation of the black man than can be found in this the land
of his servitude and degradation, where an overwhelming
immigration of the poorest classes of Europe threatens to crowd 
him out of employment, and to keep him in a state of perpetual
depression and poverty.
On the other hand, the enemies of the Society and of the
cause which it advocates, deny the impossibility of liberating the




286              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
slaves and letting them remain in this country consistently with
their own advantage, and ultimate rescue from their present
degradation; that the Colonization scheme tends to perpetuate
the prejudice which exists among the white population against
the color of the black race, etc. etc.
"L Non nostrum inter vos tantas componere lites."-Without,
therefore, undertaking to discuss the bearing of the Colonization
Society upon the question of Slavery, we shall do what falls
rather within the scope and design of this volume,-speak of its
probable, or rather certain, influence upon the work of civilizing
and Christianizing Africa. Should it turn out in the progress
of this world's history that the Almighty Ruler of the Universe
has ordained that the carrying of the negro race from the coasts
of Africa, though most cruel on the part of those who did the
deed, and their enslavement in America for centuries, should be
so overruled as to lead to the return of many of them to the
land of their ancestors, not a Heathen and savage people, but
Christian and civilized, and charged with the mission of diffusing
the blessings of Christianity and civilization in that dark and degraded continent, who will not admire the wisdom, and goodness
of that God who " maketh the wrath of man to praise him, and
restraineth the. remainder thereof?"
The project of colonizing the free people of color of the
United States on the Western Coast of Africa was first suggested by the late Rev. Dr. Finley, of the State of New Jersey, and
was at once received with much favor by many of the most
distinguished men of the country, both in the Church and the
State. In the year 1817, the American Colonization Society was
formed, with the Honorable Bushrod Washington, a nephew of
the illustrious "Father of his country," at its head.
Its objects, as set forth in its constitution, were" 1st. To rescue the free colored people of the United States
from their political and social disadvantages.:" 2d. To place them in a country where they may enjoy the




AND REGISTE'PB.                287
benefits of free government, with all the blessings which it brings
in its train.
" 3d. To spread civilization, sound morals, and true religion
throughout the continent of Africa.
" 4th. To arrest and destroy the slave-trade.
"5th. To afford slave-owners, who wish, or are willing, to lib.
erate their slaves, an asylum for their reception."
In the year 1822, the first permanent settlement was formed,
at Cape Messurado, and called Monrovia. The name given to
the territory on which this colonization is going forward is
LIBERIA. The extent of country which has been bought by
the American Colonization Society from the native chieftains
is now about 400 miles in length, stretching along the coastbetween 4 deg. 21 min. and 7 deg. north latitude. Its eastern
or interior boundary is not well defined; it is probably upon
an average about 20 miles distant from the coast.
In the northern end of the territory, the greater part of the
population is to be found. There is Monrovia, the Capital of
the New Republic, and within the circuit of fifteen or twenty
miles are quite a number of well-built and growing towns and
villages. In the southern part of the country is the Maryland
Colony, at Cape Palmas, with several flourishing villages. The
number of colored persons who have been sent to Liberia proper,
or the northern end of the territory, is 7,160; to Cape Palmas,
800; total 7,960,-from the commencement of the enterprise.
At first the government was administered by an agent, or governor, appointed by the Society. As the population increased
and the way was prepared for it, the people were gradually put in
possession of the law-making and law-executing power. In
1847, a regular republican and independent government was
formed, having a President, (J. J. Roberts, Esq.,) a Vice
President, (S. A. Benson, Esq.,) a Secretary of State, a Treasurer, a Senate, and a House of Representatives. England,
France, and Prussia have acknowledged the independence of the




288              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
Liberian Republic, and the first named has made a treaty of
commerce with it. Upwards of 80,000 of the natives have
become partially civilized, and have enrolled themselves as citizens of the Republic. The colonists have a flourishing commerce. They have not only succeeded in suppressing the slavetrade along their own coast, but have also made treaties with
several tribes, numbering more than 200,000 souls, for the discontinuance of that traffic.
The country is watered by many streams, some of them
navigable for thirty or forty miles. Though low along the
coast, it gradually becomes undulating and even hilly. At the
distance of less than 100 miles, there are high mountains, which
defend the colonies from the burning winds of the Sahara towards the north-east.
The productions are numerous, among which we may name
rice, corn, coffee, all tropical fruits, cotton, etc. Camwood and
other dye-woods, ivory, shells, palm oil, and many other things
are articles of export, and the commerce of the country is now
estimated to be worth $500,000 annually.
The progress of this colony has been, indeed, wonderful in all
that concerns its material interests. And it will not be long till
the 400 miles of its coast will be adorned with settlements of
civilized men, nor will it be many years till these colonies will
penetrate into the interior, and open roads up to the mountains,
whilst its steamboats will be seen ploughing its rivers and their
estuaries, as well as pursuing their way along its coasts.
But what shall we say of the progress of these colonies in all
that relates to their moral and religious interests? Impartial
visitors represent this progress to have been still more remarkable. The same unvarying testimony is borne by the ministers
and missionaries, who labor among them, of every denomination.
There are now more than thirty schools, and among them
several, such as the Alexander High School, at Monrovia, the




AND REGISTER.                  289
Episcopal Mission School, at Cape Palmas, the White Plains
Methodist School, on the St. Paul's River, hold quite an elevated rank.
Faithful ministers of the Gospel, of the Methodist, Presbyterian, Baptist, and Episcopal Churches, are laboring with success
in these colonies. We very much doubt if the glorious Gospel
of our Lord has had greater success in any part of the New
World in proportion to the number of the people than among
these colonies. The Methodist Mission has had sixteen missionaries, thirteen principal stations, and between 1,100 and 1,200
communicants, of whom from 100 to 200 are native converts.
The Presbyterian Board of Missions has three missions in
Liberia, and one among the natives, at Settee, near Cape Palmas.
The American Baptist Union has had a mission, for several
years, among the Bassas, comprising one station, several outposts, and five or six native helpers.
The Board of Missions of the Protestant Episcopal Church
has had a mission at Cape Palmas and its vicinity for fifteen
years. This mission now includes four ordained missionaries, a
physician, a teacher, and several native assistant teachers.
The reports of all these missionaries (of whom only two are
white men) display a remarkable spirit of devotion to the work,
and strong confidence in its importance and success. They
rightly judge that these colonies furnish admirable points of irradiation from which the Truth may be made to shine far into
Africa, and ultimately enlighten it, even in its most interior
portions,-now so filled with ignorance and degradation.
Northward of Liberia is the English possession of Sierra Leone,
with its 43,000 inhabitants, its printing presses, its prosperous
missions, its schools, its many churches and chapels,-from
which the Gospel is destined to penetrate far into Africa.
13




CHAPTER XI
EVANGELIZATION OF PAPAL COUNTRIES.
IT was one of the characteristics of the first half of the XIXth
century, as well as one of the fruits of that resuscitation of true
religion which commenced about the beginning of it, that the
duty and importance of imparting the Gospel in its purity-as
contained in the sacred Scriptures-to Papal nations began to
be felt by a goodly number of devout and zealous Protestants,
especially in England. In the XVIth century, and especially
during what may be called the " Reformation Era," which, alas,
was of short duration, the work of converting the many millions
who still adhere to Rome, was rightly appreciated, and with a
good degree of vigor prosecuted. But after Protestant nations
had been formed, and under the influence of a worldly and
ambitious policy began to be arrayed against Papal ones, the
wars which ensued had the deplorable effect of making Protestants hate Romanists, and regard them as being beyond
the pale of hope. The bloody persecutions which the Protestants suffered at the hands of the Roman Catholics in France
and Flanders; in Bohemia, Moravia, and Hungary; in Poland,
in Spain, and in Italy, as well as the massacres which they suffered in Ireland, greatly contributed to produce the same result.
The consequence was, that Papal countries became closed to all
Protestant effort for a long time, and the Reformation entirely
ceased to advance.




CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.       291
Let us bless God that this long night of unbelief and unkindness has passed away in a good degree. The progress of
civil and political liberty has opened, within a comparatively
short period, and is steadily opening still more widely the door
for the entrance of the Truth into some of the most important
portions of the Papal world. This is seen in the case of France
and Belgium, in most of the Papal countries of Germany, in the
kingdom of Sardinia, and to some extent in South America. Conquest has opened Poland somewhat, and the Canadas completely.
As might be expected, the infinite God, who by His providence was beginning to open Papal lands to the Gospel, also by
His Spirit began to put it into the hearts of some of His dear
children to attempt the work. One of the first movements of
this sort manifested itself in England in the formation of the
" Continental Society," which, in a silent and cautious manner,
-publishing no reports,-employed the best men it could find
to distribute the Scriptures in France, Belgium, and various
other countries on the Continent of Europe. And although its
operations were never conducted on a large scale, yet this Association did much, in this quiet way, during the reigns of Louis
XVIII. and his brother Charles X. It was truly the "day of
small things," but it was important as a beginning.
The Revolutions of 1830, in France and Belgium, greatly
opened the way in both those countries for the spread of the
Gospel. This gave a decided impulse to the Protestant Societies for doing good, which had existed for a few years, and led
to the formation of others, among which were the "French and
Foreign Bible Society" (1831), and the " Evangelical Society of
France" (1833), both of which have steadily and zealously pursued their work to this day. The aid of the British and Foreign
Bible Society has been most important. It is supposed that more
than three millions of copies of the Scriptures, in whole or in part,
have been put into circulation in France since the year 1819.
More than 150,000 copies are now distributed annually, and




g92               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
some 800,000 religious tracts and books. On the other hand,
the Evangelical Society of France, together with the local ones
at Lyons, Lille, and Bordeaux have employed many ministers,
evangelists, colporteurs, and pious school-teachers for the promotion of the truth, with most encouraging success, notwithstanding the violent opposition of the Romish priests, and often
of the Government, in the very face of the Charte of 1830, and
that of 1848.
The Evangelical Society of Geneva, in Switzerland, formed in
1831, has done much in the eastern and southern parts of
France. Its receipts have, of late years, exceeded 100,000 francs,
nearly $20,000; whilst those of the Evangelical Society of France
have sometimes reached 150,000 francs, or nearly $30,000.
The Wesleyan Missionary Society of England has long taken an
interest in the work in France, and had last year forty-eight
chapels, seventy-six preaching places, and twenty-four missionaries, 115 Sabbath-school teachers, 1,099 Sabbath-school scholars,
thirty-nine local preachers, 950 church members, and 6,160
attendants on public worship.
The American Baptist Missionary Society has two missionaries in France, eighteen stations and out-stations, twenty native
ministers and assistants, fifteen little churches, and 200 or 300
members.
Much has been done also in Belgium, where a quarter of a
million of the Scriptures have been circulated since 1830, and
where there are now between twenty and thirty Protestant ministers and evangelists, ten or twelve colporteurs, and several
pious teachers. Great success has attended the preaching of
the Gospel in a considerable number of villages and cities of
Belgium, and that country is now one of the most promising
fields in the whole papal world.
The resuscitation of the true Protestant Faith in France and
French Switzerland, has led to a similar movement in Canada.
In the year 1835 or'36, the Rev. Mr. Olivier and his wife, the




AND REGISTER.                 293
Rev. Mr. Roussy and Madame Feller, came over to Canada to
commence a mission at Montreal. The first-named two soon
were compelled, by the rigors of the climate, to return to Europe;
but the labors of Mr. Roussy and Madame Feller led to the
founding of the " Grande Ligne Mission," with its several
stations, its schools, and its hundreds of converts from Rome, in
the southern border of Canada-East.
Not long afterwards the French Canadian Missionary Society
was organized, which has several missionaries, evangelists, colporteurs, and school-teachers, and a College for young men at
Pointe aux Trembles, ten miles below Montreal, and another
for young women and girls at the same place,-institutions
which are admirably calculated to promote the work of evangelization among the French Romanists in Canada.
In the year 1834, a few gentlemen in New York and other
cities in the United States formed an association, and sent the
writer of these lines with his family to Paris, to learn what the
American Churches could do for the work of evangelization in
France, and other papal countries, in Europe. This led to the
organization of the "Foreign Evangelical Society," in May,
1839, in whose service he afterwards visited Europe four times,
and resided there a second time with his family, from the
Autumn of 1839 to that of 1843.
This Society existed ten years, and extended effective help to
the work in France and Belgium, employed one missionary in
Sweden, one in Russia, one or two in Germany for a while, aided for years the " Grande Ligne Mission," and afterwards the
"French Canadian Missionary Society" in Canada, had a missionary at Valparaiso, in South America, another in Hayti, and
had a French missionary in New Orleans, and another in New
York.
In 1849, the Foreign Evangelical Society was united with
the "American Protestant Society,"-which had been organized for the benefit of the increasing hundreds of thousands of




294               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
Romanists of foreign origin in this ]and,-and the "Christian
Alliance," a society which had silently been operating in Italy
for two or three years. The new society took the name of the
"American and Foreign Christian Union," and has been in existence two years. Its number of laborers at home and abroad,
last year, exceeded eighty.  It has but just commenced its
career, and after some struggles its prospects begin to brighten.
France, Belgium, Northern Italy, Ireland, Canada, Hayti, South
America, are inviting fields abroad; whilst the Germans, the
Irish, the French and Canadians, the Spaniards and Mexicans,
the Italian, and the Portuguese, who have come among us, are
very accessible by proper efforts.
We are fully persuaded that the times demand of the American and British Protestants the most vigorous efforts, not only
to repel the invasions which Rome would make, but to carry
the banners of the Truth into her own domains, and even to
the walls of the "City on seven Hills."
We must now turn to the work outside of Christendom.




CHAPTER XII.
MISSIONARY EFFORTS PREVIOUS TO THE XIXTH
CENTURY.
To obtain a correct estimate of the development assumed by
the enterprise of Christian Missions within the present century,
it may be of service to consider, at the outset, how much had
been accomplished in previous centuries, since the Protestant
Reformation. We shall do this briefly, that we may give the
wider space to a review of the period more immediately under
our contemplation.
To CALVIN, the Reformer of Geneva, belongs the credit of
having first attempted, in the Protestant Churches, to excite
interest in behalf of a heathen nation. An expedition was fitted
out, in the year 1555, by Villegagnon, a knight of Malta, under
the patronage of Henry II. of France, with the view to establish
a French colony in the New World. The approbation of the
monarch was secured through the medium of the excellent
Admiral de Coligny; whose favor Villegagnon propitiated, by
the secret understanding that the projected colony should protect the Reformed religion. Accordingly, Calvin was applied to,
in order to obtain ministers to embark with the expedition.
After consultation with the other pastors of Geneva, he sent
two,-Guillaume Chartier, and Pierre Richier,-who were afterwards joined by several others. Their object was, at once, to
labor among the colonists and to evangelize the heathen aborigines. The expedition reached fort Coligny, as it was named,
on the Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in March, 1556. On their




296               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
arrival, the Genevan ministers proceeded to constitute a church,
according to the forms and rites of the Reformed Churches, and
celebrated the LORD'S Supper. But Villegagnon soon betrayed
his true character and disposition; and after cruelly maltreating
the missionaries, forced them to re-embark and return to France.*
The next attempt to send the Gospel to heathen countries,
was made by the celebrated Reformer and King of Sweden,
Gustavus Vasa. About the year 1559, a missionary was sent
by that monarch into Lapland, for the purpose of teaching them
the principles of Christianity. The natives were at the same
time commanded to congregate at a certain season of the year,
to pay their tribute, and receive religious instruction from this
missionary.
In the early part of the 17th century, efforts were made by
the Dutch to convert to Christianity the natives of the island of
Ceylon, which they had taken from the Portuguese. One of the
measures which they adopted for this end, was the passage of a
law to the effect that none could inherit property or obtain
office, who had not been baptized and registered. The consequence of such a regulation may be imagined; in 1663, the
number of persons professing Christianity, in the single district
of Jaffnapataln, had risen to about sixty-three thousand. At
the present day, there are many Cinghalese who call themselves
Christians, but are in reality worshippers of Boodha.t
In 1634 the Dutch also obtained possession of the island of
Formosa; and soon after, Robert Junius and others labored there
with great success for the conversion of the natives. In a few
years, however, the Dutch were expelled from Formosa, and
Christianity was extirpated.
It was towards the middle of this century that the Puritan
* DE THOU, Histoire Universelle, Liv. xvi. tom. ii. p. 381-4. De
Thou mentions that a full and faithful narrative of the expedition, with
a description of the country, was published by Lery, one of the party.
SELKIRK'S Recollections of Ceylon.




AN3D gEGISTER,                 sg9
colonists of New England commenced their noble labors for the
propagation of the Gospel among the Indians. In 1646, the
legislature of Massachusetts passed an act to encourage this enterprise; and the celebrated Eliot began his missionary career
at Nonantum. This devoted servant of GoD, with his fellowlaborers and successors, the Mayhews, Bowen, Cotton and others,
achieved a great and thorough work in the field of their exertions. In 1675, there had been formed fourteen settlements of
Christianized Indians, with a population of thirty-six hundred
souls. Twenty-four congregations had been organized, with six
constituted churches, and twenty-four Indian preachers.*
Two missionary societies were founded in the course of the
XVIIth century. Thee" Society for Propagating the Gospel in
New England," was incorporated in 1649; a consequence of the
interest excited by the labors and success of Eliot and his associates. And in 1698, the "Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge" was formed by members of the Church of England.
The XVIIIth century witnessed, at its very dawn, a large increase of Christian zeal in behalf of missions among the heathen.
In 1701, the " Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign
Parts," was instituted in England. Of this organization we
shall speak more fully in the next chapter. In 1705, the Danes
undertook a mission in Southern India; and in 1708 another in
Greenland. The former mission was located in Tranquebar, on
the Coromandel coast. Two Danish missionaries, with several
assistants, labored here for several years, and with considerable
success. In 1710, they came under the patronage of the Society
for Promoting Christian Knowledge; by whose encouragement
the operations of the mission were soon extended to Madras and
Ceylon; and in 1775, it consisted of five principal branches, the
stations of which were occupied by thirteen missionaries and
over fifty native assistants. The schools at that period con* TRAcY's History of the Am. Board, p. 14.
17*




098              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
tained 633 children; and in the space of a single year, 909 new
members were added to the different churches. The labors of
the Danish and Moravian missionaries in Greenland, are too
well-known to require notice here. Their persevering and selfdenying career, like that of the venerable Swartz in India, form
a rich portion of the memoirs of Christian heroism.
The " Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge," was formed at Edinburgh in the year 1709. It employed
schoolmasters, catechists, and missionaries, and distributed the
Scriptures and other religious books, in the Highlands of Scotland, the neighboring islands, and to some extent in North
America. It was under the care of this association and its committee in America, that several laborers were supported among
the American Indians; and in particular the celebrated Brainerd. But the earlier missions among this interesting people,
though successful and promising at the outset, were doomed to
interruption by the fiequent removal and dispersion of the
tribes among whom they were situated.  Yet they are not to
be regarded as failures.  "Among no other heathen in modern
times has the Gospel had such early and decided success. No
other savages have so readily thrown off their barbarism, and
become civilized men. And of all the tribes which once inhabited the older parts of the United States, scarce a fragment can
now be found, but such as Christian missions have preserved."*
The first missions of the United Brethren, or Moravians, were
undertaken in the year 1732. Their designation was to the
West Indies and Greenland. Of the history and present extent
of the operations of the Moravian Brethren, we shall treat under
the appropriate head.
It was towards the close of the XVIIIth century that several
of the more important missionary organizations of the present
day were founded. In 1792, the Baptist Foreign Missionary
* Hist. of the Am. Board, p. 26.




AND REGISTER.                  299
Society was formed in England; in 1795, the London Missionary Society; in 1796, the Edinburgh Missionary Society; and
in 1800, the Church Missionary Society. These associations
engaged extensively in the work of missions to the East Indies,'the Islands of the Pacific, and Africa. But the time had not
yet arrived, when India, Burmah, China, South Africa, and
Turkey were to be thrown open to the efforts of the Christian
churches. Hindrances of every kind-from heathen rulers or
from the civilized conquerors-were raised up in their way. It
was in consequence of this, that so much of the efficiency of
these societies was expended, in their first years, upon small and
comparatively unimportant fields. It pleased GOD in his wise
providence, as it were, to obstruct the passage of the stream of
benevolence in his Church, until it should have gathered sufficient strength to sweep with wide and permanent force over the
more distant and powerful nations of the heathen world.




CHAPTER      XIII.
SOCIETY FOR THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOSPEL IN
FOREIGN PARTS.
THE Gospel Propagation Society is not the oldest of existing
institutions in Great Britain, whose object at the outset was the
extension of the Gospel in foreign parts. But the " Society for
Promoting Christian Knowledge," organized three years previous
to it, relinquished, about twenty-five years ago, the missions
which it had established in Southern India, which were transferred to the care of the more recent Society; and though still
extant, confines its labors to the publishing and circulating of
Bibles and other religious books. The receipts of that institution for the year 1849-50, including those from the sale of its
books, amounted to ~86,408.
The Gospel Propagation Society, as we have already seen,
was founded in 1701: and was chartered by William III., as a
" corporation with a perpetual succession." The object of its
institution was " the receiving, managing, and disposing of such
funds as might be contributed for the religious instruction of
British subjects beyond the seas; for the maintenance of clergymen in the plantations, colonies, and factories of Great Britain,
and for the propagation of the Gospel in those parts."  It is an
interesting fact, that the celebrated John Wesley was a missionary of this Society; and in that character proceeded to America
in 1735, and returned to England in 1738.
" The Society," says its last annual report, " has now been
permitted to attain the one hundred and fiftieth year of its la



CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT ANbD REiGISTER.      301
bors. For nearly a century it was the only society which gave
witness to the missionary character of the Church of England,
Latterly that privilege has been shared with others. Whatever
has been effected through the instrumentality of the Society for
the glory of God and the salvation of men, must be humbly
ascribed to his undeserved goodness."  The progress of the Society will be best seen by the following table of income received
and missionaries employed at successive periods:Income.         Missionaries,
1725... ~1,550....        31
1775...        2,294....        86
1825....        8,350.... 103
1835.... 15,435...   200
1849.... 54,000*....        355
During the last year the Society has undertaken several new
missions: two in Labrador, one in the island of Tristan d'Acunha,
and another in British Caffraria. Its other missions are as follows: In the Western Hemisphere-In Nova Scotia, Cape
Breton, and Prince Edward's Island; in New Brunswick, East
and West Canada, and Newfoundland; in the Bermudas, Jamaica, the Bahamas, Barbadoes, Antigua, and Guiana, In the
Eastern Hemisphere, the missions of the Society are in India,
Ceylon, Australia, New South Wales, Van Dieman's Land, and
New Zealand.
The total number of missionaries supported by the Gospel
Propagation Society is, as we have seen, three hundred and
fifty-five, all of whom are ordained clergymen. Their labors,
however, are in many localities restricted to the British population in the colonies, particularly in the British possessions of
North America. It may, therefore, be questioned whether the
operations of this Society should be included in a view of foreign
* This amount includes only general donations and subscriptions;
the whole income, as will be seen, is much larger




802        CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.
missions. But such being the method of most of the writers on
the subject, we have thought best to conform to it here.
It must also be stated, that many of the laborers employed
by the Gospel Propagation Society at the present day, are sadly
deficient in the true missionary spirit, and in the reception of
the pure doctrines of Christianity. It is generally understood,
we believe, that the sympathies of the High Church party in the
English Establishment, are with this institution, while the more
evangelical portion of its members attach themselves to the
Church Missionary Society. It is painful to hear such complaints as not unfrequently reach us, from India and New
Zealand more especially, of the pernicious influence of Tractarian
tenets preached to the half-converted natives of those lands.
The receipts of the Gospel Propagation Society, for the year
ending May, 1850, amounted to ~91,874 8s. 8d., or $444,700.
This sum includes several sources of revenue not mentioned in
the comparative view given above, among which is a " Queen's
Letter," or royal circular, requiring collections for the Society's
missions in all the churches of the Establishment.




CHAPTER XIV.
ENGLISH BAPTIST MISSIONARY SOCIETY.
THE circumstances under which the Baptist denomination in
Great Britain entered upon the work of carrying the Gospel to
the heathen, are briefly as follows. On the 2d of October, 1792,
a yearly meeting of the Baptist ministers, in the county of
Northampton, was held at Kettering. After public worship, the
members met separately for the purpose of taking into consideration the moral condition of the world, and deciding their own
personal obligations in reference to it. It was their solemn and
unanimous resolution " to act together in society for the purpose
of propagating the Gospel among the heathen."  They further
resolved, that, "as in the present divided state of Christendom,
it seems that each denomination, by exerting itself separately, is
most likely to accomplish the great ends of a mission, it is
agreed that this Society be called, The particular Baptist Society
for propagating the Gospel among the heathen." This title is
still retained, but the institution is more generally known by the
designation of "The Baptist Missionary Society."  The term
"particular" is simply a doctrinal distinction, applied to those
who receive the dogma of election; general redemption being
the theory of those who are denominated General Baptists.
The committee originally appointed, was composed of the
Rev. Messrs. John Ryland, Reynold Hogg, William Carey, John
Sutcliff, and Andrew Fuller; Reynold Hogg being appointed
treasurer, and Andrew Fuller, secretary.




804              CARISTIAS RETCTRSPCfT
The first publication of the Society commences with the
following words, written by Mr. Fuller. "The origin of the
Society will be found in the workings of our brother Carey's
mind, which, for the last nine or ten years, has been directed to
this object with little intermission. His heart seems to have
been set upon the conversion of the heathen, before he came to
reside at Moulton, in 1786."  William Carey was, at this period,
the pastor of a small village church at Moulton. Having been
at first a journeyman shoemaker, and then a village schoolmaster,
he had improved his leisure moments under the pressure of
poverty in acquiring several modern languages. But since his
settlement at Moulton, in the 25th year of his age, his attention
had been more and more drawn to the claims of the heathen;
which he was not slow in enforcing upon his brethren. At first
he had been opposed with all those objections which are so
readily adduced against every foreign missionary enterprise at
its commencement: the amount of destitution at home, the
obstacles to the propagation of the Gospel abroad, and the
prophecies of Scripture which many interpreted as foretelling the
present unpropitious condition of the heathen world. But
Carey was instant in season and out of season, and though he
was considered by some at that period importunate in his
urgency, the churches soon came up in some degree to the
measure of zeal which actuated him.
Mr. Thomas, formerly a surgeon in Bengal, and who had
returned to England with the view to awaken interest in the
establishment of a mission in that country, was appointed in
connection with Mr. Carey to proceed to India; and on the 13th
of June, 1793, these brethren embarked in a Danish vessel for
Calcutta.
The first station occupied permanently by these missionaries
in India was Serampore, which has ever since been retained by
the Society, as a missionary post. Mr. Carey, after sojourning at
several localities, arrived at Serampore on the 10th of January,




AND REGISTER.                  305
1800. Reinforcements soon after reached the mission, and the
various branches of the enterprise were prosecuted with vigor.
These departments were the Bengalese school, the printing and
circulating of the Scriptures and Tracts, and the preaching of
the Gospel. On the 22d of December, four native converts
came forward as candidates for church-membership. Among
these was Krishno, one of the most eminent of the early converts.
In the subsequent year, the printing of the Bengalee Testament
was concluded.
A mission undertaken in 1795 under the auspices of the
Society at Sierra Leone, on the Western coast of Africa, had a
less fortunate result. The health of one of the missionaries
sent out to that colony became so poor, as to oblige him to
return to Europe soon after the commencement of the enterprise;
and the misconduct of the other compelled him to return likewise, when the Society dismissed him fiom its employ.
Calcutta, Agra, Cutwa, and other stations in India were successively occupied by the missionaries of the Society. In 1827,
certain difficulties between the parent institution and the Serampore mission resulted in a separation, and for several years that
mission remained independent, sustaining itself by means of
funds which had accumulated there. A reunion was effected in
the year 1837. Without entering further into the detail of the
Society's operations in India, we refer the reader for an interesting account of them to Dr. F. A. Cox's valuable history of the
Baptist Missions.
The Baptist Mission in Jamaica was undertaken in the year
1813. Previous to this there had, however, been a private
effort made by Mr. Liele, a colored man from the United States;
who had labored with much encouragement among the native
negroes, until compelled to desist fiom any further endeavors by
the opposition of the colonial government of Kingston. Mr.
John Rowe was the first English missionary sent to the island,
where he arrived in February, 1814, and labored with great




306               CI-HIISTIAN RETROSPECT
efficiency during the short period to which his career was
limited-scarcely more than two years. His place was soon
filled by other missionaries sent from  Great Britain, under
whose care a number of flourishing stations were established,
and chapels erected where the Gospel was regularly taught to
the crowds of natives who assembled both on the Sabbath and
on week-days. At the same time efforts were made for the
religious instruction of fhe inhabitants both Indians and Negroes
of the British settlement of Belize on the coast of Honduras,
whither missionaries were sent in 1822.
At the time of the negro insurrection at Jamaica, in 1831,
there existed in that island under the charge of the Baptist
Missionary Society, twenty-four churches having fourteen pastors,
and containing nearly eleven thousand members. Unfortunately,
the missionaries of the Society became implicated in that insurrection, and although the trial to which they were subjected
terminated in their acquittal from the charges preferred against
them, the mission was to a great extent broken up, and Messrs.
Knibb, and Burchell, returned to England. They resumed their
work, however, after laboring at home to interest the churches
in it, in the autumn of 1834. New churches were gathered;
and in 1837, the number of members amounted to nearly nineteen thousand.*
Respecting the present condition of the operations of the
Baptist Missionary Society, the following statements are furnished
by its last annual report (1850).
The missionaries sustained by the Society labor in Asia, on
the Western coast of Africa, in France, and in the islands of the
Western Sea. At about one hundred and ninety-four stations
and sub-stations, the Gospel of Jesus Christ is regularly preached
to many thousands by the missionary brethren from  week to
week, while their itinerant labors extend to many hundreds of
X Cox's History of the Baptist Mission, passim.




AND REGISTER.                   307
villages and towns, and the message of God is daily proclaimed
to thousands more at fairs and at markets, by the road-side and
at the nightly resting places.
The service of Christ is carried on in this extensive field by
fifty-four missionaries with their wives, and nine females engaged
in the special department of education. It has been, however,
one of the blessed results of their toil, that from the midst of the
converts there have been raised up by the grace of God, not less
than one hundred and twenty-one natives of the different lands
where the Gospel has been proclaimed by the brethren, to aid
them in the further extension of the Redeemer's kingdom.
The total number of laborers supported by the Society in foreign
lands, therefore, including missionaries, catechists, preachers
and assistant teachers, is three hundred and seventy-eight.
These laborers are located as follows:-In India, 36 missionaries,
72 preachers and catechists, 19 teachers; in the Asiatic Islands,
5 missionaries and 14 preachers, &c.; in the West Indies and
Central America, 7 missionaries, 23 preachers, &c., 183 assistant
teachers; in Africa, 5 missionaries, 9 preachers, &c., 1 teacher;
in France, 1 missionary, and 3 preachers and catechists. This
however is not the whole of the means that have been brought
into operation; about two hundred other Christian brethren
gratuitously devote more or less of their time to making known
the unsearchable riches of Christ. To these must be added
thirty or more schoolmasters, in order to embrace in a brief
view the whole of the Christian agency employed or set in
motion by the Society.
There are at present in fellowship in India and Ceylon, 1,971
persons; in Africa and the West Indies, 3,037; making in all
more than five thousand professed disciples of Christ, and about
three hundred and eighty seeking admission into the fold.
This does not include the members of churches in Jamaica,
which have become independent of the Society. The clear increase during the last year was one hundred and ninety. The




308              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
most flourishing of the mission churches are to be found in Bengal
and the Bahama islands. In these places the largest additions
have been made, and the prospects are most promising and hopeful. The number of mission churches is one hundred and eight.
At nearly all the stations of the Society, day and Sundayschools are established. The returns of these schools are not
sufficiently precise to enable us to specify their exact number, or
to give the sum total of the children attending them; but, as far
as the accounts have been supplied, there are at the various stations of the Society one hundred and five day schools, in which
are taught four thousand two hundred and seventy-six children;
and fifty-eight Sunday schools, with two thousand six hundred
and eighty children.  Many schools are supported by Sunday-school scholars at home; those in the West Indies in great
part by grants liberally bestowed by the Society of Friends, and
many more, especially in India, by contributions on the spot.
In addition to these educational instrumentalities, the Society
has hitherto engaged to some extent in the training of young
natives for the ministry. The College at Montreal, formerly
under its care, has, however, been closed. At Calabar, Jamaica,
one young man has completed his studies, and has been settled
as pastor of the church at Moneague. Several other young men,
negroes by birth, are preparing for the ministry at the same place.
The subject of Bible translation has always engaged much of
the attention of the Society. The number of versions in which the
Scriptures were printed by its missionaries, from 1801 to 1850,
was forty-four. The total number of copies printed was 961,622.
During the last year no new language was undertaken, although
much progress was made in several versions. In the Hindi, for
the use of the population on the Ganges, between Monghir and
Benares, 4,500 copies of the Gospels and Acts have been printed;
in Hindustani, Persian, and Bengali, 62,500; and in Sanscrit,
7,500. The total number of copies printed during the last year
was, therefore, 74,500; the number distributed about 35,000.




AND REGISTER.                   309
Translations are also in course of preparation in the Isubu and
Dualla, for Western Africa, the Maya for Central America, and
the Breton in France.
Although the condition and prospects of the various fields of
the Society's labors present so many encouragements, it is to be
regretted that the strength of the institution at home is not proportionately increasing. "In no case are the laborers equal
to the toil demanded of them. Western Africa has lost one
after another of its most energetic evangelists. They are reduced to the lowest possible number to hold the ground that
had been occupied. In Ceylon, where three missionaries were
not enough for the service of thirty-five stations, and the oversight of four hundred and fifty members of churches, one only
is left,-and, must we not say, to sink under the accumulated
responsibility and toil? In India, with one or two exceptions,
every station needs additional aid. Some places have already
been abandoned for want of it. Large tracts of country are unoccupied where it would appear the fields are white unto the
harvest. Many of our brethren are aged. Should they be
taken to their rest, as in the course of nature they must speedily
be, the Committee are unable to supply their places. And others are overwhelmed with care and anxiety, induced by the
scarcity of help."*
The total receipts of the English Missionary Society, for the
year 1849-50, including donations for general and special purposes, amounted to ~19,776 13s. Id., or $95,719.t
General Baptist Missionary Society.-As already mentioned,
the designation adopted by this Society indicates the doctrinal
peculiarities of its supporters. It was not until several years
after the establishment of the institution above described that
" Report for 1850.
f The computations of English into American coin, throughout this
work, are made at the real value of $4 84 to the pound sterling, not
at the nominal value of $4 44.




810        CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.
the smaller denomination of the General Baptists entered upon
the work of foreign missions; and in 1816, at the association
~of its ministers, held at Boston, it was resolved, after much discussion, that a society for the prosecution of this object should
be formed. The first missionaries appointed, Messrs. Bampton
and Peggs, reached Serampore in 1821, and after much deliberation and prayer, decided upon the province of Orissa as the
scene of their future labors. In 1825, the Rev. Mr. Sutton arrived, a missionary of much activity and zeal, whose visits to
the United States have greatly contributed to awaken a missionary spirit in the churches of his own denomination here.
Since that period a number of laborers have been sent out to
India by this Society. The stations occupied are Khundita,
Coga, Cuttack, Pooree, Ganjam, and Burrampore. At Cuttack, there is a native church with one hundred and thirty-five
members, with two schools containing one hundred and six
scholars. The mission press has issued 1,516,000 pages of the
Scriptures, and 2,050,000 pages of tracts and other books. This
mission is occupied by six ordained missionaries, one printer,
and nine native preachers.
The Society has also established a mission in China, at Canton, where Messrs. Hudson and Jarrom were stationed in 1845.
The receipts of the General Baptist Missionary Society, for
the year 1849-50, amounted to ~1,887 8s. 4d., or $9,135.




CHAPTER XV.
LONDON    MISSIONARY SOCIETY.
THE London Missionary Society was formed with the design
of uniting Christians of all evangelical denominations in one
great enterprise for the diffusion of religious truth among
heathen nations. An appeal made by the Rev. David Bogue,
in 1794, was the immediate occasion of its formation. In the
month of September of the following year, a succession of publie meetings was held in London, the result of which was the
organization of the Society, and the election of thirty-two directors.
The resolution adopted by the London Missionary Society,
from its very commencement, to secure agreement and harmony
in all its operations, deserves special mention as an evidence of
the catholicity of its founders. It was framed by the late Dr.
Waugh, one of the most zealous and useful of the Society's directors. "As the union of GoD's people of various denominations, in carrying on this great work, is a most desirable object,
so to prevent, if possible, any cause of future dissension, it is declared to be a fundamental principle of the London Missionary
Society, that our design is not to send Presbyterianism, Independency, Episcopacy, or any other form of church order and
government (about which there may be a difference of opinion
among serious persons), but the glorious Gospel of the blessed
GOD to the heathen; and it shall be left (as it ought to be left)
to the minds of the persons whom GOD shall call into the fellowship of his Son from among them, to assume for themselves




312              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
such form of church government as to them shall appear most
agreeable to the word of GOD."*
The first mission of the Society had been determined upon
previous to the dissolution of its first general meeting; and it
was resolved to direct its efforts to the islands of Polynesia, at
that time newly discovered. Subscriptions to a considerable
amount were accordingly raised, and a number of persons who
had expressed their willingness to devote themselves to the work
of preaching the Gospel to the heathen, were examined by a
committee appointed for that purpose. At length, on the 10th
of August, 1796, there embarked in the Duff, a vessel purchased
by the Society, thirty missionaries, with their wives and children,
under the care of Captain Wilson, a retired seaman, who voluntarily undertook the command of the vessel.
Upon the arrival of the missionaries at Tahiti, one of the
Georgian Islands, an interview was obtained with the king, and
the object of their visit was represented to him by means of an
interpreter. The entire district of Matavai was ceded to them,
and they prepared to commence their labors in the island. Discouragements, however, soon fell upon the work, and, after a
few years of great insecurity, a rebellion broke out which compelled the missionaries to leave Tahiti, whence some repaired to
Eimeo, and others to Huahine, both lying a short distance
westward of Tahiti. The new king, who bore the name of
Pomare, had been likewise obliged to escape to Eimeo, where
he first renounced idolatry, and embraced the Gospel. Upon
his restoration to the sovereignty of his island, which occurred
soon after, he became the steady friend and protector of the
missionaries. Until their arrival he himself exerted all his influence in persuading his people to abandon the degrading superstitions of their fathers, and his labors were not in vain. In
1819, a vast chapel was erected, where the Gospel might be
* Memoirs of the late Rev. Dr. Waugh. New York: R. Carter.




AND REGISTER.                  313
preached simultaneously by three ministers to several thousand
hearers; and the zeal of the converts, which had already given
rise to a " Tahitian Auxiliary Missionary Society," inclined them
to use all instrumentalities to spread the same benefits they had
received, to the unenlightened about them.
Such was the early history of the Tahitian mission, one of the
most interesting and remarkable in the annals of Christianity.
The progress of religion in these islands continued uninterrupted
until the aggressions of the French government, by whom every
effort has been made to hinder and counteract the labors of the
English missionaries. Of the opposition at present encountered,
the report of the Society for the last year speaks as follows:
"The directors very deeply regret that their missionaries in
Tahiti, contrary to former hopes, have suffered considerable obstruction and embarrassment in their labors, from the interference
of the French Governor, Captain Lavaud. He has employed
his authority to prevent the people fiom repairing the Missionary
buildings, unless his permission were first obtained; and he has
employed his influence, also, to prevent them from making their
accustomed contributions for the diffusion of the Gospel in the
yet unenlightened islands of the Pacific. When certain of the
stations and districts have become vacant, he has not allowed
our Missionaries to remove thither, unless his permission were
previously granted. And from one particular locality, where
two Catholic priests were endeavoring to instil their principles
into the minds of the young, our brethren were strictly prohibited, lest, as the Governor pleaded, there should be any controversy about religion." It is, however, gratifying to find,
notwithstanding these adverse circumstances, that the Tahitian
churches are receiving numerous accessions, and exhibiting much
improvement in Christian character. The total number of
church-members at present in connection with this mission, is
about six hundred; the number of children in the schools, one
thousand. In Eireo there are two hundred and five communi1




814               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
cants, with a considerable number of children in the schools;
At HIuahine, Raiatea,, Tahaa, and Borabora, in the Society
group, the number of church-members is between six and seven
hundred, and of scholars, about six hundred.
The other missions of the Society in the South Seas have
been located among the Hervey, Samoan, and New Hebrides
groups. With the former of these is associated the hallowed
memory of Williams, " the martyr of Erromanga," whose unwearied exertions for the diffusion of Christianity among those
islands, laid the foundation of its present success. In the Hervey Islands, there are about one thousand communicants in the
mission churches; in the Samoan Islands, the war that broke
out in 1847, has greatly impeded the prosperity of the churches;
there are, however, upwards of a thousand church members
at the various stations.
In the year 1806, the London Missionary Society determined
to commence a mission to China. The hostility of the Chinese
Government, however, being a great impediment to Missionary
operations, the object at which the founders of the Protestant
Mission to China aimed, was the preparation of works that
should facilitate the future cultivation of Chinese philology by
Europeans, and secure a standard of appeal on theology for
Chinese in their own language. In the beginning of the year
1807, the Rev. Robert Morrison sailed from England for China,
with a particular view to the translation of the Holy Scriptures
into the Chinese language; in acquiring a knowledge of which,
he had to make it as much a matter of secrecy as if he had been
plotting the overthrow of the Government of the empire, and
the persons who assisted him trembled for their own safety.
Soon after his arrival in China, Mr. Morrison was appointed
Chinese Interpreter to the East India Company; which office
secured at the same time his residence at Macao, and contributed to his acquisition of the language.
The printing of the New Testament in the Chinese language




AND REGISTER.                  815
was completed in January, 1814. The four Gospels, the closing
Epistles and the Book of Revelations, were translated by Mr.
Morrison; the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles of St. Paul
were copied for the most part from a Chinese manuscript in the
British Museum, with such alterations as Mr. Morrison judged
advisable. The next five years were employed by him in
translating the Old Testament, which was printed in 1823, the
British and Foreign Bible Society granting ~6,000 towards the
expense. Thus there have been published in the Chinese language, a Dictionary, a Grammar and other minor works, to
assist Europeans in acquiring it; and above all the Scriptures
have been translated, printed, and published in a language
spoken by four hundred millions of the human race, in addition
to numerous excellent tracts, chiefly on theology.
After a long season of diligent preparation and patient waiting, China has at length been opened to the Christian Missionary.
Dr. Morrison was prevented from preaching publicly, either
in Canton or Macao, by the jealousy entertained by the government against foreigners, and especially against foreign religions.
But toleration was extended, early in the year 1845, to all professing the Christian religion throughout the empire. In consequence of this long-hoped-for but almost unexpected boon, the
Chinese missions have received a great extension; new laborers
have been sent from Europe to assist in preaching the Gospel to
this interesting people, and the minds of Christians at home are
awakening to their claims upon their Christian benevolence.
The missions of the London Missionary Society in China are
located at Hong-Kong, Canton, Shanghai and Amoy.     At
Hong-Kong, where are stationed an ordained missionary and a
physician, there have been two chapels opened, at each of which
the average attendance is about one hundred persons. A native
preacher Tsun-Sheen preaches in one of the chapels and
teaches a flourishing Bible-class. There is, likewise, a school for
boys, at which thirty-eight scholars are now regularly taught.'




31 6                 fCHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
There have been six members added to the church at this place,
during the past year. There is also here a Theological Seminary, as yet, however, but feeble. At Canton are stationed
three missionaries. At Shanghai there are four missionaries,
together with a physician and a superintendent of the Press.
There is a Mission Chapel in the city; and the missionaries
labors extend to the surrounding villages. The press which is
here, is in active operation, and during the past year (1849-50)
issued twenty thousand tracts. At Amoy there are residing
three missionaries and a physician, assisted by Tan Li-ch'un,
a native colporteur. At each of these stations there is an
hospital, where not only are the efforts of the physicians exerted
in behalf of the sick, but the Gospel is regularly preached to
them. At Hong-Kong there about forty or fifty patients in
regular attendance; and nine hundred have sought relief since
the opening of the establishment. At Canton the usual attendance is about two hundred. At Shanghai five hundred and
fifty-seven patients were admitted during the past year.
The London Missionary Society commenced its operations in
the East Indies in 1798, by the appointment of Rev. Mr. Forsyth to undertake a mission at Calcutta. Subsequently and
in succession were commenced the stations of Berhampore, of
Benares, of Surat, and of Madras. Finally, in 1817, the Society
extended its operations to Travancore, the southern extremity
of India, where they first established a permanent mission.
The principal stations of the Society in Northern India, are located at Calcutta, Berhampore, Benares, Mirzapore, and Guzerat; in Peninsular India, at Madras, Vizagapatam, Chicacole,
Cuddapah, Belgaum, Bellary, Bengalore, Mysore, Salem, Combaconum, and Coimbatoor; and in South Travancore, at Nagercoil, Neyoor, Quilon and Trevandrum. Churches and schools
have been established at each of these stations, but the returns
given in the reports of the Society, are too incomplete to enable
us to obtain their statistics. There are fifty-one missionaries




AND REGISTER.                   317
now laboring in this field under the patronage of the Society,
including two native and three or four assistant missionaries.
"The actual increase of our mission churches," says the last
report, " during the year has been, especially in Southern India,
unusually encouraging, demanding peculiar thankfulness to God,
who has vouchsafed His Spirit to the labors of his servants.
Among the converts received into Christian fellowship, there
are many striking illustrations of the power and grace of the
Redeemer."
One of the most formidable barriers to the progress of Christianity in India, has been the operation of the Iindoo law, involving the forfeiture of property by every native who renounces
Caste and embraces the Gospel. It will, therefore, be learned
with great pleasure, by all Christians, that the Government of
Calcutta have determined upon repealing every law or usage
which inflicts forfeiture of rights or property on any person, by
reason of his renouncing, or being excluded from, the communion of any religion.
Encouraged by the success which had attended its missions
to the islands of the Pacific, the Society commenced an African
mission, in the same year with that in India. Dr. Vanderkemp
and Messrs. Kircherer, Edmonds, and Edwards, were accordingly sent out to the Cape of Good Hope; where they separated, and whilst two of them repaired to Caffiraia, the others
commenced preaching the Gospel to the Bushmen. In 1812,
Mr. Thorne was settled as a missionary at Cape Town, and was
succeeded in 1818 by the Rev. Dr. Philip, who was appointed
superintendent of the Society's operations in Africa. This mission now comprises thirty-one stations within and beyond the
limits of the colony, and is carried on by thirty-four ordained
missionaries and five lay assistants. During the last year, the
Rev. J. J. Freeman has continued his missionary visitation of
the Society's stations in South Africa, the state and prospects
of which are thus described by him:-" The Society has been




318              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
honored to accomplish a great work in Africa. There is revision
and supervision wanted, most certainly; but as a whole, I am
convinced that, if our Directors could personally inspect all that
I have seen, they would say not half had been told them; they
would enter on their work with a vastly augmented amount of
delight, confidence, and gratitude; they would see that the
hand of God has been with their missions, and that they have
but to continue steadfast and unmovable, abounding in work
and faith, and the result is certain. The great ends of our labor are being gained; the people, taken as a whole, are industrious; multitudes of themt are highly improved, sober, moral,
and correct in all their deportment; very many are truly pious,
and walk in all godliness as well as honesty. I have been much
delighted with the spirit and character of many: they adorn
their profession, and are blessings in the midst of their communities. Besides the various mission churches within the Colony,
containing an aggregate of upwards of two thousand communicants, we have one thousand eight hundred members in
church-fellowship on this north side of the Orange River, that
is, among the native tribes lying beyond the boundaries of the
Colonial Government, Bechuanas, Griquas, and Corannas.  I
exclude Caffreland, as that is now more properly within the
Colony called British Caffraria, and is altogether distinct from
these missions. Their auxiliaries raise about ~500 per annum,
which is one fifth of the expense they incur; and thus it will be
seen that even these missions, which embrace so largely the
poor of Africa, raise their proportion equally with others."
In the island of Madagascar, a mission was undertaken in
1818, by Messrs. Bevan and Jones. It was interrupted for
some years by the death of these missionaries, but was resumed
in 1822 by Mr. Jeffreys. Such was the success of this mission,
that in 1828 there were ninety-three schools and four thousand
scholars under its care; but upon the death of the king, who
was favorable to Christianity, the queen, his successor, mani



AND REGISTER.                   319
tested the most bitter hostility to Christianity, and has succeeded
in a great measure in suppressing it by persecution and exile.
There are, however, a considerable number of the Malagasy
converts at the neighboring island of Mauritius, among whom
the Rev. Mr. Le Brun is now laboring.
In the West Indies and Guiana, the London Missionary So.
ciety have missions at Demerara, Berbice, and Jamaica. The
Demerara mission includes seven stations, which are occupied
by five missionaries and five teachers. The day-schools of the
mission contain about nine hundred scholars; and there are
several hundred communicants in the various churches. The
Berbice mission comprises eight stations, occupied by six missionaries and two assistants. The Jamaica mission contains
twelve stations and eight missionaries; with about eight hundred communicants.
The present operations of this Society, as we have just surveyed them, consist of twelve missions, with one hundred and
three stations, occupied by one hundred and seventy-one missionaries, and above seven hundred native assistants.
Two important branches of its labors have not been noticed
hitherto: the translation of the sacred Scriptures, and the training of a native ministry.  During the last year (1849-50) the
translation of the Old Testament has been prosecuted in Rarotongal, Samoan, and Sechuana; and the New Testament in
Chinese, Canarese, and Teloogoo has been revised.   These
learned labors are in different stages of progress; but the entire
Scriptures in Rarotongan, and the New Testament in Chinese
and Canarese, approach completion. To secure the earliest
practicable attainment of an object of so much importance, it
has been deemed a sacred duty to make use of the valuable
acquirements of missionary brethren whose vigor may soon fail.
Dr. Medhurst, whose knowledge of Chinese is unequalled, is yet
engaged, together with his well-qualified coadjutors, in the important work of revising the Chinese Old Testament.




320       CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.
Scarcely inferior in importance is the preparation of a native ministry, by a suitable course of mental and theological
training; and it is an encouraging fact, that native Christians,
of tried character and promising qualifications, are enjoying
these preparatory advantages; at Tahiti, Rarotonga, and the
Navigator's islands, in Polynesia; and at Nagercoil, Bangalore,
and Calcutta, in India. At Hankey, in South Africa, the Society has also an institution for the ministerial education of
young men born in the Colony; and it is hoped that the same
desirable object will soon be accomplished in the West Indies.
In connection with this subject, it will be gratifying to learn,
that, during the tour of Mr. Freeman, he took part in the ordination of Mr. Arie Van Ruyer, as pastor of a native church at
Tidmanton, a station of the Kat River settlement; and also that
two native pastors, Enoch Paul and N. Shadrach, were recently
ordained in India over the Tamil churches at Bellary and Bangalore.
The receipts of the London Missionary Society, for the year
1849-50, were as follows:~     s. d.
Received in Great Britain and Ireland,. 50,778  5  9
Do.   at missionary stations and from
auxiliaries abroad,..      11,766 15  2
Total receipts,        62,545  0 11
or $302,637.
The total expenditure was ~64,489 9s. 5d.




CHAPTER XVI.
CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
THE Church Missionary Society had its origin in the revival
of evangelical religion among members of the Church of England in the latter part of the last century, and numbers among
its earliest friends the excellent Simeonj the Venns, and Cecil.
In the year 1801, this Society was founded with the specific
purpose of evangelizing Africa and the East. Some time elapsed
before suitable persons could be obtained to send forth as missionaries. The first who embarked were two young Lutheran
ministers,-Melchior Renner and Peter Hartwig. Their destination was to the colony of Sierra Leone, which they reached
in 1804, their intention being to plant a mission among the
Susoos, in the vicinity. A reinforcement of three other clergymen was sent to join them after two years, and several more in
1809. With these auxiliaries, the brethren began their operations at the two stations, at the Rio Pongas river and Fantimania. The natives, and especially the slave-traders, having
become exasperated by efforts made in 1811, to break up the
slave-trade at Rio Pongas, and suspecting the missionaries of
instigating them, conceived great animosity against them, and
burnt several of their buildings. At length, in 1818, the opposition of the traders continuing unabated, the mission was removed from the Susoos to the colony of Sierra Leone itself.
After the slave-trade was abolished by the British Government,
a wider and more promising field of usefulness was opened
among the rescued negroes who were brought-often in num14*




822               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
bers-to the colony, and supported for a time by the government. Land was given to the missionaries at Leicester Mountain, for the erection of an institution for the instruction of the
rescued slaves; whence they subsequently removed to Regent's
Town, where they established a College.
The labors of the Society in the colony of Sierra Leone have
not only been directed to the instruction and pastoral oversight
of the Africans who inhabit the colony, but also to the evangelizing of the heathen tribes of Western Africa, " that from Sierra
Leone as a centre the light of Christianity may issue forth to
illuminate and bless distant kingdoms."  The missionary corps
employed consists of fourteen European and three native missionaries, fifty-one teachers, nine catechists, and a surgeon. The
mission comprises fifteen stations. The number of communicants is 2061, of scholars in the various schools 6184, and of
students in the grammar-school and Christian Institution sixtysix. During the past year there have been large additions to
the church by the baptism of adults who had long been under
instruction, and gave good evidence of their sincere and intelligent profession of faith in Christ.
The Society has extended its operations in West Africa to the
kingdom of Ashantee, where the Yoruba mission was established
in 1845-6 at Abbeokuta and Badagry. At these stations it has
six ordained missionaries, with nine native teachers, a catechist,
and two European assistants.
On the Eastern coast of Africa, the Church Missionary Society has undertaken a mission at Rabbai Mpia, south of Abyssinia,
among the Gallas and other tribes. The Rev. Dr. Krapf has
been laboring there since 1844, chiefly in exploring the field.
After a short return to England, he has gone forth again, accompanied by the Rev. Messrs. Diehlmann and Pfefferle.
In Australasia the first mission of the Society was commenced
in August, 1809, by Messrs. William Hall and John King, who
sailed to Port Jackson, in New South Wales, where, on account




AND REGISTER.                  823
of unfavorable intelligence, they were detained until 1814, when
they repaired to New Zealand, and commenced their efforts at
Rangheehoo, on land formerly granted to the Church Missionary Society. A reinforcement arrived in 1819, at which time
the missionaries purchased a tract of land upon which they
commenced a settlement to counteract the roving habits of the
natives, and place them more under the influence of the mission.
Notwithstanding the discouragements which the missionaries
encountered from the savage habits and wars of the native tribes,
they formed several new settlements from time to time, and extended their labors to the instruction of the youth, and to the
printing and circulation in the islands of such portions of Scripture as they had translated into the vernacular language.
At present the New Zealand Mission is prosecuted by twenty
ordained missionaries, ten European, and four hundred and
sixty-one native catechists and teachers. The number of stations is twenty-three, in connection with which there are 5213
communicants. Schools have been established, but the number
of scholars is not specified.
In Northern India, the operations of the Church Missionary
Society were commenced in the year 1816, by the sending of
the Rev. Mr. Greenwood, his wife, and Mr. Schroeter to Calcutta.
They decided to reside at Garden Reach, within a few miles of
that city, and to open schools at the neighboring village of
Kidderpore. The mission gradually extended, and reinforcements were from time to time sent to its assistance, until, in
1823, it embraced twelve European clergymen within its limits.
It was in this year that Bishop Heber reached India, and,
through his untiring exertions in its behalf, the Society's affairs
were much improved. An auxiliary society was formed under
his superintendence to assist the parent institution in its operations in Northern India. A great loss was sustained by the
mission upon the death of Bishop Ieber, which occurred in
the early part of the year 1826. Several other valuable laborers




324               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
in the mission have been removed from their earthly toils,
among whom are mentioned the names of Bowley, Corrie, Robinson, and Abdool-Messeeh, the last of whom was converted
under the preaching of Henry Martyn, and whose labors at
Agra were productive of saving benefits to many of the heathen.
The stations of this mission are twenty-one in number, the
principal of which are Calcutta, Krishnaghur, Benares, Agra,
etc. The Corresponding Committee, in their report to the Society, estimate the whole number of native Christians in connection with the Society Mission in North India at 6164, of
whom 1134 are communicants. The number of new converts
during the year has been seventy-one, exclusive of children.
In the Society's schools in North India are 5161 pupils, of
whom 1092 are native Christian boys and girls, and the remainder heathen and Mussulman. The schools of various sorts
are ninety-eight in number. The Himalaya mission is restricted
to one station at Kotghur, that of Simla having been abandoned.
Two boarding-schools have been established, in which, within
the last year, two interesting conversions have occurred.
The Bombay and Western India Misson was founded in 1820.
It has been prosecuted on a less extensive scale than the other
missions in India. The stations are five in number, at which
seven missionaries, and forty native and other teachers and catechists are engaged. The number of communicants is fortythree; of scholars 1373.
The Madras and South India Mission was commenced in
1814, when the Rev. Messrs. Schnarre and Rhenius reached
Madras, who, after studying the language at Tranquebar, located themselves at Blacktown, where great interest was manifested by the Hindoos, as well as the Moslems and Roman
Catholics, in the new doctrines preached to them. Soon after
their arrival the missionaries established schools, and, notwithstanding the prejudices of the people, had soon gathered about
two hundred scholars, In succeeding years reinforcements were




AND REGISTER.                  825
sent to the mission. The New Testament was translated into
the Tamul language; and, in the year 1823, when the version
was nearly completed, more than thirty-five thousand five hundred copies had been printed. There were at that time five
hundred and eight children in the schools. The mission establishment at present consists of thirty-four ordained missionaries, eight native catechists, four European and six East Indian catechists, 417 native teachers and schoolmasters, seventy
native, five European, and two East Indian female teachers, and
one printer.  The stations are nineteen, the communicants
3733, which, however, does not include the whole number of
baptized converts. The Tinevelly Mission is one of the most
interesting under the care of the Society. The whole number
of converts on the 1st of January, 1850, was 23,994, above
one half of that number consisting of baptized converts. A
very small portion of these, however, are communicants. It
is gratifying to find established among these converts various
religious and benevolent societies, such as the Bible, the Book
and Tract, the Church-Building, and the Friend-in-Need societies, and various associations for mutual support in sickness.
These enterprises have been carried on with increasing spirit
and success during the past year, and a new association has
been added to the number of a peculiarly interesting character,
termed the "Heathen's Friend Society." It was commenced
in the early part of 1849 by a few poor native Christians, being
entirely a scheme of their own. They propose it as their object
to open day-schools in the surrounding heathen villages, where
the light of the Gospel has not yet shined, and where the glad
tidings of salvation have not yet been proclaimed, to educate
heathen children in the Christian religion. In this work they
intend to employ native Christians as teachers and tract distributors. Six months after its establishment, this Society had obtained the cordial support of the'native and European Christians, and was in active operation, sustaining two catechists,




826               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
three schoolmasters, one tract distributor, and three schools containing 140 pupils.
The Ceylon mission was commenced in 1818 by four missionaries sent from Europe, the Rev. Messrs. Lambrich, Mayor,
Ward and Knight, who were stationed at Kandy, Calpentym,
Galle, and Jaffnapatam. The field was an inviting one, although
much injury had been done to the cause of Christianity by the
measures of the Dutch government who disqualified all from inheriting property who had not been baptized. The operations of
the mission were increased and extended in 1820, by the association of two more missionaries with those who already occupied
the field. They undertook, in 1822, in addition to their other
duties, the superintendence of about forty government schools in
the district of Galleana Matura. Through this agency they
expected to have a control over the whole of the religious instruction of the youth, and so to exert a very wide-spread influence in favor of Christianity. The Ceylon mission at present
comprises thirteen ordained missionaries, including three natives
of the island; fourteen native catechists; eighty-five native
teachers and schoolmasters, and nineteen native schoolmistresses.
There are six stations connected with the mission, with 296
communicants, and 2,808 attendants on public worship. There
are three seminaries which contain forty-eight pupils, and
seventy-seven schools with 2,788 scholars. Besides the churches
established at the stations, the missionaries report the formation
of twenty-five village congregations at which there is a considerable attendance, notwithstanding the efforts of the Buddhist
priests and their abettors. No obstacle to the spread of the
Gospel is found to be so great in the island, as the incorrect
notions which the natives have conceived of the nature of
Christianity. Almost the whole adult population, even the
priests, have been baptized; and crowds of these nominal Christians may be seen flocking to the heathen temples, fiom distances
often of fromr seventy to one hundred and fifty miles, and




AND REGISTER.                   827
worshipping false gods. Many of these nominal Christians are
rigid Buddhists.
The Society commenced a mission to China in the year 1844.
There are now stationed there seven ordained missionaries, who
are distributed at the stations of Shanghai, Ning-po and HongKong.
On the Mediterranean, three missions have been established;
at Syra, Smyrna and Cairo. At Syra the mission establishment
consists of one ordained missionary, with ten assistant teachers.
The missionary Mr. Hildner, has been engaged chiefly in instructing youth, of whom there are now 462 in his schools. At
Smyrna the Society has one missionary with two assistants, who
labor principally among the nominal Christians at that port;
and at Cairo it supports two missionaries with five assistant
teachers. The number of communicants at the last station is
eighteen; of scholars 178. Abyssinia, once a promising field
of the Society's labors, is at present abandoned in consequence
of the expulsion of missionaries by instigation of the Romanist
emissaries. It is reported, however, that the Romanists, in turn,
have been expelled; and the king seems disposed to invite back
the Society's laborers.  He has lately proposed to the excellent
bishop Gobat, to undertake the superintendence of the Abyssinian
convent at Jerusalem; which will afford him a favorable opportunity for imparting religious instruction to the many natives,
who visit that city.
In the Western Hemisphere, this Society has established
missions in some of the British colonies, commenced in 1823.
The North West American mission is near the lakes Winnipeg
and Manitoba. It consists of six stations under the charge of five
missionaries, and nine schoolmasters and catechists. The converts, chiefly from among the Indians, number 489; the schools
contain about seven hundred scholars. In British Guiana, two
nissionaries and five teachers are employed, among the Arrowaks
and Carribeese.  The communicants number seventy, and the




828               eCHRISTIAN RETROSPEOT
scholars about the same. This mission was established 1827.
In Jamaica, the operations of the Society have been reduced to
a single station occupied by a catechist; the stations previously
formed having been added to the colonial Church Establishment.
Communicants, 358; scholars, 286.
In reviewing these various missionary operations, the Committee of the Church Missionary Society, in their last report,
dwell on the evidences of the divine favor resting upon their
work; in proof of which they appeal "to the increase of converts, to the grace manifested by many of them, and to the
evident establishing, strengthening, and settling of their principal
missions. They appeal, also, to the favor given to their missionaries in sight of the Heathen; such as the support afforded by
the heathen chiefs of Abbeokuta, the protection of our missionaries by the heathen tribes of East Africa, the welcome given by
the heathen population of Travancore to a zealous missionary
returning to his work; and the toleration now granted in
Turkey and China. They appeal, also, to the open doors which
the Providence of God is setting before the Society; such as, the
invitation given to it by a zealous naval officer to follow up the
benevolent enterprise at the Gallinas, which he had achieved by
naval force, the voice fiom Scinde, and the special call to the
Punjab. In one and the same letter, lately received from Calcutta, applications for help were conveyed from the widelyseparated localities of Bhagulpur, Delhi, Deyrah, Assam, Penang,
and the Punjab."
To sum up; the missions of the Society are twelve in number, comprehending one hundred and six stations, and prosecuted
by 1,726 laborers, of whom one hundred and forty-seven are
ordained ministers, and 1,339 native male assistants. The total
number of communicants in connection with the missions, (not
including all baptized converts,) is 13,551. The total number
of scholars in the mission schools is not specified, but must be in
the neighborhood of thirty thousand.




AND REGISTER.                 329
The income of the Church Missionary Society, for the year
1849-50, amounted to ~104,273 6s. 10d., or $504,685.
At the semi-centennial celebration of the Society's formation,
a "Jubilee fund" was raised, for the purpose of providing for the
relief of disabled missionaries, the endowment of native churches,
and the erection of missionary buildings. In the first of these
purposes was included the establishment of a "Home," for the
children of missionaries. This interesting establishment has
been recently opened, and affords accommodation for forty
children. The "Jubilee fund" amounts already to ~56,822 3s. 7d.,
or $275,040.




CHAPTER XVII.
ENGLISH WESLEYAN-METHODIST MISSIONARY SOCIETY.
THIE Wesleyan enterprise, from  its very outset, assumed a
missionary character; and such in its development, both in
Great Britain and in the United States, it has continued to be.
But without entering into the history of the labors of its earliest
missionaries in our own country, we shall glance only at those
efforts which have been made by English Wesleyans, to propagate the Gospel in heathen and Roman Catholic countries.
In the West Indies, under the direction of the celebrated Dr.
Coke and others, missions were commenced by members of the
Wesleyan connection, as early as the year 1778; and in the
island of Antigua alone, there were, five years after, more than
one thousand members of that denomination.   The first missionaries in this island were Messrs. Baxter and Warrener, whose
labors were attended with great success. Subsequent missionary operations were extended to the islands of St. Vincent, St.
Christopher, Barbadoes, Dominica, Jalmaica, Bermuda, and St.
Domnigo, and also to Demerara in British Guiana.
In British North America, missions were commenced in the
year 1779, by Mr. Black, in Nova Scotia, including Cape Breton and Prince Edward's Island, and subsequently in New
Brunswick, Newfoundland, Canada, and Honduras.
lThrough the assiduous efforts of Dr. Coke, the Wesleyan
Conference determined to send the Gospel to the East Indies;
and in 1813 commissioned a corps of missionaries to Ceylon,
where they had resolved to commence their efforts. These




CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.         831
brethren were, besides Dr. Coke, Messrs. Harvard, Clough, Ault,
Erskine, Squance, and Lynch. But the principal mover of the
enterprise, was not spared to behold the shores of the island for
whose evangelization he had put forth such efforts. Upon their
arrival at Ceylon, the missionaries were distributed at the stations of Jaffna, Batticaloa, Galle, and Matura; where they prosecuted their study of the Tamul and Cingalese, and began their
labors.
The rapidly increasing claims of these missions induced in
1817 the formation of the General Wesleyan Missionary Society, in which the affairs of the missions are conducted by a
joint committee of ministers and laymen, under the direction
and final decision of the annual conference. "The object of this
Society," says one of the fundamental regulations, "is to excite
and combine, on a plan more systematic and efficient than has
heretofore been accomplished, the exertions of the societies and
congregations of the Wesleyan-Methodists (and of others who
are friends to the conversion of the heathen world, and to the
preaching of the Gospel generally, in foreign lands), in the support and enlargement of the foreign missions which were first
established by the Rev. John Wesley, M. A., the Rev. Thomas
Coke, LL.D., and others; and which are now, or shall be, from
year to year, carried on under the sanction and direction of the
Conference of the people called Methodists."
The present missions of the Wesleyan Missionary Society are
located in Ireland, Germany, France, Switzerland, and Spain;
in India and Ceylon; in Australasia and Polynesia; in South
and West Africa; and in the West Indies and British North
America.
"The Society's missions in Ireland are eighteen in number.
They embrace many counties, and are scattered throughout the
ki ngdom. The reports furnished by the missionaries abundantly
prove that these operations are instrumentally productive of a
large amount of benefit."  There are at present attached to the




332               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
mission two hundred and seventy chapels and other preaching
places, with twenty-four missionaries and fifty-six other paid
agents. There are, thirty-five local preachers, and 2,485 church
members; and 3,677 scholars attend the day and Sundayschools.
"6 The operations of the Society in Wirtemberg are still prosecuted by Mr. Miiller and his assistants, in the midst of many
difficulties. Weekly religious services are held at about sixty
places, at which upwards of one thousand individuals are now
united together in church-fellowship. Mr. Miiller has sixteen
fellow-laborers associated with him, who read and expound the
Scriptures, and conduct public worship in the several congregations."
In several of. the principal towns of France and French Switzerland, the Society has flourishing missions; as also among the
Waldenses of the French and Italian Alps. The number of its
stations in this portion of the field, is eight; preaching places
and chapels one hundred and nine; missionaries and assistants
nineteen. At Gibraltar, are stationed two missionaries, with two
teachers, under whose care are 131 scholars.
The missions in Ceylon are divided into the Cingalese and
Tamul districts; in the former of which, including the southern
portion of the island, are eleven stations, with twelve missionaries and ninety-one catechists and teachers. The value of the
native agency, which has been so largely raised up in South
Ceylon, is made the more apparent by the increased amount of
labor and responsibility devolved upon it. The members have
increased to twelve hundred and fourteen, chiefly native converts; and the schools have received considerable additions.
Four new chapels have been built during the year, and four
more are in course of erection.
In the Tamul district, which includes the northern district of
Ceylon, there are five stations and twenty-eight chapels and
preaching places, with seven missionaries and assistants. There




AND REGISTER.                   333
are fifty-seven day and Sunday-schools attended by 1,365 scholars. The labors of the missionaries in this district during the
last year have met with considerable encouragement.
In continental India, the missions of the Society are comprised within the Madras and Mysore districts; the former
among the Tamul and the latter among the Canarese natives.
The number of missionaries and assistants is fifteen; of catechists and teachers fifty-seven; and of scholars, 1,960. The
printing establishment has issued more than 1,200,000 pages.
In Australasia, the Society's missionaries are located in New
South Wales, Australia Felix, South Australia, Western Australia, and Van Dieman's Land, or Tasmania. The local reports
recently received from the stations in Australia, communicate
very encouraging information with regard to the advancement
of the cause in many districts. In several places the chapels
already erected are found too small to accommodate the increasing numbers who are desirous of attending upon the preaching
of the Gospel. At other localities places of worship are in process of erection; while in many where no missionary has yet
been stationed, a great desire is expressed that one may be procured. In South Australia, the Society's mission is rising in
importance, and extending its beneficial influence throughout
the colony. The financial affairs of this colony are prosperous;
the expenses for the support of missionaries are met by the voluntary contributions of the people; and two more laborers, it is
expected, will be sustained in like manner. The schools are
rapidly increasing in efficiency and number. In Van Dieman's
Land, the missions are in a flourishing condition, and large additions have been made to the churches. In the Australian and
Van Dieman's Land mission, there are twenty-seven stations and
two hundred and forty-one places of worship; with thirty missionaries and assistants, and fifty-seven teachers and catechists.
Church members, 4,210; schools, 127, with 6,585 scholars.
A mission was commenced in New Zealand, by Rev. Mr.




:334              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
Leigh, in 1822. The prospects of this enterprise were at first
such as to warrant sanguine expectations of its success; but the
natural ferocity of the inhabitants, and their treachery were soon
evinced in the plundering of the missionary establishment by a
furious band of warriors, and compelled the missionaries who
had reinforced Mr. Leigh, to escape from the island. After a
suspension of a few years, this mission was recommenced in
1840. At present its condition is encouraging, althoogh the
hindrances to the spread of the Gospel among the islands are
not few. Great attention is paid to the education of the youth,
and at Three Kings there is a native Institution to assist those
who desire to pursue the more advanced branches of learning.
The fruits of the efforts of the missionaries cannot better be
represented than in the words of the Governor of New Zealand,
in a despatch to the British Government:-" This short review
of the present state of the principal settlements in New Zealand,
will, I think, satisfy your Lordship of the general state of prosperity of this colony. It only remains for me to add that the
exertions of our most excellent bishop and his clergy, together
with those of the numerous, and I may say, admirable body of
missionaries of different denominations, have secured to this
colony a greater amount of religious supervision and of religious
instruction than any other young country has probably ever
enjoyed; and this circumstance cannot fail ultimately to produce
a very powerful effect upon the future population of this country;
while at the present day it secures to New Zealand advantages
which may be readily imagined, but which it would be difficult
to describe in detail, as they enter into all the ramifications of
the society of the country, and of the domestic life both of the
natives and Europeans. However, there can be no doubt that
the present state of tranquillity and prosperity of this country,
and the rapid advances which the native population are making,
are in a very great degree to be attributed to the exertions of
the various religious bodies in New Zealand."




AND REGISTER.                   338
In the Friendly Islands, at the stations of Tongatabu, Habai,
Vavau, Niua Tobutabu, etc., there are located ten missionaries,
with nine catechists; the number of communicants being 7,202,
and the number of scholars 7,426. In the Feejee district, which
has been in a great degree reclaimed from heathenism under the
efforts of the Society, there are stationed five missionaries, and
thirty-eight catechists.  Communicants 1,713; scholars 1,960.
The operations of the Society in Southern Africa are on a
large scale; they are divided into the districts of the Cape of
Good Hope, Albany and Caffraria, and Bechuana. The total
number of stations is forty-two; of missionaries, forty; and of
catechists and teachers one hundred and five; of communicants
there are 4,365; and of scholars, 4,580. The labors of the
missionaries are among the colonists, as well as the Caffres, the
Bechuanas, and other natives. In Caffraria, the benefits of the
mission-schools and Institution are now becoming strikingly
manifest. An improved class of native teachers is rising up, and
the whole country, embraced within the district, presents a more
hopeful and inviting prospect than was ever before witnessed.
The mission press is in active operation, and among its most
recent issues is a new and improved grammar of the Caffre
language.
In the colony of Sierra Leone is situated one of the most
prosperous of the Wesleyan Missionary Society's fields of labor.
There is an evident improvement in the tone of personal piety
among the people, and there has been a net increase of three
hundred and fifty-eight in the number of full and accredited
church-members during the past year. There are three stations
in this district; under the charge of seven missionaries, and
forty-three teachers and catechists.  The number of church
members is 4,712, and of scholars 2,958. There are also eight
missionaries stationed at the Gambia and on Cape Coast, at nine
different stations; and churches have been organized with 1,285
members. Theoschools contain 1,765 scholars.




.836              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
The Society's missions in the British West Indies present in
some respects an unfavorable aspect. The alteration in the
duties on sugar has so far affected the worldly condition of the
people, as greatly to diminish their contributions towards the
support of religious ordinances, and withdraw their attention from
the subject of religion. In many places, however, there have
been encouraging indications of the success of missionary efforts
during the past year. The field is divided into the districts of
Antigua, St. Vincent and Demerara, Jamaica, Bahama, and
Hayti, and includes forty stations with seventy-four missionaries
and 128 catechists. The number of members is 50,567, and of
scholars 8,090.
The missions in British North America comprise the United
province of Canada, the provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, the territories of the Hudson's Bay Company, and the
islands of Prince Edward, Cape Breton, and Newfoundland.
The missions in Western Canada are divided into two classesDomestic, embracing the new settlements; and Indian, established for the benefit of the aboriginal tribes. The domestic
missions are twenty-seven in number, the Indian stations twelve.
The total number of stations in British North America is 117;
the number of missionaries 131.
To sum up the operations of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society: the total number of its stations in various parts of
the world, is three hundred and twenty-four; and of chapels and
other preaching places, in connection with these stations, 2,992.
Its missionaries and assistant-missionaries, including fourteen
supernumeraries, are foul hundred and twenty-seven, and its
other paid agents, as catechists, interpreters, day-school teachers,
etc., 781. Its unpaid agents, as Sunday-school teachers, etc.,
amount to 8,087. The full and accredited church-members, in
connection with these missions, number 105,394, and there are
on trial for church membership 4,830 persons. In attendance




AND REGISTER,               37
upon the schools there are 78,548 scholars. Eight printing
establishments are in operation.
The total income of this Society, for the year ending April,
1850, amounted to ~111,685 13s. 6d., or $540,560, and the
expenditure for the same term to ~109,168 10s. 7d. The
receipts exhibit a large increase over those of the previous year.
15




CHAPTER XVIII.
MISSIONS OF THE SCOTTISH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES.
In Scotland, as in all other thoroughly Protestant lands, the
revival of evangelical religion after a long period of formalism
and inaction, was closely followed by a manifestation of the
missionary spirit. The epoch of this manifestation was coeval
with the foundation of the great benevolent enterprises in
other parts of Great Britain. It was in the year 1796, and
under the presidency of the venerable Dr. Erskine, that
missionary societies were first instituted in Glasgow and Edinburgh. An overture was forthwith transmitted to the General
Assembly, praying that body to take into consideration "by
what means the Church of Scotland might most effectually contribute to the diffusion of the Gospel over the world;" and
soliciting the recommendation of a "general collection throughout the Church, to aid the several societies for propagating
the Gospel among the heathen nations." It is difficult to
believe that a proposition so natural and so entirely in accordance with the spirit of the Gospel, should have been received
in the high ecclesiastical court of Scotland with the most bitter
opposition, from the prevailing Moderate party; and that after
much abuse of the cause which it advocated, the motion met
with a complete defeat.
Thirty years elapsed before another effort was made. Meanwhile the societies instituted at Glasgow and Edinburgh continued in existence; but their means were comparatively small




CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER         839
and their energies contracted. The Rev. Dr. Inglis was the
distinguished and successful advocate of the missionary cause in
the Church of Scotland. His eminent position secured for the
subject a respectful consideration. " A Committee was appointed,"
says Hetherington, "to consider and report on the subject; and
in 1826 a Pastoral Address to the people of Scotland, from the
pen of Dr. Inglis, appeared, and tended powerfully to direct the
attention of the Kingdom to the sacred duty of propagating the
Gospel among the heathen, and especially in India. Collections
were made, and subscriptions obtained, till a sufficient fund was
raised to enable the Committee to proceed with their holy enterprise; and at length in 1829, Dr. Duff, the first missionary ever
sent forth by any national Protestant Church in its corporate
character, left his native land, commissioned by the Presbyterian
Church of Scotland to convey to India the light of Gospel truth,
and to offer for her acceptance the simple, pure, efficient, and
most truly apostolic form of Christianity, which is the glory and
strength of the Presbyterian Church."
The succeeding twelve years manifested a great and encouraging progress in the missionary activity of the Scottish Church.
In 1833, it supported only two departments or "schemes" of
evangelical labor, those of Education in the Highlands, and
Foreign Missions; and the amount collected for these objects
was about ~3,500. Other departments were gradually added
for Home Missions, and missions in the colonies and among the
Jews; and in 1841, the total sum contributed to these several
purposes was more than ~22,000.
It is an interesting fact, that the Free Church of Scotland, in
separating fiom the Establishment, carried with her almost all
the missionaries, and most of the missionary spirit, of Scotland.
The veteran soldiers of the Cross who had labored for many
years in heathen lands, clung to the cause of pure and independent religion at home, with all the ardor of a holy patriotism.
5Wilson, Duff, and others whose names are well known and




840               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECt
honored in the field have adhered to the Free Church of Scotb
land.
We proceed to specify some of the missionary organizations
which are now in operation in Scotland.
1. The Glasgow Jfissionary Society commenced soon after
the London Missionary Society, in 1795, with which it held
early connection in a mission to the Foulah tribe on the western
coast of Africa. For a number of years it was unable to effect
anything further than aiding the funds of other societies-until
an opening occurred in 1821, in Southern Africa, where the
colonial government had made peace with the Caffre tribes that
lie without the boundaries of the Cape Colony, and the chief
Gaika had shown a desire of obtaining missionaries for his
people. Rev. H. Thompson, of the Glasgow University, and his
associate Mr. Bennie, therefore proceeded to Southern Africa to
act with Mr. Brownlee, of the London Missionary Society, who
had lately been appointed by the colonial government as a
missionary to the Caffres; the Gaika having made it one of the
conditions of peace that missionaries should reside in his country. This Society soon established a printing press, and furnished
themselves and the London missionaries with several books in
the Caffre language. In 1831, they had 75 scholars from
among the natives, all dressed in European style; and the
missionaries had translated the Gospel of St. John. Their system of education was the same as that employed by the
"Society for teaching the native Irish to read their own language," that is all who can read are employed to teach their
neighbor at so much per head, and without any apparatus
beyond books. Besides this system, the Glasgow Society has
ten schools, four of which, in 1841, were taught by natives. Its
receipts, for the year 1846, were ~1,671 19s. 9d., or $8,095.
2. The Edinburgh Missionary Society was established in
1796. Its first mission was in Jamaica; but the largest, and for
a time the most successful of its undertakings, was among the




AND REGISTER.                   841
Tartar tribes on the borders of the Black and Caspian Seas. In
1825, however, by the jealousy of the Russian government, the
missionaries were driven from these territories, and the mission
has been given up.
This Society has since been known as the Scottish Missionary Society. It has relinquished to the Established and Secession Churches, its missions in India and Jamaica; and it is, we
believe, no longer in active operation.
3. Established Church of Scotland.-In India, the missions
of the Established Church are at Calcutta, Bombay, Madras,
and Ghospara. These missions are principally directed, like those
of the Free Church, to the education of the young, as a work
preparatory to the great object of the preaching of the Gospel.
At Calcutta, the mission institution has at present an average
attendance of 1,021 pupils. The Bengali chapel is open three
days every week; the Sunday evening service is attended by
thirty to fifty Hindus. The missionaries of this station are three
-Messrs. Anderson, Ogilvie and Hurdman. At Madras, five
missionaries are stationed; the institution contains about 690
scholars. The Bombay mission, founded in 1828 by the Scottish
Missionary Society, was transferred in 1835 to the care of the
General Assembly. It is now occupied by two missionaries;
with two female assistants, who are supported by a Ladies' Association. The number of pupils in the schools is 370. At
the station of Ghospara, occupied by two native assistants, there
is a flourishing school of fifty pupils. The Indian missions of
the Established Church, therefore, are prosecuted  by  ten
missionaries and four assistants; and the number of pupils in
the institutions is 2,131. Under the Colonial Scheme of the
Assembly are included missions in British North America,
Grenada, Mauritius, Australia, and New Zealand; and among
the Jews, in London, Carlsruhe, Gibraltar and Cochin, the
Church employs four missionaries, and three female assistants.




842               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
The expenditures of the last year, for these three departments of
foreign labor, amounted to ~10,591 or 851,260.
4. The Free Church of Scotland, likewise, devotes most of
its energies in the foreign work to its missions in India, and particularly to the education of the young. Its missions are at Calcutta,
with the out-stations of Culna, Baranagar, and Bransberia; at
Bombay; at Madras, with the out-stations of Conjeveram, Triplicane, and Chingleput; at Puna, with the out-stations, of Indapur and Kotrur; and at Nagpore and Kampti. The Calcutta
mission is occupied by five missionaries, with four native catechists, and a large number of assistants. At the head of the
mission institution is the venerable and excellent Dr. Duff; the
number of pupils in the several educational establishments is
about two thousand. At the Bombay mission, three missionaries,
among whom is Dr. Wilson, with two native missionaries, are
laboring.  About twelve hundred children are receiving instruction. The Madras mission employs five missionaries and
several native assistants; ten schools are educating about fourteen hundred youth.   At Puna, with its stations, there are -
three missionaries, with one European and nine native assistants;
the number of communicants is twenty-eight; and of pupils
about six hundred. At Nagpore and Kampti, one missionary,
two teachers, and four native assistants are laboring; about six
hundred pupils attend the schools. In South Afiica, the Free
Church has missions at Cape Town, Lovedale, Burnshill and
Pirie. At Cape Town are two missionaries and one assistant;
at Lovedale, three missionaries and two native assistants; at
Burnshill, one missionary and two assistants; and at Pirie, one
missionary, one female teacher, and one assistant: making on
the whole seven missionaries and seven assistants. In Caffreland no fewer than sixty-three of the natives applied to the
missionaries for baptism at one time. At the Cape of Good
Hope the average attendance upon Christian instruction is five
hundred, and the number on the roll is about nine hundred.




AND REGISTER.                  843
Among the Jews, the Free Church has missions at Constantinople, Pesth, Berlin, and Lemburg.   The total number of
mnisionaries supported by the Free Church of Scotland at its
various stations, is thirty-seven; with fifty-seven native ministers
and preachers. About six thousand youth are receiving Christian instruction in connection with its mission institutions. The
total expenditure for the last year, including the aid afforded to
colonial churches, amounted to ~20,802 2s. 2d., or $100,681.
5. The United Secession Church, composed of the Secession and Relief Churches, which united some years ago, has
missions in Canada, Jamaica, Trinidad, Western and South
Africa, Persia, and Australia.  The mission in Canada was
commenced in 1832. Twenty-eight missionaries, under whose
care are about four thousand church members, are connected
with it. The Jamaica Mission was lately transferred to the Secession Church by the Scottish Missionary Society. In 1847,
there were thirteen stations, with more than a thousand members, and fifteen young natives preparing for missionary labor.
The stations in West Afiica are two, in Calabar. The mission
was undertaken in 1846 by three missionaries. In South Africa,
three stations and two out-stations are occupied by two missionaries, with one female teacher, and eight native assistants.
The income of the Missions of the United Secession Church was,
in 1847, ~9,322 13s. 7d., or $45,125.
Tlie Presbyterian Church of Ireland sustains a mission in
India, founded in 1841, at the stations of Rajkot, Gogo, and
Surat, occupied by six missionaries and two native assistants.
We have no further particulars respecting its operations.
The Presbyterians of England, also, have been doing something in the way of sustaining foreign missions. At Canton,
China, the Rev. Mr. Burns, sent out by them, has entered upon
the occupancy of the premises vacated by the London Missionary Society, and carries on the Chinese services, with the aid of
several native preachers.




CHAPTER XIX.
FRENCH, RHENISH, AND BASLE MISSIONARY SOCIETIES.
THE French Evangelical Missionary Society was formed in
the year 1822, by members of the Reformed and Lutheran
Churches in France, together with several excellent English and
American Christians, among whom  were Daniel Wilson, now
Bishop of Calcutta, and Jonas King, the missionary at Athens.
The object of the new organization, whose title was the " Society
of Evangelical Missions among non-Christian nations," was twofold: the establishment of an institution for the education of
young men as missionaries of the Gospel, and the support of
these and other laborers in heathen lands. It began by sustaining Mr. King as its missionary in Jerusalem, but that gentleman soon connected himself with the American Board. The
educational institution, founded by the Society, was placed under the care of M. Gallaud and subsequently of the Rev. Dr.
Grandpierre. From among the students educated in it, the
Society selected, in 1829, its first missionaries to the heathen,Prosper Lemue, Isaac Bisseux, and Samuel Rollaud. They
were ordained on the 2d of May, and shortly after left for their
sphere of labor. The field chosen by the Society was South
Africa; and, in a speech at the second anniversary of the Society,
the following statement was made by its president, respecting
this selection. "It is worthy of observation, that, in the part of
Afiica whither our young brethren are proceeding, there are, at
some distance from (Cape Town, a number of families descended
from former French refugees, who quitted their country and




CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER,       345
home for the preservation of their faith. The Dutch East India Company granted them   a considerable portion of land,
where they formed for themselves a new country. Our young
brethren will be received by them with kindred affection."
In this connection, a statement made in the last annual report of this Society, is of peculiar interest. During the pecuniary difficulties of the mission, at the time of the recent revolution in France, when the resources of the Society were in a great
measure cut off, the Dutch Reformed Synod of the Cape of
Good Hope determined to render it assistance, and sent a deputation to visit the stations of the mission. One of the deputies
was the descendant of a family of French refugees, who had
emigrated to the Cape in the time of Louis XIV. They reported to the Synod in the following favorable terms:-" The
undersigned have not only attended public services at many of
the stations, but besides, they have visited the native Christians
in their houses, and have examined a considerable number of
pupils in one of the schools, all without the possibility of any
of them having learned beforehand of this visit. Consequently
they have received the most favorable impression fiom what
they have seen in this very important and interesting mission,
and they would regard it as a deplorable calamity that the
country of the Bassutos should ever, in any manner, be deprived
of the labors of these excellent and truly devoted men." To
this honorable testimony we add that of the Secretary of the
London Missionary Society:-" Amongst all the men that have
labored in South Africa, the French Protestant ministers have
toiled with singular consistency, and have been honored by God
with most abundant success."
The first president of the French Missionary Society was the
distinguished Count Ver-Huell, admiral and peer of France,
who continued in this office deeply interested and actively engaged in its service until his death, about eight years since.
Among the first students who were graduated at the missionary




846              CHRISTIAN tRTROSPECT
institution, was Mr. Gobat, for many years a missionary of the
Church Missionary Society, and now Bishop of Jerusalem.
The missions of the Society in South Africa are chiefly among
the Bechuana and Bassuto tribes~ The stations are those of
Carmel, Bethulia, Beersheba, Bethesda, Moriah, Berea, ThabaBossiou, Wellington, Motito, and Mekuatling. The number of
communicants is 1,185, of scholars 350, of attendants upon
public worship 2,240. The number of missionaries is ten, with
four assistants. The receipts of the Society for the year 184950 amounted to 136,173fr., or 825,600. It was indebted at
that period to the amount of 88,868fr.
The Rhenish Missionary Society in Germany, was formed in
1828 by a union of three smaller associations. One of these, the
Barmen Missionary Society, had published a missionary gazette,
of which 20,000 copies were in circulation; and had for three
years maintained a missionary seminary. These came under the
charge of the united society. The other societies were those of
Cologne and Wesel. Different local associations have united
with it, to the number of fifty, who meet by their delegates
annually, and intrust the management to a committee of twelve,
meeting once a month or oftener; while the executive power is
vested almost exclusively in a single officer known as the inspector of the Mission-house.
The first missionaries were sent to South Africa,in 1829.
There were four of them, one a physician, and they founded
three stations. One of these combines instruction in the arts of
civilization as well as in Christianity, a company of German
mechanics having been introduced to aid in diffusing various sorts
of handicraft among the people. In this way the station was
made self-supporting, but some of these colonists have set bad
examples to the natives, and the Society has felt obliged to desist
from further colonization of this kind. In 1830 two other stations were founded. Each station is regularly organized with
a complete system of ecclesiastical government modelled after




AND REGISTER.                  34'?
the Presbyterian discipline, schools are maintained, and missionary associations formed to lead the people to contribute according to their ability.
In 1840 the Society extended its operations to the northern
limits of Cape Colony, where three stations were established, and
seven stations have been formed still further northward in the
interior of the country. The missionaries have found extreme
difficulty in acquiring the native languages, and in contending
with the wandering habits of the people; while the tyranny of
the Dutch Boors follows the natives, threatening to deprive them
of their land as fast as they bring it into cultivation.
They had succeeded in forming several prosperous communities; but in the autumn of last year-1850-the hostilities of
the neighboring tribe of Namaquas being provoked, a dreadful
massacre took place. The Rev. Mr. Hahn, missionary of this
society at New Barmen, wrote on the 6th of September: "The
whole country is in ferment, and the excitement has risen to a
higher pitch than ever. Our mission among the Ovaherero is
on the brink of destruction. The 23d of last month, Jonker
Afrikander fell upon the Kahitjane (Weerligt) who lived on Mr.
Kolbe's station, Schuslen's Ewartung. Numbers were killedand cold-hearted cruelties committed to which you will find
scarcely any parallel in the history of the most barbarous
nations."  By the latest intelligence, we hear that the whole
colony is in a state of disturbance, and the British government
will probably be compelled to increase the military forces already
there, before quiet can be restored. Of course, nothing could be
more unpropitious to missionary labors.
In 1834, a mission was established on the island of Borneo,
to which, in all, eleven missionaries have been sent. Some have
died, and others compelled by the unhealthiness of the climate
have withdrawn, leaving only five in the field. They have
translated the New Testament, and collected 500 pupils in the
mission schools. In 1835-39 ineffectual attempts were made to




348              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
establish a mission among the Oregon Indians, and on their failtire the persons who were sent out settled in this country as pastors,
in communities of German emigrants. In 1847 a mission was
established in China, to which three missionaries have been sent.
The London Evangelical Christendom furnishes this summary
of the Society's operations:-It supports twenty-five stations,
with several out-stations, in South-eastern Africa, Borneo and
China. It has sent out fifty missionaries, mostly married, of
whom seven have died. It has a mission-house, where missionary candidates are educated, ten at a time. Annual missionary
meetings are held in all the congregations connected with the
Society, and missionary prayer-meetings monthly. Periodical
reports are published once in two weeks, besides the Annual
Report. In Borneo and China, the work of their missionaries
is of a preparatory kind, fiom which no important results, as yet,
have been obtained; in Africa there are over 4,000 nominal
Christians, and about 1,400 communicants, connected with their
churches.*
The income of the Rhenish Missionary Society, for the year
1848-9, was about $25,630.
Missionary Institute and Society of Basle.-The origin of this
institution and society possesses unusual historical interest. In
the year 1815, after the escape of Bonaparte from Elba, a large
army of Russians and Austrians, under the allied powers, having
crossed Germany, arrived on the banks of the Rhine near Basle.
A powerful, but inferior, French force occupied the strong fortress
of Hiiningen, on the frontier of France; at the distance of but
little more than a mile and a half from that city. The archduke John, who commanded the combined forces, having taken
possession of the portion of the city north of the Rhine, prepared to cross the bridge which unites it to the southern and
larger part. The French commandant was fully aware of the
advantage which the possession of that point would give the in-   * Baptist Missionary Magazine.




A8t RtCST.Ets.                 84g
vaders, and prepared to prevent it by a heavy cannonade. At
that critical and awful moment, when the inhabitants of Basle
beheld themselves about to be placed between two fires, and in
danger of becoming a prey to both, the magistrates hastened to
implore the Austrian general to desist from his undertaking, and
represented to him the certain ruin of their city (which was
entirely neutral) should the battle proceed. To his everlasting
honor, the archduke ordered the incipient firing to cease,
marched his forces up the Rhine, crossed that river a few miles
above, and came down upon the French from the south. This
movement led the French general to change his position also,
and so Basle escaped destruction.
-The good people of the city, who now flocked to the churches
to express their gratitude to Almighty God for their preservation, were naturally led to inquire, in what manner they might
testify their gratitude for this signal interposition in their behalf~
It was finally resolved to found a school at which missionaries
might be trained, who might go into Russia to instruct the poor
ignorant Cossacks, of whom many thousands had just passed by
their city. In a few months a seminary was opened, and several
pious young men were engaged in the prosecution of their
studies for the ministry. Contemporaneous with the rise of the
Basle Institution was the origin of the Basle Missionary Society,
to employ those who had been trained for the enterprise of
carrying the Gospel to the destitute.
The first young men who left the Institute finished their stucd
ies in the summer of 1818. Sinee that time, that is to say,
within the last thirty-two years, more than two hundred ministers of the Gospel have left its sacred walls to carry the glorious
tidings of salvation to the four corners of the globe; of whom
about one hundred and sixty are yet alive, and about one hundried and thirty are laboring in foreign lands; the rest are
preaching Christ within the pale of Christendom. And whilst
many of these heralds of salvation are supported on the field




350      ICHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.
by the Basle Missionary Society, a greater number have been
employed by other societies. At our latest accounts, fifty-two
were in the employ of the English Church Missionary Society,
and twenty-nine under the Basle Society itself.*
The missions of the Basle Society, so far as we are able to indicate them, are located in India, Western Africa, China, and
Assam. In India, its stations are fifteen in number, with several
out-stations. The principal of these are Mangalore, Calicut, and
Dacca. The first was commenced in 1834; the other stations
are of more recent date. The number of missionaries in this
field is thirty-four, with several assistants and native catechists.
In nearly all the stations there are flourishing schools, the total
number of whose scholars is upwards of seventeen hundred. In
China, a mission was begun under the Society in 1847, in the
province of Qua ngtung, by two missionaries, besides several native preachers. They are laboring in connection with the Chinese Missionary Association, under the direction of Mr. Gutzlaff.
In Assam, a mission was conmmenced at Tezpoor, in 1848, by
two missionaries. In Western Africa, three stations-at Akropong, Danish Accra, and Abude-are occupied by seven missionaries with assistants. The schools contain 267 pupils.
Two of the missionaries of this Society deserve particular
mention. The distinguished Gobat, whom we have named as
among the first graduates of the Paris Institute, is a native of
the canton of Berne, and studied for some time at the Institute
of Baslc. The other is Lacroix, who has been laboring more
than thirty years in India, in the employ of the London Missionary Society. He is a man of admirable talents and spirit. Few
men in India are his equals. We had the pleasure of seeing
much of him, in the summer and autumn of 1842, during a
visit which he made to his native Switzerland.
The income of the Basle Missionary Society, for the year
1848-9, was about $54,000.
* TaE MISSIONARY MEMORIAL: in an article ly the author of this work




CHAPTER XX.
MISSIONS OF THE UNITED BRETHREN AND THE
SMALLER GERMAN SOCIETIES.
THE United Brethren seem early to have been actuated by a
desire to spread the knowledge of the Gospel among the heao
then. It was in 1732 that it was first resolved in the small
colony of Herrlnhut, to send missionaries abroad; and three of
the brethren, Christian David, Matthew Stach, and Christiat
Stach, offered themselves for the work. Having obtained the
approval of the community, they repaired in 1733 to Copenhagen, and there received permission from the Danish government to undertake a mission in Greenland; where, however,
some Danish missionaries had previously been laboring. The
expenses of their voyage were generously defrayed by some
friends, and they reached the field of their labors after a prosperous trip. The success of the mission, however, during the
first few years, did not realize the anticipations they had formed:
not only were the laborers exposed to much physical suffering
and to many privations, but they encountered more obstinate
obstacles in the prejudices and malevolence of the natives, fiom
whom they were sometimes even in danger of assassination.  It
was five years, therefore, before the missionaries had occasion to
rejoice over Kayarnak, the first native convert. The cause of
tlle Gospel began to advance gradually in Greenland, especially
through the efforts of the native community of New Herrnhut;
and presently a spirit of inquiry was diffused even into distant




~5^       ~       C1~HR1STIAN IMT]ifOSPECT
places. The baptized Greenlanders on their excursions in quest
of food, were met by their anxious countrymen, who entreated
them to instruct them in the things of God; and constrained
them to delay their journey that they might hear the glad tidings more fully announced and explained. In 1747, the first
Moravian church was erected at New Herrnhut; and this colony contained about two hundred and thirty Greenlanders, of
whom thirty-five had been baptized in the course of that year.
In 1752, during an extremely severe winter, beside the miseries
of a famine, a dreadful disease cut off thirty-five of the new
converts.
Another mission was established in 1758, by Matthew Stach
and two new laborers from Europe, in a more southern latitude
than New HIerrnhut; and received the appellation of Lichtenfels. Here they subsequently erected a mission-house and
chapel. From this time the Moravian missions commenced to
flourish, and there were annually added to the church about
thirty or forty persons by baptism; and in 1768 a revival oce
curred in which about two hundred persons were added to the
church. In 1774. a new and most important station was established at Lichtenau, about four hundred miles south of Lichtenfels, in the midst of a numerous population. About this time,
too, additional attention began to be paid to the translation of
the Scriptures and other works. The progress of the mission in
Greenland was greatly hindered during a number of years following, both from the severity of the seasons and from the embarrassments arising from the war between Great Britain and
Denmark.
The missions of the United Brethren in the West Indies were
commenced in 1732, by Leonard Dober, at St. Thomas. The
first years of the mission were not prosperous, the laborers who
had been sent to reinforce the station, being cut off by the unhealthiness of the climate. They were succeeded, however, by
others, in 1736, who soon had occasion to rejoice over "the




AND REGISTER.                   353
first-fruits of the slaves" in the island. The next year they pur.
chased a small plantation, to which they gave the name of New
Herrnhut.
In 1739, Count Zinzendorf visited the island, accompanied by
two missionaries. He found the Brethren in prison, upon unfounded charges advanced by the enemies of religion; but he
soon succeeded in securing their liberation. The religious interest among the negroes, at this period, greatly increased. Another plantation was purchased in 1753, which was called Niesley, and at this place also the Gospel was preached with great
success.
To the island of St. Croix a number of missionaries were sent
in 1734; but the climate proved so unfavorable that several
died, and the mission was given up. A second attempt, in
1740, likewise failed. But in 1753, George Ohneberg, with
two others, resumed the work with great success. Two estates
were purchased, and, with the exception of the ill effects of the
climate, the subsequent condition of the mission was highly
favorable. Missionaries were stationed at the island of St. Jan
but a few years after the establishment of the St. Croix mission,
having been invited over from St. Thomas by an overseer on
one of the plantations, who was solicitous for the welfare of the
negroes.
At Jamaica the first missionaries arrived in 1754, in compliance with a request from several of the proprietors, who became responsible for their support, and furnished them with a
house and land. The early history was prosperous, but was
clouded for a time by differences between some of the missionaries. In 1804, at the end of fifty years, 938 negroes had been
baptized. In Antigua, a mission was commenced two years
after that at Jamaica, but was, for several years, quite unsuccesssful.  In 1769, however, the labors of the missionary,
Brown, resulted in a revival of zeal and piety, and in the following years a number of conversions took place. The first efforts




854              CIIRISTIAN RETROSPECT
made in the island of Barbadoes were also unfavorable, and did
not reach any high degree of prosperity until the commencement of this century. In 1777, a mission was undertaken at
St. Christopher's.
The labors of the Brethren in North America among the Indian tribes have been less fortunate. They were commenced
in 1735, in Georgia. Nearly every station, however, has been
disturbed and broken up.
In South America, the missions in Surinam, Dutch Guiana,
were undertaken about the year 1738. During the first ten
years, but thirty-nine were admitted to the Church. The missionaries prosecuted their work with great diligence, but were
compelled at last to abandon their first stations; and, in 1777,
founded the stations at Paramaribo and the vicinity. The progress of the work, though not rapid, appears to have been steady,
and the converts manifested much sincerity and firmness in
their attachment to the truth. This mission, as we shall see,
is now one of the most flourishing under the care of the United
Brethren.
The first attempts to establish a mission in Labrador were
made in 1752, but nothing permanent appears to have been
effected until 1770, when the grant of a tract of land was made
to the United Brethren for the purpose of establishing a mission
among the Esquimaux. Messrs. Haven, Drachart, and Jensen
sailed from London in that year, and were soon after followed
by fourteen other missionaries.  To the station which they
formed, these laborers gave the name of Nain, and here they
quickly erected a church. Two other settlements were successively undertaken at Okkah and Hopedale. The history of the
Labrador Mission abounds in thrilling incidents of perils and
deliverances, and in instances of the unaffected piety of the converts. On the 9th of August, 1820, a semi-centennial jubilee
was held by the Brethren at the expiration of the fiftieth year,
since the foundation of the mission.




AND REGISTER,                  355
In South Afiica, a mission was begun, in 1737, by George
Schmidt, among the Hottentots, near Seijeant's River, where he
labored with much success, and established a school. Having
visited Europe a few years subsequent, the jealousy of the
Dutch East India Company prohibited his return. The station
was broken up, and the few converts dispersed. At length, in
1792, the mission was renewed by permission of the Company,
and three laborers were sent out who established themselves at
Bavian's Kloof, the very spot where Schmidt had preached forty
years before. On the conclusion of peace between Great Britain and Holland, the colony was restored to the latter, and the
name of the settlement changed to Gnadenthal. When the
colony, in 1806, was transferred to Great Britain, the mission
remained undisturbed, and stations were successively planted at
Gruenckloof, on the Witte River, at Enon, and on the Klipplaats River.
We will not speak in detail of the Sarepta Mission among
the Calmucks, or of others, which, proving unsuccessful, have
been abandoned. We proceed to speak of the present condition
of the mission under the care of the United Brethren.
The long-established stations in the south of Africa continue
to present a most encouraging aspect. Upon the express invitation of the Governor of the Cape Colony, a new station has
been founded on the Beka, among a tribe of Caffres recently
subjected to the British rule. One hundred Christian colonists
from Gnadenthal have removed thither to form this new settlement. The Fingoes and Tambikkies, at the station Shiloh,
have made great progress. They are assiduous in their attendance upon religious worship. Gnadenthal, however, continues
to be the most prosperous of the stations. It now contains over
two thousand five hundred Hottentot converts, who, though
doubtless not free from defects, afford great encouragement to
their spiritual leaders.  An examination entered into by the
Government, in consequence of calumnious reports circulated by




356               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
enemies of the mission, resulted in its complete vindication,
The number of stations in the South Afiica mission is nine, occupied by twenty-seven missionaries and four assistants.
In Surinam, the total number, of negroes who are under the
instruction of the Brethren, is seventeen thousand. At each of
the stations numerous conversions have taken place, and a general desire is manifested for religious knowledge. The Indians
in the neighborhood are also more accessible than they have
ever before been. The Government of the colony has shown
great favor to the missionaries, and several of the planters have
permitted them to establish schools on their lands. It is to be
regretted that the number of laborers is inadequate to the extent of the work, and frequently reduced by the unhealthiness
of the climate. The stations are nine in number, and the missionaries nineteen, besides seven assistants, and five laborers who
are on their way thither.
The missions in the West Indies have suffered considerably
fiom the commercial crisis of the country and the gradual impoverishment of the inhabitants. It had been hoped at one
time that the churches of free negroes would soon become able
to sustain themselves; but that expectation must, for the present, be given up. Their zeal has even, for a time, appeared to
grow languid; but it begins to be reanimated, and to manifest
itself in a renewed assiduity of attendance upon Divine worship.
The negroes of one station of Jamaica gave, during the last year,
a proof of disinterestedness which does honor to their faith. In
order to assist in the erection of a new chapel, they of their own
accord agreed to furnish among themselves, without any remuneration, a thousand days of labor, and of labor as difficult as it
was fatiguing. The number of stations in the Danish islands is
eight, and of missionaries twenty-six; in Jamaica, thirteen stations and twenty-nine missionaries; in Antigua, seven stations
and twenty-one missionaries; in St. Kitts, seven stations and
ten missionaries; in Barbadoes, four stations and nine mission



AND REsGISTER.                 87
aries; in Tobago, two stations and five missionaries; and on
the Mosquito Coast one station with four missionaries.
There is little to be said of the Brethren's missions among
the North American Indians. The only stations occupied are
those of Fairfield and Westfield among the Delawares; New
Springplace and Canaan among the Cherokees; and Woodstock
Mills in Florida. Thirteen laborers are engaged at these stations.
In Labrador and Greenland, the work is prosecuted silently
but successively. A heathen tribe, formerly residing at Sceglek,
has removed to Hebron for the sole purpose of placing itself
under Christian influence. Twenty-three missionaries are laboring in Greenland at four stations; in Labrador, thirty at the
same number of stations.
At Port Philip, in New Holland, two missionaries have located themselves recently to labor among the natives. This mission, and that on the Mosquito Coast, were founded in the
course of 1849.
The total number of missionaries now in the employ of the
United Brethren's Missions, is two hundred and eighty-two;
the number of district missions is thirteen, and of principal stations sixty-nine. The reports do not give the number of communicants in connection with the various missions. In 1848,
the number of persons under the spiritual care of the missionaries amounted to nearly seventy thousand souls. The receipts
of the Missions, for the year 1849, amounted to $53,540.
We shall now glance at the smaller Missionary Societies
which have been organized in Germany and the neighboring
countries.
1. The Berlin Missionary Institute and Society were founded
in the year 1800 by members of the Lutheran Church. The
number of students who, up to 1825, had been educated at the
Institute, under the care of its director M. Jaenicke, was forty.
Many active and excellent missionaries from this institution have




358                CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
been employed at different times by various associations; as thb
Rotterdam and London Jews' Societies.   The missions of the
Berlin Society are: In South Africa, where it has six stations,
with nine missionaries; and in India, at Ghazeepoor, where two
missionaries are laboring. Receipts, about $17,000.
2. Gosner's Missionary Society at Berlin, was established by
a pious pastor whose name it bears.  It supports missions in
Australia, at Moreton Bay, where there are fourteen missionaries; and in New Zealand, at Chatham Island, where there are
five missionaries.  Its receipts are $3,630.
3. The Dresden Lutheran Miissionaiy Society, has two stations in New Holland, with four missionaries.  We have no
account of its other missions.  Receipts, $9,200.
4. The Leipsic Lutheran 2fissionary Society, has missions in
India, at Tranquebar, Mayaveran and Poreiar; with six missionaries.  There have been baptized 137 Hindoos; and the
schools contain one thousand scholars.  Receipts, about $8,000.
5. The Hambztrg Noor th- German Missionary Society supports,
ip Western Africa, one missionary at Cape Coast; in India,
three missionaries, at Rajamundry; and in New Zealand, two
missionaries with two assistants, at three stations.  Mr. Schmid,
at Ootacamuud, in Southern India, was formerly connected with
this Society, but is now laboring on his own resources.  Receipts
of the Hamburg Society, about $5,000.
In Sweden, there is a Missionary Society at Stockholm, whose
receipts for the year 1848-9 amounted to $4,555; and another
at Stavanger, whose receipts were $3,365.  We have no details
respecting their operations.
In Niorway, a Missionary Society is mentioned by Hoole, as
having sent out, in 1842, two missionaries with the intention of
establishing a mission among the Zulus in South Africa. They
were however unable to locate themselves there, and were seeking another sphere of labor.
Netherlands Mlissionary Society.-This: association was or



AND REGISTER.                  859
ganized in 1797, having owed its origin to an address from the
London Missionary Society, translated and circulated by Dr.
Vanderkemp, a zealous laborer under that Society in South
Africa. The disturbed condition of the continent at the time
repressed the newly-excited missionary spirit; and it was not
until 1818 that the Netherlands Society sent forth missionaries.
The Indian Archipelago has been the chief and appropriate
sphere of its operations; since those islands are under the rule
of the Dutch government, which, in its strange course of opposition to Christian missions, has made exception infavor of those
under Dutch superintendence.  We have no very full accounts
of the present condition of these missions; what we have, however, is of no little interest. Mr. Schuh, a graduate of the Paris
Institute, has recently gone out to Java, under this Society, and
is now actively engaged in missionary labor. He states that at
Salarang, in that island, there are several missionaries, besides
Mr. Bruckner, of the Baptist Society, who came thither in 1811,
when the English invaded Java, and is living privately; and in
the island of Timor, there are two more. To the latter station,
Mr. Schuh with his companions, making three missionaries,
were appointed. Mr. Schuh states, that at the time of Mr.
Bruckner's arrival, with his fellow-laborers, they translated the
New Testament and several tracts into the Javanese; but were
not allowed to circulate them after the island became again
subject to the Dutch. A pious old German watchmaker, however, concealed some of the books among the sacred trees of the
people, where they were found and read. Many of the natives
became converted; and there is now, at Soudakari, a Christian
village containing 130 communicants, with a large number in
the vicinity; who are under the instruction of four native
evangelists. At the time Mr. Schuh wrote, there were as many
as one hundred applicants for baptism....
The receipts of the Netherlands Missionary Society, for
1848-9, amounted to about $27,000.




CHAPTER XXI.
AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN
MISSIONS.
THE origin and history of the American Board are so well
known, as to preclude the necessity of our devoting much space
to their narration. With the exception of the missions of the
United Brethren, the American Board is the oldest society for
foreign missions in the United States. It was in the year 1809
that several of the students at the Theological Seminary at
Andover agreed to unite their efforts in establishing a mission
among the heathen in some foreign land. In this resolution
they were encouraged by the Faculty of the Seminary, and they
determined to lay the matter before the General Association of
Massachusetts. Messrs. Mills, Judson, Newell, and Nott, accordingly presented to that body, at its meeting in June, 1810,
a paper in which they made a statement of their desire to preach
the Gospel to the heathen, and proposed some inquiries respecting the proper method of putting their plans into execution.
This gave rise to the appointment by the Association of a board
of commissioners for foreign missions, who at their first meeting
in September of the same year adopted the name of the
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions; thus
recognizing their high calling to act for all in every part of the
nation who might choose to employ their agency in the work
of missions among the heathen. The transaction of ordinary
business, however, was delegated to an executive committee




CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.        361
called the Prudential Committee, the members of which reside
at or near Boston, which is the centre of the Society's operations.
It is among the remarkable facts in the history of this institution, and in the ecclesiastical history of the country, that, at the
outset, neither the Board, nor its Prudential Committee, nor,
indeed, any of the leading minds in the American Churches at
that time, conceived the possibility of raising sufficient funds to
support the four young men who were then waiting to be sent
forth to the heathen world. One of them was accordingly sent
to England, mainly to see whether an arrangement might not be
made with the London Missionary Society, by which a part of
their support might be received from that Society, and they yet
remain under the direction of the Board. The London Society
wisely declined such an arrangement, and encouraged their
American brethren to hope for ample contributions from their
own churches so soon as the facts should be generally known.
From this time no further thought was entertained of help from
abroad. On the 6th of February,' 1812, the Rev. Messrs.
Samuel Newell, Adoniram Judson, Gordon Hall, Samuel Nott,
and Luther Rice, the first American missionaries, were ordained
at Salem, Mass., and they forthwith proceeded to Calcutta, in
the East Indies, but without being designated to any specific
field. The Prudential Committee appear to have been unable
to decide upon any particular country as preferable to any
others; so little knowledge was there in Europe and America
of the precise condition of heathendom.
Messrs. Judson and Rice had not been long with the Baptist
missionaries at Serampore, near Calcutta, before they embraced
the peculiar views of those brethren in relation to baptism; and
having consequently dissolved their connection with the Society
which sent them forth, a new institution was formed for their
support-the Baptist Board for Foreign Missions. The remaining missionaries, after many vexations and much painful travelling
fiom place to place, arising from the intolerance of the East
16




362               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
India Company towards missionaries of any nation, and especially
from their jealousy of Americans, at length commenced in 1813
a mission at Bombay among the Mahrattas of Western India.
In this field of labor as yet untouched by missionary agency,
they encountered all the obstacles incident to the commencement of so important an enterprise.  The manifest superiority
of the Mahrattas over many, if not most, of the remaining races
of India, however, induced the missionaries not to despair of
success.
Some preparatory work had been performed among the
Tamul people, of the northern district of Ceylon and Southern
India, when a mission was commenced among them in 1816:
in Ceylon through the Portuguese and Dutch; and on the continent by means of the celebrated missionary Swartz and his
associates. Here the systematic measures which the mission
speedily adopted for the training of a native agency, and the
success attending them, did much to give an early maturity to
the plans of the Board for raising up a native ministry in connection with all its other missions. The most efficient seminary
of such a nature is believed to be the one connected with
the mission in Ceylon. In 1834, a branch of this mission
was formed at Madura, on the continent; and in 1836, another
at Madras, with the special object of printing books in the
Tamul language on a large scale.
The first mission sent by the Board to Eastern Asia was to
China in 1830. A pious merchant of New York city furnished
many of the facts and arguments which justified its commencement, and gave two missionaries their passage to China and
their support for one year. One of these missionaries subsequently visited Siam and opened the way for a mission there;
as he did also in Borneo. The missions in Siam and Borneo,
however, have not been successful, and are for the present discontinued.
Of the missions in Western Asia and on the Mediterranean,




AND REGISTER.                863
that at Athens was commenced in 1829. by Dr. King. It
had its origin in the deep interest which America, in common
with the most of civilized Europe, entertained for the cause of
Greek emancipation and renovation.  Dr. King, who commenced it, had previously been connected with the Palestine
Mission. It was to the Holy Land, in fact, that the first American mission in this quarter of the globe was sent, in the year
1821. Messrs. Fisher and Parsons were pioneers in the enter,
prise. In 1828, after their decease, war and the hostility of the
Maronites towards the mission, compelled the surviving laborers
to retire for a time from Syria. To this circumstance, in the
developments of Providence, we trace the establishment of the
mission among the Armenians of Constantinople and Asia
Minor, which has since been so signally blessed to that people.
In 1830, Messrs. Dwight and Smith were sent on an exploring
tour into Armenia, and were instructed to visit the Nestorians in
the province of Aderbaijan, in Persia. This visit brought to light
that remnant of the most noted missionary Church of ancient
times, and induced the Board to send a mission to restore the
blessings of the Gospel to that people. The mission was commenced at Oroomiah, and has been extended to the independent Nestorian tribes in the Kurdish Mountains. The leading
object of the mission has been to educate the clergy, and by reviving, through the blessing of God, the spirit of the Gospel,
to induce them to resume its faithful preaching. The Nestorian
Mission has during the last few years assumed a new importance
and interest. The Syrian Mission of the Board is located among
the Druzes of Mt. Lebanon, where a seminary has been undertaken. The Armenian mission is an equally interesting field
of labor with the Nestorian, and proposes to itself the same end
of renovating the spirit of that nominal Christian Church. But
the attempt to do this under connection with the old ecclesiastical
body has failed, and the formation of a separate evangelical Protestant community is now the object of missionary labor among




364              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
the Armenians. Since the late outpourings of the Holy Spirit
at this mission, and the violent persecution (now happily ceased,)
which it has undergone, it has become one of the most interesting
and promising under the care of the Board.
The mission of the American Board in South Africa was
commenced in 1836; and is located among the Zulus. The
cause has here been gradually advancing, notwithstanding the
obstacles from the wars of the natives and their prejudice against
the pure morality of the Gospel. The mission to Western
Africa was commenced in 1834, and is situated along the coast
near the Gaboon River.
The results of the mission of the Board to the Sandwich
Islands in the North Pacific Ocean, the most important group
of Polynesia, constitute one of the great moral wonders of the
age.  The first missionaries landed on these islands in the
year 1820. At that time the natives were savage and pagan,
without letters, without a ray of Gospel light, though they had
just before strangely burned their idols-a fact unknown in the
United States when the missionaries embarked on their errand
of mercy. For a number of years this same people has properly claimed the title of a Christian people. Though destitute,
in some measure, by reason of their poverty, of the more imposing insignia of civilization, they have the elements and basis
of it in Christian institutions, schools, a written language, the
press, books, newspapers, and commerce, and in the extensive
prevalence of pious dispositions and habits. Their language
has been reduced to writing, and about one hundred and eighty
millions of pages have been printed by the mission in the native
language. As the alphabet contains but twelve letters, and
each letter has but a single sound, it is easy to learn to read it.
A large proportion of the population can read. The common
schools, supported now by the IHawaiian Government, contain
about eleven thousand pupils, who are instructed in the elementary branches of education. The higher schools contain up



AND REGISTER.                  865
wards of two hundred more scholars. The number of church
members, at the last accounts, was 23,102. The Hawaiian
churches are not inactive. Gradually they are becoming able
to do more and more in support of the preaching of the Gospel
among themselves, and are contributing not only to the spread
of true religion among the surrounding heathen, but even to
the assistance of Christian missionaries from France,-the land
from which they have received so many insults and injuries.
The Board has spent a portion of its funds in missions among
the Cherokees and Choctaws, and other influential Indian tribes.
Their missions to the former commenced in 1816 and 1818,
and were prosecuted with great success, until the time of the
removal of those tribes beyond the Mississippi River, whither
the missionaries followed them. There were also founded missions among the Creeks and Chickasaws (now abandoned);
among the Ojibways, Sioux, and Pawnees; and among the tribes
in the Oregon territory, and in the State of New York.
Of the missionaries in the employ of the American Board,
twelve are located among the Zulus in South Africa, five are
attached to the Gaboon mission in West Africa, one to the
Greek mission, three to the mission to the Jews at Salonica and
Constantinople, eighteen to the Armenian mission, ten to the
Syrian mission. Among the Nestorians there are six missionaries, at the Bombay mission four, at the Ahmednuggur mission seven, at the Madras mission four, at the Madura mission
eleven, at the Ceylon mission eleven, at the Canton mission
three, at the Amoy mission two, at the Fuh-Chau mission six.
At the Sandwich Islands are stationed twenty-five missionaries,
among the Oregon tribes three, among the Choctaws five,
among the Cherokees five, at the Dakota mission six, among
the Ojibways two, and among the New York Indians five.
The following summary of the operations of this Society is
given in the last annual report. The Board has twenty-four
missions under its care, embracing one hundred and six stations,




366               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
and twenty-eight out-stations. In these missions are one hundred and fifty-seven ordained missionaries, and two licensed
preachers. Of teachers, printers, etc., there are twenty-five, and
of female assistant missionaries two hundred and four. The
whole number of laborers, male and female, sent from this country and now living, is three hundred and ninety-five. The
number sent out from the beginning is nine hundred and sixty.
Six native pastors, and twenty-two other native preachers, and
ninety-four native helpers, make the whole number of native
assistants, not including schoolmasters, and comparatively uneducated helpers, one hundred and twenty-two. The whole
number of laborers, foreign and native, now connected with the
mission, who depend for the means of living and usefulness on
the treasury of the Board, is five hundred and seventeen.
The number of churches formed in the missions is eightyfive. These contain twenty-five thousand eight hundred and
seventy-five members in regular standing. The admissions to
the churches by a profession of faith, during the year, were one
thousand nine hundred and sixty-seven. The contributions received by the Board from foreign lands, the amount of which
is steadily increasing from year to year, were $8,249 04, and a considerable portion of this came from these native mission churches.
The seminaries for training native preachers and teachers are
seven in number, and contain three hundred and thirty-nine
pupils; and there are seven hundred and fifty-five pupils, male
and female, in other boarding-schools. The number of children
in free schools is twenty-one thousand seven hundred and thirty,
about half of whom are at the Sandwich Islands, and supported
by the Hawaiian Government. Altogether, therefore, there are
in the schools under the care of this Society, twenty-two thousand eight hundred and twenty-four scholars.
Twelve printing establishments are in operation, in as many
of the missions, with seven type and stereotype foundries, and
type for printing in nearly thirty languages. During the past




AND REGISTER.                 36Z
year 37,644,828 pages are reported to have been printed. This
swells the amount of printing from the beginning, in all the
missions, to 819,706,481 pages.
The receipts of the American Board of Commissioners for
Foreign Missions, for the year ending 31st July, 1850, were
$251,862 28.  The expenditures for the same period were
$254,329 35. The debt of the Society was $34,071 05.




CHAPTER XXII.
AMERICAN BAPTIST MISSIONARY UNION.
THE first movements among the Baptist churches of America,
in behalf of evangelical missions, were made like those of other
denominations, in favor of the new settlements on our own
frontiers. For this object the Massachusetts Baptist Missionary
Society was organized, in 1802. The labors of the men employed
by this Society, together with the intelligence arriving from time
to time from the English Baptist missionaries at Serampore,
excited and fostered the interest of the churches in the work;
and in 1811, the Boston Association of Baptist ministers
recommended a general collection in behalf of the East India
mission.
The immediate occasion, however, of the formation of an
independent missionary organization by the Baptists in America,
was the conversion of two American missionaries. Messrs. Judson
and Rice, to the views entertained by that denomination on the
subject of baptism. These missionaries, who had been sent out
originally by the American Board of Commissioners, proceeded
to Rangoon, and undertook the acquisition of the Burman
language. Meanwhile, the change in their denominational connection becoming known at home, it was determined to proceed
immediately to the formation of a society for their support; and
accordingly, a meeting of twenty-six clergymen and seven laymen, from various parts of the Union, assembled at Philadelphia,
and was organized, on the 18th of May, 1814, as the General
Missionary Convention of the Baptist denomination in the




CtIIsTrtAN toETiOSPECT; AND RtisIlStR.    869
United States. This body continued to exist until 1846, when
it was merged in the American Baptist Missionary Union.
The Burman Mission founded at Rangoon by Dr. Judson,
was recruited in 1816 by the arrival of Mr. and Mrs. Houghl
The necessity of preparing and printing religious books, and
especially of translating the Scriptures, immediately presented
itself to the missionaries; and their first efforts were directed to
these objects. Two years after, Messrs. Wheelock and Coleran
arrived; and in 1819, the first place of worship was opened,
and the first convert baptized. The number of inquirers and
converts soon increased rapidly, until the war between Great
Britain and the Burmese, when the mission was broken up and
removed, after many vicissitudes and afflictions, to Maulmain,
which had become the chief city of the English provinces. The
next year, Mr. and Mrs. Boardman, who had recently arrived at
Burmah, were stationed at the city of Tavoy, 150 miles south
of Maulmain. Here was commenced an important department
of labor in the Burmese missions, among the race of Karens-a
people scattered over the forests and mountains of Burmah, and
Siam, but living entirely distinct fiom the Burmans, by whom
they are despised as inferiors or slaves. At the death of Mr.
Boardman, in 1830, thirty-five of these interesting people had
been baptized as hopeful converts under his labors; and in a
few months after, thirty-nine more were received into the church,
"' Beyond all precedent," says the last report of the Union, " the
Karens are a people for whom the Lord has prepared his way.
Were the instrumentality adequate,-the millions of Karens of
even the present generation would receive the Gospel of the Son
of God; a nation would be born in a day."
The present operations of the Missionary Union in Burmah,
comprehend five missions; none of which, however, are in
Burmah Proper, but in the provinces ceded by the Burmese to
the British East India Company. Attempts are now making
which, it is to be hoped, will prove successful, to resume the
16*




8790              PCsRIStIAN RETAtOStCT
occupation of Rangoon and Ava. Of the five missions alluded
to, three are among the Karens-at Maulmain, Tavoy and
Sandoway a the others are the Arracan and Maulmain Burman
missions.
The Burman mission at Maulmain consists of two stations, at
which are laboring seven* missionaries, and eight female assistants. The recent removal of Dr. Judson is, of course severely
felt by this mission. Two of the laborers, Mr. and Mrs. Howard,
have temporarily withdrawn, and are now in this country in
quest of health. The Burmese church at Maulmain consists of
141 members; the average attendance on public worship is
about 350. The sabbath-schools at the two stations (Amherst
being the other) number 130 pupils; the other schools, about
300 pupils, Of publications, the whole number of pages printed
from the beginning, is 92,590,237.
The Maulmain Karen mission, with one station and seven
out-stations, has four missionaries, six female assistants, five
ordained native preachers, three teachers, and twenty-six other
native assistants.  The number of churches organized among
the Karens is nine; the number of members 1,708. The
Theological Seminary contains twenty-seven native students
preparing for the ministry; the other schools have 174 scholarso
The Tavoy Karen mission, consisting of two stations and
fourteen out-stations, with five missionaries, five female assistants,
and nineteen native assistants, contains thirteen churches, with
933 members; and has in its schools 377 pupils. The whole
amount of printing executed has been 2,096,960 pages. This
mission has been reinforced by the appointment of Mr. and Mrs.
Thornas, recently embarked.
The Arracan mission comprises two stations and an out-station, at which four missionaries, two female assistants, and six
native assistants are laboring. Its schools have under instruction 59 children.
* Dr. Judson having died since the publication of the Annual Report




AND REGISTER.                   3'71
The Sandoway Karen mission has 36 out-stations, with three
missionaries, two female assistants, and 44 native preachers and
assistants. The estimated number of church-members in connection with the churches, of which there are thirty-six, is 4,500;
the whole number of baptized persons, since the beginning, has
been over 5,500; there are also 5,124 unbaptized persons, whose
life is not less exemplary in all respects than that of the baptized
members. The schools contain 495 pupils.
The mission in SIAM, is designed in part for the Chinese, who
are very numerous in that country. It was commenced in
March, in 1833, at Bangkok, the capital of the kingdom. The
Siamese department consists at present of three missionaries and
three female assistants. There are two out-stations. Fifty-six
persons in all have been baptized, "There never was a time, perhaps," says the last Report, " when the people of Siam were so
accessible to missionary efforts as now. Missionaries are free to
travel throughout the country, and books are taken and read, it
is believed, by all classes."  The total number of pages printed
at this station is 2,214,167.
The CHINA mission has two stations,-at Hong Kong and
at Ningpo,-with four out-stations; it is occupied by five
missionaries, three female assistants, and seven native assistants.
There are 27 church members in connection with it, and 60
children under instruction at the schools.
The mission to AssAM, undertaken in 1836, comprehends
three stations; five missionaries are employed with six female
assistants, and four native assistants. The number of churchmembers is 57; of scholars in the various schools, 700.
The mission to the TELOOGOOS is prosecuted by two missionaries, with their wives; it has 250 pupils under instruction.
The mission to the BASSAS in West Africa, consists of one station and two out-stations; it has 5 native laborers. The schools
number 39 scholars.
On the continent of Europe, besides a mission in France, and




3'S2       CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.
one in Germany, the Missionary Union sustains a third in
Greece; its stations are at Corfu and Piraeus; it has two
missionaries and three native assistants.
The labors of this Society, in behalf of the Indians in our own
country, comprise missions among the Ojibways, Ottawas, Tuscaroras, Shawanees, and Cherokees. These missions are conducted by nine missionaries, with ten female assistants, and ten
native assistants. They contain twelve churches, numbering
1,382 members; the schools contain 195 pupils.
We close with a brief summary of the operations of the
American Baptist Missionary Union. Its receipts for the past
year were $87,537 20: its expenditures, $84,147 23. The
number of its missions is 17; the stations and out-stations are
155, besides more than 150 places of stated preaching. Its
missionaries are 56; female assistants, 55; native assistants, 195;
whole number of laborers, 306. The number of churches is
141, with more than 12,500 members; of schools, 106, with
2,772 pupils. The number of pages printed during the past
year, is 17,814,411.




CHAPTER XXIII.
BOARD OF FOREIGN MISSIONS OF THE PREStBYTEiIA
CHURCH.
PRIOR to the formation of this Society, some efforts had been
made by the Presbyterian Church for the propagation of the
Gospel among Indians and settlers on our frontiers; and for this
purpose the Western Missionary Society had been formed in 1802
by the Synod of Pittsburg. The missions of this Society were
however transferred in 1825 to the United Foreign Missionary Society; and again with it to the American Board of Commissioners
soon after. A new organization, under the name of the Western Foreign Missionary Society, was attempted in 1831, with
some success, and several missions were undertaken. But until
the formation of the Board of Foreign Missions, in 1837, many
of the churches continued to co-operate with the American
Board; and this, indeed7 is done to some extent even now.
The present institution, however, arose out of the prevalent conviction among the Presbyterian churches of the " Old School'"
connection, that it is the duty of the Church, as a separate body,
to labor for the promotion of Christ's kingdom, under the direction of its own suprerme ecclesiastical court. In this opinion and
its consequent course of action, it harmonizes with the Church
of Scotland; whose benevolent operations are conducted entirely
under the superintendence and control of the officers- of the
General Assembly.
The number and wealth of the churches under whose patronage the Presbyterian Board is laboring, has naturally secured




3T4               CtHtESTIAN RETROSPECT
for it an efficient and increasing support. The receipts of the
Western Society transferred to it upon its formation, already
amounted (for the year 1836-37)-to more than $40,000. In
1839, the income of the Board was nearly $63,000; and at the
last annual meeting, May, 1850, it had risen to $120,075. So
rapid a growth indicates of course a corresponding extension of
missionary spirit in the church, and promises a still more active
efficiency for the future.
The Missions of the Board are chiefly located in Northern
India, China, West Africa, and among the Indian tribes of our
Western territories. The Northern India mission was commenced in 1833, by Rev. Mr. Lowrie, at present one of the
Secretaries of the Board. The north-western provinces of India
were then, and continue, in a great measure, to be unoccupied
by another missionary body, as a field of labor. Besides this
advantage, the vicinity of other countries where no effort had
been made to extend the knowledge of the Gospel, was a feature
which strongly recommended this region to the Board. Lodiana,
Furrukhabad and Allahabad, are the localities in which its
missions are now centred. The Lodiana mission includes six
stations, at five of which, Lodiana, Saharunpur, Sabathu, Jalandar, and Ambala, churches have been organized, numbering at
present fifty-three members in all. Eleven ordained missionaries,
most of whom are married, are laboring at these stations; with
ten assistants, catechists, readers, &c. The religious services at
the stations are well attended; fiequent tours are also made
through the towns and villages of the country. The whole
number of children under education is 433. The whole number
of pages of religious publications printed since the beginning has
been 4,014,186. The important city of Lahore, capital of the
Punjaub, has within the past year been occupied for the first
time as a missionary station.
The Furrukhabad mission, including'the stations of Futtehgurh, Mynpurie and Agra, has seven ordained missionaries, with




AND REGISTER.                  375
their wives, three catechists and a teacher. At the first of these
churches, there is a flourishing church of seventy-two members;
at Agra, the church contains thirty-five members. The schools
connected with this mission have 398 pupils. The Allahabad
mission, with five ordained missionaries, and a native preacher,
and five assistants, has a native church of thirty-four communicants; its schools contain 399 children; the whole number of
pages of religious publications issued from its presses has been
2,310,319.
The whole number of missionaries, male and female, sent out
by the Board to labor in Northern India, has been seventy; ineluding nine who have gone forth within the present year.
In SIAM, the Presbyterian Board sustains a mission, consisting of two ordained laborers with their wives, a physician, and a
Chinese native assistant.  The only station is at Bangkok
where some converts have been made. The principal agency
of the mission is in the distribution of religious books: a work
of the highest importance in a country where a majority of the
male adults are able to read.
In CHINA, the missions at Canton and Ningpo have been for
some time in existence; a new mission is to be established also
at Shanghai. Three missionaries are laboring at Canton; a
chapel has, after some opposition, been opened, and a school of
eighteen boys is in operation. At Ningpo, eight ordained and
two lay laborers are stationed; of whom eight are married. The
mission church has eight native members; public services are
generally well attended; the schools contain 70 pupils, and the
press has issued 2,123,258 pages of religious publications.
In WEST AFRICA, the Liberia mission is in a prosperous
condition. It occupies three stations, in each of which there is
a church.  The day school at Monrovia numbers fifty-two
scholars. The mission at Settra Kroo is occupied at present by
one missionary only. About two hundred boys and a few girls
lave been taught to read the Bible; a school of fifteen scholars




37T6             aCHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
is now sustained. The mission near the Equator is a new one,
but already holds out strong encouragements.
The missions of the Board among the INDIAN TRIBES, in and
upon our own borders, constitute an important part of its operations. They are seven in number, embracing the Choctaw,
Chickasaw, Creek, Seminole, Iowa, Sac, Otoe, Omaha, Chippewa, and Ottawa tribes. Ten ordained missionaries, with theit
wives, and sixteen assistants, are now laboring among these
tribes in connection with this Society. In the Choctaw mission,
they have under instruction more than one hundred youth,
Among the Chickasaws, a female boarding-school, designed to
educate at least 80 girls, has recently been founded. Among
the Creeks, a day-school of 30 scholars, and a boarding-school
of as many more, is sustained, at Tallahassee; and at Kowetah,
with a church of 17 native members, there is a boarding-school
of 33 pupils. The Seminole mission has a school of 11; the
Iowa and Sac mission, of 35; the Otoe and Omaha, the same
number. In the Chippewa and Ottawa mission, there is a boys'
school of 47, and a girls' school of 28; the church numbers 29
native members, and the services on the Sabbath are well
attended.
In addition to these labors among heathen nations, the Board
has of Jate years undertaken to aid in the great enterprise of
evangelizing the Papal population of Europe. It is to be hoped
that in future it will occupy a larger portion of this important
field. Hitherto the appropriations of the Board for this object
have been comparatively small; amounting for the year ending
in May last, to $3,658 only.
Finally, the Presbyterian Board supports in New York and
Philadelphia, three ordained missionaries among the Jewish
population. We do not learn that these missionaries have met
with much success in this difficult field of labor, which requires
the most persevering and untiring exertion.




AND REGISTER.                     377
The missions of the Presbyterian Board, therefore, exclusive
of its operations in Papal Europe, are eighteen in number.  Its
ordained missionaries are fifty-five-many of them married men;
assistant laborers, forty-three.




Ch(APTER XXIV.
BOARD OF FOREIGN MISSIONS OF THE PROTESTANT
EPISCOPAL CHURCH.
A FOREIGN and Domestic Missionary Society was organized
by the General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church,
in the year 1820. Its constitution was amended in 1829; it
prescribed that the meetings of the Society should be held triennially, at the time and place appointed for the meeting of the
Convention. It also provided that the Society should be composed of the bishops, and of all annual subscribers to the amount
of $3. It was, therefore, from the outset, an ecclesiastical enterprise; but without that official character which it assumed, when
merged into the "Board of Missions of the Protestant Episcopal
Church;" a change which took place in 1835.  At that period,
"the organization was entirely altered, and the Church undertook and agreed, in her character as a Church, to carry on the
work of Christian missions."  "The General Convention, as the
constituted representative body of the whole Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States," now became the agent for
prosecuting this work; entrusting its superintendence to a Board
of Missions, in the recess of its triennial sessions; and to two
separate committees appointed by that Board.
Attempts were made, at an early period in the history of the
Society, to found missions on the western coast of AFRICA; but
it was not until 1836, that a missionary teacher was appointed,
and a small school begun, at the town of Harper, in Liberia.




CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER..879
The next year, three missionaries were sent out, and in 1839, a
fourth. Their success in forming schools and in preaching to
the natives, was very encouraging. At present, the African
mission includes five stations: at Cavalla, River Cavalla, Fishtown, (or Fair Haven,) Rocktown, and Cape Palmas. Besides
these stations, there are towns and villages, with an aggregate
population of twelve thousand souls, which are visited weekly
by the missionaries.
The station of Cavalla is in a highly flourishing condition.
The number of communicants is forty; of whom eleven were
added within the year 1849. The boarding-schools number 63
pupils; the congregations on the Lord's-day average 200; and
a Christian village, consisting of persons who have been trained
up at the schools, has been recently formed; it now contains
ten families. The Sunday-school is attended by 80 to 100 children. Seven villages are regularly visited by the missionaries
connected with this station.
At the River Cavalla station, a small school is kept up, containing eight pupils. This post is a sort of appendage to the
station previously spoken of.
The station of Fishtown, or Fair Haven, has a school of 29
pupils; there are fourteen native and five colonist communicants in connection with it. Seven villages are visited by the
missionaries here. The station of Rocktown is to be occupied
on the arrival of Mr. and Mrs. Herring.
The central station at Cape Palmas, is called the " Church in
the Colony." Its prospects are most encouraging. The school
has in the male department fifteen, and in the female forty-five
pupils. The congregations are large; the present number of
communicants in good standing is twenty-seven.
There are now laboring at these several stations of the West
Africa mission, five ordained missionaries, one teacher, five female assistants employed in the mission-schools, and several
native teachers. The boarding and day-schools contain 160




380               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
scholars; besides those receiving instruction in the eveningschools. The whole number of communicants connected with
the mission, is eighty. The Rev. John Payne, one of the missionaries, has been elected by the General Convention as Missionary Bishop in Africa; and has been recalled for the purpose
of consecration.
CHINA, as a field of labor, engaged the attention of the Episcopal Missionary Society, as early as the year 1834; when the
Rev. Mr. Lockwood was appointed missionary to that country.
The early history of this mission was not fortunate; several of
the laborers were compelled from ill-health to return; and
finally, in 1840, the difficulties between Great Britain and
China occasioned its abandonment for a time. Dr. Boone, one
of the first missionaries sent forth, came home and spent some
time in laboring to interest the churches in the work to which
he had devoted himself; and in 1844, having been consecrated
bishop, he went out again, accompanied by two missionaries and
five female assistants. Mr. Syle embarked for the same field a
few months afterwards. The station fixed upon for this mission,
was the port of Shanghai, where it continues at present. It is
to be regretted, however, that notwithstanding the great encouragements met with in this mission, and the readiness of the
Church at home to sustain it, it is languishing for the want of
laborers. Bishop Boone and Mr. Syle, with two female assistants, are the only persons now occupying the field. The chapel
of the mission, within the walls of the city, built at the expense
of an American layman, has been completed, and is now used
for public worship in the Chinese language. The earliest convert under the labors of the missionaries, has been recently ordained to the ministry; his name is Chai. The mission-school
continues in successful operation, with forty-six pupils. The
whole number of natives baptized is sixteen; of communicants
ten; and of catechumens under religious instruction, ten.
The mission at Athens is the oldest of the foreign enterprises




AND REGISTER.                  381
of the Board. Upon the inquiries and observations of the Rev.
Mr. Robertson, in 1830, it -was concluded to commission that
gentleman, with the Rev. Mr. Hill, and their wives, as missionaries to Greece. Schools were established at Athens and Syra;
and a mission press at Syra issued up to the year 1841, 8,826,900
pages of religious publications. The latter station was, however,
abandoned, in the retrenchments which became necessary. The
schools at Athens continue, under the care of Mr. Hill, in a
prosperous state; and contain at present between four and five
hundred children, who are. receiving not only the ordinary
branches of education, but also a thorough training in the principles of religion, and especially in the study of the word of
GOD. "A large class of Bible Christians," says Mr. Hill, "has
been formed in these schools, consisting of some thousands;
who are now dispersed over every part of Greece."
A mission was commenced in 1837, at Canea in the island
of Crete. In seven months, the schools numbered 239 pupils,
and in 1840 had reached 460. But in 1843, this mission was
discontinued.
The mission at Constantinople was projected in 1838. Previous missions had been attempted, but without success, in Persia. In 1840, Mr. Southgate, afterwards elected bishop, was
sent to Constantinople, where he spent some time. But the
experience of this mission, in its relation with the Syriac and
Armenian churches, goes only to corroborate that of the Church
of England Missionary Society, given in the words of its secretary: "Its attempts to establish missions among the ancient
but lapsed Christian churches of the East have been failures."
The mission in Turkey has been finally closed, by the return of
Bishop Southgate to this country.
Missions to the Indians have been at various times undertaken by the Missionary Society, and the Board of Missions of
the Protestant Episcopal Church. As early as 1825, a station
was formed among the Indians at Green Bay, in the north



-882       CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.
eastern part of Wisconsin.  Extensive buildings were erected,
and a large school founded, which in 1836 contained seventy
Indian children. But the rapid diminution of the tribes, and
their removal to their new locations west of the Mississippi,
compelled the abandonment of this promising station. The
Board of Domestic Missions has now in charge a mission among
the Oneidas at Duck Creek, Wisconsin, where are stationed a
missionary, an interpreter, and a teacher.
The Board of Domestic Missions also support a missionary in
New York, who is laboring among the Jewish population of
that city. He reports a few converts.
In conclusion, the present operations of the Board of Foreign
Missions of the Protestant Episcopal Church, comprehend five
missions.*  It sustains ten missionaries, nine female missionaries, and a number of native assistants. Its mission schools
contain 656 scholars, and its mission churches number ninetysix communicants. The receipts of the Board for the year ending in June last, were $36,114. Its expenditures, $32,404.
* That of Constantinople is nominally sustained for the time being,
Bishop Southgate being still in connection with the Board.




CHAPTER XXV.
METHODIST EPISCOPAL MISSIONARY SOCIETY.
THE energy with which the Methodist Episcopal Church,
from its earliest planting in this country, has undertaken and
prosecuted the work of Domestic Missions, will in some measure account for the lateness of its efforts toward the propagation
of the Gospel in heathen countries. Emphatically may that
church be called a missionary church, in its character and its
operations. But the necessity of a separate organization, to
carry out and develop the missionary spirit, became apparent.
At a meeting of the preachers stationed in the city of New York,
in 1819, the subject of forming a missionary society was agitated: and a meeting of the friends and members of the Methodist Episcopal Church was called for this purpose. The first
organization was under the title of "'Missionary and Bible Society;" and, in fact, it continued its operations in this two-fold
capacity-establishing and supporting missions, and printing,
publishing, and circulating Bibles-until the year 1828; when
the latter department was separated from it, and a Bible Society organized, which was finally merged into the American
Bible Society, in 1836.
The first mission undertaken by the Methodist Missionary
Society, was among the Indian tribes of our own territories, and
of Canada. Five years prior to its formation, a colored preacher
of the church went forth of his own accord, and commenced to
labor among the Wyandott Indians. In 1817, an interesting




884               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
revival took place through his labors, and many of the tribe
were converted. This mission was maintained with great success by the Society, until the division of the church in 1844,
when it fell within the jurisdiction, and is now under the management of the Methodist Church South. The membership of
this mission consists of 189 persons, of whom three are local
preachers. A mission among the Creek Indians, established in
1822, prospered greatly for several years, during which many
were added to the church; but in 1830, the evil influence of
dissipated white men, and other influences, compelled its abandonment. Missions were successively undertaken among the
Mohawks, Mississangas, Cherokees, Choctaws, and Potowatamies. Some of these are still flourishing under the auspices of
the Church South.
The Indian Missions at present sustained by the Methodist
Missionary Society, are twelve in number: the Brothertown,
Oneida, Sault St. Marie, Kewawenon, Fond du Lac, Sandy
Lake, Flint (two), Nottaway, Oneida and Onondaga, St. Regis,
and Wyandott Missions. They are carried on by seventeen
missionaries, and the total number of church members in connection with them is 1,079.
The Liberia Mission was undertaken in 1832, by the excellent Melville Cox, who soon fell a victim to the climate, exclaiming with his dying breath, "Africa must not be given up."
It consists at present of fifteen missionaries, besides a number
of local preachers, who occupy eighteen stations, and visit the
native towns in the vicinity, which are accessible. The churches
connected with the mission number 1,117 members; the schools,
of which there are twenty, contain 810 scholars, among whom
within the first year there have been seventy-five conversions.
The Oregon Mission, begun in 1833, resulted in the formation of the "Oregon and California Mission Conference," in
September, 1849. This Conference is now composed of seven
missionaries, and there are fourteen local preachers in the Mis



AND REGISTER.                  385
sion, which consists of eight stations in Oregon, and six in California.  The three mission churches in Oregon contain 404
members; the schools number 261 scholars.
The Mission to South America is chiefly designed for the
benefit of British and American residents. In 1836, a missionary was sent to Buenos Ayres, and another to Rio de Janeiro.
The latter, Rev. D. P. Kidder, has published, in an interesting
work, the results of his experience and investigations in Brazil.
A third mission to Montevideo was begun in 1838. Two of
these efforts have proved unsuccessful; the mission to Buenos
Ayres is alone continued at present. The church connected
with it contains fifty-one members, and the Sunday-school has
an average attendance of one hundred.
The Mission to China is the most recent of the enterprises of
this Society. It was commenced in 1847, by sending forth two
young ministers; and in the course of a few months, two more
were commissioned. One of the latter number, Mr. Hickok, has
since been compelled, by reason of ill-health, to return. The
missionaries are engaged in daily preaching in the streets, in
the distribution of tracts, and in the care of the sick. Each of
them has under his supervision a day-school taught by a Chinese
master. The three schools contain sixty-four scholars, with an
average attendance of fifty a day. This mission is strictly in
its infancy, but its laborers are not without encouragement already, in the yielding of prejudices, and the willingness to listen
to the preaching of the Gospel.
The Society has recently sent one missionary, and has since
appointed another, to labor in Germany. They have been quite
successful in this enterprise, of which, however, it does not enter
into our design to treat, more fully here.
The Methodist Episcopal Missionary Society, during the year
ending in May last, expended for its various missions the sum
of $100,989 63; its receipts having amounted to $107,835 73.
At the meeting of the General Missionary Committee and Board
17




386        CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.
of Managers, it was decided, in view of the wants of the missionary world, to increase this sum, by a special effort for the
succeeding year, to $150,000. It is to be hoped that a hearty
response will be given to this call for renewed exertion and sacrifice.
The present operations of this Society may be briefly summed
up as follows. The number of its missionaries in the foreign
department, exclusive of printers, teachers, mechanics, &c., is
thirty-four; in the home department, including the Indian,
German, and Swedish missions, 464. The number of church
members connected with the foreign missions is 1,611; connected with the home missions, 38,882; total, 40,493.




CHAPTER XXVI.
SMALLER AMERICAN MISSIONARY         SOCIETIES.
WE proceed to mention briefly some of the missionary organi.
zations in this country, which have not yet attained equal size
with those we have already noticed.
The American Missionary Association was constituted in
1846, at a convention held at Albany. It was formed by the
union of three similar associations which had existed for a few
years. It is well known that this Society is supported mainly
by individuals of the abolitionist party, who are unwilling to
unite with the American Board, from the alleged countenance
it has given to slavery in some of its missions among the
Indians. The first mission undertaken by the association, was
that to the Mendi country, in West Africa. The liberation of
the captives of the Amistad, and their return to Africa, were the
occasion of this enterprise.  It was planted at Kaw-Mendi,
where there are now laboring three missionaries, six assistants
and three native assistants. The mission school is in a prosperous state, and numbers eighty scholars. Since the arrival of
Mr. Thompson, thirty individuals have been hopefully converted.
The Siam Mission, for some time interrupted by the removal of
its laborers, has been re-occupied by three missionaries, who
arrived at Bangkok in the spring of 1850. The state of things at
that station is represented as more favorable than previously to
the success of the mission. In the Island of Jamaica, four sta



888               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
tions and two out-stations are occupied under this Society, by
five missionaries and five teachers. The congregations are large;
and the schools contain about 200 scholars.   Among the
Ojibways in the Minesota Territory, six missionaries with five
assistants are laboring at three stations. In the Sandwich Islands,
one mission at Makawao, East Maui, is still connected with the
Association, but supports itself; and at Mount Hope in Canada,
a school with two hundred scholars is sustained by it. The
number of this Society's missions is five, with ten stations; it
supports twelve missionaries, and eleven male and twenty
female assistants. There are also four native assistants, and
seven laborers under appointment. Receipts for the last year,
$26,849 66.
The Foreign Xissionary Society of the Lutheran Church
was founded in 1837, in response to an appeal from    Mr.
Rhenius and his associates the German missionaries in India.
The only mission as yet under its direction is situated in the
district of Guntoor, in the Madras presidency, India. Three
missionaries are now laboring in this field: Mr. Martz at Guntoor,
and Messrs. Heyer and Gunn at Guyal. The former station
has five schools containing 160 scholars; several persons have
offered themselves for baptism. Mr. Heyer has met with great
success at Guyal.  In eight villages of the Palvaud he has
baptized 32 adults, and 24 children. He has 27 candidates for
baptism, and 103 children under instruction. Besides these
laborers, two missionaries and their wives have recently sailed to
reinforce the mission. The receipts of the Society, for the last
year, were $4,230 42.
The General Synod of the Associate Reformed Presbyterian
Church established in 1844 a mission at Damascus, composed
of two missionaries, Dr. Paulding and the Rev. James Barnett.
In the autumn of 1850, two more missionaries, the Rev. Messrs.
Frazier and Lansing, were sent out-the latter by the Associate
Reformed Synod of New York. The first-fruits of this mission were




AND REGISTER.                   389
gathered a few months since, in the conversion of two adults.
But one other mission is sustained by this Church-in Oregon,
where the Rev. Mr. Blair has been laboring for two years. Receipts for the last year, $3,182 32.
The Methodist Episcopal Church South has a missionary
society, whose operations as yet are almost wholly of a domestic
character. It supports, however, a mission at Shanghai, in
China, where two missionaries, Messrs. Taylor and Jenkins, have
been laboring for a short time. In California, also, it sustains
three missionaries, who have but recently arrived there.
The Southern Baptist Convention sustains through its Board
of Foreign Missions, twelve laborers in heathen lands, besides
twenty-four assistants. Its stations in China are at Shanghai,
where there are three missionaries, who preach to large congregations in two chapels, and at Canton, where two missionaries
are stationed. At the former place, three Chinese were baptized
within the last year; a school of twenty scholars has been established at a short distance from the city. In Africa, ten stations
are occupied, in the colony of Liberia; there are several flourishing schools with upwards of three hundred scholars. The
churches at these stations have received large accessions during
the last year. A mission is contemplated, also, in Central
Africa, and three missionaries are now engaged in exploring the
country. This Society has projected a great extension of its
foreign work, and we trust will rapidly increase in strength and
activity. Its receipts for the past year were $28,697 70.
The Baptist Free Mission Society was formed in 1843, by a
convention of Baptists at Boston. It is supported by those who
refuse to unite with the main society of the denomination from
a determination to "separate from all connection with the known
avails of slavery, in the support of" Missionary operations. The
only foreign mission of this Society is one at the island of Hayti,
in the West Indies. It consists of two stations: Port-au-Prince,




390        CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.
and Port-de-paix; with two missionaries and five female assistants. Its receipts for the last year, were $6,571 81.
The Free Will Baptist Foreign Mission Society was organized in 1833, in connection with the English General Baptist
Society, of which we have given some notice. In 1837, however, it undertook a separate enterprise. Its missions are two:
at Balasore and Jellasore, in the province of Orissa, Bengal.
Three missionaries with four assistants and three native preachers occupy this field. About one hundred and thirty youth are
receiving instruction at the school. The receipts for the last
year, were $4,433 05.
The Seventh )Day Baptists sustain a mission at Shanghai in
China, where two missionaries are now laboring. A chapel has
been opened, and one convert baptized. Receipts for the last
year, about $1,200.




CHAPTER XXVII.
SOCIETIES FOR EVANGELIZING THE JEWS.
SEVERAL of the missionary bodies we have already noticed are
engaged to some extent in the work of evangelizing the Jewish
population, in various parts of the world. Among these we
have specified the labors of the Free and Established Churches
of Scotland, the American Board, and the Presbyterian Board.
There are, however, several institutions whose peculiar sphere of
labor is among the Jews.
The London Society for promoting Christianity among the
Jews has reached its forty-second year. It employs at present
sixty-five laborers, chiefly in Great Britain, and operates through
other instrumentalities, as a Temporal-Relief Fund, a Hebrew
College, and two schools. It has, also, issued during the last
year 20,000 tracts, principally in Hebrew, and about 5,700
Bibles and Testaments. The number of converts fiom Judaism
during the last year was one hundred, besides about thirty who
are only prevented by civil authorities from uniting with the
Church. The receipts of this Society for the last year amounted
to ~28,278 4s. 10d., or $136,867.
The British Societyfor the Propagation of the Gospel among
the Jews was formed six years ago. During the last year it
supported some ten missionaries, in England, Germany, and
Holland. It has a mission college with about twelve pupils
who are preparing for the missionary work. During the year,
five converts have been baptized in England, and five at Frankfort in Germany. Its receipts were ~3,829 3s. 4d., or $18,540.




392              CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
The American Society for meliorating the Condition of the
Jews has been in existence twenty-seven years. It now sustains
eight missionaries among the Jews, who are laboring at Charleston, New York, and other stations with some success. It is only
eight years since this Society has directly sustained any laborers,
and the converts from Judaism during that time have been twentyseven. The receipts for the last year were $5,641 76. We are
happy to add that the increase for tle present year (1850-51)
promises to be considerable; the receipts will probably amount
to $11,000.
It would be difficult to make any precise estimate of the
number of Jews who have been brought into the Christian
Church of late years by various instrumentalities. Da Costa, the
author of a valuable work recently published, observes that the
number of Jews baptized in Germany during the last twenty
years, is estimated at 5,000; and mentions 3,000 as the number of those baptized in Russia within the last few years.




CHAPTER XXVIII.
CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY.
WE have now reached the end of our undertaking. How
we have executed it, we must leave to others to decide. It has
not been an easy one, and the time which was allowed us for
its execution has been very short. We have endeavored to do
what we proposed as the object to be accomplished with a heartfelt conscientiousness. Wherein we have, in the estimation of
our readers, come short of making such a work as they had
expected to find this, we beg them to forgive us. We cannot
be surprised if others should not judge this book to be what
it ought, for we are far from being satisfied with it in all respects,
ourselves, notwithstanding the partiality of authors for the productions of their pens.
But whatever may be desired in this volume, written in the
course of a few weeks, we think that it demonstrates that Mankind have made great advances in all that concerns their temporal
well-being during the Half Century of which it treats. No one
will undertake to maintain that, in all that relates to their
MATERIAL INTERESTS, our race has not made great progress
since the commencement of the XIXth century. The great
expansion of Commerce; the vast augmentation of Wealth;
the rapid growth of Manufactures; the increased application of
Science to the arts of production; the multiplication of the facilities of intercommunication, as seen in thousands of Steamboats
and in the many Railroads made or making; the remarkable
attention-given to institutions for the reformation of delinquents
177




894               CHRISTIAN RETROSPECT
and criminals, restoration of the sick to health, and the insane to
the possession of reason; the instruction of the deaf and dumb,
of the blind and of the idiotic; the successful efforts to promote the education of the masses; the enlarged freedom of the
press; the widening diffusion of the principles of constitutional
liberty, and their manifestation in more popular forms of government-all proves that there has been an astonishing movement
in this direction since the year A. D. eighteen hundred. History
records, in our opinion, no similar progress during any fifty
years of the long period of 5854 which has elapsed since the
creation of man. That the latter half of the century will show
still greater progress, we are far from being disposed either to
deny, or to doubt. That there has also been a great progress in
all that has a bearing on the MORAL AND RELIGIOUS INTERESTS
of Humanity, during the same era, is a position which none can
question. This is especially true of the Protestant World. The
increased spirit of prayer, and the effort to which it has
prompted, in behalf of both Home and Foreign Missions; the
greatly augmented attention to the religious instruction of the
youth in Sunday Schools and Bible-classes; the wonderful exertions made to translate, print and diffuse the Sacred Scriptures,
and Religious Tracts; the enlarged liberty to preach Christ's
Gospel; the opening up of the way to carry Christianity into
nations which have never known it, and to restore it to those
which have corrupted it; the more fiequent visitations of the
Holy Spirit, by which many have been made to submit to the
Saviour in a short period-all this demonstrates that there has
been a glorious advance in whatever concerns the best, (because spiritual,) interests of mankind.
We are pained to be compelled to admit, however, that the
progress in the Moral and Religious Interests of our race, during
the period under review, has not equalled that of their Material
Interests. Great as has been the resuscitation of a true Christianity, and numerous and happy as have been its fruits, —for




AND REGISTER.                   395
which we cannot be too thankful,-still it is deplorable to think
that a few merchants in New York can raise with almost no
effort at all, more than twice as much money to build four
splendid Ocean Steamers as all the receipts of all the Religious
Societies in the United States to send the Gospel to millions of
men who have never heard it. But what is the building of four
Steamships, gigantic and splendid as they may be, to the vast
outlay for many lines of Steamers, for numerous and costly
Railroads, as well as for other enterprises by which the wealth
of the contributors may be augmented?
We are far from regretting the prosperity in material interests of which we have just spoken; we only mourn over the
fact that there is not an equal prosperity in spiritual affairs.
We are far from being disposed to estimate for nothing the
fact that, in the year 1850, $1,750,000 were raised in the United
States, $3,500,000 in Great Britain, and $750,000 on the
Continent of Europe and other parts of the world,* for the promotion of Christianity at home and abroad; but we cannot but
deplore that it was not far greater, when we think of the infinite
importance of the blessings which it brings to men, and of their
hopeless condition without it. We bless God for the success of
the Gospel in turning men unto God, wherever it has been
preached during the last fifty years; still we cannot but ask,
with the deepest sorrow, why has it not had greater success Why
are so few interested, awakened, convinced, converted, and saved
by all the efforts which the churches are making? Oh, what
malignant influence, what dreadful obstacle, what Heaven-provoking offence prevents the Divine blessing from coming down
upon God's own word and ordinances, in all that abundance
which He himself has encouraged us to look for? Is it because
of too great a reliance upon our own wisdom,-upon our organizations, which are so characteristic of the age? Where is the
~ Total, $6,000,000.




396       CIRISTIAN RETROSPECT AND REGISTER.
evil? Whose is the fault? Reader, these are serious inquiries
for us, and for all who profess to be the followers of Christ.
Can it be that we are faithfully acting the part of the LORD'S
REMEMBRANCERS?' Can it be that the people of God are fully
awake, or anything like it, to their great privileges, their momentous duties, and their solemn responsibilities?
But we must here bring this volume to a close. May our
blessed Lord deign to make it the means of contributing, in
some degree, to the advancement of His glorious kingdom in
this world; and to Him alone be the glory,-to us, the joy.
N.B.-After the portion of this work relating to the British
and Foreign Bible Society had been printed, we received intelligence of the death of those excellent men, Lord Bexley
and the Rev. A. Brandram, the former President, and the latter
Secretary, of that institution.
X Is. chap. Ixii. 6, (Marginal reading).




AP PENDI X
TABULAR VIEW OF MISSIONS:
I-BY MISSIONARY SOCIETIES.
** THE total number of missionaries, assistants, and stations%
as given below, may be taken as nearly complete. The amount
of receipts is likewise exact. But the number of communicants
is necessarily quite incomplete; it may, however, be stated in
round numbers at 300,000 at the lowest estimate.
Societies.   Mission- Ass'ts. Stations. Communi- Scholars.  Receipts.
aries.              cants.
Gos. Propagation  355                              $444,700.00
Eng. Baptist Mises  64  324  194   65008    4,276    95,719.00
Gen. Bapt. Miss.   8    10     7     135      106     9,135.00
London Miss.     171   700   103    9,808*  17,000*  302,637.00
Church Miss.     147  I579   106   13,551  32,268*  604,685.00
Eng. Wesl. Miss.  427'81   324  105,394  78,548   540,560.00
Glasgow Miss.                                         8,095.00
Scottish Oh. Miss.  14   7     8            2,131    51,260.00
Scot. Free Church  37   57    22             6,000  100,681.00
Scot. Secess. Ch.  33    9                           45,125.00
Irish Presb. Oh.   6*    2*   83
Eng. Presb. Ch.    1*  sev.    1*
French Miss.      10     4    10    1,340     850    25,600.00
Rhenish Miss.     43          25    1,400*   6i00*   25,630.00
Returns incompletoe




398                         APPENDIX.
Societies.     Mission- Ass'ts. Stations. Communi- Scholars.  Receipts.
aries.                 cants.
Basle Missionary    29           20              1,967*   54,000.00
Unit. Breth. Miss. 282           69   70,000              53,540.00
Berlin Missionary   11*           7                        17,000.00
Gosner's Miss.      19            2                         3,630.00
Dresden Miss.        4*           2                         9,200.00
Leipsic Miss.        6*           3      137*    1,000     8,000.00
Hamburg Miss.        6     2      5                         5,000.00
Stockholm Miss.                                            4,555.00
Btavanger Miss.      4*                                    3,365.00
Norway Miss.
Netherlands Miss.    8*    4*    38       130*             27,000.00
Am. Board          157    360   134    25,875   22,824   251,339.35
Am. Bapt. Union     56   250    155    12,500    2,772    87,537.20
Presb. Board Miss.  55    43     28      282     1,709   126,075.40
Epis. Board Miss.   10     9*     8        96      656    86,114.11
Methodist Miss.     34    sev.    8     1,611              38,193.14
Am. Miss. Assoc.    12    31     10       380             26,849.66
Lutheran Miss.       5            2               263      4,230.42
Assoc. Pres. Church  5            2                         3,182.32
M. E. Ch., South     5            2                        6,000.00
Baptist Ch., South  12    24     12                320    28,697.70
Bapt. Free Miss.     2     5      2                        6,571.81
Free-Will Bapt.      3      7     2                130      4.433.05
Seventh-Day Bapt.    2            1                         1,200.00
88               2033   4208  1280   247,867* 172,720 $2,959,541.16
II.-BY   COUNTRIES AND STATIONS.
I. WESTERN AFRICA.
Stations.                Mission- Ass'ts. Nat. Commu- Schools. Schoaries.     Ass'ts. nic'ts.    lars.
CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Freetown,                      5     2    8     213    9    1727
River district,                2     1   25     839   14    2126
Mountain district,             3     1   12     722    10   1501
eturnsincomplete.        t Including all under religious instruction.




APPENDIX                         3 99
Stations.               Mission- Ass'ts. Nat. Commu- Schools. Schoaries.    Ass'ts. nic'ts.     lars.
Sea district,                 1    1    9    280   13    854
Timneh mission,               1         2      7    2     42
Abbeoluta,                    4         7    102    4    324
Badagry,                      2    2    3     20    2      94
At home,                     5
WESLEYAN MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Sierra Leone district,        7  43         4'12   16   2958
Gambia district,             3.    8         4'6    3    151
Cape Coast district,         5    66         809   23   1014
BAPTIST MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Fernando Po,                 2               113
Clarence, &c.,               1    4
Bimbia, &c.,                 3    4                 1    100
Cameroons,                   1                 5    6    350
BASLE MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Akropong,                    4          1           2     70
Danish Accra,                3    1                 2    128
HA1IIBURG MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Cape Coast, &c.,             1
AMERICAN BOARD OF MISSIONS,
Gaboon River,                5    3           22    4     67
AM. BAPTIST MISSIONARY UNION,
Bassa tribe,                      2    5      20    3     60
AMERICAN PRESBYTERIAN BOARD,
Liberia,                     2     2          62    3     72
Settra Kroo,                 1     3                1     15
Near the Equator,            2     2
AM. PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL BOARD,
Liberia,                     5    6   sev.    80    6    160
AMI. M. E. MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Liberia,                    15    sev.      1117   20    810
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION,
Mendi country,,3    6    3     26    1     80
AM. SOUTHERN BAPTIST BOARD,
Liberia,                     5   12         many    7    828
Boporah,                     2     1




400                       APPENDIX.
II. SOUTHERN AFRICA.
Stations.              Mission- Ass'ta. Nat. Comm a- Schools. Schoaries.     Ass'ts. nic'ts.   larZs
MISSIONS OF UNITED BRETHREN,*
Gnadenthal,                 15               890       t2795
Groenekloof,                 8               344        1347
Robben Island,               2                15          43
Elim,                        8               298        1186
Enon,                        4                92         392
Clarkson,                    4                           320
Shiloh,                      7                174        691
Mamre,                       4                           100
Goshen,                      8
LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Cape Town,                   2                28    2    491
Paarl,                       1               100    3    184
Tulbagh,                     1                73    4     284
Caledon Institution,         1               262         160
Pacaltsdorp,                 2                10    2    160
Dysalsdorp,                   1              110           75
Hankey,                      1     1         186         300
Bethelsdorp,                       1          98    2      72
Port Elizabeth,               1    1         230         200
UIitenhage,                   1              220           90
Graham's Town,               2               231         104
Graaff Reinet,                     1          64          100
Theopolis,                    1               59           54
Colesburg,                   1                40          90
Somerset,                    1               123          36
Kat River,                   2                41
Tidmanton,                    1
Cradock,.1               82          106
Long Kloof,                  1                70          110
Fort Beaufort,                               105    5     237
Buffalo River,               1                67          52
Knapp's Hope,                 1               16           30
King William's Town,          1               40           50
The United Brethren include among their missionaries the wives of such as are
married.
t Including all who are under religious instruction.




APPENDIX.                        401
Stations.               Mission- Ass'ts. Nat. Commu- Schools. Scho.
aries.     Ass'ts. nic'ts.   lars.
Griqua Town,                  2              540     7    435
Lekatlong,                    1              300          100
Philippolis,                  1               353         110
Kuruman,                      3              400          158
Mamusa,                       1               115          40
Mabotsa,                           1            q          20
Kolobeng,                     1
Matebe,                       1                            20
WESLEYAN MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Cape of Good Hope district   10   24         1439  v1    2961
-9 stations,
Bechuana district —  stations,  7  11        597     9    925
Albany and Kaffraria dis-)   23'0         2329        4396
trict-26 stations,
FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND,
Cape Town,                    1    1
Lovedale,                     3    3           45    1     28
Burnshill,                    1    3'0
Pirie,                        1    2
UNITED SCOTTISH PRESB. CHURCH,
Chumie, &c.,                  2    1    8
FRENCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Carmel,                       1    I           35          20
Bethulia,                     1               200           6
Beersheba,                    1               391          80
Bethesda,                     1    1           23           8
Moriah,                       I    1          326          46
Berea,                        1                27
Thaba Bossiou,                1    1          114           9
Mekuatling,                   1'73         50
Wellington,                   1               41'70
Motito,                       1               100
RHENISH MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Whale Bay,                    1
New Barmen,                   2
Rehoboth,                     1    1          100
Nama Bethania,                2    1
Steinkopff, -                      2           86




402                       APPENDIX.
Stations.               Mission- Ass'ts. Nat. Commu- Schools. Schoaries.    Ass'ts. nic'ts.    lars.
Ebenezer,                    2
Wupperthal,                  4                61
Amandelboom,                 2                            90
Tulbagh-Steinthal,           2     2          44         180
Worcester,                   2               140         206
Stellenbosch and Sarepta,    3    4          229
BERLIN MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Zoar,                        1
Platberg,                    1                            30
Pniel,                       2
Hebron,                      2
Sharon,                      1
Port Natal,                  2
STAVANGER MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Port Natal,                  4
GOSPEL PROPAGATION SOCIETY,
Cape Town,                   3    1
Stellenbosch, &c.,          12
AMERICAN BOARD OF MISSIONS,
Umvati (12 stations,).    12   20'8    8    185
III. EASTERN AFRICA.
CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Rabbai MIpia,                5
LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Port Louis (Mauritius,)      1               sev.   1.IV. THE EAST.
CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Greece-Syra,                 1    1    9      14    5    462
Asia Minor-Smyrna,           1    1     1
Egypt-Cairo,                 2     1    4     18    2    178
JEWS' SOCIETY,
Smyrna,                           1
Salonica,                    1    1
Bucharest,                   1    1
Jerusalem,                   4     6




APPENDIX.                    403
Stations.            Mission- Ass'ts. Nat. Commu- Schools. Schoaries.    Ass'ts. nic'ts.  lars.
Safet,                         1
Cairo,                    1    1
Bagdad, &c.,              2
AMERICAN BOARD OF MISSIONS,
Armenians:
Constantinople,           4    6   6    105
Bebek,,,            2    2    2
Broosa,                   2    2    1
Smyrna,                   3    3    4
Trebizond,                2    2    3 - 132    9   159
Erzeroom,                 2    2    1
Aintab,                   2    2
Niconledia, &c.,                    9
Syria:
Beyroot,                  2    6    3    16    3    83
Abeih,                    3    3    1     3    6    111
Tripoli,                  2    2          1    1    15
Aleppo,                   2    2               2    12
Mostll,                   2    1
Hasbeiya, &c.                             7    2    50
Nestorians:
Oroomiah,                 3'    9    sev.  33   633
Seir,                     2    2    4 hundreds. 1   44
At home,                  2    2
AM. PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL BOARD,
Athens,                   1    2  sev.             450
AM. BAPTIST MISSIONARY UNION,
Greece-Pireus,           1    1      t  10    1    60
Corfu,                    1    2.
AM. Assoc. REFORMED CHURCH,
Damascus,                 8    4               2
V. INDIA.
GOSPEL PROPAGATION SOCIETY,
Calcutta,                 1
"   (Bishop's College,)  1  2
Howrah,                   2
Tallygunge,               2        28




404                 APPENDIX.
Stations.         Mission- Ass'ts. Nat. Commu- Schools. Schoaries.  Assts. nic'ts.  lars.
Barripore,             2
Nerbudda,              1
Cawnpore,             1
Tamlook,               1
Ahmedabad,             1
Madras Mission,       23  14 205 15,642 169  4912
CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY,          V
Bombay,               4   3   23   14  16   883
Nassuck, Astagaum, and Mal- t  10  29       340
ligaum,          f
Junir,                 1      4         3   150
Calcutta,              4   2  39   136  14  1169
Burdwan,               2   1  11   54   9   624
Krishnaghur,           9  4 106   648  38  1525
Bhagulpur,             1
Benares,               4   6  31   74   6   456
Chunar,               1       7    46   6   836
Jaunpore,                  2  16   19   4   409
Gorruckpore,          1   1   6    70   3   167
Agra,                  3      12  153  10   333
Meerut,                1      4    30   2    75
Kotghur,               1       7    4   6    67
Madras,                4      19  145   9   362
Tinnevelly districts,  14    425  2680 239  6246
Travancore districts,  17    109  889  63  2059
Telugu,               3       18   19   8   127
At home,               4
BAPTIST MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Calcutta-Circ. Road,   1           96
"    Lal Bazar,     2       1   140   2   120
"    Kolinga,       3            54
Intally,              2       2    49
Haura and Salkiya,     1      3    26   8   180
Nursikdachoke,         2       3   52   1    25
Lakhyantipur,          2      8    67   4   100
Khari,                 2      1    48   1    40
Malayapur,             1       1        1    46
Dum Dum,               1       1   25
Serampore,             8      6    127  8    650




APPENDIX.              405
Stations.        Mission- Ass'ts. Nat. Commu- Schools. Schoaries.  Ass'ts. nic'ts.  lars.
Cutwa,               1      4   31   1   10
Suri, Birbhum,       1      3   36   2   100
Dinajpur,                   1   18  2   86
Jessore,             1     10   206  4   160
Burisal,             2     10   177  8   160
Dacca,               1      4    21
Chittagong,          1      1    39  2   42
Monghir,             2      1    49  2   90
Benares,             3     13   20   5   270
Agra,                1      1   119
Saugor,              1      1   21
Chitaura,            1      4   23   2   60
Muttra,              1      2    9   1   60
Delhi,               1      2    15
Madras,              1      2    41  8
GENERAL BAPTIST MISS. SOCIETY,
Cuttack,             2      1   141  2  120
Choga,                      1   60
Khundita,                   2
Piplee,              2      2
Berhampore,          2      4   44   2   58
LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Calcutta,            8      8   266 12 1148
Berhampore,          2      1        8  115
Benares,             4  1                380
Mirzapore,           2   2       18  5   192
Guzerat,             2
Madras,              2          108 17  224
Vizagapatam,         3          40   2   150
Chicacole,           1      8   16   2   68
Cuddapah,            1      6   32   7   272
Belgaum,             2      83  20 12   445
Bellary,             3      4   86 12   417
Bangalore,           4      7    6  12  445
Mysore,              1           12  4    77
Salem,               1      9   88   6   141
Combacorum,          1               9   327
Coimbatoor,          1     28   30 14   988




406                 APPENDIX.
Stations.          Mission- Ass'ts. Nat. Commu- Schools. Scho.
aries.  Ass'ts. nic'ts.  lars.
Nagercoil,             4                19   q60
Neyoor,                2   1  66    65  42  1444
Quilon,                1       9        13   321
Trevandrumn,           1      11    13   8   171
WESLEYAN MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Madras,                3       6   161   4   275
Negapatam,             3      18    20   9   267
Manaargoody,           2      10    22  10   454
Bangalore (Tamul,)     1       5   148   4   140
"   (Canarese,)     2       5    27   5   202
Mysore,                2       3     1   3   116
Goobbee, &c.,          1       5     8   5   157
Coonghul,              1       5     1   5   169
CHURCH OF SCOTLAND,
Calcutta,              8                    1021
Madras,                5                     300
Bombay,                2   2                 395
Ghospara,                      2              50
FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND,
Calcutta,              5 sev. sev.       4  2000
Bombay,                3       2         1  1200
Madras,                3      sel.      10  1400
Poonah,                3   1   9    28  10   600
Nagpur and Kampti,     2   2   4             600
IRISH PRESBYTERIAN MISSION,
Katiawar,              6       2
BASLE MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Mangalore,             6       5   250   2
Moolky,                1            40
Dharwar,               2       6    49       412
Hoobly,                2      /      5       330
Bettigherry,           2             3   5   204
Malasamoodra,          2             7   2    25
Catery and Catagherry,  3      1    19        70
Cannanore,             1      10   130   4   130
Tellicherry,           4   1  14   161  12   355
Calicut,               2      13    45'7   271
Dacca,                 4




APPENDIX.                        407
Stations.               Mission- Ass'ts. Nat. Commu- Schools. Schoaries.    Ass'ts. nic'ts.    larso
Dayapoor,                     2         1     50
Comilla,                      2         1
BERLIN MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Ghazeepoor,                   2                            50
LEIPSIC MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Tranquebar,                   2
Mayaveram,                    2        19     137   28   1070
Poreiar,                      2 
HAMBURG MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Rajamundry,                   3                            19
Ootacamuud (independent miss.,) 1     sev.           3     76
AMERICAN BOARD OF MISSIONS,
Bombay,                       4    3    2           11    404
Ahmednuggur,                  7    7   10    112    24    900
Madras,                       4    5'     30    13    400
Madura,                      11   13   53    202    21   1540
AMERICAN PRESBYTERIAN BOARD,
Lodiana,                     11    8   10     58    10    433
Furrukhabad,                  8    5    4     107    7    898
Allahabad,                    5    3    6     42     6    899
AMERICAN BAPTIST MISS. UNION,
Nellore,                      3    3                10    250
AMERICAN LUTHERAN MISSIONS,
Guntoor                       3    1                 5    160
Guyal,                        1         6                 103
AMERICAN FREE-WILL BAPTISTS,
Balasore,                     1    1    2     13     3     66
Jellasore,                    2    3           16    1     1t
VI. CEYLON.
GOSPEL PROPAGATION SOCIETY,
Putlam, 
Matura,                       1
Neura Ellia,                  1                     30   1500
Colombo,                      2
Kandy,                        1        30         J
CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Cotta,                        6        62    104   40    1216




408                      APPENDIX.
Stations.             Mission- Ass'ts. Nat. Commu- Schools. Schoaries.    Ass'ts. nic'ts.   lars.
Kandy,                      2        11     28    5    132
Baddagame,                  2         6     32   6     182
Nellore,                    1        13     44   12    540
Copay,                      1         7      8   6     287
Chundicully,                1        19     80   11   479
BAPTIST MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Colombo,                    1         1     85    4    131
Byamville,                            1    107    5    163
Kottigahawatta,                       1     68   6    1'2
Toomboville,                          1     17
Weilgama,                             1    28    1     25
Hendella,                             1     26
Gonawella,                            1     35   3     80
Hanwella,                             1     29
Matura,                     1         2     20    7    121
Kandy,                      1              25    2     43
Gahalaya, &c.,                        3
Matella,                              1     15    2    45
WESLEYAN MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Singhalese, or South Ceylon 
district, Or SUth  y     12        91   1214   q4   2760
Tamul, or North Ceylon1                    341   29   1365
/       61    341   29   1365
district,
AMERICAN BOARD OF MISSIONS,
Ceylon Mission-Batticotta,  11  16   22     45  1    433
Oodooville, &c. 
VII. CHINA, SIAM, BURMAH, ETC.
CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
China: Shanghai,            3
"    Ningpo,             2
"    Hongkong,           1
" On their way,        2
LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
China: Hongkong,            1    1          6    1     38
"  Canton,             3    1    1
"  Shanghai,           4    2
C   Amoy,               8    1           3    2     27




APPENDIX.                  409
Stations           Mission- Ass'ts. Nat. Commu- Schools. Schoaries.   Ass'ts. nic'ts.  lars.
GENERAL BAPTIST MISSIONS,
China: Ningpo,          1   1   1     1    1    24
BASLE MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
China: Hongkong,        2             7
AMiERICAN BOARD OF MISSIONS,
China: Canton,          3   5   2          1    14
Amoy,             2   2   1     3    1    25
"   Fuh-Chau,         6   5             2     18
AMERICAN PRESBYTERIAN BOARD,
China: Canton,          3   1             1    18.<  Ningpo,           8  10         8   3'1
Siam: Bangkok,          2   3   1     1
AM. PROT. EPISCOPAL BOARD,
China: Shanghai,        2   2'   1    46
M. E. MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
China: Fuh-Chau,        3                 8     64
M. E. CHURCH SOUTH,
China: Shanghai,        2
AM. BAPTIST MISSIONARY UNION,
Burmah: Maulmain,       3   8   13   212   8   345
Karen:     "            4   6   34  1708   9   201
"    Tavoy            5   5  19   933   20   377
"    Sandoway,        8   2  44   4500  21   495
Arraca:                 4   2    6    55
Assam:                  5   6    4    57  22   700
Siam: Bangkok,          3   3   4     29   2    26
China: Hongkong,        2       6 
Ningpo,            3   3       13          6
SOUTH BAPTIST BOARD,
China: Shanghai,        3   3         3    1    20
"   Canton,           2   2   6     1
SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS,
China: Shanghai,        2   2         1
AM. MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION,
Siam: Bangkok,          3   3
VIII. INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO, AUSTRALASIA, AND POLYNESIA.
CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
New Zealand: northern district, 3  4  99  8'1
18




410                     APPENDIX.
Stations.            Mission- Ass'ts. Nat. Commu- Schools. Schoaries.   Ass'ts.  nic'ts.  lars.
New Zealand: middle district,  8  4'4  1224
"     eastern district,  4  1 132  2054  80   3500
c"    western district, 4  1 156   1064  28   2322
at home,       1
LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
South Seas: Tahiti,        6    I        600       1000
"  Eimeo,          1              205
<  Huahine,        1              380        270
Raiatea,          2                         200
Tahaa,
Borabora,                       235         257
"  Rarotonga,      1              29
Avarua,        1              170        300
Arorangi,         1             150         300
"     Aitutaki,        1
"  Mangaia,        1              618
"     Savaii,         3             413         387
"    polu,         8    2
Tutuila,        1             531         833
"  Anatom,         2    1
WESLEYAN MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
New South Wales,          14       37
Australia Felix,           3       12
South Australia,           5        6   4210   31  1899
Western Australia,         1        2
Van Dieman's Land,         7          J
New Zealand,              20       17   4328   75  2973
Friendly Islands,         10        9   7202
Feejee,                    5       38   1713  49   1960
BAPTIST MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Sumatra,                   1
Java,                      1
RHENISH MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Borneo: Banjarmassing,          1               1    20
"    Palingkau,                  1     12    1    120
"    Bethabara,         1         1     6    1    120
"    Bintang,           1         2     6          s80
GOSNER'S MISSIONARY SOCIETY,




APPENDIX.                      411
Stations.              Mission- Ass'ts. Nat. Commu- Schools. Schoaries.    Ass'ts. nic'ts.   lars.
Australia: Zion Hill,      14
DRESDEN MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
New Holland: Adelaide,      2
("      Encounter Bay, 2
UNITED BRETIIREN'S MISSIONS,
New Holland: Port Philip,   2
AMERICAN BOARD OF MISSIONS,
Sandwich Islands: Hawaii,   8   10
r"       Maui,      4    4    2
Molokai,   2    2    1 23,102   893 12,012
Oahu,          4   14    2
Kauai,         2    7
at home,   2    1
Corresponding members, 10.
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION,
Sandwich Islands: Makawao,  1    1
IX. NORTH AMERICA.
(hiiefly among the Indians.)
CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
N1. TV. America:
Red River,                  1    2    3    331    5    321
Indian settlement,          1         1     91    2    104
Cumberland,                 2         2     61    4    152
Manitoba,                   1         1      6    2     46
WESLEYAN MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
West Canada,               50        24   6129   12
East Canada,               20         3   3849
New Brunswick,             24         2   3725
Newfoundland,              13         8   2193    8    466
Hudson's Bay,               2         4    119    2     54
UNITED BRETIREN'S MISSIONS,
Delaware Indians,           5
Cherokee Indians,           5
Florida,                    2
AMERICAN BOARD OF MISSIONS,
Oregon,                     3    3
Choctaw,                    5   28    1   1100    6    215




412                     APPENDIX.
Stations.             Mission- Ass'ts. Nat. Commu- Schools. Schoaries.    Ass'ts. nic'ts.  lars.
Cherokee,                  5  11    5    209   4    120
Dakota,                    6  14          63   3    144
Ojibwa,                    2   4    1     25   1     37
New York,                  5   13   1    227   8    201
Abenaquis,                          1     56
AMERICAN PRESBYTERIAN BOARD,
Choctaw,                   3   5    1
Chickasaw,                     2
Creek,                     3   7          21   4     93
Seminole,                      3               1     11
Iowa and Sac,              2   2               1     35
Otoe and Omaha,            1   2               1     35
Chippewa and Ottawa,       1   2          29   2     75
AM. PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL BOARD,
Oneida,                         1   1
Duck Creek, Wis.
California,                2
M. E. MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Brotherton,                1              75
Oneida,                    1              97
Sault St. Marie,           3              46   1     52
Kewawenon,                 2              56   1
7Fond du Lac,              1               8
Sandy Lake,                1              15   1     42
Flint,                     3             400   4     99
Nottoway,                  I              75    1    18
Oneida and Onondaga,       1               0   1.
St. Regis,                 1              24
Wyandott,                  2             189
M. E. CHURCH SOUTH,
Kansas,
Cherokees,
Choctaws,
Creeks,j
AM. BAPTIST MISSIONARY UNION,
Ojibwas,                   2   1    1     45   2     5'
Ottawas,                   1   1          18   1     30
Shawanoes, &c.,            3   5    8    119   2     43




APPENDIX.                   413
Stations.           Mission- Ass'ts. Nat. Commu- Schools. Schoa;ies.   Ass'ts.  nic'ts.  lars.
Cherokees,               3    3   6   1200   1    65
AM. MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION,
Chippeways,              6   10   1
X. GREENLAND AND LABRADOR.
UNITED BRETHREN'S MISSIONS,
Greenland: New Herrnhut,  4           202        408
"    Lichtenfels,    6             161       350
"    Lichtenau,      5             259       637
"    Friedrichsthal,  5            199       436
"     On their way,  4
Labrador: Nain,          7              81       277
Hoffenthal,       7             57        216
"    Okkak,'            167        39/ 7
"  Hebron,         5             56        336
On their way,     4
XI. WEST INDIES AND GUIANA.
CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
BritisA Guiana: Barticagrove, 2  1  4   70   2    66
Jamaica:                     1        358   2   286
LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Demerara: Georgetown,   2    4        33    3   405
Canal, No. 1,     1            351   2    137
"     Montrose,       1            335   2    155
"     Lusignan,       1            221   2    145
"     Leguan,         I             70   1    45
Berbice: New Amsterdamn,  1
"    Lonsdale,              1             1    120
"    Ithaca, &c.,      1
Rodborough,        1              50   1    80
"    Fearn,            1            341   1
" Blyendaal,         1
Brunswick,                  1
"    Albion Chapel,    1
Jamaica: First hill,     1             48
Dry harbor,                   118
Ridgemount,      1            159    1    90




41 4                       APPENDIX.
Stations.               Mission- Ass'ts. Nat. Commu- Schools. Schoa
aries.    Ass'ts. nic'ts.    lars.
Jamaica: Davytown,            1              117     1     78
"     Whitefield,         1               166    1     59
"     Four Paths,         I
"     Chapelton,          1               128    1      98
Mount Zion,            1                60
"  Kingston,           1                14
"     Shortwood,                            6
Morant Bay,            I                             90
"  Prospect Penn,                             1      80
VWESLEYAN MISSIONARY SOCIEY,
Antigua, &c.,                20        36 12,589    32   2341
St. Vincent's and Demerara,  20        60 13,542    49   2961
Jamaica,                     28        33 20,717    28   2072
Bahamas,                     II             3352     1     50
Hayti,                        6        14    387     7    666
BAPTIST MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Trinidad,                     5         8     80     6    181
Bahamas,                      5       203    2810    8    511
Hayti,                        1    3           17    1     76
Central America,              1    1
UNITED BRETHREN'S MISSIONS,
St. Thomas,
St. Croix,                   26             3078
St. John,'
Jamaica,                     29
Antigua,                    21
St. Kitts,                   10            12,437
Barbadoes,                    9          |
Tobago,                       6          J
Musquito Coast,               4
Surinam,                     52             1756
M. E. MISSIONARY SOCIETY,
Buenos Ayres,                 1               51
AM. BAPTIST FREE MISSION,
Hayti,                       2     5          42    2      50
AM. MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION,
Jamaica,                     6    10                 4    200




IN DEX
ACADEMIES, in the U. S., 45; naval, Baptist Free Mission Society, 389;
48; military, 48.                Free-Will Mission Society, 390;
Africa, political changes in, 22; po-  Missionary Board South, 389;
litical liberty in, 39; population  Missionary Society, American,
of, 191.                         292; English, 303; General, 309;
Agassiz, 114, 115, 122.            Missionary  Union, American,
Agriculture, 135.                  368.
Algeria, conquered by France, 17.  Baptists, increase of in the U. S.,
Anmerica, Central, 31, 32, 195;    220; Seventh-Day, missions of,
South, states of, 41, 195; prog-  390.
ress of rel. liberty in, 205.  Barlow, 95, 96, 141, 142.
American Board of Commissioners Basle Missionary Society, 348.
for Foreign Missions, 360.     Beaumont, de, 116.
American Missionary Association, Belgium, revolution of, 17; prog387.                            ress of rel. liberty in, 208.
Amiens, treaty of, 15.           Bentham, 167.
Ampere, 99.                      Berghaus, atlas of, 92.
Anderson, 139.                   Bergman, 101.
Andral, 129.                     Berlin Missionary Society, 357.
Appendix, 367.                   Berthollet, 102, 103.
Arago, 99.                       Bertrand, 112.
Archipelago, Indian, 192.        Berzelius, 109, 111.
Arkwright, 183.                  Bexley, Lord, death of, 396.
Asia, polit. changes in, 21; polit. Bible Society, British and Foreign,
liberty in, 39; population of, 190.  227, 396; Edinburgh, 231; NuAssociate Ref. Presb. Board of Mis-  remberg, 229; Calcutta, 235;
sions, 388.                      Ceylon, 235; French and ForAstronomy, 74.                     eign, 233; American, 236; AmerAustralia, political changes in, 23;  ican and Foreign, 240.
moral progress of, 192.        Bible Societies, list and issues of,
242.
Bachman, 121.                    Bible Union, American, 242.
Bain, 147.                       Bichat, 129.
Balbi, 196.                      Biot, 93, 95, 99.
Balize, 31.                      Black, 100.
Baltic provinces, Christianity in, Blackstone, 166.
225.                           Bloch, 122.




416                         INDEX.
Bolivia, 33.                    Collins, 153.
Botany, 117.                    Colonial Society, 266.
Boursingault, 139.              Colonization  Society, American,
Bowring, Dr., 167.                285.
Brandram, Rev. A., death of, 396.  Comets, observation of, 77.
Brazil, 34.                     Congregational churches, their progBrewster, Sir David, 110.         ress, 220.
British possessions in N. A., 30; Constitutional governments in Eupopulation of, 195; progress of  rope, 42.
rel. liberty in, 205; of evang. Conybeare, 114.
Chr. in, 223. In Asia and Afri- Cooke, 142.
ca, rel. liberty in, 214.     Coulomb, 93.
Brogniart, 113, 114.            Cracow, annexed to Austria, 17, 18.
Brougham, 167, 168.             Cromwell, 178.
Brown, 118.                     Cullell, 128.
Buchanan, Dr., 214.             Cunard, 152, 153.
Buckland, Dr., 114, 115.        Cuvier, 103, 113, 115, 120-3.
Buenos Ayres, 33.
Buffon, 112.                    Dalton, 102.
Burckhardt, 89.                 Danish possessions, 195.
Davy, 104, 136, 139, 143.
Canada, projects of annexation of, Defrance, 113.
30.                           Denham and Clapperton, 88.
Canadian Missionary Soc., French, Denmark, rel. liberty in, 210; evang
293.                            Chr. in, 225.
Candolle, de, 118, 119, 139.    Desmarets, 121.
Canning, 174.                   Dewees, 130.
Capitulations of the German prin- Domestic missions, Presbyterian,
ces, 39.                        263; Episcopal, 263; Methodist,
Cavendish, 100, 101.              263; Southern Meth., 264; BapCaventon, 105.                    tist, 264; Southern Bap., 264;
Central Protestant Society, 269.  Lutheran, 264; Free-Will Bap.,
Chapman, 130.                     265;~ Seventh-Day Bap., 265;
Chemistry, general, 92, 97; proper,  Ch. of Scotland, 268; Free id.,
100.                            268; Gernfan, 269.
Chevreul, 106.                  Dresden Missionary Society, 358.
Chili, 33.                      Dumas, 130.
Christendom, enlargement of, 189.  Dumont, 167.
Christian Instruction Society, 266.  Dupin, 130.
Christian Union, Am. and Foreign, Dutch possessions in the Ind. Ar294.                            chip., 24.
Christianity, Evangelical, progress Dutrochet, 129.
of, 216.
Church mission, Irish, 267.     Edinburgh Missionary Society, 340
Church Missionary Society, 321.  Education, progress of, 43.
Church Pastoral-Aid Society, 267. Education Society, Am., 276; at
City Mission, London, 267         the West, Society for the ProClarkson, 174.                    motion of, 277; Presbyterian
Colleges, in the U. S., 47; in Can-  Board of, 277; Irish Church Soada, 48; in Mexico and S. A.,   ciety, 278; Scheme of the Ch. of
49; in Russia, 53; among the    Scotland, 279; Free Ch., 279.
Waldenses, 53.                Edwards, 216.




INDEX.                         41?
Electricity, 92.                Grey, Earl, 173.
Epinus, 93.                     Guianas, the, 34.
Episcopal Church, Protestant, its Guyot, Prof, 92.
increase, 220.                Gustavus Adolphus Society, 269.
Episcopal, Protestant, Board of
Domestic Missions, 263; Foreign, Halley, 95.
378.                          Hamburg Missionary Society, 358.
Equator, 33.                    Hausteen, 96.
Erskine, 167.                   Iafiy, 110.
Esquirol, 130.                  Henry, Prof., 141.
Europe, population of, 190.     Hill, Rowland, 179.
Evangelical Society, Irish, 265; of  Hitchcock, 116.
Geneva, 292; of France, 292; Hoe, 187.
Foreign, 293.                 Holland, polit. liberty in, 38; reEvans, 149.                       ligious, 208; evang. Chr. in, 224.
Exploring expeditions, 86, 90.  Home, Sir E., 113.
Home Missionary Society, Am.,
Faraday, 98, 99.                  259; British, 265.
Feejee, 193.                    Home Mission, Eng. Baptist, 267;
Finland, evang. Chr. in, 225.     Am. Bapt., 264.
Fitch, 149.                     Home Missions, German Corn. of,
Forbes, Prof., 119.               269.
Foreign Evangelical Society, 293.  Homer, 130.
France, first revolution of, 13; sec- Hope, 129.
ond, 17; third, 18; progress of  Hosack, 130.
polit. liberty in, 39; religious, House, 144.
207.                          Hull, 149.
Franklin, Dr., 92.              Humboldt, A., 89, 91, 92, 96, 115,
French Missionary Society, 344.   118.
Friends, increase of in America, Hunter, 128.
222.                          Hungary, revolution of, 19, 20;
Fulton, 149,150, 183.             evang. Chr. in, 225.
Hutton, 112, 156.
Galvanism, 97.
Gauss, 96.                      Indians, North American, 27.
Gay Lussac, 102.                Interests of Humanity, moral and
Geography, 86; Physical, 90.      religious, 393.
Geology, 112.                   Italy, rel. liberty in, 212.
Germany, free cities of, 38; rel.
liberty in, 209; evang. Chr. in, Jackson, 130.
217, 223, 224.                Jenner, 130.
Glasgow Missionary Society, 340.  Jews, London Society, 391; BritGosner's Missionary Society, 358.  ish, 391; American, 392.
Gospel Propagation Society, in Johnson, Prof., atlas of, 92, 138.
New England, 297; in Scotland, Johnston, 139.
298; in England, 297, 300.    Jones, 129.
Grande Ligne Mission, 293.      Journals, law and medical, in the
Granada, New, 32.                 U. S. 64.
Great Britain, progress of polit. lib- Jurisprudence, history of, 166.
erty in, 37; religious, 207.  Jussieu, 116.
Greece, revolution of, 16; rel. liberty in, 213.                 Kane, 139.
18'




418                          INDEX.
Laing, Major, 88.                Napoleon, his career, 14,15, 169Lamarck, 113, 120, 123.            171.
Laplace, 93.                     Navigation, steam, 149.
Lavoisier, 101.                  Nebule, resolution of, 80.
Leipsic Missionary Society, 358.  Netherlands Missionary Society,
Lenses, achromatic, 76.            358.
Liberty, political, progress of, 37; Newspapers, in the U. S., 58; Brit.
religious, 202.                  possess., 64; Mexico and S. A.,
Liebig, 107-8, 128, 138-9.         65; England, 65; Ireland, 66;
Linnmus, 116, 118, 120, 123.       Scotland, 66.
Locke, Dr., 147.                 Nicaragua, 31.
London Missionary Society, 311.  Norway, rel. liberty in, 210; evan.
Loomis, Prof., 147.                Chr. in, 225.
Luneville, Treaty of, 14, 15.    Norway Missionary Society, 358.
Lutheran Missionary Society, 888. Novara, battle of, 18.
Lyell, 117.
Observatories, 75, 81, 85.
lackintosh, 167-8.               O'Connell, 174.
Magazines in the U. S., 62.      Oersted, 98, 142.
Magnetism, 94.                   Oken, Prof., 121.
Marquesas, 24.                   Optics. 81.
Mazzini, 19.                     Orbit of the sun, 80.
Mantell, Dr., 114.               Owen, 121.
Mechanic arts, 182.
Medicine, 128.                   Paley, 166.
Mehemet Ali invades Turkey, 17.  Pallas, 112.
Menai Straits, 186.              Papal nations, their relative influMeteorology, 83.                   ence, 199; evangelization of, 290.
Methoqist Episc. Missionary Soci- Paraguay, 34.
ety, 383; South, 389.          Park, 88.
Methodists, increase of in the U. S., Payen, 139.
222.                           Peel, 172-3.
Mexico, war with the U. S., 29; Pell6tier, 105.
polit. events in, 31; rel. liberty  Periodical Literature, in  Great
in, 205.                         Britain and Ireland, 67.
Mill, 167.                       Pe'ru, 33.
Miller, 149; Dr., 126            Philippines, 193.
Mineralogy, 109.                 Physick, 130.
Missionary efforts, previous to the Pius IX., 18.
19th century, 395.             Pitt, 172.
Mississippi valley, population of, Planets, newly discovered, 76, 78;
194.                             perturbations of, 78.
Mitchell, Prof. 144.             Poisson, 93, 95.
Mitscherlich, 111.               Poland, revolution of, 17; evang.
Mohamnemedanism, 198.              Chr. in, 225.
Moravians, increase of in the U. S., Polarization, theory of, 82.
222.                           Political changes, 13; in Europe,
Morse, Prof., 142-3, 146.          15; Asia, &c., 15; N. America,
Mosotti, 93-4.                     24; S. America, 32; W. Indies,
Mulder, 139.                       35.
Mural circles, 76.               Polynesia, 192.




INDEX.                        419
Population of Christendom, 189; Schools, in Mexico and S. A., 48;
of the world, 196-7.            in Scotland, 49; England and
Portugal, rel. liberty in, 211.   Wales, 50; Ireland, 51; Prussia,
Presbyterian Board of Domestic    51; Austria, 51; Holland, 51;
Missions, 263; Foreign, 378.    Denmark, 52; France, 52; BelPresbyterians, increase of in Amer-  gium, 52; Norway and Sweden,
ica, 221.                       52; Russia, 52; Spain and PorPress, freedom of the, 57; in Scan-  tugal, 53; Italy, 53; among the
dinavia, 67; Holland, 168; the  Waldenses, 53; in Turkey, 53;
U. S., 57; Germany, 68; France,  Greece, 54.
68; Spain and Portugal, 69; Schools, secondary, in Europe, 54.
Italy, 69; Greece, 70; Turkey, Schools, mission, 56.
70; Russia, 70; India, 71; Chi- Science, historical sketch of, 74;
na, 71; Africa, 72; in the islands,  moral aspects of, 126; applied,
72; in Australia, 72.           128.
Priestley, 100, 101.            Scotland, missions of the Ch.of, 341;
Protestant nations, their relative in-  Free Ch., 342.
fluence. 200.                 Serturner, 105.
Protestant Society, American, 293. Sharp, 174.
Protestantism, "decline" of, 200.  Silliman, 130.
Prussia, its constitution, 20.  Simpson, 130.
Sinclair, Sir J., 139.
Radcliffe, 139. Smith, Wm., 113; the missionary,
Radcliffe, 139.                   174.
Ragged School Union, 278.
Railroads, 154.                 Social progress in the last half-ceniRailroads, 154.
Reviews, in the U. S., 63.        tury, 166.
Rhenish Missionary Society, 346.  Society Islands, 24.
Ritteri, CaMl, 91.              Societies, for the diffusion of the
Robinson, Dr., 89.                Scriptures, 227; for the circulaRobgerso Pro., 115.               tion of religious books, 247; for
Romgn Republic, 19.               home evangelization, 259; SunRomilan Rep 167                   day-school, 272; education, 276.
Romsly, Cat.16.                Spain, its cortes and constitution
Ross, Capt., 96.                  abolished, 16; rel. liberty in,
Rumsey, 149.                      211.
Russell, 173.
Russell, 173.                   Speed., 147.
Russia, invasion of Turkey by, 16.  Spregel, 37
Russian provinces in N. A., 195;Stall, 100.
rel. liberty in, 211.         Stars, fixed, 79.
Stavanger Missionary Society, 358.
Sabbath-school Society, Massachu- Steamboats, 149.
setts, 275.                   Steffens, 91.
Sardinia, a constitutional state, 19. Stevenson, 154.
Satellites, newly discovered, 76.  Stockholm Missionary Society, 358.
Saussure, 112.                  Storms, theories of, 85.
School Society, Home and Colo- Strauss, 123.
nial, 278.                    Sunday-school Institute, English
Schools, common and public, in the  Ch., 273.
U. S., 43; infant, 45; Lancas- Sunday-school Society, English,
terian, 45; manual labor, 45;   272; Irish, 273,
secondary, 45; Normal, 45; law, Sunday-school Union, English, 272;
47; medical, 48.                American, 274; Episcopal, 274.




420                         INDEX.
Sweden, polit. liberty in, 38; re-  ers, 28-9; with the Indians, 29;
ligious, 211; evang. Chr. in, 225.  rebellions in, 29: progress of reSwitzerland, polit. liberty in, 38;  ligious liberty in, 202; of evang.
religious, 209; evang. Chr. in,  Chr., 218.
226.                          Universities in Scotland, 50; in
Symington, 149.                   Greece, 54; in England, 54.
Uruguay, 33.
Tabular View of Missions, by societies, 397; by countries and sta- Vaillant, 122.
tions, 398.                   Vauquelin, 101.
Telegraphs, 141.                Venezuela, 32.
Temperance Reformation, in the U. Verneuil, de, 115.
S., 280; in the Brit. possess.,
282-3; in Great Britain and Ire- Wagner, 129.
land, 282; on the Continent, 283. Waldenses, rel. liberty among, 212.
Tennent, 216.                   Warren, Dr., 130.
Tilsit, treaty of, 15.          Watt, 183.
Toulouse Religious Book Society, Weissul, 110.
252.                          Wellington, 173.
Tract Society, Religious, 229, 247; Werner, 109, 112, 113.
Paris, 252; Rotterdam, 252; Wesley, 216.
Lower Saxony, 252; Hamburg, Wesleyan Missionary Society, 330.
253; -Berlin, 253; St. Peters- Western Hemisphere, population
burg, 253; American, 254.       of, 196.
Turkey, rel. liberty in, 213.   West Indies, political changes in,
35; population of, 195; progUndulations, theory of, 82.       ress of rel. liberty in, 206.
United Brethren, missions of, 351.  Wheatstone, 142.
United States, at the beginning of Whewell, Prof., 82, 96, 105.
the century, 24; acquisition of Whitefield, 216.
Louisiana by, 25; of Florida, 25; Whitney, 160, 183.
admission of Texas into, 25; ac- Wilkes, 116.
quisition of New Mexico and Williams, 129.
California by, 26; their present
area, 26; states added to, 26; Yucatan, 31.
population of, 27; Congresses
of, 27; wars with foreign pow- I Zoology, 120.




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I




Books Published and for Sale by M. I.T Dodd...A NEW MEMOIR OF HANNAH MORE;
C(, LIFE IN HALL AND COTTAGE. BY MRS. HELEN C. KNIGHT.
12mo.    Illustrated with an accurate Portrait of Mrs.
More, and a beautiful View of Barley Wood, her residence,
from fine steel Engravings.
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" It is a very beautiful and instructive picture of the excellent Hannah More that Mrs. Knight has here eliminated from the biographies,
correspondence and works, to which her genius and her goodness gave
being. The spirit of her life as well as the peculiarities of her genius,
are finely appreciated, and the history is narrated with remarkable animation and interest. We hardly know of a more attractive and suggestive history than Hannah More's; and the presentation of it in a form,
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as a great matter of literary attraction."-Evangelist.
" It is seldom a book issues from the American press with so many
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were a freshest novelty. The style is sparkling and graphic; the arrangement and order of the topics judicious and striking; the introduco
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ther to crowd the canvass, or convert a Memoir of Miss More into a general history of her times. We have Burke, and Johnson, and Garrick,
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Hannah More; but they all contribute light and shade to her character
and principles without distracting our attention." —JNew York Organ.
This Memoir is not a mere arrangement of old materials for the
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which we discover points of beauty that never struck us before.  She
does not present her subject as an isolated statue to be examined and
admired; but with a vividness only attainable by true genius, she reproduces to our gaze the circle in which that woman moved and acted,
the home influence which laid the foundation of her character, and the
associations which gave her the means and opportunities of such great
and varied usefulness. It is in reality the life of Hannah More.  Sho
lives it over again under our eyes, and as it were, for our pleasure and
profit."-lChristian Intelligencer.' A book which has the charm of enthusiasm and a sincere devotion
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Johnson was the grand centre.'"-Iiters-y World.
" Mrs. Knight here presents, in a concise and vigorous outline, her
own ideal of Hannah More, and we may say, that a more beautiful and
attractive portrait is rarely to be found. We could wish it were to form
the study for every young lady, for the elements of woman's highest ex,;ellence, as well as broadest usefulness and moral power, are here re.
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" We hesitate not to say that whoever may be attracted to this book,
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tian Secretary.




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< It is a work full of interest and instruction.  We hope it will be
found in every family."-Genesee Evangelist.
" A contribution to biographical literature of rare interest and excellence. The style may be called pictorial, the author presenting before
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task performed with superior tact and judgment-being limited to directing the attention of the spectators to each scene as it appears, in
vivid but not over-wrought colors, upon the canvass."-Com. Adv.
"Those who have read the former Memoirs of Mrs. More, will not
find this a whit the less interesting on that account, and those who have
not read them, have a rich treat before them in the work of Mrs.
Knight." —JVew York Observer.
" There was room for this New Memoir of one of the choicest Christians any age has produced.  Mrs. Knight, than whom the country
could hardly produce a more suitable person for this work, has sketched
the traits of character and events of the life of her subject with great
judiciousness, skill, and Christian earnestness, and has produced a volume that her countrywomen especially will be grateful for in generations to come."-Religious Recorder.
" The subject of the work is happily presented in all her positions in
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Bristol; the admired one in the circles of London; the thoughtful and
serene Christian at Cowslip Green; the central figure among the benevolent sisterhood at Barley Wood, and the dying-Christian, radiant
with celestial hope, at Clifton."- Western Litera'ry jtMessenger.
" We hesitate not to say that in Mrs. Knight, she has a biographer of
kindred spirit, competent to do justice to her su.,)ject, one who has admirably-executed her task, and in a continuous narrative, of increasingly absorbing interest fiomi the commencement to the close,
has given a portrait, which leaves its strong impression on the reader; showing, too, what a feeble mortal sustained by faith, and aided
by help from above, can accomplish.
"The book can be usefully read by persons of any age, but for
young ladies it is invaluable."-Daily Cbourant.
" Precisely such a Memoir of Hannah More as was needed has not
been written until nowo. Of the two English sketches of her life and
character, one is cumbered with useless correspondence, and the
other is sadly deficient in attractiveness of style. Yet no modern
life needs to be written for all Christendom more than hers.  Mrs.
Knight has accomplished her task in the happiest manner. On the
whole, we regard the book as one of the very best and most useful books of the season, and shall be much disappointed if it does
not win an extensive circulation, and an established place among
the choice literature of the day."-Christian Register.
" The work we cordially recommend, especially to our young fiiends,
not only on account of the correct moral picture it gives of the life of
Mrs. More, but as affording much valuable information concerning the
literary history of her times, and the distinguished authors with whom
she was associated."-Portsmouth Journal.
" It is written in a graphic style, and forms the best Memoir we have
seen of one whose life was an admirable example of healthy, vigorous
piety."-Al-bany State Register.
" It is according to our taste a model biography —a truthful, graphic,
eloquent portraiture of the main features in the life and character of
this transcendant woman. Instead of tiring as we are wont to do over
the heavy and almost endless pages of modern biography, we follow her
with eagerness to the conclusion, and regret she has not given us
more2.'-Bib. Repository.




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FIRST    THINGS.
A SERIES OF LECTURES ON THE GREAT FACTS AND MORAL
PRINCIPLES FIRST REVEALED TO MANKIND. IN TWO VOLS.
*3M( earbirar`Pring, AVX
CONTENTS.
God Himself before all Things-God's First Work-The First.
Man-The Unity of the Human Race-The First Woman
-The First Marriage-The First Sabbath-The First Revolt in Heaven-The First Deceiver-The Extent of the
Deceiver's Snares-Man's First Sin-The First Interview
between God and our First Parents, after their Apostasy
-The First Promise-The First Deist-The First Act of
discriminating Grace-The First Quarrel-The First Death
-The First Example of Eminent Piety-The First Definition of Human Sinfulness-The First announced Withdrawment of the Spirit-The First National Curse-The
First Youthful Patriarch going from Home-The First Instance of Wrestling with the Angel of the Covenant-The
First Rebuke of a Dying Father-The First Rebellion in
the Hebrew Commonwealth-Conclusion.
In the chapter on the Unity of the Human Race the theories of Agassiz and others are thoroughly refuted. That
on Woman is regarded as one of the most popular discourses
ever delivered in New York, and one of the finest presentations of her character and relations there is in the language.
The one entitled FIRST REBELLION is, in substance, the celebrate Discourse delivered by Dr. Spring, on Thanksgiving
Day. December 12,1850, in the course of which are extended
observations on the Fugitive Slave Law and Slavery.
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press, the Author might very well afford to leave it as the crown of his
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"These lectures have excited the greatest interest in the delivery, and
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and exquisite beauty, quite out of the beaten track, and yet eminently
plain and practical. It is, altogether, a production of rare attractiveness."
-Journal of Commerce.
"This is a work of rather singular, though not inappropriate title,
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"These Lectures are the ripe fruits of a golden age. * *  We are
made to feel the importance of first thinis in man's history as we go on
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brow Commonwealth (which concludes the series)."-National Intelligencer.
"TIhe venerable author has seized hold of them with his accustomed
clearness of perception and good judgment; and in deducing the important truths they contain, has invested them with surpassing interest.
Elegant in style, thorough in discussion, sound in sentiment, and replete
with the spirit of reverence and piety, the lectures are among the most
attractive religious essays that we have ever met." —S. Y. Evaveelist.
" In the variety and importance of the truths inculcated, in richness
of illustration, in vivacity of style, no preceding work of Dr. Spring excels this. There is much able discussion; there are some passages of
striking beauty and eloquence; while the Author never loses sight of his
great aim, the enforcement of the fundamental principles of morality and
religion." —J'ewark Daily Advertiser.
" As against infidelity and science, falsely so called,' the work is one
of much power; while to the meditative Christian it is rich in those unfoldings of divine truth, providence, and grace, that'justify God's ways
to men.' "'-Independent
" On perusing them, we are at a loss to say whether the truly Christian
spirit which pervades them, or sound morality and elevated views of the
duties of citizens which they inculcate, are most to be admired."- Washim'egton Union.
"The lectures in these volumes are more learned, elaborate, and inviting than any the Author has yet produced, and will be read profitably by
all who appreciate important thoughts in elegant forms. They combine
stately eloquence, beautiful, and even imaginative description, and
weighty and sound discussion."-Central Christian Herald.
" Anything front the pen of this learned and eloquent divine must be
of interest, but these lectures are so well conceived and gracefully executed as to attract more than usual admiration. * * I * The interesting discussion of the disputed Unity of the human race, in the fourth
chapter, is an excellent specimen of close reasoning, and utterly refutes,
as we think, the theories of some of our Modern Philosophers. * * * *
The chapter on the L First Woman' contains an elegant and discriminating analysis of the Female Mind, and the most touching and beautiful
eulogy on the female character that we remember to have read."-Conmltc?r cal idvertizer.;'There is, perhaps, nothing from the pen of Dr. Spring, who has
long been known as a distinguished writer, that will be read with more
ividlity and interest, than his mature, lucid, and discriminating views on
iist iThhings.' The themes here discussed form the base of the spiritual
etlifice, which reflects the glory of God. They embrace questions concerning which there has been great diversity of opinion among philoso(llhical and theological writers."-Christiaun Observer.
" The book will be an invaluable treasure in every Christian family, and
may be profitably consulted as a clear and faithful exposition of the first
pages of the word of God, by all who delight to' search the Scriptures;'
while, at the same time, such are its treasures of truth drawn from all
parts of the Bible, and from every department of science. and such the
beauty of its style, that no one of cultivated intellect and refined taste
can fail to peruse it with pleasure."-Buffnlo JMorning Express.




Books Published and for Sale by M. W. Dodd.
THE MERCY SEAT;
THOUGHTS SUGGESTED BY THE LORD'S PRAYER. BY GARDINEi
SPRING, D.D.' In this volumne intrinsic excellence and mechanical beauty are well
combined. Richness and matrlity of evangelical thought and sentiment are its characteristics; the ripe experience of a devout Christian
clusters on every page; it is full of' marrow and fatness, of wine on the
lees well refined,' and contains food for both heart and intellect.'The
Mercy Seat' will be-cannot but be-highly prized by Christians of all,enominations."- Commerccial advertiser.
"We regard it as the most valuable of all the distinguished author's
valuable works. It is a book for the family aind the closet, and is
equally well adapted to profit the plainest Christian, and the most cultivated man of letters." —J. Y. Observer.
"The present work is among the author's happiest productions. We
think it surpasses them all in richness of instruction, tenderness of
spirit, earnestness and fidelity of appeal, and power to awaken and
sway the best feelings of the sanctified heart. His general observations
on prayer, and his remarks on the matter and manner of prayer, are
most excellent, and worthy of careful and thorough study." —Bib. Rep.
"The volume contains some of his best and most interesting discourse, and cannot fail to be most heartily welcomed by the religious
public. The style in which it is published is exceedingly neat and attractive."-JV. Y. Courier antd Inquirer.
"It is a delightful work, and replete with noble Christian views,
which ought to obtain in all spheres, and to exert an influence upon
all minds."-.N. Y. Evangelist.
"This volume will not please because it contains ingenious speculations or startling novelties; but because it presents the old, rich
themes of Gospel truth in a clear and chaste style. The doctrinal
and the practical are happily blended in its discussions-not a page
is dull or dry. The author's judicious remarks on'Forms of Prayer'
are commended to all who wount.' like to see this subject kindly exhibited in its true light —the Bible and the History of the Church. We
say to all, get'The Mercy Seat' by Dr. Spring." —.N'ewark Daily advertiser.
" It is certainly one of the most favorable exhibitions of Dr. Spring's
powers in illustrating and enforcing truths of the highest moment. His
theme is a delightful one, and the method of treating it is all that could
lie desired. The publisher has presented it in a very attractive dress."
~-Phil. Presbyterian.
"This work is in Dr. Spring's best style,-vigorous, perspicuous, and
breathing the true Christian spirit. It is not a book intended simply
for the closet. It seizes upon man in his daily walks-amidst the (ares
of his business-at his desk or ir his workshop, and recalls him to a
sense of his divine relations —and is worthy of a place in the cloicest
niche of the library."-Journ-al of Commerce.
"We give a cordial welcome to this new work of Dr. Spring. It is
refreshing to meet with a book like this, so clear and chaste in style, s
fraught with important instruction, and above all, so erinently spiritul
in its tone, and so well fitted to promote devotional feeling."-.JV'. Y.
Presbyterian.
( A rich and valuable work, replete with the distinguTshed author."
best thoughts on a great subject, of universal interest-th communiat
ot man, weak, sinful and mortal, with the Infinite Jehoval, bti God U
Saviour."-Christian Observer.




Books Published and for Sale by M. Wt. Dodd.
THE ATTRATI O N OF THE CROSS.
The Attraction of the Cross, designed to illustrate the
leading Truths, Obligations and Hopes of Christianity
By Gar.diner Spring, D.D.        12mo.    Fourth edition.
We are not surprised to hear that Mr. Dodd, the publisher, has already issued the third edition of the Attraction of the Cross, by the Rev
Dr. Spring. It is the ablest and most finished production of its author,
and will undoubtedly take its place in that most enviable position in the
family, as a volume of standard reading, to be the comfort of the aged
and the guide of the young. We commend it as one of the most valuable issues of the press."-N. Y. Observer.
" This is no ordinary, every-day volume of sermons, but the rich,
ripe harvest of a cultivated mind-the result of long and systematic
devotion to the proper work of the Christian ministry. We regard Dr.
Spring as one of the most accomplished preachers of the country. We
never heard him preach a weak discourse; and whenever he appears
from the press, it is with words of wisdom and power. A careful perusal
of this admirable book has afforded us great pleasure. We do not wonder to find it so soon in a third edition. It will have a lasting reputation." —Baptist Memorial.
" This volume, which we announced two weeks ago, and wLich we then
predicted would prove to be the most excellent and valuable work yet
written by Dr. Spring, has more than equalled our expectations......
We trust that every family in our land will read this precious work,
which illustrates so beautifully and attractively the leading truths, obligations and hopes of Christianity, as reflected from the Cross of
Christ." —Albany Spectator.
" We mistake if this neatly-printed volume does not prove one of the
most attractive religious works of the day. It presents the practical
truths of religion, which all ought to know, free from the spirit of sectarianism or controversy. The book is prepared for permanent use, and
bids as fair, perhaps, as any book of the kind in our times, to live and
speak long after the author shall have gone to test the realities he has
so eloquently described." —Journal of Commerce.
" Dr. Spring's new work, which we had occasion recently to announce,
is very highly commended elsewhere. A New-York letter in the Boston
Traveller thus introduces it to notice:-'A new work of Dr. Spring
" The Attraction of the Cross," has been published by M. W. Dodd, of
this city.... " The Attraction of the Cross" is destined to live among
the very best productions of the church with which its respected author
is connected. The style is remarkably pure, the arrangements of the
topics lucid and methodical, and the arguments addressed with great
force to the reason and conscience. It will stand by the side of' Dod.
Iridge's Rise and Progress,7? "Wilberforce's View," or the "Way of
Life" in the libraries of future generations.' "-Nc-cark Daily Adv.
"'None will wonder at the rare success which th s volume has won,
who 1ive read it. For comprehensiveness of views, beauty of style and
excellence and fervor of devotional feeling, few works hav lately ap
peared that surpass it'-New- York Evangelist.
" The grand relations of the Cross, its holy influences, its comforts and
its triumphs, are here exhibited in a manner cheering to the heart of
the Christian. And the perusal of this book will we venture to say.
greatly assist and comfort the children of God...."- Pre.siyterian.
9




Books Published and jfr Sale by Mil. W. Dodd,
A PASTOR'S SKETCHES:
OR, CONVERSATIONS WITH A.NXIOIS INQUIRERS RESPECTING TIIE
WAY OF SALVATION. By ICHABOD S. SPENCER, D.D., PASTOR
OF SECOND PRESBYTERIAN CHURiC, BROOKLYN, N. Y.
This work has had an almost unequalled sale, for one of its kind, being
now in its FIFTH EDITION in little more than three months.
For individuality and graphic delineation of characterl and for absorbing interest to the reader, it is hardly surpassed by anything in the
language.
A few of the opinions of the press are here subjoined:"This is a book of remarkable interest. It is one of pastoral experience; and the thrilling interest that gathers about many of the scenes
and incidents which it describes, justifies the comparison which has
been made of it in this respect to the well-known' Diary of a Physician. " —Indepeendet.
4' It is a work of intense interest, and is destined to a wide circulation
and great usefulness."~-Albany lirgus.
"We leave this book with reluctance. It has all the interest of Warren's Sietches, entitled l Diary of a Physician,' and it is an interest of a
snuch higher order. It is a book, too, of pointed and solemn instruction, on the gravest of all themes. Nothing like iL exists."-Atlmerican
Biblical Repository.'This is a remarkable book. The work is written in a bold, clear,
straightforward style, that carries the idea direct to the heart."-JV. Y.
Recorder.' We have rarely read a book of a religiously didactic character that
has abounded with so much strong practical good sense, or so much
interest to us, as this volume.
"' We warmly commend it to Christian pastors of every denomination.
After reading it, they will, we are sure, recomneld it with equal fervor
to those in their congregations who need its counsels.' —Com. Adv.
" We can convey no idea of the exceedingly happy and triumphant
logic often displayed in this volume. As an intellectual work, it is of
surpassing interest. But in a spiritual point of view, the earnest, absorbing desire to open plainly the way to Christ, and the tender religious feeling pervading all these discussions, give the work an interest
and value which we feel in no danger of exaggerating."-N. Y. Evan.
" The pictures are true to life, and are sketched with such graphic
skill as to forbid the possibility of their having been the product of mere
fancy. We earnestly hope that the work will have a very wide circulation."-JV-. Y. Observer.
it These Sketches are forty in number. The few that we have as yet
tieen able to read are intensely interesting, espeecially that of the' Dying
Universalist.' To those who are fond of lendin' g ood books, we.would
vehemently commend this as one which will be very sure to be read."
— Puritan Recorder.
"The Book is in the dramatic form, and so vividly drawn that the
reader becomes not merely a spectator, or a listenert, but an actor in all
that is described.  Few will be able to leave it until they have read its
last page."-iaterary.Messensgcr.
"The rapid appearance of successive editions of these Sketches is
proof that the public has put as high an estimate uponl the work as we
expressed on its first appearance in October. Itis indeed a book of remarkable interest and power of instruction."-Biblical Repository.




Books Published and for Sale by. W. D. odd.
JOURNAL AND LETTERS OF THE REV.
HENRY MARTYN, B.D.
EDITED   BY THE REV. S. WILBERFORCE, M.A., RECTOR OF
BRIGHTSTONE.     FIRST AMERICAN EDITION.
" The name of Henry Martyn is a sweet savor to the church. His
memory is embalmed in the depth and intensity of his piety and the exfent of his usefulness. There breathes a refreshing fragrance through
every page of his JOURNAL AND LETTERS."-Southern JMeth. Quarterly.
" To American readers, this will be an entirely new book, and is perhaps
one of the richest combinations of religious experience and epistolary
counsels ever given to the world. There have been few men like Henry
Martyn. The Christian church of all denominations, and especially the
Young Men of the church, are greatly indebted to the American publisher
for this reprint."-Commercial Advertiser.
" It is a book to make one sad, on very many accounts, but it is such a
sadness as will tend to make the heart better."- Watchman and Observer.
"It is remarkable that this most interesting and valuable work has not
been previously given to the American public. The numerous admirers
of Martyn will rejoice to possess a volume containing the records of his
heart. We have here spread out before us, a picture of his progress in
Divine life. As a book for the closet, it is even more valuable than the
Memoirs which have been so widely and profitably read. It shows us
in what way his eminent spiritual attainments were made, and stimulates us to follow his example. Let those who are seeking to become
holy, avail themselves of the aid which the perusal of this volume will
furnish, and let those who would promote the spiritual growth of others,
place it within their reach." —J. Y. Observer.
" The reader of this volume will be admitted to a still nearer view of
Martyn's character, than is given in his Memoir. He will become familiar with the processes by which Martyn's eminent attainments in piety
were made."-Rochester Democrat.
"Those who have read the Memoir of the pious and talented missionary to the Mohammedans of Persia will need nothing but the announcement of this volume of his' remains' to lead them to possess and read it.
The letters are admirable specimens of the epistolary style, and cannot
be read without benefit."-Syracuse Religiious Recorder.
"Though short was his career, and though he fell in the midst of his
labors in India, he has left a name which will never perish. The JOURNAL AND LETTERS now presented to the public commence in 1802, and
continue through the space often years, till his death in 1812. While
we commend this volume to all Christian readers, we would especially
invite to it the attention of young men in our various institutions of
learning."- Western Christian advocate.
" This book leads us into a knowledge of his inner life.' No portion
of the matter contained in it has been previously given to the American
public.' It is filled with those' distracting riches of his jolurnals,' spoken
of by his biographer-those 4 masses of ore' left by him unused, when he
made the extracts which are woven into his narrative." —Chris. Mirror.
" The reader is brought into contact with the warm heart of this devout Christian and eminent scholar; can see its movements and feel its
throbbings without the presence of a third person, as is necessary in reading a memoir prepared by another. Here we have Martyn's own description of his inner and higher life.'"- Western Christian Advdcate.




Books Published and for Sale by M. W. Dodd,
VINET'S MISCELLANIES.
THE ENDLESS STUDY, AND OTHER MISCELLANIES. BY ALEXANDER VINET.    TRANSLATED, WITH AN INTRODUCTION AND
NOTES, BY ROBERT TURNBULL. 12mo., pp. 430.
" Vinet was one of the most distinguished divines and preachers in
Switzerland, and, unlike most in that country, thoroughly evangelical
in sentiment. The jlst appreciation of his character and writings,
given in another colufin, renders it needless here to do more than give
the subjects of the principal essays in this volume:-Montaigne on
Morality-The Endless Study-Man Created for God-Centre of Moral
Gravitation-Mysteries of Christianity —Natural Faith-Christian Faith
-Practical Atheism-Foundation of Christian Morality-Claims of
Heaven and Earth Adjusted-Grace and Law-Man Deprived of all
Glory before God-Pursuit of Human Glory incompatible with Faith."
— Christian ldvocate and Journal.
" Reflecting, inquiring minds will love to study his pages, so full of
fresh, original thought, and giving out a clear and mellow light on
some of the grandest themes of Christian truth. His works need not
our commendation."-'Jtewar/k Daily.
t" Such a work as the Miscellanies of Vinet is one of rare occurrence,
and the translator and publisher have conferred an obligation on the
part of the intelligent and thinking mind who may be disposed to
profit by it. It is of great moment at the present time, and the importance of its elucidations and arguments, and the author's striking
delineations of pure and undefiled religion,' should not fail to command the admiration and hearty concurrence of every reader."Farmer and Jlechanic.
"While he charms by his beauty and convinces by his persuasive
power, he abounds in original views, and leads the mind into fresh
channels of reflection and feeling. His writings abound in the seeds
of things, and possess a remarkable power to quicken and expand
the mind of the reader."-Columbian and Great West.
"Few among the continental writers on religious subjects have in
this century had so wide a celebrity as Vinet. His works are characterized by a beauty and persuasive power which appeal to every
reader of taste. They possess, too, a remarkable influence in quickening and expanding the mind, and can therefore be dwelt upon and
studied. In many respects they remind us of the searching analysis
and profound thought of Foster's Essays."-Daily State Register.
" Having said thus much we will add, that the volume is a valuable
one, and that the Introduction and Notes increase its value. The
translation appears to be well done, and the public have reason to
thank Mr. Turnbull for briinglng it into acquaintance with a writer of
so much eminence as Vinel."-Boston Christian Register.
"' Under this new title we are happy to perceive the main substance
of a work by Dr. Vinet, translated by Mr. Turnbull some years ago,
and truly called VITAL CIRISTIANITY. Causes not clearly explained,
have induced him to issue the best part of that volume anew, with an
enlarged Introduction, and several valuable pieces not found in the
former. Among the latter are the articles from which this issue derives its name. We welcome it with sincere pleasure."-Baptist Quarteriy Record.




Books Published and fre      Sale by M. W. Dodd.
GOSPEL STUDIES.
BY ALEFXANDER VINET, D.D., AUTHOR OF VITAL CHRISTIANITY, WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY DR. BAIRD.
"These discourses are remarkable for originality and beauty of
thought and elegance of diction. They are unlike anything that we
ever read-they are delightful."-Daily Evening Traveller.
" Vinet, beyond any writer of our day, was characterized Oy the perpetual progress from novelty to novelty. The originality of Vinet is
his principal charm. He treats the most common topics of theology
with a freshness which fascinates us like a discovery. In the conduct
of his metaphors, he so fuses the thought in the illustration, as to give
the most familiar truths the brilliancy of inventions; and by penetrating
and profound analysis reveals new relations of truth which elude common sagacity, and are indeed so many new truths. We believe the perusal of this volume will be an excellent discipline for those whose
religious views need enlivening; all here is full of nobleness, aspiring
speculation, and enthusiastic love."-Literary World.
i" They possess the peculiar characteristics of French sermonizinglively, abrupt, strikingly beautiful in description, and artistically arranged."-JV. Y. Evangelist.
"Vinet has been styled " the Chalmers of Switzerland," ibut his manner is different, although his thoughts are not less brilliant. In his style,
Vinet is ori(inal. He was a profound thinker, and in communicating
his ideas he knows how to make others think. No one can read these
admirable discoulses without entering into the spirit and feelings of the
author, nor without gaining new and valuable ideas from him." —Christian Secretary.
" The writer had a most versatile as well as a most discriminating
and powerful mind; and probably deserved, more than almost any other
writer, to be called, in the best sense of the word, a philosophical Christian. He is equally at home in the heights and in the depths: and his
range of thought seeins illimitable." —1Abany Arurs.
" Gospel Studies' contains much that is adapted to stir the soul, to
nourish piety, and to enlarge one's range of thoughts in certain directions." — Watchman and Reflector.
" Simplicity, beau.ly, original thought, and ardent piety, are the promInent attributea of tb.e author's mind as developed in this work. There
ti a freshnesn in his views which will delight the intelligent reader." —
Christian Observer.
"Such is the title of one of the best books on the subject of religfcn
}hat we have seen for many a day. In an introduction of a few pages,
Dr. B&ird gives a short notice of the life of Dr. Vinet, whom he pro
aounces the greatest philosopher that the Continent, if not Europe, has
*roduced in our tirmen. He has been called the Chalmers of Switzerl nld, but not very correctly. He was rather the John Foster. But he
had a mind far more clear and discrininating than that of the great
BAitinh Essayist just named. It has a fresh-ness about it, and is so removed from the usual style of an English or American mind that it
uwSkens and excites ateentio.n at every step."'-Journal of Cemmnercc.




Books PuWtissed ane for      Sale by iM. W. Dodd.
JOURNAL OF THREE YEARSS RESIDENCE IN
ABYSSINIA.
BY REV. SAMUEL GOBAT, NOO     BISHiOP OF JERUSALEM.   PRECEDED BY AN INTRODUCTION, GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL, ON ABYSSINIA.  Translated from the French by Rev.
SERENO   D. CLARK.    Accompanied with a Biographical
Sketch of Bishop GOBAT, by ROBERT BAIRD, D. D.
" This is probably the most complete and accurate work on Ahyssinia accessible to the general reader in the English language. It is a
valuable contribution to the literature of missions and to church history, and whoever desires to have a good library in either of these departments, will be sure to obtain it. —Chiistian Intelligencer.
" In an Introduction of a dozen pages, the Rev. Dr. Baird has given
an interesting account of the early life, conversion, and subsequent history of Bishop Gobat-whom he pronounces to be as remarkable a
man as Henry Martyn. We have no doubt that this bock will do great
good. It gives more valuable, reliable information respecting Abyssinia, than all other books in the English language put together. The
first 1'20 pages, relating to the geography, manners, customs, and history of that country, will well reward a careful perusal."-Jour. of Comr
cc Of what country not utterly unknown do we know so little as of Abyssinia? The work here presented to the public, has all the marks of
genuine worth. Mr. Gobat was educated at a missionary school-or,
more properly, a school for the training of missionaries, in Switzerland. His residence in Abyssinia was not long, amounting to only five
or six years in all, but he has given more knowledge of the country,
and of its inhabitants, than can be gleaned from all other books extant."-JVorthern Christian advocate.
" Bishop Gobat's journal teems with interest."-Comnmercial Sdvertiser.
"The contents of this volume are of surpassing interest. They comprise a well-written biographical sketch of a man of extraordinary
talents, learning, and piety; a graphic account of the remarkable country of Abyssinia, and its inhabitants; an historical view of the ancient
Abyssinian Church; and Mr. Gobat's Journal of his travels ald labors
in this country, which occupies the larger portion of the volume."Christian Observer.
" The volume before us abounds in information."-Puritan Recorder,
"The author's life is a romance, realized into experiments of bold
adventure and comprehensive charity. In Abyssinia lie was domniciled three years, visiting places altogether unexplored by any othes
European, and everywhere keeping his eyes and ears open to apprehend the true condition of the country. It is no wonder that such a
man, in such a field, should be able to write a book' to be as a light
shining in a dark place.' "- U. S. Gazette and JV. amner.
"We have read this book with very great interest, as the only ons
of which we know, giving us any information with regard to Abyssinia. There is a novelty albout his adventures which would arrest the
attention of one who reads only for amusement; it is something so entirely out of the ordinary track of travel."-stltbanf State kegiitor.




Books Published andfor Sale by M. W. Dodd.
AN EARNEST MINISTRY,
THE WANT OF TEIE TIMES. BY J3HN ANGELL JAMES. WITH
AN INTRODUCTION BY REV. J. B. CONDIT, D.D., OF NEW.
ARK, N.J.
"There is a power in the very title of this book. It strikes home t
he convictions of every imind that is wakeful to the condition and wants
of the church.' An Earnest Ministry.' The ear tingles with the sound,
it stirs up thought; it lingers in the memory; it turns into prayer.
" Has the evangelical pulpit lost, and is it likely to lose any of it1
power?' is the question with which the veteran plreacher and autnot
conmmences his discussion. In the progress of his own earnest Omind
through the several stages of this subject, he begins with the ministry
Df tne Apostles, iinding his the..e in it; examines the nature of ear.
nestness, and shows its appropriateness in him who handles the word
of life, in respect to its matter, manner, and practice; illustrates his
points by numrerous quotations and biographical notices; and from the
whole, gathers tmotives of great power to bear on the conscience of the
professional reader.
"We wish that we could lay a copy on the table of every pastor, and
put it into the portmlanteau of every missionary in the land: we shoulld
feel quite sure that the Sabbath following, at least, would bear witness
to its effect; and we shauld hope for still more endluring results. And
we could scarcely imagine a smore useftil appropriation of money, than
would be nmade by supplying the young lmen of our own Theological
Setiminries, with each a copy of this exhibition of an'earnest ministry.' "-JV' Y. Observer.'"We read this work with the greatest interest. A more imlpressive,
truth telling. )ungent appeal to the ministry, we have never Ilet with.'This noble, stirring effort to infuse new life and energy into the miniistry cannot be too highly praised. Without attelmpting an analysis of
its contents, we beg to assure our brethren, that of all useful and able
productions of this author, this is by far the most useful and able.
There are hints, and appeals, and principles in it, of incalculable importance, and of most awakening interest." —.V. Y. Evanglelist.
"Every work of his we have read meets an exigency —in other
wcords, is opportune to the state of the Church, and shows profound
thoutht, thorough investigation, and withal, is given in a chaste and
vigorotus style. This la-t volttine in no sense falls behind —there is a
clearness, a comprehension, and a power in it, which makes it connpare with anything he has wvritten; and throughout it is an illustration
of the very earnestness he commends. Dr. Condit of Newark, has
written a. very judlicious introduction to the volume. We feel that
Mr. Jliames may well be taken by young men in Theological traininga
and miniisters generally, as their oracle on the importance of earnestness inL the lninllstry."-(LChristiatn Inte:lligencer.
i liis specimens and illustrations, drawn from the most emilinent divines
of ancient and modern days, and of various countries, are extremeuly apt
and interesting. By the method he has pursued, Mr. J. has given us a
kind of biographical library of the ministry, in such a manner as to im.
press their excellencies apon the memory, and to inspire a wish to illi
tate them. The work is richly worthy of the perusal of the class fo.
whom it is specially designed."-Christian Review.
"Not to make a book, but to do good, seems to have been the whole
object in view. All our ministers, especially the younger, should give
this book a reading, and we believe its circulation generally among ou
people would be productive of great benefit to the whole Church."MAethfiot Papit,.                                     1w




Books Published and for Sale by M. W. Dodd.
THE HOME ALTAR.
AN APPEAL IN BEHALF OF FAMILY WORSHIP, WITH PRAYERS
AND HYMNS FOR FAMILY USE, AND A CALENDAR OF LESSONS
IN READING THE BIBLE FOR EVERY DAY IN THE YEAR.       By
CHARLES F. DEEMS, Editor of the Southern M. Pulpit.
12mo.
" We cheerfully say that as a plea for family worship it has but few
superiors in ordinary circulation, and that as an aid in performing the
duty it is equal to any now before the public."- Watchman and Observer.
"The Home Altar appears to us to be admirably arranged, and conspicuous throughout for that clearness of style, beauty, and strength,
which Mr. Deem's productions combine in a remarkable degree."The Jezobernian.
" This work is adapted to be an efficient auxiliary in aid of family
devotion, and of course in aid of domestic happiness. It contains a
well-digested and forcible argument in favor of this duty, in connection
with various prayers, and hymns, and scripture selections, well fitted
to aid and guide in its performance. The writer has performed a service, the good effects of which will be felt much beyond the limits of
his own communion." —Albany JIrgus. 
" The appeal is in point-able and conclusive in argument-in style,
clear and concise-in spirit, earnest, liberal and kind. It should be
read by all, and especially by heads of families."-Thle Weekly Review.
"The style of the author is beautifully adapted to the design of the
work, and the forms of prayers given breathe a truly humble and penitent spirit."- WVhig and Courier.
"His selections, too, of scripture readings and hymns, is very judicious and suitable. This is a valuable manual of devotion, and we
believe the cause of Christianity would be much advanced by its introduction into every Christian family in the land."- 7The Patriot.
" If the families now neglecting prayer, would adopt such a manual
of devotion as the one before us, we cannot doubt but it would enure
very much to their spiritual advantage."-Christian Secretary.
"This is an excellent work. The Appeal ought to be placed in every
house which contains no family-altar. It seems impossible to read it
and continue'delinquent in regard to the duty in question. The prayers are all catholic and scriptural."-S7unday School "'-'tr.
" The pious object of the author is to promote one of the most influential, and delightful, and imperative of all religions exercises. And
this he has ably done, by showing the grounds of the luty, meeting
the objections to its performance, and offering such facilities as exigencies may require. The only part of the book which has even the
appearance of a fault, is that which contains the forms of prayer. But
this is a real recommendation, when the object of the author is considered, as the perusal will show. The style is characteristic; simple,
perspicuous, neat and forcible; adapted to the nature of the subject.
Several other works of a similar kind may be found, but inone of which,
we are awarle, are better suited to its end,"-Q-uarterly Reviews of t!is
JMethodist,ptsscol7al Ch'ut.rehz.




Books Published and for Sale by Mf. TW. Dodd.
APOSTOLIC BAPTISM.
FACTS AND EVIDENCES ON THE SU&,ECTS AND MODES OF CHReITIAN BAPTISM. BY C. TAYLOR, EDITOR OF CALMETS DicTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. WITH 13 ENGRAVINGS.        12nio.
"We are glad to see a revised and stereotyped edition of this learned
and valuable work on the baptismal controversy. It is not necessary,
at this late day, to speak of its peculiar merits. We are not aware that
these'Facts and Evidences' here presented, have ever been in-dalidated, either in this country or in Great Britain, and if not, they are
certainly entitled to no little weight in favor of the arguments of Pedobaptists, both as to the subjects of Christian baptism and the apostolic
mode."-Biblical Repository.
" This work has given no little trouble to immersionists. The facts
of Mr. Taylor have never been denied, to our knowledge; nor have his
evidences ever been disproved. The work before us has acquired a
reputation which our endorsement cannot materially increase."-Princeton Review.
" The American editor presents this volume to the American Churches,
as the authentic delineation of original Christian Baptism-with the
assured conviction, that an erudite polemic cannot be found who will
seriously controvert Mr. Taylor's oracular position-'Baptism, from
the day of Pentecost, was administered by the Apostles and Evangelists, to Infants, and not by submersion:' the Facts and Evidences sustaining this position, he regards as irrefutable, as the truth is in Jesus.
" The book displays wonderful research, and brings out the proof
from philology and ecclesiastical history, with a distinctness and force
perhaps never excelled. It even proves that the warrant for baptizing
inftnts is more certain, or less open to cavils, than if that word had
been employed in the command, or in the narration of examples of
baptism —because a term is used of more certain meaning, which un-l
questionably includes little children. The work was published in England more than thirty years ago, and no Baptist author has yet attempted to disprove the facts, or to deny the evidences here adduced,
in favor of Pwcdobaptist principles and practice."-Clhristian JMirror.
" This is a very crious book. It commences the argument in respect
to baptism at the right Ftartilng point, and enforces it by reasoning of
the most convincing character. It seeks to carry back the interpreter
of the teachings of the Scriptures, to the time when the New Testament
was written, and to enable him to read the passages under circumstances, like those under which they were originally heard. The engravings, which are copies of the oldest representations of the adtcinrisIration of the rite of baptism, in pictures, sculptures, and mosaics,
speak forcibly to the eye and the mind."-JVew Englander.
"This is unquestionably the greatest work ever published on this
question. It Ihas been thirty years chcltlerngino  examination, and no
1aptist mrinister, so far as we know, has dared to touch it. No miniater should be withoutl it. R.emember, it is a body of Texts and Evidences. The history of Ithe book is interesting, but we have not room
to give it. It onuht to be in every Stunday school library. It has thirl
teen engravings, themselves, as evidences, worth the price. The book
has had an immense circulation in Eu4ope and America. We wish
nome plan co-,ld be devised to put it in every family of our churolh."SoiuterSn MAde~thotdisti Pii.lpit,




Books Published and for Saie by M. Wi. Dodd.
IS CHRISTIANITY FROM GOD?
OR A MANUAL OF BIBLE EVIDENCE FOR THE PECPLE. BY
REV. JOHN' CUMMINGS, D.D., MINISTER OF THE SCOTTISH NATIONAL CHURCH IN LONDON.           WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY HON. THEODORE FRELINGHUYSEN.
"Let no one neglect this volume because its subject is one that has
been ably.nd unanswerably handled before. If we mistake not, it has
Eome traits of superiority over any that has preceded it. As a malual
of arguments against infidel assaults and sceptical insinuations we do
not think of another that we should call its equal."
" Here is a book that we can heartily commend. Its title, " Is Christianity fiom God? or a Manual of Bible Evidence for the People," indicates the character of the work. The author attelmpts no new theoryno new and startling truths-for these are not folnd in the Bible; but
with singular ability he has explored the old truths of revelation, and
shown conclusively that the Bible is fiom God. * * *
"Its positions are taken with so much confidence, arnd held with so
much quiet ease, that the reader can scarcely fail to feel a kind of contempt for the delirious twattling of upstarts, whose intellectual calibre
is simply of the capacity to doubt what a manly intellect has established."-Rcligr/ious Recorder.
"In an age like the present, when scepticism is so fashionable, a
work like this cannot fail to produce a wholesome influence on the mind
of the reader."-Christian Secretary.
"This work is an able one. It treats of very grave subjects, in an
earnest and practical manner. The work will arrest the attention of
earnest thinilers, whetiher sceptics or Christians. The Introduction by
Mr. Freiinghuysenl is brief, neat, pertiinent, and highly commendatory
of the body of the book." — The Repzublican.
"This is an able and valuable work on a most important subject,
which the author has illustrated in a style and manner that cannot fail
to interest that numerous class of readers for whom it was intended. It
is a good standard book for the Christian family iibrary." —CLriistian
Observer.
"It is a wor: admirably calculated to enlighten the inquirer after
truth, and to confirm the pious in the truth of the Christian Iteligion."
-Baltimore glmericas.
"For all classes this is an admirable summary-compendious but
e )mplete-of the evidences of Christianity. Its style is more polished,
litd its learningc more profound than Nelson's; but i is well adapted to
carry conviction to plain minds, and to suggest to the Christian arguInents and facts for the defence of his faith. The moral argument is
brought out with great strength; and also that firom prophecy." —The
Indepenldent.
"We earnestly recormmend the circulatlon of this volume. Where
skepticism exists, here is strong argument, fieshly presented, lo settle
the belief: where general confidence in the Bible exists, here are de.
tailed proofs to give it corroboration."-Princeoon Review.




Works Published and for Sale by M. W. Dodd.
THE FEMALE JESUIT; OR, THE SPY IN THE
FAMILY.
" THE JESUIT. Such is the title of a work from the pen of a talented
lady, wite of a valuable clergyman in London. It will be read with great
interest. We are assured from the best authority that it is an authentic
relation of facts."-Clristian Union.
"THE FEMALE JESUIT: or, the Spy in the Family.-We took tup this
book for the purpose merely of seeing what it was about. It was late at
night, but we became insensibly interested in the narrative, and we read
on and on, into the small hours of the morning, until we had finished
its 350 pages. As a book of interest, therefore, whether truth or fiction,
we can commend it to our readers."-Albany State Register.
"If there is anything more dangerous than a Jesuit, says a French
writer, it is a Jesuitess. Those who read this little book will think so.
It opens a lower deep among the common deeps of humlan duplicity and
degradation. The book should be read; and it would make P'roiestants
careful of escaped nuns, Popish governesses fitted out in convents and
Popish schools."-Christian Intelligencer.
"S In the title of this book is condensed the substance of the story; and
a most thrilling, startling, astounding story it is. A girl, professedly a
convert from Romanism, obtains a place in a Protestant family, and remains there a considerable time, while yet she is as much a Romanist as
ever, and is practising the deepest Jesuitism. Let those who have no
fear of the influence of Romanism read this book; and if it does not
awaken their apprehensions, it must be because they are more than
half Romanists themselves. Let those who resort to fiction, because
truth is not sufficiently exciting, read this book, and if it does not furnish all the excitement they wish, we know not whither they will look
for more." —j. Y. Observer.
"The above is the title of a work recently published by Mr. Dodd
which is, ill some respects, one of the most strange and mysterious, in
the nature and extent of the deceptions practised by one individual upon
those with whom she associated herself, that we have ever seen. Indeed, were it not that it emanates from a highly respectable source
and its authenticity is fully established, we could scarcely subscribe to
its credibility. The developments of this volume strongly illustrate the
correctness of the remark, that' truth is stranger than fiction.' No one
who glances at the work will be satisfied until the entire volume has
been read."-Fanrer and Mechanic.
" The truth of the narrative is vouched for, and the truth is sufficiently
marvellous to excite astonishment and to puzzle one. The story is that
of an accomplished young lady who introduced herself into the family
of a clergyman in London as all escaped nun. She won the sympathy
and friendship of the family and of many other persons. by her apIparelt
artless simplicity of character, by her talents, and by her melancholy
tale of hardships dtring a long residence in a convent. And yet with
all her apparent innocence she was an impostor, and lived and acted a
life of deceit."-Bangor Whig and Courier.
" The book is a recital of facts of the most engrossing character. It
will be read with avidity, as it shows up the arch deceptions, which
none but practised Jesuits have skill or depravity enough to palm off
upon the world." —Christian Times.




Books Published and for Sale by M. W. Dodd.
CRUDEWNS COMPLETE CONCORDANCE.
A COMPLETE CONCORDANCE
TO THE
HOLY SCRIPTURES
OF THE
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENT;
OR, A
DICTIONARY AND ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE:
Very useful to all Christians who seriously read and study the
inspired writings.
IN TWO PARTS:
CONTAINING,
I. The Appellative or Common Words in so full and large a manner,
that any verse may be readily found by looking for any material word
In it. In this part the various significations of the principal words are
given; by which the true meaning of many passages of Scripture is
shown; an account of several Jewish Customs and Ceremonies is also
added, which may serve to illustrate many parts of Scripture.
II. The Proper Names in the Scriptures. To this part is prefixed a
Table, containing the signification of the words in the original languages from which they are derived.
TO WHICH IS ADDED
A CONCORDANCE TO THE BOOKS CALLED
APOCRYPHA.
The whole digested in an easy and regular method: which, together
with the various significations and other improvements now added, renders it more useful than any book of the kind hitherto published.
BY ALEXANDER CRUDEN, M.A.
riom the Tenth- London Edition, carefully revised and corrected by the
Holy Scriptures.
TO VHICH IS ADDED
AN ORIGINAL LIFE OF THE AUTHOR.
Ever since the first publication of Cruden's Concordance, in 1736, it
has maintained the acknowledged reputation of being the very best
work of the kind in the English language. Indeed, no other has eves
14




Books Published and for Sale by M3. W. Dodd.
deserved to be even compared to it.. It maintains its superiority still;
and probably will ever hold that pre-eminence.
" We speak of the complete edition, which is here presented to the
public. A work in the market called Cruden's Concordance being only
a compilation from the complete work, and wanting many of its most
valuable features. To abridge this work of Cruden. as it came from his
finishing hand, would be to make it nearly valueless to ninety-nine ot
every hundred who need a concordance. And of all aids to an accurate
understanding of the Bible, we believe Cruden's complete Concordance
to be the best."
"DEAR SIR:-I have carefully compared your edition of Cruden's
Concordance with a fine English edition, and find it true to the original.
Knowing, from many years' use, the value of Cruden, I cannot bnt be
glad that you have thus presented a cheap edition of his invaluable
work to the American public. I find in your copy an unimpaired, complete Cruden. This is not the case with another American edition,
published last year. In that, great liberties are taken with the original
work-such as abridgrents, omissions, &c., greatly reducing the
amount of its contents, and in the same proportion diminishing its
value. A student of the Bible needs a concordance in which he can
find every passage he wants. Your edition is just such an one."
" We know, fromn long use, this full and admirable reprint of the
original Cruden's Concordance; and we think that the whole value of
the work depends upon its being complete and entire; and that its
great value would be impaired seriously by the omission of a single
word or reference."
"The high price at which this gigantic work has been necessarily
sold hitherto, has prevented thousands from purchasing it. A complete
edition, with the very latest corrections, with the notes of the author
and every line of the London edition faithfully given, is now published,
as above, for only TWO DOLLARS. It is the best commentary on the
Bible that was ever made: it is worth more to the diligent and devout
student than the whole of Henry or Scott, or any other critic, and we
would part with all our commentaries rather than with Cruden's Concordance. It ought to be in every intelligent family, and we presume
that the low price at which it is now sold will be the means of putting
it into the hands of many who would not otherwise have obtained it.'
THE PREACHER AND PASTOR;
A Collection of Standard Treatises on Preaching, and Pastoral Duties,
containing Fenelon's Dialogues, on Eloquence, Herbert's Country Parson,
Baxter's Reformed Pastor, Campbell's Lectures on Pulpit Eloquence,
and other Essays of English Divines. Edited, with an Introductory
Essay, by Professor Park, of Andover Seminary.  I/5




Books Published and for Sale by M... odd.
MACKNIGHT'S EPISTLES.
A NEW LITERAL TRANSLATION
FROM THE ORIGINAL GREEK.
OF ALL THE
APOSTOLICAL EPISTLES.
WITH A
COMMENTARY AND NOTES,
Philological, Critical, Explanatory, and Practical.
TO WHICH IS ADDED
A HISTORY OF THE LIFE OF TIE APOSTLE PAUL
BY JAMES MACKNIGHT, D.D.,
AUTHOR OF A HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS, ETC.
A New Edition, to which is prefixed an Account of the Life
of the Author.
KNAPP'S        THEOLOGY.
LECTURES
ON
CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY.
BY
GEORGE CHRISTIAN KNAPP, D.D.,
PROFESSOR OF TIIEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF HALLE.
TRANSLATED BY LEONARD WOODS, JUN., D.D., PRESIDENT Of
BOWDOIN COLLEGE, BRUNSWICK, MA.INE.
Third American edition, reprinted from the las, Londol
edition.
11




Bnnkfq Publishea and for Sale by AM. W. Dodd.
SERMONS, NOT BEFORE PUBLISHEDS ON VARIOUS
PRACTICAL SUBJECTS.
By the late Edward Dorr Griffin, D. D.
"Dr. Griffin may be regarded as having been a prince among the
princes of the American pulpit. He left a large number of sermuons
carefully revised and ready for publication, part of which were published shortly after his death, but the greater portion of which constitute the present volume. They are doubtless among the ablest discourses of the present day, and are alke fitted to disturb the delusions
8f guilt, to quicken and strengthen, and comfort the Christian, and to
serve as a model to the theological student, who would construct his
discourses, in a way to render them at once the most impressive, and
the most edifying."
A MEMOIR OF THE REV. LEGH RICHMOND, A.M.
Rector of Turvey, Bedfordshire.   By Rev. T. S. Grimshaw,
A. M., Rector of Burton-Latimer, &c. Seventh American
from the last London Edition, with a handsome Portrait on
Steel.
" We have here a beautiful reprint of one of the best books of it
class, to be found in our language. Such beauty and symmetry of cha
racter, such manly intelligence and child-like simplicity, such officiao
dignity and condescending meekness, such warmth of zeal united witl
a perception of fitness which always discerns the right thing to be
done, and an almost faultless prudence in doing it,-are seldom found
combined in the same person. It is a book for a minister, and a book
ror parishioners; a book for the lovers of nature, and a book for thr
friends of God and of his species. Never perhaps were the spirits an'
duties of a Christian Pastor more happily exemplified. Never die
warmer or purer domestic affections throb in a human bosom, or exer
cise themselves more unceasingly and successfully for the comfort, the
present well-being and final sa'vation of sons and daughters. From n&
heart probably, did ever good will flow out to men, in a fuller, warmer
current. In a word, be was the author of the'Dairyman's Daughter,
and the'Young Cottager.'
" The engraved likeness of Mr. Richmond alone is worth the cost of
the work: as illustrative of the uncommon benignity that adorned and
endeared the man to his friends and the world."
UNCLE BARNABY;
Or Recollections of his Character and Opinions, pp. 316.
"The religion of this book is good-the morality excellent, and the
mode of exhibiting their important lessons can hardly be surpassed in
anything calculated to make them attractive to the young, or successfil
in correcting anything bad in their habits or morals. There are some
twenty chapters on as many common sayings and maxims, occurrences
and incidents-in this respect bearing a resemblance to' the Prompter,
C somewhat oracular book forty or fifty years ago. It is an excellent
book to keep in a family, an  may js alike beneficial to parents and
children."
18




Books Published and for Sak         by AtL V.     Dodo.
THE BOOK THAT WILL SUIT YOU;
Or a Word for Every One. By Rev. James Smith, Author of
" Believer's Daily Remembrancer," &c.
" An elegant little hand book of some 300 pages 16mo., and by an En
gltsh author  its contents are a rare selection of topics, treated briefly
o suit the cir umstances of those who have fifteen or twenty minutes
o spend in r ading, which it would be wicked to throw away, and yet
liscouraging to commence a heavier volume.'The Successful Moner,''Th' Child's Guide,''The Husband's example,''The Wife's
Rule,'-tl se are some of the topics taken promiscuous.y ficm the
book; anu they show the author's mind to be travelling in the right di
rection,' iz.: towards the theory of life's daily practice. We hope
that the time is near when Christian parlors will be emptied of'The
Book o' Fashion,'' Somebody's Lady's Book,' etc., etc., made up of
love st ries mawkishly told, and other drivelling nonsense; and their
places supplied with works like the' Book that will Suit you'-no less
pleas'; g, and far more useful."
GRACE ABOUNDING TO THE CHIEF OF SINNERS9
In a faithful account of the Life and death of John Bunyan,
pp. 176.,"  e ate Dleased to see a very handsome edition of this admirable
treatise. It is J,.''iblished, and will be eagerly sought after by all
who admire the spiri and genius of this remarkable man whose' Pilgrims Progress' stands nearly if not quite at the head of religious lite
rature."
KIND WORDS FOR THE KITCHEN;
Or Illustrations of Eumble Life.  By Mrs. Copley.
"This admirable little volume is the production of Mrs. Esther
Copley, (late Mrs. Hewlett,) whose popularity as an authoress.has long
been established upon both sides of the Atlantic. The welfare of that
interesting and important part of society who discharge the domestic
duties of life has long engaged the attention of this distinguished and
accomplished lady.'' We have reakd the' Kind Words for the Kitchen,' with a firm conviction that it is the best work we have ever seen in so small a com
pass for its designed purpose; it suggests all that a sense of duty would
lead the head of a well regulated household to advise, and having
loaned the book to ladies distinguished for their judgment and skill as
iheads of well-governed families, they have urged its publication with
a few omissions of matter deemed inappropriate to our country.
"1 We believe almost every Christian lady will be glad to place such a
manual of sound instruction in the hands of her domestics, and that
which is kindly bestowed will generally be gratefully received. With
an assurance that the general diffusion of this book would accomplish
a most val.uable service in binding together more closely the interests
of the employer and the employed, and softening down the asperities
which so frequently grow out of the ill performed duties of the household sphere, we should rejoice to know that this little volume was
placed by the side of the Bible in ever-, kitchen of bur country?
17




Books Published and for Sale by Ml. W. Dodd.
PURITAN HEROES;
OR, SKETCHES OF THEIR CHARACTER AND TIMES.        BY JCHN
STOUGHTON.    WITH AN INTRODUCTORY LETTER BY JOEL
HAWES, D.D.
"This is a well-printed duodecimo volume, wherein is given a series
of admirable sketches of those noble minded men whose renunciations
of existing glaring evils subjected them to so great a degree of sufferigg
and calumniation. The present volume is not a continuous nor a prosy
history. It is more; for while the best and standard authorities, old
MSS., and curious tracts, have been consulted in its conpilation, it
abounds with vivid and life-like pictures of the principal characters
and events in the time of the Puritans and Nonconformists. No portion
of English History can be more interesting than this, and none better
deserves deep and earnest study." —J. Y. Tribune.
"The perusal of this volume has awakened in our heart more than
our former love for the Puritans of the olden times, and given its a
burning desire that every American citizen may possess, individually,
as intense a regard for the memory of those men whose principles, refined like gold in the- fires of intolerance and persecution, laid the
foundation on which the glorious superstructure of our Templp of
Liberty has been erected. The pen of Stoughton has given to thiese
records of Puritan days all the vividness, power, and glory of life,'nd
Mlr. Dodd has published them in a style of beauty and elegance worthy
of much commendation."-.Albany Spectator.
"The author has evidently written so as to adapt his style to the
young, and thereby secure their attention to the toils and struggles of
the early advocates of Truth, then imperfectly known, against ecclesi
astical domination and spiritual tyranny. This we have no doubt lie
will have accomplished. The book is one of the most readable that
has been issued from the religious press for years. We mean that it
possesses a captivation, both from the style and the subject, which is
rarely found."-Methodist Protestant.
"This book commemorates, in a thrilling and powerful manner, some
of the greatest spirits of perhaps the most interesting period of British
history. It shows us the struggles and heaviness of the free spirit as it
was coming forth to ripen upon the earth. It is history, the most interesting-but not continuous history. It is highly and most justly recommended by Dr. Hawes." —Albany Express.
" This work relates to a period when great truths were struggling into
birth-when soul-liberty was asserted and maintained at the expense
of fortune, reputation, friends, every hing:-a liberty which has long
blessed our happy land; and which is extending a like boon to other
nations." —7Le Trojan.
" This book is of decided interest. The times to which it relates;
the characters it describes; the stirring events which it sketches; and
the noble sentiments which it illustrates, lend to it a peculiar charm."
-Biblical Repository.
" The volume before us gives an admirable insight into the character
and times of the Puritans. It is not a dry history, like Neal's: it is a
spirit-stirring review of the men and the age, in which every character
and every scene lives before us. Here we may worship wihl'the
Islingon Congregation' in the woods: here we may follow Barrov' and
Greenwood, and Perry, to the gallows: here we may witness th, embarkation of the Pilgrim Fathers: here we may sit by the death-be of
Owen, and Baxter, and Howe; and walk among the graves of mrei of
whom the world is not worthy."-The [ndepe'daent..R




M. W. DODD,
publi0      tcr an    I Bookscl1r,
IN ADDITION TO
HAS ALWAYS ON HAND
AMERICAN AND FOREIGN WORKS,
IN
RELIGIOUS, THEOLOGICAL,
STANDARD & MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE,
AND IS
CONSTANTLY RECEIVING NEW        WORKS,
AS THEY ARE ISSUED FROM THE PRESS,
ALL OF WHICH HE WILL SELL AT
WH OL ESAMLIE OR R ETAIL,
ON THE MOST FAVORABLE TERMS.
ORDERS FOR PUBLIC AND PRIVATE LIBRARIES
EiSPECTFULLY SOLICITED,