LAB O R EUROPE AND AMERICA; A SPECIAL REPORT fHE RATES OF WAGES, THE COST OF SUBSISTENCE, AND THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES, IN GREAT BRITAIN, FRANCE, BELGIUM, GERMANY, AND OTHER COUNTRIES OF EUROPE, ALSO IN THE UNITED STATES AND BRITISH AMERICA. BY EDWARD YOUNG, PH. D., c'HIEF OF THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF ST.ATISTICS. Homo sum; hu-mani nihil a me alienum puto,-Taa.smca PHILADELPHIA: S. A. GEORGE & COMPANY, 15 TNORTH SEVENTEr3 ST. 1875. LETTER TO THIE SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY. TREASURY DEPARTMENT, BUREAU OF STATISTICS, Washington, June 17, 1875. SIR: In a country like ours, where all useful labor is deemed honorable, where the existence of popular suffrage renders the working. classes the chief repository of political power, and where the sentiment of the people harmonizes with the national traditions in support of a policy calculated to preserve, as between employers and the employed, that equality of rights asserted in our fundamental theories of government, all trustworthy information on the subject of labor possesses an interest which becomes more general and pronounced as the rapidly-developing industries of the country increase in diversity and extent. This interest has been much enhanced of late in consequence of the agitation in regard to the relations between capital and labor, which has signally marked the last decade; and since the organization of this Bureau the applications for information on this subject have steadily increased in number. Such applications are received from various classes of persons —from political economists and students of social science, from journalists engaged in the discussion of economic and social questions, from philanthropists desirous of improving the condition of the workingclasses, from representatives of labor associations, from persons representing the interests of employers, and, finally, from prominent members of both Houses of Congress desirous of applying to the task of practical legislation such data on the subject of labor at home and abroad as have been acquired by observation and experience. These applications have been especially numerous in connection with legislation on the subject of the tariff, and a review of the debates on tariff legislation*, for many years past, will show with what avidity both protectionists and free-traders have availed themselves of any information within their reach upon the subject under consideration, and especially on the cost of labor and condition of the laborer in those countries of Europe which compete most sharply with American manufactures. It was owing to the frequency and urgency of the demands for such information, coupled with the inability of the Bureau of Statistics to supply the same from its ordinary sources of intelligence, that the undersigned was induced, when in Europe as a delegate to the International Statistical Congress in 1872, to avail himself of the opportunities thus * See Special Report on the Customs-Tariff Legislation of the United States. III IV LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. afforded for commencing an inquiry into the rates of wages, the cost of subsistence, and the condition of the working-classes in the Old World. Instead, therefore, of visiting those parts of Europe which possessed the greatest interest to a citizen of the New World, he employed the leisure time at his command in making investigations on this subject in the chief, seats of manufacturing industry The murky, soot-laden atmosphere of Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Sheffield, Leeds, and other industrial centers of Great Britain, was less inviting than the healthinspiring breezes of her hills and fields, while their great workshops and factories were far less attractive from an aesthetic pointof view than those 1" epics in stone" which commemorate the devotional spirit and archi-; tectural skill of our mediaval ancestors. It was among the former, however, that the information needed for this report had to be collected. So, on the Continent, it was necessary to spend much time at such busy seats of industry as Chemnitz, Essen, Barmen, Seraing, Huy, Jumet, and Charleroi, and similar towns, while many places far richer in historic associations, architectural beauty, and the treasures of art and science, received but a transient visit, or were omitted altogether. The difficulties which obstructed the prosecution of this inquiry were numerous and formidable, but the success of the work undertaken demanded that they should be met and surmounted. The disinclination of many employers to make known the rates of wages paid by them in the different branches of their work was overcome in some cases by a judicious presentation of the subject and a due exercise of tact, while the disposition of others to answer inquiries in a general and perfunctory manner was met by care and minuteness in the preparation of questions; but there were instances in which it was necessary to exercise no small amount of determination and persistence in order to obtain, the information desired. A single illustration, in addition to the case mentioned on page 521, may be given. The director of the largest and. most widely-known establishment in one important branch of industry declined to communicate to the United States consul of the district information in regard to the rates of wages paid in the mills under his direction; it was subsequently secured, however, by the undersigned,. but onlyafter nearly two days had been devoted to thoughtful preparation and active exertion. The readers of this report will probably notice the omission of any formal comparison between the conditions of labor in the various countries of Europe and corresponding industries, in the United States, or of any conclusions as to the relative advantages possessed by the Old World and the New for the prosecution of manufacturing industry. If this omission be regarded as a defect, it is due to the undersigned to say that it is an intentional one. In, attempting such a comparison it would be difficult, if not impossible, to avoid discussing the effects of customs-tariffs upon the prosperity of manufactures in this and other countries. This result is foreign to the wish of the undersigned, LETTER TO THE SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY. V and incompatible with the neutrality appropriate to his official position. Had it been prepared by a citizen not officially connected with the Government, the course hinted at might with entire propriety have been pursued; yet it is possible that the advantage thus gained in logical completeness would be more than neutralized by the loss of confidence which a work of this character would necessarily sustain if affected by a partisan bias. In the preparation of this volume such bias has been sedulously avoided. The author has not aspired to erect an edifice, but has confined himself to the humbler, though he hopes not less useful, task of preparing the materials-of quarrying, hewing, and polishing the stones, carefully observing that their quality is good, their lines mathematically accurate, and their integrity and trustworthiness undoubted —but leaving to others the distinction, not only of erecting the structure but also of determining the use to which it shall be devoted when complete. To drop the figure, it is as much the inclination as the duty of the undersigned impartially to gather, collate, and publish FACTS, leaving it to others to deduce therefrom such conclusions as from their respective points of view may seem legitimate. He-does not profess, however, to be without opinions on economic matters. One who has watched the growth of industry and the various mutations by which it has been affected during a period of nearly forty years; who has witnessed each financial crisis from 1837 to 1873, and observed its effects upon industry and trade; who has attentively followed the course of tariff-legislation from 1842 to the present time, and who during the last twenty-three years has been more or less engaged in gathering and publishing statistics of American industry, could not make such an avowal without self-stultification; nor could he, unless wanting in patriotic sentiment, fail to take a lively interest in any governmental policy whereby the prosperity of our common country might be affected. The noble sentiment of a Roman poet,* which has been adopted as a motto, may be fitly paraphrased by the author of this report in the expression, " I am an American, and cannot be indifferent to whatever concerns America." That the report contains imperfections the author is well aware. With fewer demands upon his attention he might have improved it in various respects; but he has found it necessary to work under such conditions as were permitted by the engrossing labors incident to the direction of an important Bureau, and he therefore submits it to you, Mr. Secretary, and through you to Congress and to the country, as his contribution to industrial literature, in the hope that, whatever its defects of style, arrangement, or treatment, the mass of new information which it contains will make it a source of benefit to his fellow-toilers in all departments of physical and mental labor. In money, it has involved a not inconsiderable expenditure from his private funds; in labor, its cost' Homo sum; humani nihil a, me alienum puto. VI LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. has been so great as to give him a more vivid idea of the meaning of that word than he had when he defined it upon the initial page of the report as " exertion attended with pain or fatigue." In conclusion, he desires to make an acknowledgment to those whose substantial assistance has facilitated his labors: To the honorable Hamilton Fish, Secretary of State, for the interest which he kindly evinced in the inquiry, and for a circular letter to the ministers and consuls of the United States in Europe; to the consular officers hereinafter named for their effective aid; to the ministers of Germany and Belgium at Washington, who voluntarily furnished letters asking that all proper facilities be afforded in the prosecution of his inquiries in their respective countries; to Mr. J. P. tHarris-Gastrell, of the British legation, for numerous letters to parties in England; to influential merchants in New York, especially to Mlessrs. A. T. Stewart & Co., who instructed their agents in Europe to render to the undersigned all possible assistance in the prosecution of his task*; and, finally, to Mr. E. T. Peters, librarian of the Bureau, for large assistance in the preparation of the early chapters of the work, especially of the historical portion, and also for obtaining at his own cost, while recently in England, information in regard to trades-unions, and for preparing the chapter thereon. Respectfully submitted, EDWARD YOUNIG, Chief of Bureau of Statistics. Hton. BENJAMIN H. BRISTOW, Secretary of the Treasury. * But for the active assistance of ~the agents of Messrs. Stewart &. Co. at Berlin and Chemnitz, in collecting a large amount of information relative to Prussia and Saxony, the statements in the report in regard to wages in Germany would have been far less accurate and comnlete than thev now are. LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Since the day when our primal progenitor was expelled from Eden, and the doom pronounced, "In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread," the subject of labor has been one of absorbing interest. To trace it from the earliest historic period to the present time, through all the vicissitudes which our race has experienced, would be a difficult if not an impossible task; and yet the subject has of late assumed such gigantic proportions as to demand the most careful consideration. It may be well, in the outset, to accurately define the word " labor." It is generally, but we believe incorrectly, used as a synonym for "work." The latter word denotes occupation or employment, but not necessarily of a toilsome or'fatiguing character, while the former, as Worcester's first definition properly expresses it, implies "exertion attended with pain or fatigue, hard work, task, toil, &c." Work may be performed not only without pain or fatigue, but with positive pleasure. Notwithstanding this difference of signification, the words "work" and " workmen" will, in the following pages, be regarded as synonymous with "labor"7 and " laborers" partly as a concession to popular use, but chiefly to avoid the frequent repetition of those words. ORIGIN OF SLAVERY, AND DEVELOPMENT OF WAGE LABOR. From the earliest times of which there exists any authentic record, the, performance of the labor necessary to sustain life has been an occasion of contention and struggle in human society. The desire to escape from. this necessary toil, or the ambition to possess more than their own la — bor could produce, has always impelled men to seek in some way to control the services of their fellows. " The simple wish," says Maine in his, Ancient Laxw, " to use the bodily powers of another person as a means of ministering to one's own ease or pleasure is doubtless the foundation, of slavery, and as old as human nature." In the more advanced portions of the modern world slavery is forbidden, and it is only throughthe intervention of those subtle forces known as the " laws of trade "' that one man can derive profit from the labor of another. In a moreprimitive state of society this process was far more simple and direct. There " the wish to use the bodily powers of another," if accompanied by adequate power, went straight to its object by reducing to bondage the person whose services were desired. Thus, born of the rude impulses of men at a stage of social development when the right of the stronger was the prevailing law, slavery is everywhere found as an already established fact in the very infancy of civilization. Among the nations of antiquity, the most polished as well as the rudest, slavery was universal; and it is only within a comparatively recent period that it has disappeared even from the most enlightened nations of modern times. In our own country less than a decade has elapsed since its final abolition by the adoption of the thirteenth amendment to the Constitution, and it was but a few years earlier that Alexander II issued the edict which terminated serfdom in Russia. The Spanish republic, falling in with the spirit of the age, has but just done what the Spanish monarchy so long refused to do, by adopting legislation looking to the abolition of slavery in the Antilles; while in Brazil the process of emancipation, inaugurated by the law of September 28, 1871, will prob -2 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. ably not be completed for many years to come. Under most if not all of the native governments of Asia, slavery, in some form, still remains undisturbed; in Egypt it flourishes under the reign of the present khedive, notwithstanding the efforts of that potentate to cultivate the friendship and good opinion of western rulers; and on certain portions of the African coast, as well as among the islands of Polynesia, some of the most revolting features of the slave-trade appear to have been recently revived. It thus appears that slavery is one of the most conspicuous facts of human history; and its universal prevalence in former times has undoubtedly had a potent influence in the genesis of the labor question of the present day. Cassagnac, in his History of the Working and Burgher Classes, takes the position that the classes of which he treats are- universally the descendants of former slaves. The theories of this writer were grossly warped by his own aristocratic pride and prejudice; yet there is no lack of historical evidence that slavery preceded wage labor in the process of social evolution, and that hired laborers, who have only appeared to any considerable extent in communities which had made some progress in civilization and in the diversification of industry, were chiefly drawn at first from a class which had been previously enslaved. For ages the process of enslavement and that of gradual elevation out of slavery went on side by side. The ways by which persons fell into slavery were various. Cassagnac maintains that this system, or rather this thing-for it doubtless existed as a fact long before the relations it involved were defined in any code of law-had its origin in the absolute authority of the father over his children. That this was one of its early sources there is good reason to believe, for history affords many instances of the sale of children by their fathers. Laban bargained away his daughter Rachel to Jacob for seven years' service; and though he sold her for a wife, and not for a slave, the principle of possession and of the right of exchange for a pecuniary equivalent is clearly recognized in the transaction. Xenophon, iit his Arnabasis, mentions a Thracian king who offered to give him his daughter, andl proposed to buy his if he had one; and in Athens, as late as the time of Solon, there was, according to Plutarch, no law to forbid the sale of children. It is said, too, that Athenian fathers not unfrequently availed themselves of their prerogative in this respect. It often happens that the customs of certain existing communities, who are now at a stage of social development corresponding to that of other communities at a remote period in the past, serve to illustrate the customs of the latter. Thus, as Maine expresses it in his Village Communities, " direct observation comes to the aid of historical inquiry." An instance of this kind is furnished by the Georgians and Circassians in the notorious practice whi(h prevails among them of selling their daughters to become the wives or concubines of wealthy Turks. It is not difficult to believe that in semicivilized, polygamous societies the children born of wives or concubines for whorm a price had been paid would often be regarded by the father in the light of property. A few would be treated as favorites, but toward the greater number paternal affection would have but little force, and such as were objects of dislike would occasionally be sold; while others, less bright, energetic and ambitious than their brothers and sisters, would be assigned to servile tasks, andl, through prolonged drudgery, finally sink into veritable slavery, in which condition their children would find themselves from infancy. If it be remembered that in such communities families were often very numerous, and composed ORIGIN OF SLAVERY AND DEVELOPMENTr OF WAGE LABOR. 3 of the offspring of several different mothers, it will not seem improbable that dull or uncomely children, especially those of concubines, or of unloved wives, were in many instances thus treated. The sale of Joseph to the Midianites, by his brethren, was an instance of the exercise of the right of the stronger, to which there have doubtless been many analogous cases. Another source of slavery at a later period was debt, and the power which in many countries law and custom have given to the creditor over the body of the debtor. Tacitus states that among the ancient Germans the love of gambling was such that when everything else was gone, a player would often stake his liberty on the last throw, and, if he lost, would quietly suffer himself to be bound and sold. St. Ambrose mentions a similar custom as having prevailed among the lHuns. In some instances, men pursued by their enemies or by the law, bartered their liberty for the privilege of asylum. But beyond doubt the chief source of slavery was subjugation in war. In some cases a conquered territory was seized by the victors and the great mass of its former inhabitants reduced to a state of servitude. In others vast numbers-of prisoners were carried into captivity and reIduced to slavery in the country of their conquerors. According to Josephus the Israelites enslaved the Amalekites, whom they conquered in battle during their journey through the wilderness; and they subse: quently spared the Gibeonites on condition of their becoming " hewers of wood and drawers of water 1" for all time. The biblical record affords numerous instances of conquering armies carrying the conquered into captivity, and the same custom is illustrated in the sculptures of Egypt, Chaldea, and Assyria. The Egyptian king Sesostris,* returning from a successful expedition through many nations, extending as far as Scythia and Thrace, is described as bringing back vast numbers of captives, whom, according to Herodotus, he employed "' in collecting the immense stones used in the construction of the temple of Vulcan,'" and in digging " those vast and numerous canals by which Egypt is intersected." An inscription on one of the winged bulls found among the ruins of Nineveh states that 208,000 Aramneans were carried into captivity by the Assyrian king Sennacherib in a single raid; and according to the inscription on the Bellino cylinder, the aggregate number of prisoners of war carried into Assyria by the same monarch in three other expeditions exceeded 600,000. Of the vast number of people reduced to slavery under this monarchy alone some conception may be formed when it is remembered that the reigns of many of the Assyrian kings were almost an uninterrupted succession of sanguinary campaigns. Thus Esarhaddon, who, according to Rawlinson, reigned from 680 to 667 B. C., made, during that period of thirteen years, no less than ten or twelve great military expeditions, including one into Egypt and one into the interior of the Arabian peninsula. The Medo-Persian monarchs appear to have followed the same custom to a considerable extent in the wars by which they attained the hegemony of Asia. Herodotus tells us that, on the capture of Eretria, its inhabitants were made slaves under the orders of Darius (lystaspes,) which orders appear to have extended to all other prisoners of Greek nationality. The women and children of Miletus were also carried into slavery by the Persians during the reign of the same ruler.t Among i Two or more kings are confounded by the Greek writers under this name. tIt was so, also, with the dynasty to whose most conspicuous representative the Persians, a little later, surrendered the rod of empire. Thus Philip, having conquered the Thebans, sold his captives; and his son, the great Alexander, subsequently destroyed their city and sold the inhabitants, irrespective of age or sex, into slavery. 4 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. smaller potentates similar practices prevailed. Thus Polycrates, King of Samos, puts into chains the Lesbians captured by him in a naval engagement, and compels them to dig a trench round the walls of his capital. What became of them subsequently we are not informed. In short, during the period under consideration, the practice in question was all but universal. In some instances a turn in the fortunes of war liberated and restored to their homes and possessions the people thus carried into captivity; but in a majority of cases they must have sunk permanently into the slave population. The multiplication of slaves in this way at certain epochs must have been immense; nor was this phenomenon confined exclusively to ancient times, for Sir John Chardin states that when the Tartars made an incursion into Poland, and carried away as many captives as they could, finding that they would not be redeemed, they sold them for a crown a head; and Menjan, in his History of Algiers, represents a Mohammedan as saying scornfully to a Christian, " What! have you forgotten the time when a Christian at Algiers was scarce worth an onion?" Of the extent which the slave population of the western portion of Asia Minor had attained at the period of the reign of Darius (Hystaspes,) an incidental proof is furnished in the account which Herodotus gives of the visit of Aristagoras, prince of Miletus, to the Spartan king Cleomenes, whom he wished to persuade to attempt the liberation of tile Ionian Greeks from Persian rule; for among other inducements to invade Asia Minor for this purpose, he mentions the " prodigious number of slaves" which the inhabitants of that region possessed, and which would be at the disposal of the conqueror. But there was always a limit to the extent of the servile population that could be maintained compatibly with the security of the ruling class. In one instance the slaves of Argos, largely outnumbering the citizens, of whom many bad been killed in war, took possession of the government, and held it for a number of years. Another case, familiar to the reader of Grecian history, is that of the revolting Helots of Sparta, who at the time of the great earthquake (470 B. C.) nearly succeeded in overthrowing that state. Another instance is furnished in connection with the irruption of the Scythians into Southwestern Asia in the seventh century before Christ. When these barbarian hordes, after a protracted career of conquest and destruction, were returning to their country, they were met, and for some time successfully resisted, by an army of their former slaves, who, during their prolonged'absence, had married their wives and installed themselves at the head of their households as well as of public affairs. Herodotus naively relates that one of the Scythians proposed to his comrades that they throw aside their arrows and their darts, and rush upon their opponents without any weapons save the whips which they used for their horses. " Whilst they see us with arms," said he, " they think themselves our equals in birth and importance; but as soon as they shall see us with the whip in our hands, they will be impressed with a sense of their servile condition and resist no longer." He adds that the plan was successful. In cidentally this account serves to illustrate the similarity of spirit between the ancient and modern slaveholder; for whether the story be true in its details or not, it doubtless harmonized with what the historian knew in regard to the general feeling of masters toward their slaves. The serious danger involved in too great a preponderance of the ser ORIGIN OF SLAVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF WAGE LABOR. 5 vile class must often have led to the emancipation of considerable numbers of those who composed it. In other cases it may have induced an, insensible relaxation in the rigors of their servitude, gradually leading up to their complete liberation; for there is reason to believe that sonle of the principal nations of antiquity passed through some such phase of social development as that which witnessed the gradual loosening of the bonds of the villeins of feudal Europe, of which latter event there will be occasion to speak more fully hereafter. Occasionally considerable bodies of slaves were emancipated at once by some ruler or military leader, who found it important to secure them as trusty allies; as when Augustus, during the campaign of Sicilius against Sextus Poinpeius, liberated 20,000 of this class to make sailors of them.* There must also have been frequent cases of individual manumission —sometimes as the result of gratitude, or attachment, on the part of the master; sometimes in fulfillment of agreements entered into with the slave to inspire him with zeal in the exercise, for his master's benefit, of some valuable faculty; while many doubtless worked their way to freedom through sheer force of character and strength of intellect. In these and various other ways the emancipated class must have received continuous accessions throughout the course of history; but in the ancient world, as has just been seen, the class of bondmen was constantly re-enforced by the enslavement of the vast numbers of prisoners taken in war; so that however frequent or extensive may have been the emancipations, slavery never approached extinction, as it did in Europe after the practice of enslaving prisoners had been abandoned. The effect of this continued process of enslavement on the one hand and emancipation on the other must have been to build up a numerous proletariat occupying a position but little superior, at least as regards physical comfort, to that of the slaves themselves. For slavery stripped its victim of whatever possessions he enjoyed previous to his enslavement; and when he, or perhaps his remote descendant, emerged from that condition, it was to find himself destitute, dependent, and obliged to procure his daily bread by working for such wages as he could obtain in competition with the slave labor by which he was surrounded. Here then, in brief, is the great central fact in respect to labor in the ancient world, namely, the supremacy of military power in industrial as well as in political relations.f For if the whip was the symbol of industrial masterhood, the sword was unceasingly employed in providing fresh shoulders for its blows; and the sword, too, as has been seen, was chiefly instrumental in preparing available material out of which to form the class of hired laborers.4 *Ptolemy Philadelphus liberated and restored to their homes 120,000 Jewish captives, who, at the close of the war in which they were taken, had been sold by the government as slaves to such of the inhabitants as ichose to purchase them. On their emancipation, the owners were reimbursed out of the royal treasury. The motive for this unusual act of generosity was quite unique, being no other than the desire to add to the famous Alexandrian library the Hebrew Scriptures, to accomplish which the king deemed it necessary to secure the co-operation of the Jewish authorities, and took this method of gaining their good will. tIt would be too much to say that this supremacy of the sword in industry has wholly disappeared, even now, in countries where a strike for increased wages is liable to be treated as an offense against the state, and suppressed by military power. This effect was often produced by the vast destruction of property which occurred in war, leaving tens of thousands not absolutely enslaved, but so destitute as to have no resource but hired labor. Modern times furnish an instance of the reduction of large numbers of people, who were carrying on some small productive bisiless for themselves, to the position of wage laborers through the agency of a revolution in industrial methods. To this there will be occasion to refer again when treating of the introduction of machinery as an industrial agent. 6. LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. As to the actual life of the working-classes in ancient times something lmay be inferred from such fundamental conditions as that which has just been pointed out. For the rest it will be necessary to depend on the casual glimpses which ancient history affords. Doubtless there were communities of greater or less extent which had for generations escaped the terrors of war; whose social arrangements, if not founded upon absolute equity, were at least comparatively free from the effects of violence and injustice; and whose condition, under the favoring smiles of nature, was at certain fortunate periods sufficiently happy to suggest to the imagination the poetic picture of Arcadia. Both in sacred and profane history there are indications of a social state in which wealth and rank did not carry with them a contempt for labor. Thus Abraham's servant, when sent.into Mesopotamia in quest of a wife for Isaac, stationed himself at a well near the city of Nahor, apparently not doubting that among the damsels who came thither to draw water he would find a suitable companion for the son and prospective heir of his wealthy master. It was under similar circumstances that Moses encountered the daughters of Jethro, priest of Midian, who had come to the well to fill the troughs for their father's flocks. Hlerodotus (viii, 137) says that " in remoter times the families even of kings had but little money, and it was the business of the queen herself to cook for her husband "-a state of l)rimitive simplicity to which a fair counterpart is found in Volney's description of the life of the family of a modern Arab chief. "A sheik," says lie, "; who has the command of five hundred horse, does not disdain to saddle and bridle his own, nor to give him barley and chopped straw. Ili his tent his wife makes the coffee, kneads the dough, and superintends the dressing of his victuals. lis daughters and kinswomen wash the linen, and go with pitchers in their hands and veils over their faces to draw water from fountains."* In the earlier days of Rome, it is said, it was not uncommon for senators to live in the country cultivating their land with their own hands; while consuls and dictators were often taken froml the plow. "In those happy dlays," says Pliny, "the earth, glorious in seeing herself cultivated by the hands of triumphant victors, seemed to mlake new efforts and. to put forth her fruits in greater abundance." But if at certain times, and for longer or shorter periods, there have been communities in which the nobility of labor was proclaimed by the examples of the great and influential-communities in which the toil necessary to human sustenance was shared by all, and general comfort went hand in hand with general industry-such, unhappily, has not been the ordinary experience of the human race, and such, certainly, was not the usual condition of affairs among those nations of antiquity whose histories have come down to our day. LABOR IN EGYPT. Among the earliest of these nations, that which has the chief claim upon our attention is Egypt. The remains of her colossal architecture and sculpture which have endured to our day in the time-defying pyramids, the ruins of magnificent temples, the obelisks, colossi, and sl)hinxes, the labyrinth, the catacombs, and the splendid tombs of the kings, reveal to us a people of remarkable genius and skill, and invest them with a strange and fascinating interest. Far beyond the classic days of Rome and Greece there rises into view a, second and remoter antiquity in which this Egyptian civilization stands, like one of the pyramids, outlined in imposing majesty upon the very horizon of time. * Travels in Egypt and Syria. LABOR IN EGYPT. 7 According to Manetho, the Egyptian historian, who wrote in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, no less than thirty dynasties had ruled in Egypt previous to the overthrow of her last native king. Assuming all these dynasties to have been successive, the duration of the Egyptian monarchy up to that time must have exceeded five thousand years; but accepting the received opinion that the first seventeen of them consisted of several contemporary lines, each embracing one or more dynasties, and adopting the order of contemporaneousness established by Lane, the history of Egypt stretches back to the year 2717 B. C. It should be said here that Biinsen and Lepsius, both high authorities, while accepting the theory of the contemporaneousness of the earlier dynasties, assign to Menes, the first king mentioned in Manetho's lists, a date much earlier than the one just given. The preponderance of evidence, however, appears to favor the latter, and accepting that as approximately correct, the time which elapsed between the accession of Menes and the overthrow of Nectanabo by Artaxerxes Ochus, about 350 B. C., was no less than 2,367 years. If to these thirty dynasties be added that of the Ptolemies, which, although of foreign origin, ruled in an Egyptian capital and identified itself more or less closely with Egyptian interests, the history of Egypt as a nation will extend from 2717 to 31 B. C., a period of 2,686 years. But the origin of Egyptian civilization must be assigned to a period even more remote than that of Menes, for in the time of the fourth dynasty, which began about 2440 and ended about 2200 B. C., there were constructed monuments which could only have been the work of a people who had enjoyed the advantage of several centuries of progress.* The early advance of Egypt in civilization, as well as her great material prosperity, had its physical basis in the rare fertility of the valley of the Nile and the remarkqble security of its situation. The former, by attracting the people to a regular agricultural life, induced fixity. of residence and the desire for those comforts and embellishments with which men naturally seek to surround themselves when established in permanent homes. The latter, by protecting them from the predatory incursions of nomad tribes, enabled them to accumulate in peace and safety the means by which this desire might be gratified. Hence gradually arose a demand for mechanical and artistic pursuits to supply agricultural implements, dwellings, household furniture and utensils, improved apparel, and ultimately great public buildings and works of art. Hence, also, arose the desire for protection in the pursuit of a regular industry and in the enjoyment of its products, creating a demand for government and social organization, and rendering it possible to unite a large body of people into a single state. Thus were developed in Egypt the needful conditions for an advancing civilization long before the peoples around them had abandoned the rude and stereotyped usages of an unprogressive pastoral life. The security of situation above referred to was due to the singular isolation of the country; for the valley of the Lower Nile, which owed its fertility solely to its annual overflow by the great river, and which *During the joint reign of two kings of this dynasty was erected the great pyramid of Aboo-seer, commonly known as the pyramid of Cheops; and many other works of the same period attest at once the wealth of the Egyptians and the skill in art and industry to which they had attained even at that early day. These two kings were the. two Sftphises of Manetho, (the Shufu or Khufu and Num-Shuffu or Num-Khufu of the monuments,) of whom the former is believed to be identical with the Cheops of the Greeks, after whom the pyramid has been popularly named. The date, 2352 B. C., is. believed, upon astronomical evidence, to have fallen within the period during which, these two kings reigned. 8 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. constituted the "land of Egypt," was situated in the midst of a desert region of vast extent, affording little subsistence for predatory and hostile tribes, and interposing a formidable barrier of trackless sand between the Egyptians and the nearest habitable tracts on which any considerable population could have found a home. Thus carefully did nature guard the tender infancy of Egyptian civilization; and even in later times, when assailed by rival nations, grown powerful through the arts which they probably owed in great measure to herself, Egypt often found in her surrounding deserts most potent allies, and more than one great army was reduced to impotence through hunger, thirst, and weariness endured in attempting to cross them. In relation to the industry and wealth of the Egyptians, no circumstance connected with their natural situation was equal in importance to the annual inundation, on which depended the productiveness of the entire area of their cultivable land. In consequence of this regular overflow of the fertilizing waters, there was usually "corn in Egypt", when surrounding nations were consumed with famine. Yet even there the agriculturist was by no means wholly exempt from the vicissitudes which beset his calling elsewhere; for a variation of a few feet either way in the rise of the river was attended with serious loss. In modern times a rise of less than eighteen or twenty feet at the nilometer of E1l Rodah, near Cairo, is considered scanty, leaving a considerable area of land outside the limits of the inundation. A rise of less than twenty-four feet is not entirely sufficient, while a rise of more than twenty-seven feet ranks as a destructive flood. In the great French work, the Description of Egypt, there is a table of sixty-six inundations, taken from the official records, and comprehending those of the years 1737 to 1800 inclusive, of which eleven were very high, thirty good, sixteen feeble, and nine insufficient. Similar variations must have occurred in ancient times, and occasionally, though it would seem very rarely, the rise was so scanty as to produce famine. That which occurred in the time of Joseph (probably about 1876 B. C.) has been made familiar by the Scripture narrative; another appears to have occurred a century or two earlier, under one of the sovereigns of the twelfth dynasty; and one of seven years' duration is recorded as having happened in the reign of El Mustansir, about the middle of the eleventh century of the Christian era. So great was the distress at this time in certain portions of Egypt that cannibalism was resorted to, and organized bands kidnapped unwary passengers in the streets of El KShireh, (Cairo.) At this period, however, the evils resulting from the failure of the inundation were aggravated by those of war. In the prosperous times of ancient Egypt art and industry had done much to extend the benefits of the inundation. The great canal (or, rather, continuous series of canals) now known as the Bahr-Yoosuf, (River of Joseph,) which runs parallel with the Nile from a little below Cairo to Farshoot, a distance of about three hundred and fifty miles, is believed to have been first constructed under the Pharaohs, and it may even be full as old as the Arab tradition attributing it to the patriarch Joseph would indicate. In a passage heretofore cited Herodotus attributes to Sesostris the construction of a large number of canals by means of the involuntary labors of his captives,- and remarks that, in consequence of these works, " Egypt, which was before conveniently adapted to those who traveled on horseback or in carriages, became unIfit for both. The canals," says he, "' occur so frequently and in so many winding directions that to journey on horseback is disagreeable; in carriages impossible. The prince, however, was influenced by a patriotic LABOR IN EGYPT. 9 motive: before his time those who inhabited the inland parts of the country, at a distance from the river, on the ebbing of the Nile suffered great distress from the want of water, of which they haid none but from muddy wells." The Sesostris of the Greek and Roman writers is supposed to have been Rameses II, whose reign of sixty-six years appears to have occupied the latter part of the fourteenth and the earlier part of the thirteenth centuries, B. C.; but it is believed that they also confounded under the same name two kings of the twelfth dynasty who ruled about seven centuries earlier, namely, Sesertesen 1 and Sesertesen III, the latter of whom is called Sesostris by Manetho. It is not unlikely that one of these kings, rather than Rameses II, was the author of the system of canals referred to by iHerodotus, especially as the celebrated Lake Mceris, one of the greatest of the works connected with the system of irrigation, is satisfactorily shown to have been excavated under Amenemha III, who reigned in the twentieth century before Christ, and is believed to be identical with the Mceris of the Greek historians.* The importance attached to agriculture by the ancient Egyptians is sufficiently indicated by the construction of such enormous works as those just referred to, for the purpose of facilitating its processes and increasing its products. As early as the days of Abraham their country appears to have been well known to surrounding nations for the regularity and abundance of its food-supply; for when pressed by famine in Canaan the patriarch is represented (Genesis xii) as going to Egypt in quest of subsistence for himself, his numerous dependents, and his flocks and herds. According to the Hebrew version of the Old Testament Scriptures his was about 1920 B. C., and, according to the Septuagint, 2551 B. C. About two centuries later, Jacob, with his household, and probably from one thousand to twelve hundred retainers, resorted to the same source of supplies; and it appears from Genesis xxvi, 2, that Isaac, under stress of famine, was once upon the point of going thither, but was directed elsewhere. Under the despotic rule of the Persians, which commenced about 525 B. C., and, with some interruptions, continued about two centuries, agriculture, like all the other interests of the country, was seriously depressed; but it revived again under the Ptolemies, and, under the Romans, Egypt was regarded as the granary of the empire. The various operations of agriculture are represented with considerable minuteness in the sculptures and paintings on the walls of tombs, on some of which, dating as far back as the fourth and fifth dynasties, appear the plow and various other implements employed in farming. The first essential in connection with agriculture was to secure to the land the full benefits of the inundation, and great pains was taken to accomplish this end by means of ditches and skillful mechanical appliances, as well as by dikes and dams to retain the water upon the land. The contrivances for irrigating lands lying above the level of the inundation appear in early times to have been confined to buckets carried by hand, and a simple machine constructed on the principle of the wellsweep, and known in modern Egypt ts the shdoof. At a later day a contrivance somewhat similar to the modern chain-pump, though on a larger scale, appears to have been used for the same purpose. After the inundation had subsided the land was plowed, or broken up by the hoe, and sown; goats, and, according to Herodotus, swine, being sometimes driven over the field for the purpose of treading in the seed. The principal * The prmenomen of this king, Ra-en-ma, or Ma-en-ra, is probably the name which tho Greeks converted into Mceris. 10 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. crop appears to have been wheat,* which, when ripe, was usually cut near the top of the stalk-, the ears being carried in nets or baskets, by men or asses, to the thrashing-floor, where the grain was trodden out by oxen or cows. Sometimes, however, tle wheat wasbound in sheaves. These several processes of plowing, sowing, harvesting, and thrashing in reference to wheat and other kinds of grain, are portrayed in the tombs, in which are also found curious representations of gardens and vineyards. The former were often extensive, and contained tanks for fish, and for the purpose of irrigation. Those represented are doubtless the gardens of the rich, who alone could have had their tombs so elaborately decorated. The proprietors of land are represented as constantly supervising the labor of their workmen, and paying the closest attention to the cultivation of their estates; and Diodorus informs us that agriculture had been carried to a higher degree of perfection by the Egyptians than by any other people. The rare productiveness of their country is demonstrated by the large population it supported, which, according to the historian just named, amounted, in his day, about the commencement of the Christian era, to three millions, and had once been as high as seven millions. There is no doubt that at the time of Diodorus the population of Egypt had, by war and misgovernment, been reduced very far below its ancient limit; and, if we assuine that limit to have been the higher number mentioned above, the number of inhabitants to each square mile of cultivable land averaged upward of 650, a population considerably more dense than that of any country in modern Europe.t The skill of the Egyptians in the mechanical arts is strikingly attested by the remains of their magnificent temples and other specimens of their architecture. In connection with the monumental remains of the fourth dynasty (2440 to 2200 B. C.) are found opaque glass and glazed pottery, or porcelain, the potter's wheel, and the kiln, together with evidences of a general knowledge of metallurgy.4 Under the fifth dynasty (which commenced simultaneously with the fourth) appear the saw, adze, chisel, lever, balance, and press, and the blow-pipe, used as a bellows. The sculptures exhibit a great variety of * It is believed by some writers that the zea mentioned by Herodotus as the principal grain of the Egyptians, although usually translated spelt, was really a species of bearded wheat. t According to Colonel Jacotin, one of the best authorities on the subject, the space which the Nile does or can water and fertilize, north of the first cataract, including its own bed, is only 9,582.3936 geographical square miles, or about 12,457 English square miles. The space actually under cultivation was found by M. Estbve, according to Colonel Jacotin, to be 5,469.8688 geographical square miles; but the latter gentleman calculates that in ancient times 2,735.0784 more may have been cultivable, making a total of 8,205.9472 geographical, or about 10,666 English square miles, and it is upon this area that the density of population is calculated above. From a list of all the towns and villages of Egypt, with the extent of cultivated land belonging to each, made about A. D. 1375, Mr. E. W. Lane, in his work on the Modern Egyptians, has calculated the aggregate amount of cultivated land at that time at 5,500 geographical square miles, or about 7,150 English square miles. t The following paragraph bearing on this subject is copied from a recent article in an English scientific journal, contributed by Mr. Charles Vincent: "In the sepulchers of Thebes may be found delineations of butchers sharpening their knives on round bars of iron attached to their aprons. The blades of the knives are painted blue, which fact proves that they were of steel, for in the tomb of Rameses III this color is used to indicate steel, bronze being represented by red. An English gentleman has recently discovered near the wells of Moses, by the Red Sea, the remains of iron-works so vast that they must have employed thousands of workmen. Near the works are to be found the ruins of a temple and a barrack for the soldiers protecting or keeping in order the workmen. The works are supposed to be at least 3,000 years old." LABOR IN EGYPT. 11 musical instruments, elegant vases, and articles of household furniture; vessels of metal, alabaster, and other materials; arms and domestic implements, the production of which gives evidence of equal taste and skill; while in weaving, and in the various processes of the manufac. ture of linen, the Egyptians are said to have excelled. Diodorus Siculus divided the ancient Egyptians into three classes, as follows: 1. Persons of rank, and priests, who shared between them the chief honors and powers of the state. 2. Soldiers, who were also husbandmen. 3. Artisans and laborers. Herodotus enumerates seven classes, namely, priests, soldiers, herdsmen (of sheep and cattle,) swine-herds, tradesmen, interpreters, and pilots. Plato mentions hunters as a separate class, and some have added fishermen and boatmen. These various occupations are but subdivisions of the third class mentioned by Diodorus, and are comprehended under the general terms "artisans" and "laborers." The impression has commonly prevailed that these classes were castes like, those of India, separated from each other, from one generation to another, by a barrier which law and custom forbade any of their members to cross; but the testimony of the monuments, as first pointed out by M. Ampere, shows that this opinion was incorrect. Members of the priestly and military classes not only intermarried, but in some instances performed indifferently the functions of the priest or soldier. That intermnarriages between members of the privileged classes and the common people were extremely rare, may naturally be supposed, for this is the case in all countries where privileged classes exist; but there can be no doubt that between most of the different classes of working-people intermarriages were common. IJn deed, this is implied in the statement of Herodotus (ii, 47) in reference to swine-herds, whose case he mentions as if it were entirely exceptional. Nor does he say that even they were forbidden to intermarry with meme tiers of other classes, but that marriage with them was " studiously avoided,7' and that they were thus " reduced to the necessity of intermarrying among those of their own profession." This prejudice arose from their connection with an animal regarded as unclean, and for the same reason they were excluded from the temples. But although there were among the Egyptians no castes, properly so called, it was probably the common practice in most occupations for the son to be brought up to the employment pursued by his father, and it also appears that different occupations were held in different degrees of esteem. The swine-herds, as already indicated, stood lowest in the social scale. The herdsmen of sheep and cattle were regarded with dislike, if not with contempt, a fact which Joseph adroitly turned to the advantage of his kinsmen, by using it as a means of securing for them a residence by themselves in the land of Goshen, (Genesis xlvi, 33 and 34.)* " The antipathy to persons engaged in pastoral pursuits, implied in the statement of Joseph, that every shepherd was " an abomination unto the Egyptians," probably grew out of the invasion of Egypt by a pastoral people, and the establishment therein of the "shepherd-kings." Of these, according to Africanus's version of Manetho, there were three dynasties, the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth, whose rule commenced about 2081) B. C., and lasted somewhat more than five hundred years, during which period, however, there were some contemporary dynasties of native kings. According to Mauetho, the first of these three foreign dynasties was Phoenician, while the other two are believed to have included Arabs and Assyrians; and there is reason to believe that between some of those and the kings of the fifteenth dynasty there existed a bitter hostility. The Pharaoh who elevated Joseph to the post of prime minister is believed to have been Assis (or Assa) of the fifteenth dynasty, and being himself one of the shepherd-kings, he naturally would not share, though from policy he might respect, the prejudices of the Egyptians. The later Pharaoh, " who knew not Joseph," and oppressed the Israelites, is supposed to have been of Assyrian origin, and was probably of the sixteenth dynasty. 12 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Agricultural laborers are said to have been a despised class, and boatmen were held in low esteem, while even mechanics were regarded with contempt by the military class, who disdained to follow mechanical pursuits, considering them mean and unmanly.* The divisions of Egyptian society above mentioned appear to have no relation to the distinction between freemen and slaves. From a remark of Herodotus, that " the Egyptians did not confine the exercise of trades to slaves, as the Spartans did," it may be inferred that persons of this class were employed, to some extent, in the various common occupations, but not exclusively in any. It is probable, however, that slaves were chiefly held by members of the privileged classes, who would be most likely to have the means of purchasing them. It will be recollected that it was a member of the upper class, Potiphar, a captain of the king's guard, who purchased Joseph from the Midianite merchants who carried him into Egypt. It may be remarked here that this transaction affords incidental evidence that at the time when it occurred (about 1800 B. C.) Egypt was known to traders as a market in which slaves were in regular demand. In successful military expeditions immense numbers of captives were often brought back and reduced to slavery; and there are indications in the sculptures of Thebes that slaves sometimes formed a part of the annual tribute paid by conquered nations to the Egyptian kings. The slaves taken in war, and probably also those received as tribute, were sometimes employed in large numbers on the public works; but it is likely that a considerable number of the former class were distributed among the soldiers and military commanders, and that a portion of them were also assigned to the priests, while others were sold under the authority of the government to any private individuals who chose to purchase them. The slaves acquired in these various ways were, of course, of many nationalities, and the representations of them on Egyptian bas-reliefs show that persons of the negro type were included among them. Besides the above mentioned there was another class of involuntary laborers, composed of criminals, a term which probably embraced many who by political or other offenses had incurred the displeasure of the monarch or of the local authorities. The origin of the custom of employing this class upon public works is attributed to Sabacus, the Ethiopian, who invaded Egypt about the middle of the eighth century before Christ. "1 While he retained his authority," says Herodotus, "' he made it a rule not to punish any crime with death, but, according to the magnitude of the offense, he condemned the criminal to raise the ground near the place to which he belonged, by which means the situation of the different cities became more and more elevated." The employment of captives by Sesostris in digging the canals has already been referred to. The labor exacted by the taskmasters of the government in the execution of public works appears usually to have been very severe, the laborers beirg treated as mere beasts of burden. Those condemned to work in the mines are said to have been driven with blows to continue their labors until they sometimes fell lifeless from exhaustion. The practice of inflicting corporal punishment to hasten the performance of work appears * Herodotus (ii, 167) states that he had observed the same custom in various parts of Thrace, Scythia, Persia, and Lydia. " It seems, indeed," says he, " to be an established prejudice, even among nations the least refined, to consider mechanics and their descendants in the lowest rank of citizens, and to esteem those as the most noble -who -were of no profession, annexing the highest degree of honor to the exercise of arms. This idea prevails throughout Greece, but more particularly at Lacedemonia; the Corinthians, however, do not hold mechanics in disesteem." LABOR IN EGYPT. 13 to have prevailed under the Pharaohs, for we are told (Exodus v, 14) that " the officers of the children of Israel which Pharaoh's taskmasters had set over them were beaten, and demanded,' Wherefore have ye not fulfilled your task in making brick, both yesterday and to-day, as heretofore? "' it is not difficult to conceive the hardships to which laborers were sometimes subjected by taskmasters eager to win the favor of a monarch whose vanity and ambition demanded the early completion of a temple, a pyramid, or some other great work, by which he sought to transmit his fame to posterity. The treatment of slaves by private owners would of course vary according to circumstances and the disposition of the masters. In occasional instances, when recommended by marked capacity and fidelity, they appear to have been assigned to positions of trust and responsibility, as in the case of Joseph, of whom we are told that Potiphar " made him overseer over his house, and all that he had put he into'his hand." But such cases, of course, throw no light upon the ordinary treatment of the mass of persons of this class. In agriculture a part of their employment consisted in turning the wheels by means of which water was pumped from the river or canals for the purpose of irrtgating the soil; in the mechanical occupations, and in commerce, they'doubtless performed much of the heavy and disagreeable work, and in the household, female slaves ground corn in the hand-mills then in use, washed the feet of guests, and performed various menial offices. But in regard' to their general condition and treatment little is definitely knowii. Not the slaves alone, but the entire mass of the laboring people, appear to have been entirely devoid of political power, and to have had scarcely an idea of such a thing as the rights of citizenship. Their demeanor in the presence of their superiors in rank was marked by great humility; and their habit of prostrating themselves before those in authority affords presumptive evidence that the latter possessed, and occasionally exercised, the power of inflicting severe punishment upon the objects of their displeasure. Yet there is reason to believe that the laws of Egypt were characterized by more humanity and a greater regard for justice than those of most other nations of ancient times, not excepting some of the greatest of those states which flourished at a period much later than that to which the larger and more prosperous portion of Egyptian history must be assigned.* Imprisonment for debt, which has disgraced the codes even of modern nations, was not practiced among the Egyptians; while the murder of a slave, like that of a freeman, was punished with death.- In these and other particulars the laws appear to have been framed with more regard to the rights of the poor and humble than might have been expected in a country where this class had so little influence in public affairs. It would appear, however, that at one period, at least, idleness or vagrancy was punished with great severity; for Herodotus mentions a law instituted by Amasis, which required every Egyptian once a year to explain to the chief magistrate of his district the means by which he obtained his subsistence, and states that a failure to comply wlth this ordinance, or to prove that a livelihood was procured by honest means, was a capital offense. The political subjection of this class appears to have been founded in their gross superstition, or perhaps it would be more accurate to say *An indication of the efficiency with which the laws were administered may be seen in the fact, attested by sculptures of a very ancient date, that it was the common practice of. persons of all classes to go abroad unarmed. 14 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. that it was foundled in the general ignorance out of which this superstition grew. Their belief in a mnultitude of divinities, of whose will the priests were supposed to be the authorized interpreters, induced them to accord to this class an authority which, at one period of their history, appears to have been paramount in some respects to that of the king himself, and this authority was probably the original basis of the monarch's power. It is quite possible that on this account the government was milder than if it had been founded purely on military power. It is evident, however, that the military forces of the nation, called into existence, perhaps, to repel invasion or to prosecute foreign wars, soon became one of the main supports of the monarchy; and the fidelity of these forces to the government, as well as their zeal in the defense of the country, was stimulated by especial privileges, of which the most substantial was the possession of allotments of land, exempt from all rent or taxation, which, together with the duty of military service, appears to have descended from father to son through successive generations.* In its bearing on the economical condition of the working-classes, the subject of land-tenure, incidentally referred to above, is sufficiently important to require a passing notice. In Genesis xlvii may be foundl'the well-known scriptural account of Joseph's purchase of the lands of the Egyptians for Pharaoh at the time of the great famine, in consequence of which they had previously exhausted their money and their cattle in purchasing from the king the food which he had gathered into the royal store-houses during the seven years of plenty. In permitting the people to continue the occupancy and cultivation of their land, Joseph exacted for Pharaoh a fifth part of the produce, and in the twenty-sixth verse we are told that he "' made it a law over the land of Egypt unto this day that Pharaoh should have the fifth part." It appears, however, that the land of the priests was not included in this purchase, for, according to verse 22, " the priests had a portion of food assigned them of Pharaoh, and did eat their portion which Pharaoh gave them; wherefore they sold not their lands." As near as can be determined this event; occurred about 1865 B. C.t At a later period the land is found divided between the king, the priests, and the soldiers. According to Herodotus the priests and soldiers had each a tract of land, which, expressed in our measurement, would be a little over six acres, free from all taxation. This was probably the quantity held by the common soldiers and the lower order of priests, for it seems likely that both in the military and priestly prof'essions the quantity of land held varied to some extent with the rank of the holder. Sesostris (which name in this instance probably applies to Rameses II) is represented as having made a regular distribution of the lands of Egypt, assigning "to each Egyptian a square piece of ground," (Herodotus ii, 109,) and deriving his revenues " from the rent which every individual annually paid him."7 " Whoever was a sufferer by the inundation of the Nile was permitted to make the king acquainted with his loss;" and "certain officers were appointed to inIt appears that Psammetichus, who came to the throne about 664 B. C., after overthrowing a dodecharchy of which he had been a member, commenced the practice of employing foreign mercenaries. The native Egyptian troops, being agriculturists in peace as well as soldiers in war, bad had a strongr interest in the safety of the country, whose independence did not long survive the general substitution of mercenary foreigners for the native soldiers. t It will be understood that in respect to the dates of most events of the earlier portion of Egyptian history, there is great diversity of opinion among chronologists. LABOR IN EGYPT. 15 quire into the particulars of the injury, that no man might be taxed beyolld his ability." This statement probably refers only to that portion of the land which belonged to the king. The privileged tenure of the priests certainly dated much farther back than the time of Rameses II, and the same is probably true in regard to that of the soldiers; and both of these classes were in possession of their lands, as above stated, at a time long after the reign of that monarch. It is quite probable, however, that both before and after that perio(d there were changes of greater or less extent in the distribution of land, both among individuals and classes. Such changes have been common in- the history of the world, and would be peculiarly favored in Egypt, by the fact that the whole country had to be resurveyed after each annual inundation, in order to re-establish the boundaries between the different tracts, an operation which would bring the subject of land-tenure under the constant attention of the public, and make it a matter of regular supervision on the part of the authorities. Of the importance attached to the division of the soil in Egypt, an indication is found in the fact that the topography of the country formed the theme of one of the sacred books; and it is in the care of the Egyptians in securing exact surveys that the science of geometry is supposed to have had its origin. If Herodotus may be relied on as to the amount of land assigned to the priests and soldiers, and as to the number of the latter, his statements, in conjunction with other data, will afford the basis for an approximate calculation as to the aggregate amount of land held by each class. According to this historian the number of soldiers, when the population of the military nomes was at its maximum, was 410,000; and, taking six acres as the amount assigned to each, the aggregate amount of land held by the military class would be 3,8433 square miles, or a little over thirty-six per cent. of the entire cultivable. area (10,666 square miles) as estimated by Colonel Jacotin. But Diodorus (i, 73) states that the priests held the largest share in the threefold division of the soil; and so great was the number of persons of this class, that at some points in Egyptian history this may well have been true. But, taking as the basis of calculation the ordinary number of priests and soldiers, instead of the maximum number, it seems probable that the division of the land between these two classes and the king was originally such as to give exactly one-third of the total area to each of the three parties, an arrangement which probably remained in force. without any very material variation, for several centuries.* It is worthy of note in this connection that the maximum number of soldiers, as given by Herodotus, (410,000,) would make the military class, including women, children, and old men, about one-third of the maximum population as given by Diodorus, (7,000,000;) for this supposition gives one soldier to every 52 of the military population, which is a reasonable estimate. The maintaining of so large an army would scarcely have been possible, but for the fact that the soldiers, in times of peace, were husbandmen, and so were, in a great measure, selfsupporting. * Herodotus (ii, 141) states that Sethes, a priest of Vulcan, on attaining the throne, treated the military with great contempt and deprived them of their arurce, or fields, which, by way of reward, his predecessors had given,to each soldier. Chronologically this prince appears to coincide with the Tirhakah of Scripture, whose reign commenced about 723 B. C., but the character ascribed to him hardly corresponds with that of the latter monarch. The statement of Herodotus is chiefly valuable as showing the existence in Egypt of some record or tradition of such an interference on the part of the king with the land of the military class. After the employment of mercenaries becanime common, the land of the Egyptian soldiers was probably appropriated gradually by the kings, and their descendants put upon tho same footing as other cultivators. 16 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The statement that Sesostris, (or Rameses II,) in his distribution of the land, " assigned to each Egyptian a square piece of ground," can hardly be taken as literally true in any case, since a considerable portion of the population must have been engaged in mechanical pursuits; but it seems clear that the soil in the main was divided into small holdings and that lapetite culture was the prevailing form of the far-famed agriculture of Egypt. The sculptures of a remoterperiod, however, for example those on the walls of tombs of the fourth dynasty, indicate the conduct of agricultural operations on a scale implying larger proprietorships; and, indeed, it is not improbable that during her long history Egypt passed through some phase of land-tenure bearing more or less resemblance to that which prevailed under the feudal system in Europe. But it is not to be supposed that even under the system of small holdings subsequently established each holder personally cultivated his own land. In this labor slaves were doubtless employed to a large extent, especially by the soldiers and priests; while many of the latter probably rented their land to others, and subsisted, in whole or in part, upon the revenues derived from it in this way.* The king's portion of the land was probably rented, for the most part, in tracts not larger, and possibly even smaller, than those allotted to the priests and soldiers. The amount of rent exacted undoubtedly varied with the condition of the country, the demands upon the royal exchequer, and the personal character of the monarch. Had the annual charge never exceeded one-fifth of the produce, (at which it is said to have been fixed by Joseph,) the condition of the tenants would have been more favorable than that of tenants in most countries where competition rents are paid to private land-owners; but many of the kings, in order to carry out their own ambitious schemes, extended their exactions to such a degree as barely to leave the cultivators the meanest subsistence. If the system of land-tenure was such as has been indicated above, there could scarcely have been in Egypt a landed aristocracy. Indeedl, there was no hereditary aristocracy whatever, in the ordinary sense of that term. The priests and soldiers were privileged classes, but the majority of these must have been persons of very moderate means, as is implied in the extent of their allotments of land. In both of these classes there were, doubtless, many gradations of rank, to the highest of which, as well as to high government offices, were annexed very large incomes. The power of an Egyptian king to reward a favorite official is illustrated by the honors and emoluments showered upon Joseph. In later times, especially under the Ptolemies, commerce must have been the source of many large private fortunes. But in all periods there appear to have been great inequalities among the people in respect to wealth and social position. The great affluence of a portion of the community, probably a small portion, is indicated by the representations of their furniture, household-utensils, and dress, and by the great quantity of jewels and other objects of embellishment and luxury in use among them, as well as by the magnificent tombs which they prepared for the reception of their remains; while the splendor of the palaces of Thebes, still evident even amid their ruins, sufficiently indicates the magnificence and pomp which surrounded the monarch. The indolence and luxury of the few had their natural counterpart in the arduous toil * The produce of their land was certainly not their only source of revenue. -Herodotus (ii, 37) says that they were not obliged to consume any part of their domestic property, each of them having a moiety of the sacred viands, ready dressed, assigned him, besides a large and daily allowaLce of beef and geese." LABOR IN EGYPT. 17 and poverty of the many. Such was the fertility of the soil, however, that in favorable periods even the poor probably enjoyed a certain rude abundance of coarse food. Of this an incidental evidence is found in the murmurings of the Israelites in the wilderness, for, notwithstanding that the Egyptians had " made their lives bitter -with hard bondage in mortar and brick and in all manner of service in the field," (Exodus i, 14,) they sighed for the days when they " sat by the flesh-pots and did eat bread to the full." (Exodus xvi, 3.) But during the period when the population of the country was at or near its maxinjum, every deficient or excessive inundation must have entailed a deficiency in the food-supply, and the poorer classes must at times have suffered very serious privations from this cause. As to their clothing, it appears to have been of the simplest description, usually consisting of a single garment, a sort of tunic, with a girdle, and the men, especially when engaged in heavy work, frequently went naked. Their dwellings were slight and temporary structures, in marked contrast with the temples and tombs, which seemed to have been built to endure for eternity. The climate, however, was so mild that scant clothing and poor dwellings rarely involved any serious physical discomfort. In respect to education, the Egyptian wotking-classes appear to have had no advantages. With the great majority of them life was a mere physical existence, more or less painful, and rarely cheered with any hope of amelioration in their condition. Among the causes of their poverty, one of the most obvious was the support of an immense body of non-producers, particularly the priests, who were more numerous, enjoyed ampler revenues, and exercised greater social and political power in Egypt than anywhere else in the ancient world. Another cause equally conspicuous was the exercise of the arbitrary and irresponsible power of the monarchs in the erection of vast and costly structures, such as temples and pyramids, thus forcibly diverting the labor of the people into unnatural channels, wherein it contributed nothing to their physical comfort, and in no adequate degree promoted even their artistic and esthetic development. From the account which Herodotus gives of the construction of the great pyramid (which was doubtless the account current among the Egyptians in his day) it would appear that the king arbitrarily impressed the people into his service " Some he compelled," says the historian, " to hew stones in the quarries of the Arabian mountains, and drag them to the banks of the Nile; others were appointed to receive them in vessels, and transport them to a mountain of Libya. For this service a hundred thousand men were employed, who were relieved every three months. Ten years were consumed in the hard labor of forming the road through which these stones were to be drawn. * * * * The ipyramid itself was a work of twenty years. Upon the outside were Inscribed in Egyptian characters the various sums of money expended in the progress of the work for the radishes, onions, and garlic consumed by the artificers. This, as I well remember, my interpreter informed me, amounted to no less than one thousand six hundred talents, [in round numbers about $1,600,000.] If this be true, how much more must it necessarily have cost for iron tools, food, and clothes for the workmen, particularly when we consider the length of time they were employed in the building itself, adding what was spent in the hewing and-conveyance of the stones, and the construction of the subterraneous apartments." Herodotus adds that for the memory of this monarch and his successor (who also built a pyramid) the Egyptians had so extreme an aversion thtat they were "' not very willing to mention their names." 2L 18 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. But it was not alone'in the erection of such colossal structures as the pyramids that vast amounts of labor were expended. One hundred and twenty thousand men are said to have been employed in hewing the obelisks of Thebes; -and Herodotus mentions an edifice formed out of a single immense stone, which appears to have been used as the portico of a temple, the translortation of which from Elephantine to Sais employed two thousand men for three years. Yet this was only one out of many similar works executed by a single king; and there was scarcely a monarch of any note who did not leave numerous monuments of his ambition to perpetuate his fame, or his solicitude to obtain the favor of the gods by erecting costly temples for their worship. Thus the industrial servitude of the people resulted in a great measure from that absolute political subjection which enabled a monarch to tax them at his own pleasure, or to command their labor in the service of the most grotesque ambition, the most reckless extravagance, or the wildest caprice. -Scarcely anything in history could give one a more exalted conception of the economic value of political liberty to the workingclasses of modern times than is conveyed by the spectacle of the hardships to which the working-people of Egypt were subjected in consequence of the irresponsible power possessed by their rulers. LABOR AMONG THE JEWS. Adjacent to the Egyptians, geographically, and connected iwith them by strong historical links, were the Jews, or Israelites, who, after their exodus from Egypt, (which probably took place about 1652 B. C.,*) settled in the southern portion of the belt of fertile country which bordered the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. Their ancient writings, embraced in the books of the Old Testament, in Josephus, anid in the Talmud, and other traditional records, not only throw a comparatively full light upon their own life and history, but incidentally afford many important glimpses at those of the nations by which they were surrounded. In their origin the Israelites were a pastoral people; but during their residence in Egypt many of them must have acquired considerable mechanical and artistic skill, as is indicated in the fact that they built for Pharaoh treasure-cities, (Exodus, i, 11,) and by the works they executed during the journey through the wilderness in the construction of the tabernacle and its elaborate furniture, including the ark, the golden candlesticks, the cherubim of beaten gold, the "curtains of fine-twined linen, and blue and purple and scarlet, the vessels of gold and silver. ana the ephod, inlaid with precious stones." During the earlier centuries of their residence in Canaan their frequent wars with the former inhabitants of the country and with the neighboring nations must have been highly unfavorable to their progress in the arts and in mechanical industry: and, moreover, the Philistines, under whose power the Israelites repeatedly fell, appear to have pursued so jealous a policy toward them that in the early portion of the reign of Saul "there was no smith found through all the land of Israel, for the Philistines said,'Lest the Hebrews make them swords or spears;' but all the Israelites went down to the Philistines to sharpen every man his share, and his coulter, and his axs, and his mattock." (1 Samuel xiii, 19 and 20.) The period of power and independence enjoyed under Saul and under David were favorable to their progress in the industrial arts, and they also profited by their intercourse with the Phcenicians, whose great On this subject there is considerable difference of opinion among chronologists. LABOR AMONG THE JEWS. 19 cities, Tyre and Sidon, were already flourishing places. In the building of the Temple at Jerusalem Solomon appears to have availed himself extensively of the skill of these neighbors, whose workmen were associated with those of thie Hebrews* in dressing stones for the foundation of that structure, hewing timber in the mountains of Lebanon, and probably in maniy other portions of the work. In his message to Hiram, King of Tyre, asking assistance in this work, Solomon sas, " Send me nowV, therefore, a man cunning to work in gold, aKnd in silver, and in brass, and in iron, and in purple and crimson, and blue, and that can skill to grave with the cunning men that are with me in Judah an(l in Jerusalem, whom David, my father, did provide." (2 Chronicles, ii, 7.) Hiram complies with this request by sending "a cunning mlan endued with understanding," whose mother was "of the daughters of Dan, and his father a man of Tyre." Among the works in metal executed by this artificert was an immense vessel of brass, of which the fbllowing account is given in 1 Kings, vii, 23 to 26: "'And he made a molten sea, ten cubits from the one brim to the other; it.was round all about, and its height was five cubits,$ and a line of thirty cubits did compass it round about. And under the brim of it round about there were ~ knops compassing it, ten in a cubit, compassiug the sea round about; the knops were cast in two rows when it was cast. It stood upon twelve oxen (three looking toward each of the cardinal points.) * * * And it was a hand-breadth thick, and the brim thereof was wrought like the brim of a cup with flowers of lilies. It contained two thousanld baths.'~ This and numerous other vessels enumerated in -the same chapter, and more or less minutely described, are said to have been "' of bright brass," and to have been cast in the plain of Jordan,. "in the clay ground between Suecoth and Zarthan." Further on are enumerated candlesticks, snuffers, lamps, basins, spoons, censers, and various other articles " of pure gold" which were made as a portion of the furniture of the temple. The making of the various vessels and other articles, some of them cast and others wrought, indicates considerable skill in the various processes of metallurgy; but, as this work was directed by an artificer brought firom Tyre expressly for that purpose, it would appear that the knowledge of this art possessed by the Israelites at the time in question was quite limited. It imay reasonably be presumed, however, that they profited by the lessons received in the execution of these and other works connected with the temple, and that the erection of this building really inaugurated a new era in the development of the mechanic arts among thenm. One thing especially noticeable in connection with the building of the Temple is the manner in which the labor was employed. In the sevxenteenth and eighteenth verses of the second chapter of second Chronicles, we are told that "1 Solomon numbered all the strangers that were in the land of Israel, *' and they were found an hundred and fifty thousand and three thousand and six hundred;" and that of these;" he set three score and ten thousand to be bearers of burdens, and four score thousand * 1 Kings, v, 6, 13, 14, and 18. t In 1 Kins, vii, 13 and 14, the artificer who executed the works in question is spoken of as Hiranm, whose mother was a widow of the tribe of Nktphtali, and his father a man of Tyre, a worker in brass. It is probable, however, that this is the same person elsewhere spoken of as the son of a -woman of the daughters of Dan, for Dan, the ancient Luz, was a city in Naphtali, these two tribes having probably intermingled to such an extent that the distinction between them was in a measure lost. t The Jewish cubit was equal to about twenty-one inches of our measurement. 5 In 2 Chronicles, iv, 5, its capacity is stated at three thousand baths. The bath was a liquid measure of a fiaction nmore than 10-1 gallons. 20 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. to be hewers in the mountains, and three thousand and six hundred overseers to set the people a work." These strangers were probably descendants of the ancient Canaanites, and as they were a subject people, the King appears to have had no scruple in impressing them into his service. In addition to the " strangers" it appears that Solomon raised thirty thousand men by a levy upon all Israel. These were sent to work in the mountains of- Lebanon, "ten thousand a month by courses; a month they were in Lebanon and two months at home." (1 Kings, v, 13 and 14.) The arrangements to secure the aid of Phoenician workmen in cutting timber in Lebanon were made with the King of Tyre, to whom Solomon says,'~ And unto thee will I give hire for thy servants according to all that thou shall appoint; for thou knowest that there is not among us any that can skill to hew timber like unto the Sidonians." King Hiram promises that his servants shall do as Soloman has desired " concerning timber of cedar and concerning timber of fir;" and he further engages to bring them down from Lebanon unto the sea, " and convey them by sea in floats" to the place that Solomon may appoint; which place appears to have been Joppa. In return for these services he tells Solomon, " Thou shalt accomplish my desire in giving food for my household." The amount of the supplies which Solomon furnished under this arrangement is stated at twenty thousand measures of wheat and twenty measures of pure oil. (1 Kings v, 6, 8, 9, and 11.)* It will be observed that the "strangers" impressed by Solomon into his service, as well as the thirty thousand men raised by a "levy" upon all Israel, appear to have been assigned to unskilled labor, and except in the case of Hiram of Tyre, no account is given of the manner in which artisans were obtained for the execution of such work as required a higher degree of mechanical and artistic skill. It is probable, however, that these were mainly free laborers, Jewish and Phoenician, who received regular wages for their services. In later times skilled mechanics were held in high esteem among the Jews, and in some cases, like that of St. Paul, men of learning and of superior talents thought it no dis. honor to earn their subsistence by a mechanical occupation. Indeed, the head of every Jewish family was required to have his sons instructed in some trade. In respect to slavery, the Jews presented no exception to the general practice of the age; but the law, while permitting them to purchase slaves of the heathen around them, or of the strangers sojourning among them, forbade them to reduce a Hebrew to perpetual servitude, except with his own consent in one case mentioned below. In Leviticus, xxv, 39, 40, and 41, it was provided that if a Hebrew were impoverished and sold to another person of his own race, he should not be compelled to serve as a bondservant, but "as a hired servant and as a sojourner," and this only until the year of jubilee, when he should depart, and his children with him, and return to his own family and to the-possessions of his fathers. In Exodus, xxi, it was provided that if a Hebrew were purchased as a servant, he should serve six years, and in the seventh year should "go out free for nothing"; that if he were married on coming into servitude, his wife should go out with him; but if his master had given him a wife, and she had borne him sons or daughters, she and her *This account differs somewhat from that given in 2 Chronicles, ii, 10, in which Solomon is represented as saying to Hiram, " And behold I will give to thy servants, the hewers that cut timber, twenty thousand measures of beaten wheat, and twenty thousand measures of barley, and twenty thousand baths of wine, and twenty thousand baths of oil." The Jewish "measure" was the chcenix, containing nearly a quart. LABOR AMONG THE JEWS. 21 children should be her master's. If the servant elected to remain in servitude rather than leave his wife and children, his master was to take him before the judges and bring him to the door, or to the door-post, and bore his ear through with an awl, in token of his perpetual servitude. If a man struck a servant so that he died under his hand, it was provided that he " be surely punished;" but if the servant lingered- a day or two, the master was not to be punished, the theory being that the servant was l"his money." If a man struck out an eye or a tooth of his servant, he was to give him his freedom by wav of reparation for the injury. If a servant escaped from his master, he was not to be delivered to him. "He shall dvell with thee," is the command, (Deuteronomy, xxiii, 16,) 1" even among you, in that place which he shall choose in one of thy gates, where it liketh him best; thou shalt not oppress him." This appears to refer to servants escaping to the Israelites from the countries around them. In reference to the treatment of hired servants, we read (Deuteronomy, xxiv, 14 and 15) "Thou shalt not oppress an hired servant that is poor and needy, whether he be of thy brethren, or of the strangers that are in the land within thy gates. At his day thou shalt give him his hire, neither shall the sun go down upon it; for he is poor and setteth his heart upon it: lest he cry against thee unto the Lord, and it be sin unto thee." The laws of the Israelites with reference to property exhibit a peculiar regard for the interests of the poor. On taking possession of Canaan they divided the land among them; and although it is not explicitly so stated, the presumption is, that the division was, as nearly as practicable, an equal one, except that Joshua, and probably some other leaders, received shares which were larger than the average allotment. To counteract the tendency of land to accumulate in a few hands, a year of jubilee had been instituted in the law of Moses, which was to occur once in every fifty years, and at this time every man was to return to his possessions, The land was not to be sold in perpetuity,* but only its usufruct until the year of jubilee. This usufructuary title is clearly indicated in the sixteenth verse of the twenty-fifth chapter of Leviticus, which reads as follows: "According to the multitude of years (until the jubilee) thou shalt increase the price thereof, and according to the fewness of the years thou shalt diminish the price of it; for according to the number of the years of thefruits doth he sell unto thee." If an Israelite were compelled by poverty to sell the land he had inherited, his kinsmen had the right to redeem it for himl by simply paying its usufructuary value until the year of jubilee; or if he, himself, were able to do so, he might redeem it upon the same terms; but if neither he, nor his kinsmen for him, could redeem it, he received it back in the year of jubilee.t A house in a walled city might be redeemed within one year after its sale, but not later; nor was it restored in the jubilee; but houses in the unwalled villages were regarded as the fields of the country; they might be redeemed at any time upon the same terms, and were restored in the year of jubilee. It should be said, too, that this rule applied to the houses of the Levites, even in walled cities, at least in the cities assigned to them; "for the houses of the cities of the Levites were their possession among the children of Israel." (Leviticus, xxv, 33.) The year of jubilee had the same relation to personal liberty as to * "The land shall not be sold forever; for the land is mine; for ye are strangers and sojourners with me." —Leviticus, xxv, 23. tIdem., verses 25-28. This rule undoubtedly applied also to his children if he himself should die before the jubilee arrived. 22 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. possessions.* If a Hebrew, under stress of poverty, sold himself to a rich stranger sojourning in the land of Israel, his near kinsmen might redeem him by paying for the years to elapse before the jubilee; or if able, he might redeem himself upon the same terms; and in the jubilee he went free without redemption. Of course, all contracts, whether for land or services, must have been made with this understanding; so that the law inflicted no injustice upon purchasers. Its effect was to put it out of the power of a man to sell himself, for some present indulgence, into a perpetual servitude which would involve the servitude of his childlren, or to alienate permanently, for the gratification of his own extravagance or indolence, a title to landed property, in which he could justly have only a life estate; in other words, it put it out of his power to reduce his children to beggary by selling for his own advantage their natural right to a portion of the land which had been given to the nation as their common inheritance. The following injunctions from the twenty-third and twenty-fourth chapters of Deuteronomy are in keeping with many others that may be found in the laws of AMoses and in other portions of the Old Testament:'" Thou shalt not lend upon usury to thy brother, (i. e., to a Hebrew.) * * * Unto a stranger thou mayest lend upon usuryt; but unto thy brother thou shalt not lend upon usury." * * * V"When thou dost lend thy brother anything, thou shalt not go into his house to fetch his pledge. Thou shalt stand abroad, (outside,) and the man to whom thou dost lend shall bring out the pledge abroad unto thee4 and if the man be poor, thou shalt not sleep with his pledge. In any case thou shalt deliver him the pledge again when the sun goeth down." * * * " Thou shalt not pervert the judgment of the stranger, nor of the fatherless, nor take a widow's raiment to pledge." * * * "When thou cuttest down thine harvest in thy field, and hast forgot a sheaf in the field, thou shalt not go again to fetch it; it shall be for the stranger, for the fatherless, and for the widow." * * * "When thou beatest thine olive-tree, thou shalt not go over the boughs again." * * * "' When thougatherest the grapes of thy vineyard, thou shalt not glean it afterward; it shall be for the stranger, and the fatherless, and the widow." That these and other humane laws were frequently disregarded, and even flagrantly disobeyed, is evident from the repeated denunciations of the prophets against usury and other oppressive practices. In Nehemiah we read that " there was a great cry of the people, and of their wives, against their brethren, the Jews." Some are represented as saying, "' We have mortgaged our lands, vineyards, and houses, that we might buy corn, because of the dearth." Others complained that they had borrowed money upon their lands and vineyards for the king's tribute. " And, lo, we bring into bondage our sons and our daughters to be servants," said they,'" and some of our daughters are brought into bondage already; neither is it in our power to redeem them, for other men have our lands and vineyards." Thereupon Nehemiah rebukes " the nobles and the rulers," saying, "Ye exact usury every one of his brother," and calls upon them to restore to their impoverished brethren "'their lands, their vineyards, their olive-yards, and their houses," as well as " the hundredth part of the money, and of the corn, the wine and the oil" that they have exacted from them. To this they consent, and he calls the priests to witness their oath that they will do " according to this promise." This appears to have occurred subsequent to * "And ye shall hallow the fiftieth year, and proclaim liberty throughout all the land, unto all the inhabitants thereof.!'-Leviticus, xxv, 10. t All interest was formerly denominated " usury." LABOR IN CHALDEA AND ASSYRIA. 23 445 B. C., when Nehemiah had obtained authority from Artaxerxes to proceed to Judea and rebuild Jerusalem. The captivity of the Jews in Babylon, and the domination of the Persians, Syrians, and Romans must have interfered to a considerable extent with the operation of their own laws; and the oppressive tribute to which they were at times subjected, as well the frequent wars between greater powers in which they were more or less involved, must have reduced them, at times, to a condition of severe suffering. LABOR IN CHALDEA AND ASSYRIA. These two countries; the former occupying the lower and the latter the upper portion.of the valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris with the intermediate region, may be considered as having formed one nation for a period of several centuries, comprising the best known portion of their history. Their people differed in race and language, and the civilization of Chaldea was of much earlier origin than that of Assyria; but of the history of the old Chaldean empire little is known that could throw any light upon the subject of the present inquiry, beyond the bare fact that there existed great cities and other results of an industry that involved mechanical skill of no mean order. After the fall of Assyria under the power of the Medes, Chaldea (sometimes called Babylonia, after the name of its celebrated capital) again flourished for something less than a century as an imperial power; and during this period occurred the reign of the great Nebuchadnezzar of Scripture. In this later period, as also during the period of Assyrian supremacy,* and probably for centuries before that period commenced, Babylon was celebrated for many of the products of its industry, among which may be mentioned textile fabrics of remarkable fineness, and exquisite dye. The city itself, characterized by Isailahl as "the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees: excellency," is described as one of whose grandeur the greatest cities of modern Europe give but a faint conception. According to Herodotus, it formed a perfect square, each side of which measured about fifteen miles in length, giving a total area of two hundred and twenty-five square miles. Its walls (according to the same authority) were two hundred cubits, about three hundred feet, In height, and fifty cubits, or seventy-five feet, in width. In them were one hundred massive gates of brass. "Its internal beauty and magnificence," says Herodotus, "exceed whatever has come within my knowledge." The Assyrian capital, Nineveh. was scarcely inferior to Babylon in extent and magnificence; and these were but two out of many great cities, of which the extensive region embraced in Chaldea and Assyria stillbears numerous traces. The ruins of ancient palaces and temples, as well as accounts and representations in the inscriptions and sculptures found among such ruins, indicate clearly enough the colossal scale and elaborate ornamentation of those structures. Each king appears to have endeavored to eclipse his predecessors in the number, extent, and magnificence of the architectural works executed during his reign; and many of these works apparently had no other use than to gratify the ambition and vanity of the monarchs. Occasionally, however, other works of a more useful character were undertaken. Thus Sennacherib, besides building himself a splendid palace, covering an area of more than eight acres, at Nlineveh, and repairing the ancient residence of the kings at the same place, confined the Tigris to its bed *A supremacy not -without occasional interruptions. 24 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. by an embankment of bricks, constructed a number of aqueducts for the purpose of bringing good water to the capital, and improved the defenses of the latter by erecting towers of vast size at some of the gates. Of the extent of the burdens imposed upon their subjects by the Assyrian kings for the gratification of their mania for great buildings, especially those of the class intended as royal residences, an indication is afforded in the fact recorded by Essarhaddon, one of the monarchs of this line, that twenty-two kings, of whom he gives a list, furnished him with materials for his great palace. at Nineveh. In the construction of such works the Assyrians were accustomed to employ the labor of captives taken in war. Among these the skilled workmen were in request to assist in the ornamentation of shrines and palaces, while the great mass of the unskilled were employed in quarrying stone, raising mounds, making bricks, and similar occupations. It has already been stated that Sennacherib brought back to Assyria upwards of six hundred thousand prisoners in three campaigns, and the number of captives made in other successful expeditions was probably on the same scale. In the inscription on the Bellino cylinder this king states that he employed Chaldeans, Arammeaus, Armenians, Cilicians, and Quhn (Coans) in the construction of his great worlks; and to these may probably be added Egyptians, Ethiopians, Elamites, and Jews. Their work consisted, among other things, in raising the vast mounds upon which important edifices were to be erected, in the transport and elevation of colossal bulls, in the molding of bricks, the quarryiIng of stone, the erection of walls, the excavation of canals, and the construction of embankments. They worked in gangs, each gang having a costume peculiar to it, which probably marked the nationality of its members. Over each of these gangs was placed a number of task-masters, armed with staves, who urged on the work with blows, and severely punished any neglect or remissness. Assyrian foremen had the general supervision of the works and were intrusted with such portions as required great skill or judgment. The captives often worked in fetters, which were sometimes supported by a bar fastened to the waist, while sometimes they consisted merely of shackles. * The bas-reliefs on the walls of the Assyrian palaces and other public buildings exhibit a minute and rigid adherence to reality, which makes them a source of much valuable information as to the life of the people. Rawlinson gives us the following description of a series of sculptures, in which are minutely represented the several processes connected with the carving and transportation of a colossal bull, "' from the first removal of the huge stone in its rough state from the quarry to its final elevation on a palace mound as part of the great gateway of a royal residence." The sculpture in question is found on the walls of Sennacherib's palace, and may doubtless be regarded as a veritable portion of the history of the erection of that or some other structure of that monarch's reign. "We see," says Rawlinson, " the trackers dragging the rough block, supported on a low fiat-bottomed boat, along the course of a river, disposed in gangs, and working under task-masters, who use their rods upon the slightest provocation. * * We then observe the block transferred to land, and carved into the rough semblance of a bull, in which form it is placed upon a rude sledge and conveyed along level ground by gangs of laborers, arranged nearly as before, to the foot of the mound at whose top it has to be placed. The construction of the mound is most elaborately represented. Brick-makers are seen molding the bricks at its * Rawlinson's Ancient Monarchies. LABOR IN CHALDEA AND ASSYRIA. 25 base, while workmen with baskets at their backs. full of earth, bricks, stones, or rubbish, toil up the ascent-for the mound is already half raised-and empty their burdens out upon the summit. The bull, still lying on its sledge, is then drawn tiup an inclined plane to the top by four gangs of laborers, in the presence of the monarch an(l his attendants. After this the carving is completed, and the colossus, hav-iiig been raised into an upright position, is conveyed along the surftce of the platform to the exact site which it is to occupy." The absence of labor-saving appliances indicated in the processes represented in this series of sculptures, shows how vast must have been the expenditure of sheer muscular force in the construction of the great buildings of this lperiod. Gang^s of laborers take the place of horses to haul the immense stone, not only by water, but also by land; and for the latter portion of the distance a sledge is used instead of a wheeled vehicle. To raise such a structure as Sennacherib's palace at Nineveh, by methods so primitive in their character, must have required a number of workmen which it can be no exaggeration to speak of as a great army. And though this army of laborers may have been coml)osed of captives, the expense of maintaining them while engaged on these unproductive works must have occasioned heavy drafts upon the resources of the Assyrian people, and of the nations under their sway. The constant and ferocious wars in which the Assyrian kings engaged must have been a source of frightful impoverishment to their own people, and of inconceivable sufferings to the nations against which they waged successful war. It appears to have been their distinct aim in mnaniy cases to spread utter ruin and desolation in the countries they had conquered, even to the extent of cutting down the fruit-trees, and thus depriving their victims, as far as possible, of the means of subsistence for the future. According to his own account, as given in one of the inscriptions exhumed at Nineveh, Sennacherib, in the third year of his reign, invaded Chaldea, (which had previously revolted,) and plundered seventy-six large towns, and four hundred and sixty villages; while Sargon, his predecessor, not content with plundering the people he conquered, removed entire populations en masse to (listantlocalities.* It scarcely needs explicit information to convince one that, utinder such rulers, the condition of the working classes must have been, in the main, one of extreme wretchedness. Among the Assyrians themselves the ordinary dress of this class and of this c lass and of the common people geerally appears to have been a mere plain tunic, with very short sleeves, and confined round the waist by a broad belt or girdle. Nothing was worn by this class either on the head or on the feet. As to their dwellings and fare, these were doubtless in keeping with the scantiness of their apparel. In agriculture the Assyrians and Chaldeans depended largely upon artificial methods of irrigation; and the elaborate system of canals, reservoirs, conduits, dikes, and pumps, by which they spread the, waters of their rivers over the soil, indicates that this branch of industry was carried on with considerable energy and skill. Among a people so warlike as the Assyrians, and especially a people who carried to such an extent as they did the practice of enslaving their prisoners of war, the operations of agriculture, and, indeed, the common and heavy labor in most of their industries, must, to a great extent,. have been performed by slaves; but upon this point, as upon most others connected with the daily life of the people, we are obliged to rely mainly upon inference. The important discoveries recently made of inscribed clay tablets and i This was the king who colonized the cities of SamLaria with an alien race. 2 6 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. cylinders, and monumental stones, coupled with the zealous efforts of Mr. George Smith and other cuneiform scholars, will doubtless develop many new and important facts connected with the history of these nations and the condition of their people. It would be interesting to inquire into the history and condition of the working-classes in Persia, which succeeded Assyria and Babylonia as the leading military power of the ancient world; in Syria, including Phlenicia, famous for her commercial enterprise, her flourishing colonies, her skillful artisans, and her important agency in the spread of letters a1Ji(d the arts of civilization; in Lydia, Ionia, and other states of Asia, Minor, during the period of their independence, as well as in the nations of the farther East. But the labor involved in an inquiry of such extensive range would be too formidable to be undertaken as an incident to a work like this, and it must suffice to glance briefly at the more familiar histories of Greece and Rome, so far as they relhte to the special subject under consideration. LABOR IN GREECE. To no other nation of antiquity has the modern world been indebted for intellectual treasures of such extent.and value as those bequeathed to it by ancient Greece. The revival of Greek learning, more perhaps than any other single cause, communicated to European thought that powerful impulse which marks the close of the Dark Ages and the dawn of modern civilization. The thought of Greece has been woven into the texture of modern literature; her philosophy furnished to modern speculation its initial stimulus; her institutions have been a fruitful source of political instruction; her art has kindled the emulation of modern artists, and supplied them with their noblest ideals of grace and beauty. Of her eminence in industrial achievements there are innumerable proofs. The remains of her great edifices attest, not only the genius of her artists, but the skill of her artisans, of which abundant evidence is also found in the rare excellence and fineness of a great variety of her industrial products. The religion of the Greeks was highly favorable to the diffusion of the artistic spirit through their mech'ebical industries. This was especially noticeable in the working of the precious metals, of which immense quantities were used in the fabrication of images, utensils, and furniture for the temples of the gods. " Occasionally articles of plate of enormous size were manufactured, such as cisterns, or vases, or tripods, or salvers, or goblets, of gold or silver, presented as offerings by whole cities or communities to some divinity. In these cases the workmanship was very frequently so elaborate and exquisite as to be still more costly than the mlaterials. Entire landscap-es, including innumerable figures and objects, were sometimes represented on the swell of a vase or goblet. Bacchanalian processions, for (xample, with whole troops of satyrs and mvenades moving along some wood(ed valley, or desert mountain, or rocky shore, at the heels of the,Seileni and Dionysos; groups of nereids, nymphs, and tritons, spotting in the warm sunshine on the unruffled expanse of ocean; and sacrifices, marriages, chariot races, and choruses of youths and virgins moving through the mazes of the dance around the altar of Apollo or Artemis. It is also to Hellenic goldsmiths that we are evidently to attrib'ite those marvelous productions of art reckoned among the most boa.-ted possessions of the Persian kings, such as that vine of gold, LABOR IN GREECE. 27 with its vast grape clusters, imitated both in- size and color by the most precious gems, which formed a canopy over the royal couch; or that golden platane tree, and other vine, which rising from behind the throne stretched its branches, tendrils, and leaves of gold aloft over the monarch as he sat in state to give audience to his people."I* The washing and platingof theinferior metals with gold and silver were well understood, and there were many ingenious devices for coloring and frosting the surface, and for inlaying and flowering one metal with another. The cutting, engraving, and'polishing of precious stones were carried to a high state of perfection by the -Greeks, who in these processes appear to have employed all the finer tools in use at the present day, including the diamond point and the lapidary's wheel. It is at least certain that they engraved figures which for beauty and delicacy have never been excelled. Theie is reason to believe that they were acquainted with the microscope, or at least that they used magnifying glasses of great power, since their engravings were sometimes so fine that the naked eye could not distinguish their lines. Indeed we find mention of burning glasses as early as the age of Socrates, and very powerful lenses have been discovered among the ruins of Herculaneum. In the earliest ages of Greece the metal used for arms and for tools of various kinds was brass; but iron and steel were in use ini the days of Homer, who speaks of axes and other implements made of iron, steeled at the edge, and describes the process of hardening by immersion in cold water. Swords made of steel thus hardened appear to have been extremely brittle, since they are represented as.having been frequently shivered to pieces by a blow on a shield or helmet. When greater tenacity was required oil was subsequently used for cooling instead of water. At a later clay the manufacture of swords was an object of special attention. They were formed of the finest steel, highly polished and elaborately ornamented. The manufacture of arms and armor of all descriptions was at all times, among the Greeks, one of the most important pursuits, and was carried to a high state of perfection. In the production of cutlery the Delphians appear to have attained celebrity, and that of the Athenians was, undoubtedly, remarkable for its elegance, if not also for its quality. The workshop and tools of the smith seem to have had a close resemblance to those of the present day. There were the anvil mounted on a high block; the bellows, formed of thin boards, connected by flaps of cowhide, and expelling the air through an iron nozzle; the hanmmer, the tongs, the vise, and other familiar implements. The metals used by the Greeks were obtained partly by commerce, partly from their own mines. Those at Laurion, in Attica, were important and extensive, but there is little attainable information as to the methods of mining. It is known, however, that the Athenians used both shafts and adits, and that in chambering they employed much timber. To prevent the falling in of the superincumbent mountain, there were left at intervals vast pillars, the cutting away of which was prohibited on pain of death. Among the Greeks, as, well as in our own country at the present day, the miner was exposed to great perils from fire damp and malaria; at least, this is known to have been the case at Laurion, but whether there were any means of protection against such gases is a matter of uncertainty. The quarrying of marble, granite, freestone, and tufa, for building purposes, was a flourishing industry. The last-mentioned material, in a powdered state, was otten used in conjunc. * St. John: Manners and Customs of Ancient Greece. 28 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. tion with clay, in the manufacture of bricks. Great ingenuity was displayed in the manufacture of cement, of which one variety was so durable as frequently to outlast the materials it was used to unite. The house-painters of Greece appear to have shared in the artistic tendencies which characterized the nation. They were frequently employed in producing upon the polished surface of one stone the colors and veining of another, while frescoing appears to have been considerably practiced in the ornamentation of the interior of private houses as well as of public buildings. TJhe walls of apartments were sometimes covered with historical stubjects, landscapes or the figures of animals, and in the later ages ceilings were painted or inlaid with colored stones, so as to imitate the feathers and hues of a peacock's tail. In house-building timber appears to have been used to a considerable extent, thus bringing into prominence the trade of the carpenter, whose tools comprised most of those used by the carpenters of the present day, such as saws of various sizes, the plane, the ax, the chisel, the square, the auger, the gimlet, the compass, and various other articles. The timber employed in the construction of houses appears to have been regulated by law, and comprised a number of varieties, such as the silver fir, the elm, cypress, cedar and juniper, the Arcadian and Idoean yew, the Euboean walnut, and the beech. The descriptions of the household furniture in use among wealthy Greeks prove that the trade of the cabinet-maker must have been carried to a high state of perfection, while the craft of the turner yielded them many articles of great elegance. The manufacture of musical instruments was another industry in which the Greeks excelled. The potters of Greece, especially those of Athens, Rhodes,'and Samos, were famous for the beauty and excellence of their productions. The earthenware made at Kolias in Attica from the clay found at that place, and richly painted with figures in minium, appears to have been the most beautiful known to the ancient world. Great skill and taste were displayed in the production of vases, whose light and graceful contour, as well as the exquisite beauty of their decorations, showed that the Grecian potters had cultivated to a high degree the art of design, in which the natural artistic aptitude of the race found fitting opportunities for its development. Among the figures usually painted on such articles were representations of the gods or genii, wreaths of oak leaves and garlands and festoons of flowers. The manufacture of lamps was an important branch of the business of the potter, who also produced artificial representations of fruits, and images of gods, men or animals, which were sold aboutthe streets as plaster of Paris images sometimes are at the present day. Au idea of the prices of these images is obtained from the fact that a figure of Eros sold for a drachma, or about 19 cents. The manufacture of glass was carried to a high degree of perfection by the ancients, who were familiar with the processes of blowing, cutting, engraving, and staining it. In the latter process they could imitate the colors and the brilliancy of the most precious gems, from the ruby and the amethyst, to the turquoise and the beryl. Of this material, it is said, they also fashioned "jars. bowls, and vases, exhibiting all the various hues of the peacock's train, which like shot silks and the breast of the dove, displayed fresh tints in every different light-fading, quivering, and melting into each other as the eye changed its point of view." In the quality of their textile fabrics the Greeks, as well as various other nations of antiquity, appear to have been fully equal to the manufacturers of modern times; but owing to the absence of labor-saving LABOR IN GREECE. 29 machinery these fabrics, especially the finer ones, could only be produced in comparatively insignificant quantities, and the clothing worn by the masses of the people was not to be compared with that which they are able to wear at the present day. To the Greeks is attributed the invention of the upright and horizontal loom, though these appliances were probably improvements upon somewhat ruder machines used elsewhere for the same purpose. The Achasen city of Patrne was celebrated for the fineness of its fabrics, the spinning and weaving of which appear to have been chiefly carried on by the women, who in that city were twice as numerous as the men. The supply of flax used in the finer linens manufactured there was obtained from the plains of Elis, where the plant attained a perfection which made it, in respect to fineness, the rival of the best grown in India, and for whiteness its superior. The finest'linens made from it were considered worth their weight in gold. The island of Amorgos was also celebrated for a species of fine flax, cultivated there, as well as for the exquisite texture and beautiful purple dye of the linens which the inhabitants of the island manufactured therefrom. Very superior cloths were also manufactured from hemp, and a variety of garments, including a sort of mantle for ladies, were made of hair, either woven or plaited. The rearing of silk-worms and the weaving of silk were practiced at an early age in the island of Cos, the fabrics of which were universally admired. Their fineness and transparency were such as to allow the entire form and color of the body to be distinguished through them. The silk-worms of Cos were fed on the leaves of the pine, ash, and oak, and the silk obtained from them was quite different from that produced by worms fed on the leaves of the mulberry. Another kind of silk was procured from the floss-like beard of the pinna marina, or silk-worm of the sea, which was found on the coasts of Asia Minor, Sicily, and the Balearic Isles. In the manufacture of carpets the Greeks displayed their usual taste and skill, both in respect to their quality and the elegance of their patterns, in which were represented trees, flowers, the figures of animals. and other objects. The trade of the shoe-maker appears to have been a thriving one at every period of Grecian history, and the work-shops of this class of artisans were neatly furnished, their lasts, paste-pots, pincers, awls, and other implements being kept in a sort of cabinet, sometimes furnished with double folding-doors and four or five deep shelves, and extremely elegant in form. In the art of dyeing the Greeks not merely equaled, bat probably excelled, the people of the present age. Their purple, a color also pro(luced with great success by the Phoenicians and other ancient peoples, was often spoken of by Greek and Roman authors with an admiration bordering on rapture. This dye was obtained from several kinds of shell-fish found in the Mediterranean, the best being those taken near the island on which was built New Tyre. According to Aristotle there were several varieties of the purple fish, varying in size as well as in the color of the liquid they produced. This liquid was contained in a white vein about the neck, the only part of the fish that was of any value. The coloring matter having been carefully collected and macerated in salt for three days, was then mixed with a certain quantity of water, and boiled for ten days in leaden boilers over a slow fire, when the wool, previously well washed, was dipped in the dye and left to soak for five hours. It was then taken out to be dried and carded, after which it was thrown back in the dye and left there until it absorbed the 30 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. whole of the liquid. Several varieties of the fish were usually mixed together, differences of shade being obtained by altering the proportions, as well as by the introduction of other ingredients, among which was a kind of moss, found in abundance on the rocky shores of Crete. Three distinct colors seem to have been included under the general name of purple, viz, a deep violet, with a black or dusky tinge, which was the amethystine shade which Pliny describes as so magnificent; the purple of Tyre and Tarentum, which was of a deep scarlet or crimson; and a tint resembling the dark blue of the Mediterranean Sea, when it begins to be rtuffled by the winds. A brilliant scarlet dye, which was greatly admired, was made of kernes, or cochineal. This was found in various parts of Greece, and appears to have been in use there from the remotest antiquity. Many other colors were produced in great perfection by the Greek dyers, such as bright flame and saffron color; pink, green, and russet gray; deep and sky blue, produced by woad, and red produced by madder. In respect to the number of persons employed, and the value of their products, the fisheries of Greece raiked among the most important of her industries, while their effect in training a skilled and hardy race of seamen contributed greatly to the superiority of the Greeks in naval warfare. The importance of agriculture, and the high esteem in which it was held among the Greeks, will give interest to a few particulars in regard to it. In Attica many of the owners of estates resided in the city, but rode out to their farms every day to superintend the labors of their workmen, who were usually slaves. Agricultural labor commenced with daylight. The meals were generally cooked and eaten in the open air, and the labor was often carried on amid rustic songs, especially during the harvest and the vintage, which were seasons of universal rejoicing, and were followed by joyous festivities in honor of the rural gods. 2In order to procure the necessary implements and utensils of the farm at a cheap rate, smiths, carpenters, and potters were kept upon the land, or in its immediate neighborhood, by which means the master avoided the necessity of sending the farm-servants too. frequently to the neighboring town, where they were supposed to be liable to contract bad habits. Wagons, carts, plows, and harrows were, therefore, constructed on the farm. Among other implements used by the Greek farmers may be mentionied winnowing-fans, scythes, sickles, pruning-hooks, fern or bracken scythes, hand-saws, (used in pruning or grafting,) spades, shovels, rakes, pick-axes, hoes, mattocks, and grubbing-axes. When engaged in cutting down thickets, or clearing away underbrush, the rustics wore hooded skin cloaks, leather gaiters, and long leather gloves or mittens. In choosing a plowman it was customary to take care that he should be tall and muscular, in order that he might be able to thrust the share deeper into the ground, and wield it with greater facility. It was also preferred that he should not be under forty years of age, since it was desired that he should be very steady and attentive to his work. When in particular haste to complete his task, the plowman often carried a long loaf under his arm; which, like the French peasants, he ate as he went along. In breaking sod oxen were commonly employed, but in other plowing the preference was given to mules. In Athens it was the custom:for such persons as desired employment in harvesting to range themselves in bands in the Agora, or marketplace, whither the farmers resorted to secure such help as they needed for the busy harvest season. Arrived in the field with sickle in hand, it LABOR IN GREECE. 31 was common for the reapers to commence at opposite ends of the piece of grain to be cut, the members of each party striving to reachthe middle of the field before their rivals. On other occasions they took advaTmtage of the wind, moving in the same direction with it, and thus having the straw conveniently bent to their hand. In many parts of Greece the women joined in this labor, though the custom was not general. In cutting wheat the sickle appears to have been always used, but barley and other inferior grains were usually cut with the scythe. There were a variety of ways of separating the grain from the straw, of which the most common appears to have been to arrange the sheaves in a circular form to be trampled by oxen, horses, or mules, whose movements were directed by a driver standing in the center. A species of harrow, or toothed sledge, was sometimes used for the same purpose, and the flail was occasionally employed, especially in the case of grain which was laid up in the barn to be thrashed during the winter. After these brief notices of a few of the leading industries pursued among the Greeks, it may not be amiss to reproduce an alphabetical enumeration of occupations which is given by Fosbroke in his' Treatise on the Arts, Manufactures, Manners, and Institutions of the Greeks and Romans." Omitting a few unimportant details, the list is as follows: Bottle-makers, (or makers of leathern bottles;) bankers. (money changers or usurers;) barbers, some of them females, and barber-surgeons; basket-makers, blacksmiths and brasiers, butchers, of whom there appear to have been none at the time of the Trojan war, since the heroes of Homer are represented as cutting up their own meat; capon cutters, carpenters, and cooks-the latter being men, who were sometimes hired by the day at a high price; coppersmiths, cotton manufacturers and dealers in cotton goods, couriers, dyers, enamelers, factors, farmers, feltmakers, fishermen, fish-mongers, flax-dressers, founders, fresco-painters, fullers, gilders, glass-manutacturers and globe-makers, the globes being made of glass; glue-makers, goldsmiths, and gardeners, the latter understanding the art of grafting; grooms, hair-cloth manuficturers, horse-breakers, joiners, market-clerks, (who attended to the weights, measures, and qualities of the goods,) midwives, mountebanks, oilmen, lainters, paper and parchment makers, pastry-cools, perfumers, pilots, (a profession held in high esteem,) porters, potters, poulterers, prisonkeepers, quack doctors, readers, (whose office was to read to their maeters during dinner, at night when they could not sleep, and at other times,) shepherds, tanners, tutors, watchmen upon towers, wax-chandlers, and weavers. In respect to the condition and mode of life of the people by whose labor the various industries were carried on, the information afforded by the ancient writers is comparatively scanty. There were doubtless many freemen of the poorer class who worked with their own hands in carrying on mecbanical and other industries in a small way on their own account, as did the slinners and weavers of Lancashire, England, and the shoe-makers of IMassachusetts, before the application of machinery to their respective industries. In the agricultural districts there were also peasants, such as the Thetes of Attica, who cultivated small tracts of land, for the use of which they paid the proprietors a share-according to Bceck, one-sixth-of the produce. These peasants, as well as many of those who carried on small mechanical industries on their own account, probably often worked for wages. Indeed, the Thetes are sometimes referred to as a class of hired laborers. In nmany cities, and especially in Athens, there were a considerable number of resident aliens who worked for hire, chiefly perhaps in the mechanical trades; 32 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. and after the Peloponnesian war Athenian citizens who had previously enjoyed comparative affluence were obliged to support themselves by working at any sort of manual labor for daily wages. It appears to have been a special object of the polity of Solon, whose archonship commenced in 594 B. C., to increase the number of artisans and the amount of the manufactures of Athens. For this purpose he prohibited the exportation of any of the products of the soil, with the single exception of olive oil, which was extremely plentiful. He also forbade the granting of citizenship to immigrants unless they had forever abandoned their former abodes, and came to Athens for the purpose of carrying on some industrial occupation. The senate of Areopagus was directed to keep watch over the lives of citizens generally, and punish all who had no regular occupation to support them; and if a son had not been taught some art or profession by his father the laws of Solon relieved him from the obligation of supporting that father in his old age. It was the wish of this lawgiver that the exports of Athens should consist of the products of artisan labor rather than the produce of the land. This policy probably had much influence in promoting the success of Athens in manufactures and increasing the number of her free artisans. Respecting the rates of wages it is necessary to depend mainly upon occasional indications, such as the incidental mention of wages paid in particular occupations. Lucian states that in the age of Timon (about 420 B. C.) the daily wages for garden or field labor was 4 oboli, or about 13 cents; but Bceck appears to think it probable that this author refers to earlier what really belongs to later times. The same sum is mentioned by Aristophanes as the wages of a porter, and also as that of a day-laborer, who carried manure. The philosophers Menedemus and Asclepiades are said to have earned 2 drachmas (about 39 cents) a night by grinding corn in a mill; but this appears to be quite an exceptional rate of pay. The crew of the Paralos, one of the two sacred tiiremes belonging to the Athenian state, always received 4 oboli (13 cents) a day, although this vessel was usually kept in )port. It may be remarked that the members of the crew were all freemen. The pay of the soldiers varied between 2 oboli and 2 drachmas a day, but the larger amount included the allowance for subsistence to a hoplite (a heavy armed soldier) and his attendant. The pay of a hoplite was nlever less than 2 oboli per diem, with an equal amount for subsistence. This was the customary rate in the time of Demosthenes, who calculates the cost of the subsistence of a hoplite at 10 drachmas, (60 oboli,) and that of a cavalry lman at 30 drachmas (about $5.85) a month. At the beginning of the Peloponnesian war each af the hoplites engaged in the siege of Potidzea received 2 drachmas a day for himself and his attendant; and the same pay is mentioned by Aristophanes as having been asked by certain Thracian mercenaries, subsistence in each case being included in the sum named. The troops of the Athenian army operating in Sicily received 1 drachmaa a day, of -which one-half was for subsistence, Aund the archers who formed the civic guard of Athens were paid at the same rate. After the destruction of Mantinea. the cities in alliance with Sparta furnished money in lieu of troops at the rate of 3 Eginetan oboli* per diem for each foot-soldier, and 12 for each cavalryman. From the instances given it will be seen that the pay of the cavalry was twice, thrice, or even four times as much as that of the infantry. Among the Athenians it was usually three times as high, and the same rule held good among the Romans. It is said that a soldier could maintain himself sufficiently well for 2 or 3 oboli (6i to 93 cents) a day, especially as living in many places * Three Egineton oboli were worth 5 Attic oboli. LABOR IN GREECE. 33 where he had to serve was much cheaper than in Athens. The allowance for subsistence was usually equal to thle pay. Out of the latter the soldier had to provide clothing and arms, and after doing this he comlmonly had a surplus left, which, when opportunity favored him, he frequently augmented by plunder. In this way a soldier would of'ten amass quite a little fortuue. Theopompus says that with a daily pay of 2 oboli a soldier could maintain a wife, and that with 4 oboli his fortnne was complete, by which he evidently means so much pay independent of the allowance for subsistence. The earnings of professional men, including lausiciaus and actors, in Athens were, at least in some instances, very large. The celebrated physician, Democedes of Croton, being invited to Athens, received fronm the state a salary of 100 minas, or'a little less than $2,000 in gold, which for that age (540 B. C.) was a large amlnount. Flute-players sometime obtainedl almost incredible prices for their services, anrd distinguished actors equally large amounts. Thus PaIns, or Aristodemus, is said to have earned a talent (nearly $1,200 in gold) in one or two days. The teachers of philosophy and rhetoric, or sophists, were also a wellpaid class. Protagoras, of Abdera, the first who taught for money,r charged a pupil 100 minas for his complete course of instruction, and Georgias exacted the same amount; but in later times, when the number of these teachers had multiplied, the rates of tuition were considerably reduced. The cost of the necessaries of life in ancient Greece was comparatively low, especially in the early period of Grecian history. In the time of Solon, (that is in the earlS part of the sixth century before the commencement of the Christian era,) the mnedimnus of grain (about a bushel and a half) was sold at Athens for a drachIna, or about 19 cents. From that time to the time of Demosthenes there was a gradual rise in breadstufis, as well as in most other commodities. In the days of Socrates barley-meal was worth an obolus for 4 chcenices, or 2 drachmas the medimnnus. Diogenes, the cynic, mentions about the same rate as having prevailed in his day, though, in the opinion of BueCk, this could only have been true in regard to the years. when the p)rice was lowest. The author just namied infers from a passage in Aristophanes that about the ninety-sixth and ninety-seventh Olympiads (396-392 B. C.) wheat was worth about 3 drachmas a medimnus, wbich corresponds very well with the price of barley as just quoted; but in the time of Demostheues, at least during periods of scarcity, 5 drachmas the medilumns, or about 65 cents a bushel for wheat, was considered a moderate price. Even barley must have sold as high as 6 drachmas the Inedimnus for a considerable period, as 18 drachmas,. an extravagantly high rate, are referred to in the speech against Phceiippus, as being' three tiwmes the former price. In other Grecian states the prices do not appear to have differed very much from those which prevailed at Athens. For example, it is stated in the second book of the GEconomnics, attributed to Aristotle, that barley-meal at Lampsacus sold at 4 drachmlas the medimqnus, or about 52 cents a bushel; but that the state on one occasion fixed the price at 6 drachmas, ill order to make a profit on the difference. During the siege of Athens by Sulla wheat was sold as high as 1,000 drachinas the medimnus, the inhabitants being reduced to the necessity of subsisting on shoes and1 leathern bottles. The price of bread among the Greeks appears to be unknown. Indeed, it is probable that this commodity was usually, if not always, made at home by the women of the family or the female slaves; for though Greece, or at least Athens, 3 L 34 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. was noted for the excellence of her bread, it is not clear that there were any professional bakers who manufactured that commodity for sale. In early times the price of meat in Greece must have been very low, as in the days of Solon an ox, probably one selected for a sacrifice, was sold at Athens for 5 drachmas, or about 971 cents. A sheep at the same period was worth only a drachma, or about 191 cents. )During the Peloponnesian war, a sucking-pig sold at Athens for 3 drachmas, or about 58J cents. A small sheep selected for a sacrifice is estimated in Menander at 10 drachmas, or about $1.95; and in one instance a lot ot fifty-five sheep seem to have been estimated at a value of 1,000 drachmas, or about $3.90 per capita. If these two rates be assumed to indicate that the price of sheep in the flourishing period of Athens ranged from 10 to 20 drtachmas, the price of oxen may be supposed to have ranged from 50 to 100 drachmas, or from $9.75 to $19.50. The price of wine in Greece was extremely low. At Athens common wine sold at 4 drachmas the metretes, which is at the rate of about 7-' cents a gallon; and an agreement is mentioned in Demosthenes in which 3,000 casks of Mendoean wine supposed to have contained a metretes each were valued at 6,000 drachmas, or at the rate of only 2 drachmas the metretes, which is less than 4 cents a gallon; yet Mendeanl wine (of which, however, there may have been various qualities) was used by the Macedonians in their most sumptuous entertainments. But even in those days some wines were quite expensive. Thus the Chian wine, in the days of Socrates, sold for a mina the mretretes. or nearly $2 a gallon. At Athens, and probably in most of the Greek cities, fish, especially the smaller kinds, were abundant and very cheap, and were a, favorite article of food. Of aphuas, which were very small, a great quantity could be bought foran obolus, or34 cents. Thelarger varieties brought a better price, and such as were scarce and were sought for by the rich as delicacies were quite high. Thus a copaic eel in the time of Aristophanes cost 3 drachmas, or about 58, cents. At Athens salted provisions, more particularly fish, were imported in large quantities, and could be bought cheap, but they were chiefly consumed by the poorer people of the country. Vegetables, such as cabbage, are said to have been cheap. A chcenix of olives, about a quart, sold for a quarter obolus, or I of a cent. The best honey cost as much as 5 drachmas the cotyla, or nearly a dollar a pint, probably an exceptional price. The warm beverage which the ancients used instead of tea cost a chalcus, or Q of an obolus a cup, and a piece of dressed meat, prepared for eating, could be bought, according to Aristophanes, for half an obolus. Judging by the price of houses, rents among the Greeks must have been quite moderate. The orator Isueus mentions a stuall house, the value of which he estimates at 3 minas, or about $59; another at Eleusis worth 5 minas, (about $97,) and a dwelling-house at Athens worth 13 minas, or somewhat over $250. Demosthenes mentions a house belonging to poor people, which was pledged for 10 minas, ($194,) and a lodging-house in the country valued at 16 minas, or about $3J1. A house behind the Acropolis at Athens was valued at 20 minas, and others respectively worth 30, 44, 50, 100, and 120 minas are mentioned by various writers. The mina being equal to about $19.44, gold, the reader can easily reduce these amounts to their equivalents in United States money. The highest price mentioned is- only $2,332.80; but as the Greek writers only mention the value of houses in an incidental way, it would not by any means be safe to infer that this sum was really the price of a house of the most expensive class. It is well LABOR IN GREECE. 85 known that the Athenian houses generally were of a very inferior kind, as might naturally be inferred from their values as given above. The only precise statement on the subject of house-rent occurs in. Isneus, according to whom a house at Melite worth 30 minas, and onle at Eleusis worth 5 minas, together produced 3 minas a year, or 84 per cent.; but, in the opinion of Bleck, this must have been below the general average, as it is considerably below the ordinary rate of interest. In this connection it may not be amiss to refer to the value of land, which in Attica is estimaited by BWeck at 50 drachnas the plethron, or about $43 an acre. But of course prices must have varied greatly according to locality, and must also have undergone frequent changes in the course of history, increasing with prosperity and a rapid increase of population. and diminishing when war depopulated the country, or rendered the operations of agriculture insecure. Fuel in Athens appears to have commanded a comparatively high price, 2 drachmas, or 39 cents, being in one case mentioned as the ordinary price of such a, load of wood as could be brought into the city on the back of an ass. Charcoal was extensively used, and being lighter than wood, would cost proportionately less for transportation. Of the price of clothing only an imperfect idea can be obtained. Socrates, according to Plutarch, considered an exomis cheap at 10 drachmas, or $1.95. This alas an upper garment worn by the common people, and had only one sleeve, the arm on the other side being left bare.'The same philosopher mentions purple as selling at Athens for 3 minas; or a little less than $607 and by this he is supposed to have meant an expensive upper garment of that color. Garments made of the byssns, which grew in Achaia, were sold for their weight in gold. A pair of Sicyonic women's shoes could be bought for 2 drachmas, or 59 cents. Eight drachmas, or $1.56, is once mentioned as the price of a pair of men's shoes; but this is supposed to refer to some ornamental kind much dearer than those commonly in use. In regard to the aggregate cost of living, Beeck estimates that at Athens the poorest family, comprising as many as four free adults, if they did not live on bread and water, must have spent, upon an average, from 390 to 400 drachmas, or from $77 to $79 a year; and he thinlks that " if, in the time of Socrates, four persons cotld live iupon 440 (lrachmas a year, they must have passed a very wretched existence." Elsewhere he says that " in the flourishing times of the state one person could live but moderately upon 2 or even 3 oboli a day,;" so that a workingman, who hilad to support a flamily on 4 oboli a day, must have earned but a scanty sublsistence. Allowing two hundred and fifty working-days to fhe year, 4 oboli a day would amount to only 166]- drachmas a year, which is less than half the sum which Boeck thinks necessary even to "' a very wretched existence." * But the number of wage-laborers in Greece was comparatively small. a great majority of the working people being in the condition of slaves or serfs. in war the life of the prisoner was considered as forfeited, and if the captor spared him it was usually to devote him to a life of servitude, a, late which often befell persons who, in their own country, * In this connection it may not be amiss to notice the conclusion of the able French author, Dureau de la Malle, who, after a review of the prices of commodities, the rates of wages, and the pay of troops in Greece and in Asia. remarks that the value of the precious metals in ancient times, as compared with military service, labor, and subsistence, was much smaller than has generally been supposed.'"For example," says he, " the 3 oboli allowed for the subsistence of a hoplite are within 4 centimes (four-fifths of a cent) of the amount now allowed for the subsistence of a terrace-maker, a mason, or a carpenter in two-thirds of the departments of France." 36 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. had occupied stations of honor and influence. Many persons were also sold into slavery by kidnappers, who practiced their nefarious trade along the shores of the Mediterranean, as similar miscreants in modern times have done on certain portions of the African coast. As luxury increased among the Greeks the demand for slaves was such that a regular commerce in these unfortunate beings was kept up, the enterprise of the slave-traders leading them to distant parts, particularly to the southern shores of the Black Sea, where slaves could be had in great numbers. The first Greeks who engaged in this trade are said to have been the Chians, who also pursued the infamous business of making eunuchs for the eastern market. A just retribution ultimately fell upon them, when Mithridates, of Cappadocia, having conquered the island, delivered them up to their own slaves to be carried away captive into Colchis. In Sparta the Helots outnumbered the citizens by about five to one, and Bceck estimates the ratio of slaves to citizens in Attica at very nearly four to one.* According to an enumeration made during the archonship of Demetrius Phalerus, about 309 B. C., there were 21,000 citizens, 10,000 resident aliens, and 400,000 slaves. Bceck, however, supposes, apparently with very good reason, that this number of slaves includes women and children, whereas the number of citizens and of resident aliens includes only adult males. " This number of slaves," says the author just cited, " cannot appear too large, if the political circumstances of Attica are taken into consideration. Even among the poorer citizens it was common to have a slave for the care of household affairs. In every moderate establishment many were employed, such as grinders, bakers, cooks, tailors, errand-boys, or to accompany the master and mistress, who seldom went out without an attendant. Any one who was expensive and wished( to attract attention took perhaps three attendants with him. We even hear of philosophers who kept ten slaves. Slaves were also let out as hired servants. They performed all the labor connected with the care of cattle and agriculture; they were employed in the working of the mines and furnaces; all manual labor and the lower branches of trade were in a great measure carried on by them; large gangs were employed in the numerous workshops for which Athens was celebrated; and a considerable number labored in merchant-vessels and in the fleet. Not to enumerate many instances of persons who had a smaller numbertof slaves, Timarchus kept in his workshop 11 or 12; Demosthenes' father 52 or 53, besides the fenmale slaves in his house, and Lysias and Polemarchus, 120 each. Plato expressly remarks that the free inhabitarts had frequently 50 slaves, and the rich even more. Philemonides had 300, Hipponicus 600, and Nicias 1,000 slaves in the mines alone. These acts prove the existence of an immense number of slaves.!' It is stated by Timoeus that Corinth once had 460,b00 slaves, and Aristotle is authority for the assertion that the small island of ~Egina had contained as many as 475,000. Tiat the Corinthians really possessed a very large number of slaves is indicated by the fact that they were sarcastically called "'chcenix-measurers " —an appellation based on the common practice of measuring out grain to the slaves by the chcenix, which contained a fraction less than one quart. Among the Locrians and Phocians it is said slavery did not exist in early times, but at a later day Mnason, a Phocian, and a friend of Aristotle, is reported as having purchased a thousand slaves for his own * Public Economy of Athens, book i, chap. vii., p. 36. ,LABOR IN GREECE. 37 service. His course, however, did not meet the approbation of his countrymen, who accused him of lavishing upon his slaves what would have supported an equal number of free persons. In Sparta the citizens were forbidden to practice any trade, and, indeed, the discipline imposed by the laws of Lycurgus would have left them little time for any other occupation had they been permitted to follow it. There were, however, several classes of firee inhabitants who could carry on commerce or industry, but the, agricultural labor in the country throughout Laconia, as well as the menial service in the households of the city of Sparta, was left to the Helots, whose ancestors were probably Achaian Greeks who occupied the Laconian territory previous to its conquest by the Spartans, by whom they were reduced to servitude. The following sketch of this class is taken from Grote's History of Greece: The Helots of Laconia were coloni, or serfs, bound to the soil, who tilled it for the benefit of the Spartan proprietors certainly-probably of Pericekli* proprietors also. They were the rustic population of the country, who dwelt not in towns, but either in small villages or in detached farms, both in the district immediately surrounding Sparta, and around the Pericekic Laconian towvs also. Of course, there were also Helots who lived in Spart'a and other towns, and did the work of domestic slaves, but such was not the general character of the class. We cannot doubt that the Dorian conquest of Sparta found this class in the condition of villagers and detached rustics; but whether they were dependent, upon pre-existing ahelean proprietors, or independent, like much of the Arcadian village population, is a question which we cannot answer. * * The distinction between a town and a village population seems the main ground of the different treatment of Helots and Periceki in Laconia. A considerable proportion of the Helots were of genuine Dorian race, being the Dorian-Messenians, -west of Mount Taygetus, subsequently conquered and aggregated to this class of dependent cultivators, who, as a class, inust have begun to exist from the very filst establishment of the invading Dorians in the district around Sparta. * * * * * The Helots lived in the rural villages as adscrijti glebce, cultivating thellr lands, and paying over their rent to the master at Sparta, but enjoying their homes, wives, families, and mutual neighborly feelings apart from the master's view. They were never sold out of the country, and probably never sold at all; belonging not so much to the master as to the state, which constantly called upon themn for military service, and recompensed their bravery or activity with a grant of freedom. Meno, the Thessalian of Pharsalus, took out three hundred PenestTe of his own to aid the Athenians against kmphipolis. These Thessalian Penestm were in many points analogous to the Helots, but no individual Spartan possessed the like power over the latter. The Helots were thus a part of the state, having their domestic and social sympathies developed, a certain power of acquiring property,t and the consciousness of Grecian lineage and dialect-points of marked superiority over the foreigners who formed the slave populalation of Atheuis or Chios. They seem to have been no way inferior to any village population of Greece; while the Grecian observer sympathized with them more strongly than with the bought slaves of other states; not to mention that their homogeneous aspect, theirnumbers, and their employment in military service, rendered them more conspicuous to the eye. The service in the Spartan house was all performed by members of the Helot class; for there seem to have been few, if any, other slaves in the country. The various anecdotes which are told respecting their treatment at Sparta, betoken less of cruelty than of ostentatious scorn,+ a sentiment which we are no way surprised to discover among the citizens at the mess-table. * * * * The well-known hatred and fear entertained by the Spartans towards their Helots, has probably colored Plutarch's description of the Krypteia, so as to exaggerate those unpunished murders which occasionally happened into a constant phenomenon with * "Perice.ki" literally means " dwellers around," and appears to have been used to designate the free proprietors residing in the- Laconian towns outside of the city of Sparta. t Kleomenes the Third offered manumission to every Helot who could pay down five Attic mine; he was in great immediate want of money, and he raised by this means five hundred talents. Six thousand Helots must have been in a condition to find five mintm each, which was a very considerable sum. t Such is the statement, that Helots were compelled to appear in a state of drunkenness in order to excite in the youths a sentiment of repugnance against intoxication. 38 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. express design. A similiar deduction is to be made from the statement of MyrOn of Pri6ne, who alleged that they were beaten every year without any special fault, in order to put them in mind of their slavery; and that those Helots whose superior beauty or stature placed them above the visible stamp of their condition, were put to death; while suchl masters as neglected to keep down the spirit of their vigorous Helots were punished. * *. The manumitted Helots did not pass into the class of Periceki-for this purpose a special grant of the freedom of some Pericekic township would probably be requiredbut constituted a class apart, known at the time of the Peloponnesian war by the name of Neodam6des. Being persons who had earned their liberty by signal bravery, they wvere, of course, regarded by the ephors with peculiar apprehension, and, if possible, employed on foreign service, or planted on some foreign soil as settlers. In what manner these freedmen employed themselves we find no distinct information; but we can hardly doubt that they quitted the Helot village and field, together with the rural costume (the leather cap and sheepskin) which the Helot commonly wore, and the change of which exposed him to suspicion if not punishment, from his jealous masters. Probably they, as well-as the disfranchised Spartan citizens, (called Hypomeiones, or inferiors,) became congregated at Sparta, and found employment either in various trades or in the service of the government. In making the statement that Helots were the property of the state, and were never sold out of the country, Grote is at variance with some other authors, who, on this point at least, appear to have been equally well informed. St. John, in his Manners and Customs of Ancient Greece, vol. iii, p. 39, says: They [meaning the Helots] were the property of individuals, but the state reserved to itself the right of enfranchising them and preventing their emancipation, lest persons should be found who, like Marcus Porcius, Cato, and the Dutch at theCape, would sell or give them their liberty when too old to labor. But to sell them out of the country, says Mr. Miiller, "was not in the power even of the state." It is true there was an ancient law prohibiting the exportation of the Helots, but the same authority which enacted that law could have abrogated it. Had Sparta then chosen to convert her Helots into an article of traffic, who or what was to prevent her? Since she arrogated to herself the right of beating, maiming, and putting them to death, though completely innocent, is it to be supposed that, had it suited her policy, she would have hesitated to sell theln? And after all,.:e we quite certain that these unhappy people were not frequently sold into foreign lands? On the contrary, we find that a regular trade was carried on in female Helots, who were exported into all the neighboring countries for nurses. Thus it appears that the state both had and exercised the power to convert its serfs into merchandise. That the males also were not exported like cattle, than which they were far worse treated, was owing simply to the calculation that it would be more profitable to retain them; for as the Spartans possessed estates which personally they never cultivated, the Helots, who equally belonged to them, were stationed throughout the country upon those estates, which it was their business to till for the owners. To live it was of course necessary that they should eat, and therefore a-portion of the produce was abandoned to them-according to Tyrtxeos, the half, a division which must have borne very hard upon them, since their numbers were five times greater than those of the Spartans. The following is a portion of Plutarch's passage in relation to the C(rypteia to which Mr. Grote alludes with an appearance of incredulity: According to this ordinance the rulers, selecting from among the youths those most distinguished for ability, sent them forth armed with daggers, and furnished with the necessary provisions to scour the country, separating and concealing themselves in unfrequented places by day, but issuing out at night and slaughtering all such of the Helots as they found abroad. Sometimes, indeed, they fell upon them while engaged in their rural labors in the fields, and there cut off the best and bravest of the race. In " The Laws" of Plato a Spartan is reported as saying, " There is also among us what is called the Crypteia, the pain of undergoing which is scarcely credible. It consists of going barefoot in storms, in enduring the privations of the camp, performing menial offices without a servant, and wandering night and day through the whole country." The omission to mention here the slaughter of Helots as the object LABOR IN GREECE. 39 of these wanderings and their attendant privations, affords no reason to doubt the accuracy of Plutarch's statement, since a Spartan, speaking on this subject, would naturally look at it from a Spartan stand-poinlt, and would be very likely to keep the more odious features of the Crpteia in the background. The extreme jealousy, and evei barbarity, of the Spartans toward the Helots is attested by a number of the Greek writers, including Plato, Isocrates, and Aristotle, as well as Plutarch. Myron of Priene, in a work preserved by Athenmus, says: "The Helots perform for the Spartans every ignominious service. Tl.ey are compelled to wear a cap of dog-skin, to bear a covering of sheepslkin, and are severely beaten every year without having committed any fault, in order that they may never forget they are slaves. In addition to this, those among them who either by their stature or their beauty raise themselves above the condition of a slave are condemned -to death, and the masters who do not destroy the most manly of them are liable to punishment." Grote himself, while throwing doubt upon Plutarch's account of the Crypteia, gives, without questioning its accuracy, the account of the infamous massacre which occurred in the eighth year of the Peloponnesian war, when upward of two thousand of these bondmen fell victims to the same jealous policy to which the Crypteia is attributed. In order to select from the ranks of the Helots those whose bravery might render them most dangerous to the state, a proclamation was issued offering emancipation to such as had most distinguished themselves in battle, and calling uponi those who thought themselves entitled to it to come forward and claim the promised boon. Upward of two thousand presented themselves, were crowned with garlands, and escorted to the temples as if to complete the ceremony which was to make them free; but they never emerged, nor has the fate which overtook them ever been revealed. Among the Athenians the treatment of slaves appears to have been comparatively humane. There was a law under which a slave could indict his master for assault and battery. Demosthenes has preserved a law which empowered any Athenian not laboring under legal disability to denounce to the Thesmothetoe the person who offered violence to man, woman, or child, whether slave or free; and there are numerous examples of men who suffered death for crimes against bondmen. Athenian slaves, moreover, enjoyed the privilege of purchasing their own freedom, whenever they could save enough out of the peculiunl, allowed them by law, to offer their owners an equivalent for their services. Yet even in Attica the slaves were at best subjected to many petty tyrannies and humiliations. Thus they were not allowed to wear long hair, or a garment with two sleeves; to drink wine except at the festival of Pithcegia; to anoint themselves, as in the gymnasia, or to be present at certain religious ceremonies in which freemen could participate. The Athenian slaves were also liable to corporal punishment, sometimes in the form of whipping at the cart-tail by order of a magistrate, but often also at the discretion of their owners. The slaves in the mines are said to have worked in fetters, but this may have been a temporary punishment consequent upon a revolt. The right of asylum n the temples of Theseus and the Eumenides was one of the defenses which the Athenian slave enjoyed as against the tyranny of a cruel master. This right, however, is supposed to have extended only from the time of the slave's flight until the next new moon, when the slave auction was held and the refugee had the chance of being purchased by a more humane master. In regard to the price of slaves, there is a passage in the Memorabilia 40 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Of Xenephon, from which it appears that some were hardly worth half a mina, ($9.87;) others would bring'as much as 2 minas, while others sold for 5 or 10 minas; and Nicias, the son of Niceratus, is said to have paid a talent ($1,184.624 in gold) for an overseer of the mines. The slaves employed as laborers in the mines and those who worked in the mills had the lowest value, ranging from a mina to a mina and a half, or approximately in our money from $20 to $30. The price of ordinary house slaves was but little higher. Demosthenes mentions a valuation of two such slaves at 2j minas each as being too high, and in one place alludes to the sale of a slave of this kind for 2 minas. T.he father of this orator had thirty-two or thirty-three iron-workers, or sword-cutlers, the poorest of whom were worth over 3 minas, and the best from 5 to 6 minas. He had also twenty chair-makers, whose aggregate value was 40 minas, or an average of 2 minas each. The difference of value between slaves who could perform only common labor and those who were skilled in some trade, probably corresponded in the main with the difference between the amounts which these classes respectively could earn for their owners. A slave in the mines yielded a profit of only one obolus (about 3 cents) a day; a workman in leather yielded 2 oboli, and a foreman of a workshop, 3 oboli per diem. The thirty-two or thirty-three iron-workers or sword-cutters of Demosthenes' father were worth an aggregate sum. of 190 minas, and annually yielded a net profit of 30 minas, or 15-1: per cent. on their value; while the twenty chair-makers, worth 40 minas, are said to have yielded a net profit of twelve minas, or 30 per cent. per annum. It is probable, however, that this disparity was exceptionally large, and was due to temporary causes affecting the relative activity of the two trades in question. Speaking generally, the profit on the labor of a slave must have reached a high percentage on his value, because the owner would expect to be compensated for his capital at the customary high rates of interest, and moreover would require indemnity for the danger of loss by the death, decrepitude, or superannuation of the slave, or of his escape from servitude. Of this last there was especial risk in time of war, particularly in the case of slaves that were with the armies; and this led to the institution of an insurance system first established by a Macedonian grandee named Antigenes, who, for a yearly contribution of 8 drachmas, undertook to guarantee to the owner the price of any slave who was in the army, in case he should escape. There were at Athens two classes of slaves, those belonging to the state and those of private individuals. The former were employed as vergers, messengers, apparitors, scribes, clerks of public works, inferior servants of the gods, and in other services considered unworthy of freemen. Most of the temples of Greece, like the ecclesiastical establishments of Europe in the early part of the Middle Ages, possessed a great number of slaves or serfs, who cultivated the sacred domains, performed various humbler offices of religion, and generally executed the bidding of the priests. Among the Athenians, the slaves of the republic, who were generally captives taken in war, received a careful education, and were sometimes intrusted with important duties. Out of their number were selected the secretaries who in time of war accompanied the generals and treasurers of the army, and made exact minutes of their expenditure, in order that when on their return these officers should come to render an account of their proceedings, their books might be compared with those of the secretaries. The vocabulary of servile relations among the Greeks was very copious. There was a special name for a slave bought with money, one for a male LABOR IN GREECE. 41 slave born in the house, and another for a female; one for a slave born of a slave, and another for a slave born free. Besides these there were many names denoting the particular employment to which a slave was assigned. When a newly-purchased slave was first brought into the house he was placed before the hearth, where his future master, mistress, and fellow-servants poured baskets of ripe fruit, dates, figs, filberts, walnuts, &c., upon his head to intimate that he was come into the abode of plenty. He then joined with bis fellow-slaves in feasting on the bounties thus showered upon him, and the occasion was converted into a general merry-making. The food of slaves, as might be expected, was usually of an inferior quality. Thus the dates grown in Greece, which ripened but imperfectly, were appropriated to their use, and if wine was given them, it was a kind made of the husks of grapes, which after they had been pressed were laid to soak in water and then pressed again. The indignities to which slaves were sometimes subjected is indicated by the practice of some parsimonious masters, who compelled them, while employed at the kneading-trough, to wear a broad'collar like a wheel, which prevented them from eating the dough by rendering it impossible for them to bring their hands to their mouths. Among the employments of female slaves were included the turning of thie mills, carrying water, and sometimes the still more laborious work of cutting wood, besides the ordinary domestic occupations. A male slave usually attended his master upon a journey to carry his baggage, both traveling on foot. Some masters went accompanied by two such slaves, but this was considered a mark of luxurious habits. There are some instances of communities, by express stipulation, entering formally into a state of slavery, but with the reservation of certain rights. Thus the Maryandinians submitted to the citizens of Heraclea, to be their perpetual serfs, stipulating only that they should always be furnished with the necessaries of life, and never be sold out of the country. The penestoe of the Thessaliaus also appear to have assumed their servile status by a formal compact which reserved to them important privileges, among which was that of owning property. Many of them attained, considerable wealth, and, according to Euripides, they were sometimes of very ancient families. In Crete the serfs or slaves were divided into several classes. Those of the cities were called Chrysonetke, or " bought with gold;" those of the country were called Aphamiotoe, from their being bound to the Aphamioe, or estates of the landed proprietors. The latter are supposed to have been the descendants of the aboriginal inhabitants of the island, whom the Dorian invaders had reduced to servitude, and were sometimes called Clarotae, either from the fact that they had been divided among the conquerors by lot, or else from being located on the lots of the citizens, which were called Claroi. The Mnoi or Mnoa were bondsmen belonging to the state. and cultivated the public lands. They were compelled to furnish the body of the citizens a certain sum of money, as well as a portion of their flocks and herds and agricultural produce. They were prohibited from carrying arms, and excluded from the gymnasia. In the Cretan city of Cydonia, during certain festivals of Hermes, the slaves were left masters of the place, and had the right to chastise with whips any free citizen who intruded himself among them. In other parts of Crete customs prevailed similar to those of the Roman saturnalia, the masters waiting upon the slaves as domestics, while the 42 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. latter caroused and took their ease in the enjoyment of the Hermaean festival. On the whole, it seems probable that the treatment of slaves in Crete was milder than in any other Doric state. The serfs of the Syracusans were called Killicyrii, and were so numerous that the expression "' more in number than the Kiliicyrii" passed into a proverb. They appear to have lived in the country, cultivating the land like the Cretan Mnoa, until at last theirnumbers inspired them with courage, when they assaulted and drove out their masters, retaining possession of Syracuse. The Katanocophori were kept in boridage by the people of Sicyon, who compelled them to assume a mean and squalid appearance, and to wear skeepskin cloaks, in order that they might be deterred from entering the city by the ridicule of the rabble, to which this uncouth covering would expose them. The serfs of the Arcadians were called Prospelatoe, and are said to have numbered about three hundred thousand. Their treatment appears to have been more lenient than that of persons of the same class in many other parts of Greece, since they are found at public festivals sitting at table with their masters, eating of the same food and drinking from the same cup. Speaking in general terms, the life of a slave in Greece would appear to have formed no exception to the general experience of mankind as to the condition of a servile class. Sir William Gell's account of the residence of a wealthy Greek, " surrounded by the stable and ranges of low buildings, occupied by the servants and cattle," recalls to mind the rows or clusters of negro shanties near the spacious mansions of the wealthy southern planter; and the practice of measuring out to the slaves a daily or weekly allowance of food, which was followed upon many southern plantations, had its counterpart among the Greeks, whose white slaves were probably less liberally fed than the colored slaves of the South. According to Beck, their diet consisted almost wholly of grain, (chiefly barley,) of which the usual allowance was a chcenix, or a little less than one quart per diem. Aristophanes says that the male domestics of a Greek household had one common sleeping apartment, called the koiton, and the beds of servants generally consisted of mats made of rushes, broom, and the down of reeds. As in our own Southern States, so in Greece, slaves occasionally lived apart from their masters, working on. their own account, and paying to their master a portion of their earnings, and sometimes they were able to save enough to purchase their freedom. The aggregate number of freedmen in Greece was probably much greater in proportion to the population than in the South, where the barrier of race distinction was added to the ordinary obstacles to the elevation of the subject class. One of the most remarkable events in the history of the working classes of Greece is the memorable measure of Solon, known as the Seisachtheia. When the great Athenian lawgiver came to the archonship in the year 594 B. C., he found the majority of the rural population of Attica weighed down with debt and despondency. The rich were proprietors of the greater part of the soil, which the Thetes cultivated as dependent tenants, paying the proprietors a stipulated part of the produce. In these payments they had fallen greatly in arrears, and thus, as well as through loans of money, had sunk so deep in debt that it was not possible for them to extricate themselves. The law gave the creditor power over the body of the debtor, as well as those of his minor sons and daughters, and thus large numbers of the Thetes were falling from freedom into slavery. At the samle time a great number of the smaller LABOR IN ROME. 43 properties of Attica were heavily mortgaged, and marked by stone pillars, inscribed with the name of the lender and the amount of the loan. These mortgages were in many instances foreclosed, and not only were the mortgaged lands taken from their proprietors, but the latter tlemselves, together with their families, were frequently reduced to slavery. On some this unhappy lot had fallen through the unjust decisions of corrupt judges, and the conduct of the rich ini all their dealings with this class of people is described as having been thoroughly unprincipled and rapacious. To such a pitch had this evil arisen just before Solon became archon, that the law could no longer be enforced. It was unuder such circumstances that the celebrated lawgiver resorted to the measure -above named. "' The relief which it afforded," says Grote, " was complete and immediate. It canceled at once all those contracts in which the debtor had borrowed on the security of either his person or of his land; it forbade all future loans or contracts in which the person of the debtor was pledged as security; it deprived the creditor in future of all power to imprison or enslave or extort work from his debtor, and confined him to an effective judgment at law authorizing the seizure of the property of the latter; it swept off all the numerous marked pillars from the landed properties in Attica, and left the land free from all past claims; it liberated and restored to their full rights all those debtors who were actually in slavery under previous legal adjudication, and it even provided the means-we do not know how-of repurchasing in foreign lands, and bringing back to a renewed life of liberty in Attica, many insolvents who had been sold for exportation. And while Solon forbade every Athenian to pledge or sell his own person into slavery, he took a step further in the same direction, by forbidding him to pledge or sell his son, his daughter, or an unmarried sister under his tutelageexcepting only the case in which either of the latter might be detected in unlhastity." One of the most beneficent provisions of the above law was that which forbade all future loans or contracts in which the person of the debtor was pledged as security; but although this remained in force in Attica, the lending of money upon the body of the debtor continued to be practiced in other Grecian states; while even the pledging of agricultural implements was forbidden. An interesting subject to treat in this connection would be the provision made for the poor in the Grecian states. It will be sufficient, however, to say that in Athens, at least, the habit of depending on the state for assistance appears to have been one of the first decided symptoms of the decay of the commonwealth; while -there, as well as elsewhere, and particularly in Sparta, the concentration of wealth in few hands, and a great increase in the number of the dependent poor, were quickly followed by a decline in the old manly qualities of the people, and diminished at once their ability and their disposition to defend their civil liberty and their national independence. LABOR IN ROME. What has been said as to the condition of the industrial arts in Greece will apply in the main to their condition in Italy during the his. tory of ancient Rome. From the rude state in which they are found in the early days of the city, they progressed in the course of centuries to a high development; and if the Romans themselves possessed in a very inferior degree the artistic faculty for which the Greeks were so distin 44 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. guished, they enjoyed in industry and art, no less than in. philosophy and letters, the assistance of Hellenic genius. It is impossible to treat of labor and the condition of the workingclasses among the Romans, without referring to the political status of the plebeians, the history of whose struggles for a humane law of debtor and creditor, for a fair division of the public lands, and for the prerogatives of citizenship, is virtually the history of the early struggles of the working-people of Rome for the rights of men. The members of this class probably comprised the descendants of conquered tribes originally inhabiting the district in which Rome was founded, as well as those in the surrounding region, who at a somewhat later date voluntarily placed themselves under the powerful protection of that city; and in early times, particularly under the kings, they were doubtless subjected to severe oppression. They were admitted to no share in the government, or in the social and religious rights which belonged to the privileged order; but, from the earliest times of which we have any account, they were distinguished from the slaves of a Roman household by the possession of personal freedom, the right to hold property, and the liberty (which was denied to the aristocratic order) to exercise handicraft trades for their own benefit. Their immunities, however, were at first secured to them, not by law, but by the protection of the patricians, toward whom they occupied, individually, the position of clients. Thus every plebeian was originally the client or dependent of some patrician; but gradually they acquired recognized civic rights, and the status of "client " was transferred to subjects of more recent acquisition, to whom. no rights of citizenship had as yet been accorded. qThe sixth of the kings, Servius Tullius, is said to have divided the lands which he had won from the Veians and Etruscans among the plebeians, whom he also sought to elevate politically by the creation of a new general assembly-that of the centuries, in which both classes should be comprehended. The plebeians, however, do not appear to have acquired any material increase of political power from this measure. In the early years of the republic the patricians generally figure as men of family and civic honors, residing in the city, but holding domains in the territory belonging to the state, which at this period ap. pears to have been monopolized by the patrician order. The plebeians at the same time appear to have been small farmers and tradesmen, mechanics, &c., while they also, as in earlier times, contributed their full quota to the armies of the state. Their poverty often reduced them to the necessity of borrowing from their patrician superiors, whose incomes were in many cases largely derived from usury. The creditor had the power to enslave, imprison, scourge, starve, or even take the life of the debtor who failed to meet his obligations; and if there were several creditors of one person, they could, if they chose, divide his body among them. Instances of extreme cruelty, such as beating, imprisonment in loathsome dungeons, and slow starvation, were not infrequent, while many unfortunate debtors were sold into slavery or reduced to servitude under their creditors. The harshness of the law, and of the manner in -which it was enforced, seemed all the more outrageous in view of the fact that the inability of the debtor to meet his engagements often arose from his having to neglect his own affairs while performing -military service for the state in wars which the patricians had provoked. It was a case of this kind which fbrmed the immediate occasion for the secession of the plebeians to the Mons Sacer, sixteen years after the expulsion of the kings; that is, A. U. C. 260. A veteran who had served his country with honor and lost his property in the wars, having been scourged by LABOR IN ROME. 45 his creditor, exhibited his gory back to the populace, whose indignation first found vent in the summary release of those who were enslaved for debt, and then in the manner above indicated. At the point mentioned, which was distant two miles from Rome, at the confluence of the fiber and the Anio, the plebeians, who had chosen themselves generals, and marched out under arms, threatened to settle and found a new city. The patricians were at first disposed to set them at defiance, but in the end listened to wiser counsels, and decided to make terms with them rather than allow the commonwealth to be split asunder. It is believed that on this occasion was founded the Tribunate of the Plebs, the peo. pie acquiring the right of nominating two tribunes annually, who were to have a veto upon the decrees of the senate and to protect the personal liberty of the commons, for which purpose they were to keep their houses open clay and night to receive every application for assistance. According to Livy and Cicero, this secession did not result in a remission of debts or in a change of the law of insolvency; yet it is noticeable that the relation of debtor and creditor no longer forms the chief subject of contention between the two orders, from which it seems probable that some amelioration in the condition of the former class was secured. Nearly half a century later a law of the Twelve Tables provided that the debtor should. be allowed thirty days within which he might, through the help of his friends, or the pity of the populace, acquire the means of meeting his obligations. At the end of this period, if he had not succeeded in obtaining the required amount, he was delivered to the creditor, who put him in chains and brought him before the prxtor on three consecutive market days, the amount of his debt being published, in the hope that some rich spectator would take pity on him and discharge his debt. In the absence of such relief he was sold into slavery, or his head might be exacted as the forfeit of his poverty. Gradually, however, the extreme severity of the law was relaxed, and in the year of the city 424 it was decreed that in future the person of no Roman citizen should be liable to slavery, but that his property alone should be sulject to seizure. The debtor might, however, be committed to prison, and to avert this fate many voluntarily became the slaves of their creditors, though, probably, with certain reserved rights obtained by special stipulation. The distribution of land, which in all places and times has had the most intimate relation to the wvell-being of the working classes, was long the subject of fierce contention between the patricians and plebeians at Rome; and the members of the former class did not scruple to resort to the most extreme measures in defense of their monopoly. As the republic extended her dominions a portion of the territory of each conquered tribe was colonized by Roman citizens, who were thus bound by their interests, as well as inclined by sentiment, to defend the new acquisition. Considering how circumscribed was the original territory of Rome, this mode of disposing of her surplus population must have contributed much to the industrial prosperity of her people, at the same time that it formed a most important element in the polity by which she consolidated her growing power. The following account of the manner in which the Romans disposed of thelands acquired from the conquered is taken from Fosbroke's " Treatise on the Arts, Manufactures, Manners, and Institutions of the Greeks and Romans:" These lands were not gratuitous; if the colonist had not sufficient money to purchase the portion which fell to him he farmed it for the benefit of the commonwealth, or of some superior tenant. But this regulation regarded the cultivated lands; those which were waste, or which lay on an exposed frontier, were generally gratuitously 46 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. conferred; yet like the rest they were subject to the burdens of the state; thus they annually yielded one-fifth of the produce of the trees, one-tenth of the grain, and a certain tax for cattle. The quantity of this public laud in each colony varied according to the conditions on which the colony was originally secured. If the natives had voluntarily submitted, two-thirds of the territory were generally left to them, onethird only being divided among the victors. In no case, however, do the people appear to have possessed more than seven jugera each; where the territory was much circumscribed, only two; the surplus remained at the disposal of the state, and was either farmed for its benefit, or, if more defenders were necessary, it was assigned to new settlers. In general, however, there was always a considerable portion unassigned. For what follows, the reader will be prepared. This surplus was soon engrossed by the patricians, who farmed the revenues arising from it, viz, who offered so much for the produce of the soil for five years, the period for which the public lands were invariably let; at the end of the five, they had only to renew the contract. If to this we add that by judicial' forfeiture, in default of issue, and through other causes, the portions of many among the resident coloni would devolve to the state, we shall not be surprised that the territory which the patricians took such care to engross was greatly augmented. In the same degree we shall be prepared to expect the diminution of the allotments originally made to the coloni. As the members of each family multiplied, as the children were admitted to co-inheritance, the portion originally held by each (it was two jugera in the immediate vicinity of Rome, and seven in the more distant colonies) would be split until the multiplied portions wol.id be inadequate to the support, not merely of a family, but of an individual. We cannot, therefore, wonder at the complaints which, from the third century after the foundation of Rome, were so loudly uttered, that the patricians held most of the public land, while the plebeians were generally reduced to utter destitution. Nor was this the worst. The patricians, as the heads of government, showed a shameful partiality to their own order by exempting their lands from the burden of the one-tenth to which they were liable, while those of the plebeians remained subject to it. Among the agri (public lands) there were many distinctions corresponding to their nature and uses. The ager campascuus was the common or pasture land to which we have alluded; the ager decunianus was the titheable land, that is, the public land subject to the annual tenth of produce required by the state. All Sicily was in this predicament. " Omnis ager Sicilice decunmanus est," says Cicero. The ager efeitus was the place where the Augurs unfolded the fates. The ager occupatorius, which was vacant, whether in virtue of default by inheritance or by revocation, or by judicial forfeiture, might be occupied by any one who farmed. it from the state, or to whom the state conceded it. In fact the highest bidder was generally preferred at the end of a lustrum, and would indeed always have been preferred had not the more powerfuli nobles combined to intimidate other bidders, and, consequently, to obtain it on their own terms. The ager vestigalis was the land which paid money-rent, on the condition of receiving the produce in kind; the tenth of the corn, the fifth of the orcharcls, trees, cattle, wool, &c. Any one who offered at a pTublic auction the highest price during five consecutive years for the produce of a district comprised in the Jirnits of the agrarian law, was, under ordinary circumstances, the successful bidder. He paid in money for the produce yielded by the land, and for the privilege of disposing of it at pleasure; and he always gave sureties for the punctual fulfillment of his engagement. In tile ysear of the city 269, the first agrarian law was proposed and carried by Spurius Cassius, but its execution was thwarted by the patricians, who ultimately wreaked their vengeance on its author by an accusation that during his consulship he had made too favorable termis with the national enemies, and had sought to make himself tyrant of his nativc) city, upon which charges he was declared guilty, scourged, and beheaded. The tribune Genucius (A. U. C. 286) made an effort to secure the same end-a- more equitable distribution ot the public landsand presented an impeachlment against the consuls for having frustrated the provisions of tile law; but lie, too, appears to have fallen a victim to patrician malice, being suddenly found (lead in his bed. In the account which Livy gives of the agrarian agitation of this period, he represents the tribunes as proposing a series of ]awsT all of which were successfully resisted by the patricians, whereas Dionysius of Halicarnassus states that during the consulship of Spurius Cassius the senate passed a general law for the division of the public lands, but that the *The jugerum was 28,000 square -feet, or about-,4 of an acre. LABOR IN ROME. 47 successive consuls would never carry it into effect. He represents that a solemn compact between the senate and the plebeians was broken, and that the efforts of the tribunes were exclusively directed toward procuring the execution of the existing law. It is evident, however, that the plebeians continued to gain strength, and in the year of the city 377, (B. C. 377,) the tribunes, Licinius and Sextius, were able to carry an agrarian law by which it was provided that no citizen should hold (or farm the revenues of) more than 500 jugera (about 320 acres) of the public lands. From those who held more than this quantity the oediles were to take the surplus and divide it among the plebeians at the rate of seven jugera to each family. The same law limited the number of slaves who might be employed on the lands so divided, and enjoined on the holders of land the employment of Italians and freemen. It also enacted that no citizen should turn into the common pasture more than one hundred head of cattle, or five hundred of sheep, &c., each to be subject to a certain tax payable to the public treasury. It was during the same year that the plebeians achieved the great. charter of their liberties in the decree that one of the consuls should always be a member of their order; but it was not until the year 388 that a plebeian consul was formally appointed, Sextius himself being the first to hold the office. The triumph of the plebeians became still more complete in the year 415, when the plebeian dictator, Publilius Philo, carried enactments making the decrees of the popular assemblies (comitia of the tribes) obligatory on the whole people,* permitting both of the consuls as well as the praetors to be plebeians, and requiring that the censors should be cho3en, one from each class. From this time the two orders were substantially merged into one; but as the dominion of the republic was extended over adjacent states, the newly-conquered Italians fell into a position somewhat analogous to that which the plebeians had formerly occupied, though distinguished from the latter by very marked differences. Indeed the military necessities of the state dictated a policy calculated to consolidate the inhabitants of the peninsula in'to one nation, and inclined the Romans to advance them gradually to a participation in civic rights. The three centuries intervening between the secession of the Plebs to the Mons Sacer, (A. U. 260,) and the entrance of the legions into Asia eleven years after the close of the second Punic war, embrace the finest portions of Roman history, when considered with reference to the virtues of the people. During this period there were, indeed, instances of luxury and extravagance, but labor was held in honor, and poverty was often dignified with the highest stations.'' If, on the one hand." says Duruy, (Histoire des Romains,);"a Rufinius must be degraded from the senate, (B. C. 275,) notwithstanding his two consulships, a dictatorship, and a triumph, for possessing ten pounds of silver, plate when he was allowed no more than eight ounces; if the consul Posthumius compelled 2,000 legionaries to reap his corn, or to clean his woods; Attilius Serranus, on the other, received the consular purple behind his plow; Regulus, though twice consul, possessed no more than one little field in the barren district of Pupinia; an d Curius, like Fabricius and ~Emilius Papus, prepared his simple meal with his own hands, in wooden vessels. The same Curius reiused the gold of the Samnites; Fabricius that of Pyrrhus; and Cineas, (the ambassador of the latter,) introduced in the' It, is held by some authorities that these decrees or plebiscita did not acquire the full force of laws until the adoption of the Lex Hortensia, in the year 466, or I. C. 288; and it is at least evident that this measure either gave to the plebiscita increased weight, or enlarged the number of objects with reference to which they might be adopted. 48 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. senate, imagined that he saw before him an assembly of kings. * * * There was union because there was equality; because an aristocracy of blood was no longer recognized, nor was more honor paitl to that of fortune." Cincinnatus, once consul and twice called to the dictatorship, after delivering his country from her enemies, retired to his little tract of land, (only four jugera in extent,) upon which he maintained himself by the labor of his own hands. Fabricius, consul and victorious general, cultivated his one little field without the assistance of slaves; and Manius Curius, the conqueror of Pyrrhus, refused the share of-booty and the fifty jugyera of land offered by the people in gratitude for his great services, deeming such liberality excessive. He thought it a reproach to a senator, an ex-consul, or even a victorious general to whom a public triumph had been accorded, to possess more than fifty jugera of land, and regarded as dangerous to the state that citizen for whom even seven juqera would not suffice. Accordingly the latter quantity was all he would himself accept, this being the amount of land then assigned to each plebeian family..In the year of the city 496, Regulus, then commanding the army in Africa, wrote to the senate, asking for his recall, on the ground that the manager of his seven jugera at Pupinia was dead; that the hired man had run away, carrying the farming-implements with him, and that unless his farm was cultivated he would be unable to support his wife and children. The senate ordered his land to be tilled, and his farming implements to be replaced at the expense of the state, which also assumed the responsibility of providing for his family, leaving him in Africa to conquer a peace with Carthage. "In those happy times," says Pliny, " the earth, exulting to see herself cultivated by the hands of triumphant victors, seemed to make new efforts, and to produce her fruits in greater abundance." From such instances as have just been given, coupled with the minute division of the soil which is known to have prevailed during the period under consideration, it may be inferred that although there were slaves and hired laborers among the Romans at that time, the labor of the country (especially in agriculture) was mainly performed by free citizens working on their own account. Their labor may have been severe and their mode of living far fromn luxurious, but in their enjoyment of personal independence the men among whom the conquering legions of Rome were recruited must have occupied a position vastly superior to that of the proletariat of modern times. As late as the year of the city 575, the cultivation of the soil was almost exclusively performed by proprietors and free laborers. This is positively stated by Cato the elder, who in the same connection, says: "Our fathers, when they wished to designate a good citizen, were accustomed to refer to him as a good colonist (one settled on the public lands) and a good farmer; for these are the laborers who furnish the bravest and most robust soldiers. The profit which is derived from the cultivation of the earth is the most honorable, the most durable, and the least calculated to give cause for censure or excite envy.1" Cato himself is represented as having worked in the fields with his men, with whom he also sat at table, eating of the same food and drinking of the same wine. But in the later years of his life (which terminated A. U. 605) the simple habits of Cato were a protest against the incoming tide of luxury and corruption rather than an indication of the manners of the period. The severe and protracted struggle with Carthage, (the second Punic war,) which closed A. U. 553, was quickly followed by the wars with Philip, Antiochus, and Perseus. Greece, Asia Minor, and Syria were LABOR IN ROME. 49 speedily brought under the sway of Rome, and poured their wealth into her lap. The small homesteads whose proprietors had fallen on distant fields were rapidly merged into larger properties and monopolized by the moneyed aristocracy of Rome, who replaced the free cultivators of former times with slaves purchased in foreign markets, or brought in by victorious commanders as a part of the spoils of war. Throughout extensive districts, particularly in Southern Italy, this substitution was all but complete; while in other sections of the country the competition of the great landholders and their hordes of servile laborers drove thousands of small proprietors from an occupation which they no longer found profitable to seek a subsistence by " petty merchandise and handicrafts, by the sportula,* or by the distributions, wholly or in part gratuitous, of bread, wine, and oil, made regularly by the state, and enhanced occasionally by magistrates, or candidates for the magistracy." It was under such circumstances that Tiberius Grtacchus, traversing the plains of Etruria, and observing with dismay the decline of agriculture, the substitution of pasture for arable land, and the frequent abandonment of fields and farms, conceived the idea of obtaining the passage of a new agrarian law. Elected tribune in the year of the city 621, he succeeded in this design, but was killed, together with three hundred of his adherents, in the tumults precipitated by the effort to carry the law into execution. HIis younger brother, Caius, was for a time the successful leader of the popular party, and succeeded in obtaining important reformatory legislation; but he, too, fell a victim to the vengeance of the Roman plutocracy, and in the course of fifteen years the measures of the Gracchi were formally repealed. That the lapse of the half century ending abort this time witnessed a very great change in the industrial organization and social condition of the Roman people admits of no doubt. The splendid military organization of the republic still remained, but it was destined soon to become the master rather than the servant of the people. Within a century and a half from the entrance of the legions into Asia, Rome received her first emperor, and thenceforward the ascendancy of the military over the civil power became only the more firmly established as time wore on. More than once in the course of succeeding centuries the senate, which in the eyes of the embassador of Pyrrhus had seemed an assembly of kings, meekly accepted the ruler selected by the prwetorian cohorts,t while at a later day armies recruited from distant provinces, and serving perhaps on the remotest frontiers of the empire, comrpeted for the honor of dictating to the " mistress of the world" the wearer of her imperial purple. Under Augustus and Tiberius the empire was indeed great, prosperous, and in the main well governed. After a long eclipse its glory was restored under Vespasian and Titus, to be again obscured This was a gift of victuals made daily, usually in the morning, by the rich to a certain number of dependents. In one of the satires of Juvenal may be foundl a lively description of a great man's vestibule crowded with dependents, each attended by a slave bearing a portable kitchen to receive the viands and keep them hot while they were carried home. If the sketches of the satirist are not too highly colored, we must conclude that in his time great numbers of the lower classes derived their whole subsistence from this source, while even the high-born did not scruple to increase their income by taking advantage of the ostentatious profusion of the rich and vain.-(Anthon's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities.) t The pratorians were a body of troops instituted by Augustus to protect his person, and called by that name in imitation of the prcetoria cohors, or select troop, which attended the person of the prcetor or general of the Roman army. Their original number was nine or ten thousand, which was subsequently increased to sixteen thousand. Their favor was courted even by the most powerful of the emperors, many of whom were their own creatures, and liable to be deposed or put to death at their pleasure. 4 F, 5 0 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. under Domitian, shine out anew under Nerva, and remain undimmed throughout the long and illustrious reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, Anitoninus, and Aurelius. But the ancient freedom of the people existed no longer, and the character of the government depended mainly on the personal qualities of the sovereign. SLAVERY IN ROME. That this great change in the political condition of the Roman people was largely promoted by the increase of slavery and the concentration of wealth there is no room for doubt. It is probable, however, that the number of slaves was never so large as the language of a majority of writers on Roman history would lead one to infer. In the earlier centuries ot the republic the number was comparatively small, as has already been indicated. It is estimated by DLureau de la Malle, in his " Political Economy of the Romans," that in the year of the city 529 the free population of that portion of Italy corresponding to the duchies of Modena[ and Lucca, the grand duchy of Tuscany, the States of the Church, and the late kingdom of Naples, (exclusive of Sicily,) was to the slaves, freemen, and peregrini* combined as 26 is to 23. Varro, writing fully a century later, and after the number of slaves had been largely increased, states that " all the lands are cultivated by freemen, or slaves, or a mixture of these two classes. The freemen cultivate their lands either with their own labor or that of their children, (as is the case with most of the small proprietors,) or by the employment of hired men and daylaborers during the busy seasons, such as haying, harvest, and the vin. tage, or by using the labor of operarii, (persons who sold their services for a stipulated time in payment of debt.) * * I say of all the lands in general," continues Varro,' that it is more profitable to cultivate the unhealthy districts with paid workmen than with slaves, and that even in healthy localities the heavier labors of the country, such as the harvest, the gathering of fruits, and the vintage should be committed to wage-laborers." A law of Julius Cesar required stock-raisers to employ fiee inhabitants of the country to the number of one-third of their shepherds and herdsmen, the object being to arrest the decline of the free population, which was probably more rapid and mlore noticeable in the grazing districts than in other portions of the country. It has already been said that the substitution of slaves for free laborers and small proprietors was at first most extensive in the southern part of the peninsula; and it appears from the testimony of the younger Pliny that in cisalpine Gaul, at least in that portion adjacent to Lake Como, slavelabor was not commonly employed, even in the time of Trajan. Indeed, the statement of Pliny is that the use of slaves in agriculture was abso. lutely unknown in that part of the country. In the towns and cities they were largely employed by capitalists in carrying on trades and mantlfactures, one citizen of Rome having had as many as five hundred employed in the various trades connected with the erection of buildings. The domestic service in Roman households, as well as in those of the other cities of the peninsula, was performed almost exclusively by persons of this class, from the ancillc or personal attendants of a wealthy mistress to those engaged in the coarsest drudgery. In thrifty families the domes. tie work included a large amount of spinning and weaving, as well as Uhe making of garments-labors which were superintended, and to some.-xtent shared, by the mistress.herself. The peregrini embraced those classes of free residents who were not Roman citizens. SLAVERY IN ROME. 51 Among a people who, at one period of their history, gave to the cred.itor the power to imprison, starve, scourge, or even take the life, of his debtor, it was not to be expected that the laws would afford any systematic protection to the slaves. Cases there were in abundance where slaves were treated with kindness, and even pampered in luxury, but the class, as a rule, were subject to severe oppression and hardThip. We read of their working in the field in chains, guarded by armed retainers of the great proprietors, their owners, while at night they were huddled in crowds into buildings which were at once dormitories and prisons. This close guard was, perhaps, most common in the cases of large gangs of slaves who had been recently imported. Speaking of the general treatment of this class, Dureau de la Malle says: 1" The masters imposed on their slaves a rigorous celibacy, and they were never permitted to enter into matrimonial relations with the free classes. The moderate price of adult slaves made it more profitable to buy them than to bring them up. Considered as beasts of burden or of draught, they were either used or abused at the pleasure of their masters. The inhuman calculation of avarice found profit in destroying, by excessive labor, ait animnated machine, which it was sure of being able to replace at a small cost. Very often (horrible thing to contemplate!) they were profitable to their masters in proportion to the pitiless severity of their servitude." In the same connection he describes them as being " ill clad, ill lodged, ill fed, and condemned to work in the mines, to grind wheat and other grains, (by hand,) and to perform the severest and most unhealthy la, bors, in the marine, in manufactures, and in the various processes of industry." In the time of Varro the custom of forbidding marriage among the slaves appears to have been somewhat modified. "As to those who tend the flocks in the mountains and in the woods," says this author,'many proprietors have thought it advantageous to assign them wives, who follow the flocks, prepare the meals of the shepherds, ansd render them more attentive to their duties. But it is necessary that these women should be robust, of good constitutions, and equal to men in their power of enduring labor." Among the Romans, as well as in more recent times, the prices of slaves of course varied according to the relation of demaand and supply, Cand according to the age, sex, health, strength, beauty, intelligence, and disposition of the slave; but the medium price of a slave adapted to agricultural labor, or the practice of one of the common mechanical trades, is all that need be here considered. In the following sentence Pliny indicates the usual price of slaves in his time, and also that of a slave valet of a soldier of the Legion of Honor. "So, then," says he,'they sell a bird at the price of a slave, and even for more than the price of a valet, for a white nightingale is sold at 6,000 sesterces," (about $227.) Plutarch states the average price of a slave employed in agricultural labor in the sixth century of Rome at 1,500 drachmas, or about $296. Pretroneus and Fortunatianus mention 1,000 denarii, or say $150, as the reward offered at Rome for the return of a fugitive slave; but this only shows that the value of the slave, for whom the reward was offered, was considerably in excess of $150, and is all the more indefinite from the fact that the occupation of the slave is not mentioned. The price of a slave in the time of Antoninus and Commodus is indicated( by the following expression of Scoevol': "~ Si debeas decem milhi:b (H. S.) ant hominem;" which implies that 10,000 sesterces, or, say, $380, was about equal to the price of a man. Juvenal appraises a fisherman at 6,000 sesterces, and Horace estimates the value of a burnisher at Tibur at 8,000 sesterces. A law of Honorius and Theodosius, dated in o5r,2 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. the year 409, provided that Romans sold as slaves who desired to recover their liberty, should either pay to the purchaser the price he had given for them, or else should give five years' labor. From this Dureau (le la M3alle infers that the price of a slave was then equal to five years' labor; but as the purchase of a slave ordinarily implied the purchase of all his labor to the end of his life, the law in question must have been intended to prevent the perpetual enslavement of the class of persons referred to. Such a law would necessarily limit the price of slaves entitled to its benefits to the equivalent of five years' labor; but the inference that this was the ordinary market price at the time the law was enacted, is contrary to probability. Allusion has already been made to the enfranchisement of slaves, which frequently took place in the ancient world. In Rome, during the first three centuries of the republic, the number of enfranchisements appears, however, to have been somewhat limited. Dureau de la Malle estimates the number of freed people in the year 529, in a total population of nearly 5,000,000, at 50,000; but with the increase in the number of slaves there came an increase in the number of enfranchisements; and in the latter days of the empire, especially after the adoption of Christianity, the number of freed-people was very large. FREE LABOR. It has already Bleen shown that in the best days of the republic the labor of agriculture was in great part performed by small proprietors, working on their own account, many of whom were among the most eminent citizens of the state. In the mechanical trades the case wa..i d.ifferent, such occupations being forbidden to those who enjoyed full citizenship, and left to the slaves, freedmen, and peregrini. The data from which to determine the wages of free labor in tlhe earlier period of Roman history are, very meager; but some idea of the prevailing rates may be gathered from what is known as to wages among the Greeks, and in the Greek colonies of Southern Italy at this time. M. Dureau de la Malle reaches the conclusion that from the close of the Peloponnesian war, (B. C. 404 and A. U. C. 350,) the price of a day's work for a hod-carrier, farm-hand, gardener, miller, carpenter, or nmason, was scarcely one-third less than the average price of the same kind of work in France at the time he wrote, or, say, between 1830 and 1840. The wages of miners in the year of Rome 710 have been estimated at about 91 cents a day; this estimate being based upon a passage of Polybius, in which that author states the product of the labor of 40,000 men employed in the, silver-mines of Carthagena, in Spain, at 25,000 drachmas a day. An inscription found at Eskihissar, in Asiatic Turkey, (supposed to be the ancient Stratoniceia,) preserves an edict* issued by the Emperor Diocletian in A. D. 301, or, according to some authorities, in A. D. 303, which established a schedule of prices for a large number of articles, as well as for various kinds of labor, and iorlbade any person to charge more than the fixed rates on pain of death. The denomination of the money in which the various prices are stated is expressed by the sign *, which has been decided to represent the denarius. It is evident, however, that this cannot be the denarius of silver, which between A. U. C. 485 and 7 07 varied from 314 to 15 cents;. and Dureau de la Malle, agreeing with the learned Italian antiquarian, Count Borghesi, is undoubtedly correct in believing it to be the denarius A portion of the same edict was found by Mr. L. Vescovali, of Rome, on a stone in the possession of a gentleman residing at Aix, in Savoy. LABOR IN ROME. 53 of copper, of which the first, mention occurs in the works of Flavins Vopiscus, who lived at Rome at the time of Diocletian and Constantile Cbhlorus. The value of this coin was about half a cent in our money,5! anid it is at this rate that the prices of labor fixed in the edict referred to are converted in the following table: To the agricultural laborer, per diem.........................................$0 12j To the stone-mason.........................................................'5 To the laborer on inside work in houses...................................... 25 To the maker of mortar...................-...................-......,.... 25 To the worker in marble........................................... 30 To the worker in mosaic.....................................................?,0 To the wall-painter.......................................................... 35 To the figure-painter, per diem.................... 75 To the coach-maker......................... -............................. 25 To the ironsmith.2..5............... 2 5 To the baker............................................................... 25 To the shipwright on sea-vessels.-.-..... —... —. ---. —-- -... — - -...... 30 To the shipwright on river-vessels.-........................................... 25 To the driver of a camel, an ass, or a mule of burden, with food...... — -...-.. 10 To the shepherd, with food................................................... 10 To the sheep-shearer, with food, per head..................................... 01 To the brazier for work on hard brass, by the pound-...................... 04 To the brazier for work in copper, by the pound. -....................... 03 To the maker of plastic images, with food, per diem........................... 35 To the water-carrier, with food, per diem.................................... To the scavenger, with food, per diem......................................... To the armorer for restoring the edge to a sword.............................. 1 To the armorer for polishing a helmet........................................ 1'2To the armorer for repairing an ax............................. —..........-, 0 To the tailor for lining a filne vest-.....-................... 03 To the tailor for an edging on a coarser vest................................... 03 To the master appointed to teach letters, for each boy, per month-.)....... 5 To the arithmetician, for each boy, per month................................ 371 To the librarian or antiquary, for each scholar, per month........ 25 To the Greek or Latin grammalarian, and to the geometrician, for each scholar, per month-....1.......................................... —-...... 00 To the orator or sophist, for each scholar, per month.. —------—.......... - 1 00 Ti'o the advocate or lawyer for an application to the court....-1............ 1 25 To the same at the hearing of the cause... 10 00 To the servant attending at the public baths and taking care of the clothing of the bathers, for each bather...... -..,...... 01 A passage of Plantus indicates that previous to A. U. C. 536, the pay of an infantry-man in the RIoman army was three ases per diem; but it is believed that the real amount was 3- ases, or 100 ases per month. The as originally contained a Roman pouind of copper, (about.72 of a 1)ound avoirdupois;) but for thirty or forty years prior to A. U. C. 536, its weight had been two ounces, and hence it is probably thie as of this weight to which the author above-named refers. This coin was subsequently reduced to an ounce, and still later to half an ounce, but ttri pay of the soldier was maintained at one-third of a denarius, or about 5 cents per diem. Polybius, who wrote his history in the early part of the seventh century of Rome, (thirty or forty years before the Papirian law reduced the weight of the as to half an ounce,) states that the daily pay of the Roman soldier was then 5 ases. This would be five-sixteenths of a denarius, but the actual pay was probably one-third of a denarius, or 5~ ases, the writer having fallen into the common practice of neglecting to give the fraction. Suetonius makes the statement that Julius Caesar doubled the pay of the troops, and the rate fixed by this ruler appears to have been maintained at least until the death of Augustus, when, according to Tacitus, the pay of infantry-men was 10 ases or five-eighths of a denarius per diem. Their pay was further raised 54 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. under Domitian to 13A ases or five-sixths of a denarius a day, which was equal to 25 denarii, or about $3.75 per month. These successive augmentations of pay were due to various causes, among which may be mentioned the depreciation of money in consequence of its increased abundance, the decay of agriculture, and the falling-off in the free population. In the latter days of the empire the increasing disincliation of the citizens to engage in the military service made it necessary to pay still higher rates, but as these rates had little relation to the wages of labor it is not necessary to inquire into them. In regard to the cost of the chief necessaries of life, the information afiforded by Roman authors is scarcely more abundant or satisfactory than that which relates to wages. The price of wheat, however, is given for various epochs. Thus Pliny states that in A. U. C. 298, 327, 345, and 504 wheat was furnished to the people by the authorities at 1 as per inodius; but up to the year of the city 485, if not laster, the as was one Roman pound of copper, or about.72 pound avoirdupois, whereas between that date and A. U. C. 665 it was gradually reduced to half an ounce, or one twenty-fourth of its original weight. From this it results that the prices sometimes mentioned as having prevailed in early times seem much lower than they really were. The modius being a measure of very nearly one peck, the cost of a bushel of wheat would be about 2.88 pIounds of copper, which is equivalent in weight to about 120 of the copper cents of the United States, such as were coined under the act of January 18, 1837; its value in silver or gold could only be determined by ascertaining the relative values of the three metals at the dates mentioned. In the Oratio Frumentaria Cicero states that the price of wheat in Sicily, in the times of Verres, fluctuated between 15 and 18 sesterces the mledimnus, or from 374 to 45 cents a bushel; the sesterce then being equivalent to about 3~- cents, and the nedimnus to 14 bushels. In the next century (A. U. C. 818) the rate of three sesterces the modius, or, say 45 cents a bushel, is referred to as a very poor price. Adopting an average price of 4 sesterces the modius, or about i60 cents a bushel, as the basis of calculation, M. Durean de ia Malle estimates that in the later days of the Roman republic the ratio of a given weight of wheat to the q uantity of silver, which was its equivalent in value, was 1704 to 1. Under the emperors the price of grain was greatly augmented, and famines were not infrequent. Of these plublic calamities several occurred during the reign of Augustus, and that of the year 759 Nvas especially severe; while upder Tiberius the dearth of breadstuffs was almost continuous, and their prices very high. Tacitus states that in the year of Romle, 772, this emperor fixed a maximum price upon wheat sold to the poorer classes, and re-imbursed the merchants for their loss by adding 2 sesteices the modius. or about 30 cents a bushel, to be paid out of the imperial exchequer. After the burning of Rome under Nero, at a time when public charity appeared to be the only means of averting insurrection, the price of wheat was put down to 3 sesterces the modius, or 45 cents a bushel. Tacitus refers to this as an act of extraordinary munificence, showing that the rate in question was probably very far below that of the market. From figures furnished by Pliny tie elder, who died in A. D. 79, it appears that in his day common unbolted wheat flour or mleal was worth at the rate of about 4- cents, coarse bolted flour atbout 5 cents, and flour of the finest quality about 10 cents per pound. These figures appear to warrant the conclusion of IMr. Jacob that "' the Iprice of bread in Rome when Pliny lived seems to have been nearly the same or a little lower than it usually is in our day in London." LABOR IN ROME. 55 Reference has already been made to the prices fixed by the edict of Diocletian, as preserved in the inscription o t'Eskihissar, (or Stratoniceia.) The edict sets forth that the prices of commodities have exceeded all bounds; that the frenzied desire for gain is not moderated by plentiful harvests, or an abundance of provisions; that in towns and cities, and eveli upon the highways, the spirit of pillage everywhere pursues the armies of the empire, and that the soldier is sometimes deprived of his entire pay, as well as of the imperial largesses, by the engrossing of a single article. "Moved by these considerations," continues the edict, " we have deemed it our duty to fix for our entire empire a scale of prices, which in years of scarcity may restrain avarice within proper limits." The inscription contains a long list of articles, of which the most im)ortaut are embraced in the fbllowing table, the Roman measures being converted into their nearest.Ameri ian equivalents, and denarii reduced to our currency at the rate of half a cent to the denarius: Vinegar, per gallon-........................................................ 0 21 Salt, per bushel- 1 36 Pork, per pound t. —. —-----—..I -. - -—..-... — - -.......... 0 - Beef, per pound.. —-.... ——. —... —-.. —-—. —-. — —..- —.. —.. —--—. -- 05Goat's flesh, or mutton, per pourd....................................-...... 05 Lard, best quality, per pound-........................-....................-. 11i The best bacon-ham of Westphalia, or the Cerdagne --—.. —-.. —.. - -1-3 Fresh sausages of beef, per pound ------- ------------ ------ Seasoned and smoked sausages of pork, per pound.......................... 41 Seasoned and smoked sausages of beef, per pound-........................... Oo — A fatted cock pheasant —..1.......................................... I 25 A fatted hen pheasant. —-. —.. ——. —--—.. - -......... —.-...1.... 00 A wild cock pheasant- -. —... —--—.. — -—... —-...-...... —. —-..-.. 6;2 A fat goose.-....... —.........-........ i1 00 Chickt, ns. —-..-.-........... — -.-... —-----... -- -. —-- --—. —--—. — 30 Ducks ---—.. —..- — ~.~-. -~~ —~-. -. —~.~-................................ 20Ducksare. —-.. —. —... —--.. —-- -------—..-0. - - —.. —-- 2 Hare ------------------------------------------— 75 —-- ------- Rabbit... 20 Flesh of the wild boar, per pound.......................................... 111 Flesh of the stag, roe or doe, per pound..................................... 0,j Sucking pig, per pound.................................................... 11Lamb or kid, per pound -................................. ~ Butter, per pound. —---------------------------- 1 Sea-fish of the best quality, per pound..-.........................-...... 16i Setfond-rate sea-fish, per pound —.....-...... -.... 11 Best river-fish, per pound.. —. ------—. —-—.. —-. —---—... —... —... ----- Second-rate river-fish, per pound. —------------—. —------------------------ 059 Salt fish, per poa'd....................................................... 041 Oysters, per 10. ----------------.. ——...-............ — ------------ 50 Dry cheese, per pound..................................................... - Lettuces, the best, 5 fior- -....... —. —-. —--------—.. —----—... —-------- 0) Lettuc 8, second rate, 10 for -02 Cauliflowers, the best, 5 for. —-.... —..-.......-...... ——... —---- 02 Cauliflowers, second rate, 10 for............... 02 Beet-roots, the largest, 5 for -......0....;... Beet-roots, second rate, 10 for..-..............-....... Green onions, the best, 25 for.. —-.........-....0................. ) Green onions, second rate, 50 for -.......................... 02 Cucumbers, the best, 10 for 0............... Cucumbers, second rate, 20 for-......... —...... 0O IMelons, large, 2 for —..... —--------—..-. —-------... —.... —-...-...... 0:M~Ielons, second rare, 4 for-0 Watermelons, 4 for -----------—. —-.......- -..... ——. —-..-.......... 02 Kidney-beans, (in the shell,) 25 pods for -—.........0............... 02 Garden asparagus, per bundle of 25 —...............-.............. 0;3 The quantity in this case is denoted by the sign F. Mi., which is believed to represent a modius aun( a half. F being substituted for F through an error of the engraver. tThe quantity used in the inscription is the Italian lo,lndl, which has been proved by Pdre Secchi t, be the same'ts the Roman pound and is, thelelfore, equal to about.72 p)ouud avoirduooi& 5Ui ~ LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Eggs, 4 for-............................ $0 02 Parsnips (largest size) per bundle of 25..................................... 03 "Apples, the best Mattian, or * * *...................................... 02 Apples, second rate, 20 for —02....I................. 02 Smaller apples, 40 for...................................................... 02 Yellow plums, the largest, 30 for........................................... 02 Yellow plums, second rate, 40 for............ -................ -.............. 02 Pomegranates, the largest, 10 for........................................... -04 Pomegranates, second-rate, 20 for......................................... 04 Figs, the best, 25 for....................................................... 02 Figs, second-rate, 40 for................................................... 02 Dates, the best, 8 for...................................................... 02 Dates, second-rate, 16 for.................................................. 02 Palmule, (smaller dates,) 25 for............................................ 02 Dried figs, 25 for.......................................................... 02 A quilt made of eight goat-skins............................................ 3 00 A pillow of the softest and largest kind..................................... 3 00 Caligce (boots) for muleteers or field-laborers, of the best fashion, without nails.............................. 60 Shoes for patricians, called calcei.....................7............. 75 A senators caigce..................................... 50 A pair of women's calig................................................... SO A pair of rustic double-soled gallicce, (Gallic shoes) for men. 40 A pair of single-soled ditto..............................................-... 25 Gallicce, for women, with double ox-hide sole - -................................ 25 CGallicce, for women, with single ox-hide sole.............................. 15 A militaxry saddle.......................................................... 50 A bridle for a horse........................................................ -50 A bridle for a mule....................................................... 60 A pack-saddle for a mule........- -..-. 1.. I 75 A pack-saddle for an ass.....- -.............................................. 1 25 A pack-saddle for a camel.................................................. 1 75 Wheat, (inscription partly defaced.) Rye, (inscription partly defaced.) Bruised millet, per bushelt................................................. 1 02-4 Whole millet, per bushel................................................... 5141 Panic, per bushel.......................................................... 51-4 Fine spelt, per bushel. -— 1. 02-4 Inferior spelt, called scandula, per bushel................................... - -30 B-uisedf beans, per bushel -1 02 2-4 Whole beans, per bushel................................................... 61~-& Lentils, per bushel.......................................................... 02Bruised peas, per bushel-................................. 02-4 Whole peas, per bushel.........................................-.......... 614 Oats, per bushel........................................................... 30 Kidney beans, dry, per bushel.............................................. 1 02Linseed, per bushel........................................................ 53 Sesamum, per bushel...................................................... 2 04-4 Hemp-seed, per bushel -.. 51q4g Falernian wine, per gallon -------------- - ---------- 1 05 Old wine of the best quality, per gallon..................................... 84 Old wine of secondary quality, per gallon.................................. 56 Rustic wine -------------------------------- 28 Barley wine of Attica..................................................... 84 Beer called camus......................................................... 14 Zythus, (Egyptian beer).. —-. — -........... — ---------—. 07 While these figures afford some indication of the actual market price of the commodities named, it is well known that the rates fixed by Diocletian were as a rule much too low. The result, as might have been anticipated, was to check production and produce scarcity; and after many persons had suffered capital punishment for violations of the edict, it was ultimately found necessary to abandon the effort to enforce it. It is unfortunate that the inscription in relation to wheat, barley, and rye is partly effaced, but their probable price may be approximately inA The inscription here, as in many parts, is imperfect. t The molius castrensis, which was double the ordinary modius, was equal to aboat.49 of a bushel. LABOR IN ROME. 57 ferred from that of spelt, a bearded grain sometimes ranked as a variety of wheat, but of a rather inferior quality. The average price of wheat under the reigns of Constantine, Constantius, Julian, and Valentinian, A. D. 306 to 375, was fixed at one solidws of gold per ten modii, or from $1.23 to $1.20 per bushel, according to the value of the solidus. This price was an average derived from data covering a considerable number of years. THE ROMAN TRADES UNIONS. Among the most interesting of the facts which tend to throw light upon the condition of the working classes of Rome must be included those which relate to the trade-unions. The "History of the working and burgher classes," by M. Adolphe Granier de Cassagnac, contains an interesting sketch of these organizations, of which the following is a condensation: It is related by Plutarch, in his life of Numa, that this king established at Rome the corps of craftsmen. From that epoch the corporations in question passed through three successive periods, of which the first ended about the time of Vespasian, the second about the time of Constantine, and the third with the overthrow of the empire. The first of these periods comprises the formation of the trade-unions, which originally was spontaneous, and not the result of authority. Workmen of the same craft came together, agreed upon certain fixed points to riegulate their relations, and elected officers to judge and decide in regard to cases arising under their rules. It was one of the enactments of the Twelve Tables that these rules should conform to the general laws of the state, with which they had sometimes been found to conflict. This enactment, however, to a certain extent created a monopoly in their favor, by prohibiting an unrestrained competition, and enriching the existing unions at the expense of all those who could not organize such associations. As the number of slaves and the concentration of property increased, the work of private citizens came to be chiefly performed by mechanics of that class, and the trade-unions depended more and more on the employment furnished them by the government in the execution of its enormous public works, such as temples and other public buildings, aqueducts, and those admirable roads, bridges, and other works which, not only in Italy and the East, but throughout Spain, Gaul, Germany, England, and the north of Africa, remained as indestructible monuments of Roman civilization. The trade-unions were thus drawn into closer relations with the state, were subjected more and more to its regulation, and finally became its regular functionaries-not merely executing its works, but also collecting its revenues, or at least that part of them which was paid in kind. It was by the aid of the trade-unions that the government organized its administrative service. There were trade-unions charged with the collection of the revenues, others supplied Rome with provisions, others took care of the edifices, others clothed the soldiers, others armed them, others supplied the interior and domestic wants of a city full of riches and devoted to all kinds of pleasures. The trade-unions then were the framework of bone that supported the great Roman body. The Roman trade-unions were of two sorts, the commercial and indus. trial unions, and bore the name of corporations. The principal commercial corporations of the empire were the sailors' union, the bakers' butchers', limeburners', weavers' and tailors' unions, the. sheil-fish gath 58 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. ers', silk-dyers', carriers', wine-merchants', and lumbermen's unions, and many others, including the respectable corps of sworn measurers of grain at the warehouses of the port of Ostia, (Mlensores portuenses.) The port of Ostia was the great entrepot of Rome. Hither the corporations of watermen were required to bring the revenues of the lands of the public domain, which were immense. Moreover, there is reason to believe that each commercial union collected the tax in kind which appertained to its specialty; that is to say, the bakers received from the lands of the domain the rent in grain; the wine-merchants the rent in wine; and so of the rest. The butchers, by agents, collected the rents in hogs and cattle from the farmers of certain provinces. The sailors' union, for a fixed charge for freight, transported the revenues in kind to the warehouses of the port of Ostia. The bakers' union located at Rome became, in a measure, responsible for the grain as soon as it was in the warehouses. They had it measured before admitting it into the warehouses by the experts of the measurers' union, and they had it transported to Rome by another union, that of the coasters' of the Tiber. The interior organization of the Roman trade-unions appears to have been very simple. Those of the same trade, for example, the bakers, who were scattered throughout the empire, were divided into groups in the different provinces and cities. A law of Honorius and Theodosius fixes the maximum of each of these local unions at 563 members. Each of these unions elected annually officers who bore the name of patrons. These patrons were also called syndics in most of the unions, and there were at least foaur for each local union. One of these patrons or syndics wvas named for five years, by the entire corporation, administrator-general of the interests of ~the society. This officer bore the title of prior, and had charge of all the property of the association, movable and immovable. The industrial unions, in relation to which the documents are not always so clear- or so abundant, were formed upon the same general model. A law of Constantine, of the year 337, mentions the followinig, some of which it is not easy to recognize, either because the text has lenr altered, or because the specialties of these organizations have perished( in the wreck of ancient civilization: Architects; carvers in. plaster; a kind of roofers called albarii; carpenters; doctors; lapidaries; chasers in silver; masons; veterinary surgeons; stone-cutters; furbishers; seasores, (believed to be pavers;) painters; sculptors; pearl-dressers; joiners; statuaries; decorative painters; gravers on copper; blacksliths; marble-cutters; gilders; founders; dyers in purple; pavers in mosaic; goldsmiths; looking-glass make'rs; wheelwrights; watercarriels; glaziers; workers in ivory; fullers; potters; plumbers; furriers. Besides these thirty-five unions there were a nlumlber of others, including one of fortune-tellers, mentioned in a law of i[onorius and Arcadius of the year 412 as corpus nemeesiacorum. It has been said that the Roman trade-unions passed through three periods. During the first of these periods, which terminated about the time of Vespasian, they possessed the right to organize at their own pleasure, though subject to being suppressed if they violated the general laws of the state. This freedom of initiative they appear to have p)ossessed for more than seven centuries. The precise time when it was taken from them is not known, but they possessed it as late as the reign of Nero, whereas, thirty years after the death of that tyrant it had been taken away from them, and it was then necessary to obtaiu the permission of the goverunncat before t union could be orgilanizdc. A. LABOR IN ROME. 59 case in point is found in the request made to the Emperor Trajan by Pliny the younger, for permission to establish a union of blacksmiths in Nicomedia, a request which this emperor refused., It seems probable, therefore, that the first period terminated, as has already been stated, about the time of Vespasian. During the reign of Severus edicts were issued authorizing slaves to form associations with the consent of their masters, but on condition of having a curator who should act for them, and of not meeting oftener than once a month. Nothing of especial importance, however, in relation tothe unions, occurred until the middle of the fourth century or a little later. Up to this time the different corps of craftsmen had indeed been absolutely dependent on, and under the direction of, the government. In Africa they were subject to the jurisdiction of the vicar of the province; in Italy, of the prefect of subsistence, or of the prefect of Rome; in the East, of the proconsul or other dignitary of the palace. As to their duties, they were subject entirely to the will of the emperors. The bakers' union was required to furnish bread to the cities; the sailors and wagoners to furnish transportation; the masons to furnish a sufficient number of hands for the public works; in a word, the corps of craftsmen were strictly instruments of the administration, and, in many respects, even a part of the administration itself. But thus far the different members of these corps were perfectly at liberty to enter or leave them, to pass from one to the other at will, and in all cases to keep their patrimony entirely free, separate, and personal, carrying it with them into any union with which they might affiliate, and retaining the power to sell, give, or bequeath it. This is expressly stated in a law of Constantine of A. D. 319, relative to the bakers' union. This power, however, was taken away by a law of Valentinian It, and of Valens, (A. D. 364,) which only permitted gifts to sons and grandsons; and five years later another law of Valentinian II absolutely forbade the alienation of any of the property of the members of the unions. Thus was inaugurated the third period in the history of these organizations. The relations of the unions to the government remained as before, but the individuals composing them contracted new and unLeard-of obligations. Iu fact, from this epoch no member of a union could leave it and enter another upon any pretext whatever. More than this, the son was obliged to enter into the union to which his father belonged, and so also was the legatee obliged to enter the union of the legator. The same rule was subsequently extended to sons-in-law, who, if not already members of other unions, were obliged to enter the union to which the father-in-law belonged. In short, the trade-unions imperatively claimed all who, either by gift, purchase, or inheritance, were found in possession of property that had belonged to one of their members; and they also claimed a pro-rata share of the property itself. To the stringrency of this rule there was an exception in the case of priests, who could sever their connection with a union by surrendering to it their patrimony, as provided in a law of Honorius and Arcadius, A. l). 412. There was also another exception in favor of those who could find acceptable substitutes; but this, of course, left the member dependent on the assent of the union for the sundering of the ties by which he was bound to it. These regulations, oppressive as they apparently were, were not entirely without their con mpensations, clief among which was the guarantee of obtaining subsistence in case of need out of the social funds of the union. These social funds, derived fromi immense domains which were 60 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. inalienable and constantly augmented, served for the support of the members, as the property of the monasteries in the Middle Ages served for the support of the monks. The wealth of the unions was derived fromn several sources, the chief of which were endowments received from the governmenut the profits obtained from the state and from individuals in the prosecution of their specialties, and, lastly, the property of their members who died intestate. So long as the prosperity of the trade-unions lasted there was no lack of candidates for admission to them; but there came a time when it was necessary to bring back their fugitive members by force, and to seek recruits among those, who, at an earlier period, would have been excluded from their ranks. The misfortunes of the unions were mainly traceable to the causes by which the empire itself was undermined. The commercial unions were responsible for the public revenues, and when the rents which they collected from the public domain were inadequate, the government seized upon their own property to make good the deficiency. Again, in the latter days of the empire there were frequent dearths of provisions, owing, in a great measure, to the insecurity of industry. Indeed, it is impossible to recount the passages in Saint Ambrose, Symmachus, Libanius, and even in the laws of the emperors, in which it is related that the magistrates repeatedly drove off without pity the fugitive slaves and beggars who flocked to Rome from all parts of the empire, when famine invaded Italy and surprised the capital of the world in the midst of the ruinous luxury, feasts, and fancies of her emperors. It may readily be conceived that before resorting to these terrible extremes the treasuries of the unions were exhausted, and that when senators had one plate less at their tables the members of the trade-unions did not dine at all. It was, however, the unbounded luxury of the emperors which probably contributed most to the ruin of the trade-unions. The extravagance of these masters of the world was simply incredible. On a banter made to him, Caligula constructed a bridge 3,600 paces in length, and having the width of the Appian way, from the port of Baia to the mole of Puteoli. On this costly structure he made two triumphal marches, after which it was permitted to fall into decay, since it was absolutely without use. Claudius, curious to see the bottom of Lake Fucinus, had its waters drawn off by means of a canal cut through a mountain, the excavation of which is said to have cost the labor of 30,000 men for eleven years. Nero assigned to a pet monkey a palace in Rome, and a castle and lands in the country. The two thousand mules which drew him and his cortege when he went to contend for the prize in the Olympic games were shod with silver, while his three or four thousand lackeys an(l coachmen were clad in the finest stuffs of Italy. Heliogabulus, who died at eighteen, probably spent in one day more than all the others in paving the court of his palace with all the diamonds, emeralds, and other precious stones that could be found in Italy. By such excesses was brought about that state of exhaustion which so crippled the empire in its latter da s, and in great part these excesses were paid for by the trade-unions. On these, in great measure, fell the expense of the mistresses, the eunuchs, minions, and lackeys, the lions, panthers, parrots, and monkeys of the emperors, for it was they who were called upon to replenish the imperial treasury. Their task grew more and more difficult of performance, and from the middle of the fifth century they were completely disorganized, their members seeking to escape by flight or voluntary exile the burdens which weighed them down. Iu short, step by step, with the empire, they fell to pieces. LABOR IN ROMKE. 61 CONDITION OF THE PEASANTRY. In regard to the condition of the agricultural laborers in the latter days of the empire, an idea may be formed from the state of the Gallic peasantry of that era, as described by -M. J. Benoit in his " Histoire des Paysans et de leur condition A travers les siecles." This author states that they were confined to the fields in company with the animals, and their implements of toil, and prohibited from leaving the estates on which they were employed, approaching the cities, or bearing arms. At this period the proprietors of the soil, and of its cultivators, did not reside in the country, but in Rome, or in the great cities of Gaul, and had no personal relations with their peasants, who were superintended by overseers, such as were formerly employed on large plantations in the South to superintend the labors of negro slaves. Previous to the grave events which took place about the fifth century, by which the Roman laws and institutions were overthrown, the masters of the soil were1st. The great Roman and Gallic families. 2d. Chiefs of native tribes to whom the Roman government had made concessions of land. 3d. The fiscal officers of the state. 4th. The clergy. 5th. The small proprietors. The entire body of peasants, excepting those of the class last men tioned, who were not numerous, were in a state of slavery. All the historians agree in describing the country, at this period, as presenting a picture of the greatest desolation, the immense domains of the clergy and of the wealthy proprietors being almost wholly uncultivated, and yielding the most meager returns in spite of the oppression to which the slaves were subjected. The peasants were divided into two classes: Those belonging absolutely to the proprietor, who could sell or exchange them, like his oxen or horses, and those appertaining to the land, who could only be sold or exchanged with it. Those of the first class were on the same level as the domestic animals, whose companions they were, being considered inferior to all other men, not excepting the slaves in the cities, who were legally subject to the same conditions as themselves; for the latter, living with their masters, of whose families they formed a part, could not fail to acquire a certain amount of intelligence and culture through their daily intercourse with persons of superior condition. The other class, on the contrary, were unknown to the master, who required nothing from them but physical strength, good health, and abundance of work. The peasant who was attached to the soil might own the tatters in which he was clad, and the animals which formed a part of his family. The other could possess nothing whatever. The great agricultural estates to which persons of this class were confined, were provided with all that was deemed necessary to life, in order to take away from them every pretext for absenting themselves therefirom. The overseer, who filled the place of the master, provided for all their necessities, as well as for the cultivation of the domain. The food was of the coarsest and most simple kind, consisting chiefly of barley reduced to a pulp by boiling. Each estate was also provided with a prison, and all the facilities for the infliction of punishment upon the slaves. The overseer was the supreme authority in everything which concerned their discipline and punishment. When at work they were commonly (62 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. divided into groups more or less numerous, each of which had a superintendent who made use of the whip at his pleasure. When the work was finished on an estate the laborers were often hired out to other proprietors, who provided them with food and paid to the master such compensation as might be agreed upon. Their clothing was simply of a character to protect them from cold or rain, consisting chiefly of skins and a sort of hooded cloak. To this they had no recognized right, and if furnished it was only because the master considered it his interest to keep his human property in good condition. The peasants who were attached to the soil could never be legally removed from the land to which they belonged even for an instant, and in no case could they obtain their liberty. The children of this class belonged to the estates on which they were born, and formed a part of the inventory of the effects connected therewith, except when it happened that the father and mother belonged to different estates, in which case the children were divided between the proprietors, who could, at their own pleasure, separate wives from their husbands, and children from their father or mother. It will readily be seen that under such a state of things the family could have no existence. The proprietors did not consider marriage to have been intended for this kind of people, regarding their peasants as they did their cattle, and looking upon the reproduction of their kind simply as a means of increasing their own wealth. In the eyes of the master the peasant was a species of enemy, and was treated with all the rigor of a state of hostility. The oppression of the master was aggravated by the exactions of the government; for, beside the price which the peasant had to pay to the former for the land which he occupied, he had also to pay the land-tax, a tax for pastures, a capitation tax, and various exceptional assessments. Moreover, he was obliged to work on the ro.fads, to furnish horses to postal agents, to pay octroi duties in the cities, and to bear his quota of the expense connected with replenishing the ranks of the army. In collecting these taxes and enforcing these various dues, the fiscal agents of the government proceeded with such unlheard-of rigor that even the small proprietors, as well as the slaves and the peasants 0who were attached to the soil, were reduced to the necessity of abandoning the lands they cultivated and flying to the forests, in order to escape at the same.time from the masters and the tax-collectors, who were robbing them of all their resources. A priest of this epoch, named Salvien, has left us a terrible picture of the miseries and sufferings which the peasants endured, an(d by which tlhey were driven to rise ill insurrection against the ruling class.' What else," says this historian, " but to give themselves up to brigandage, could be done by these unhappy people, ruined, as they were, by incessant public exactions; menaced continually by crushing and unremitting proscriptions; compelled to abandon their homes to escape torture, and to exile themselves in order to avoid punishment? The eneitices ot the country were less terrible to them than the tax-collectors, and they sought refuge among the barbarians to escape the violence inficted or threatened by these officials. Their condition. hard and inhuman as it was, would have been less cruel if all had suffered equally in common. But what rendered it more intolerable was that the barden was not eqzually distributed; that the tribute of the rich was shifted to the shoulders of the poor, and that the feeble bore the burdens of the strong. Thus oppressed and impoverished, nothing was left to these LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 63 people but to choose between brigandage and refuge among the enemies of their country. Thus," says Salvien, "they emigrated, pell-mell, to the Goths, the Bagaudi, or other barbarians, preferring to live free, under the appearance of captivity, to leading the life of slaves with the appearance of liberty. For this reason the name of Roman citizen, which was formerly held in so high estimation, is to-day voluntarily repudiated.1" Such injustice and cruelty naturally and inevitably led to acts of insubordination and insurrection. The malcontents organized themselves into a league, and their number being rapidly augmented by new recruits, they gave themselves up to brigandage and to insurrection against the Romans. " Despoiled by bad and cruel judges," says Salvien, " tortured or put to death, after having lost the liberty guaranteed by their Roman citizenshitp, they renounced the honor of this name; and yet, after this, we are so unreasonable as to impute their misfortune to them as a crime, and stigmatize them with the name of Bagaudi, which we have cornpelled them to assume. We call them rebels and brigands, when it is ourselves who have driven them to revolution. Is it not our injustice, the sentences of iniquitous ju(lges, their proscription, their robberies; those who divert to their own profit the product of the taxes; those who, like voracious beasts, have devoured the people whose interests have been given them to protect; those, less hlumane than brigands, whlo are not contented with despoiling their victims, but tear the flesh and regale themselves with their blood. Who can wonder that nmen thus treated should become barbarians, when thev were no longer permitted to remain Romans. Having completely lost their liberty, nothing was left them but to defend their lives." Thus, according to Salvien, who lived at this period, it was only ind)(olence and a lack of courage which could induce the peasants to contiinue their agricultural labors, and prevent them from joining their conmpanions in revolt under the name of Bagaudi. Their headquarters antl center of operations was the confluence of the Seine and the Marne, nlear Paris, in a place which they had strongly fortified, and whence they could defy the Roman power. From this point they spread themselves over all the other portions of Gaul, appealing to all the peasants of the country to enroll themselves under the flag of independence, and strike for their liberty. Their first revolt occurred about A. 1). 270, under the lead of one Victoria, who was called by the soldiers the mother of legions. They besieged and captured Autun. They were temporarily quelled by Claudius and Aurelian, who, by remission of the taxes in arrears, and, by granting them a general amnesty, made peace with them. Under Diocletian they again rose in insurrection about A. D. 280, massacred their masters, and( ravaged with fire and sword multitudes of cities and villages. The emperor sent a force against them under Maximianl who prosecuted his warlike operations with so much vigor that, although the Bagaudi were superior in numbers, they were soon conmpelled to capitulatc. Two of their leaders, 2Alianus and Amandus, who had assumed the title of emperor, were killed in battle. From this period they existed chiefly as small bands of brigands, infesting the forests and fastnesses of Gaul until the end of the western em pire. LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. The overthrow of the Roman power in Italy and Western Europe by the northern barbarians was followed by the institution of a new order 64 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. of society, an order which grew out of the relations of the conquered to the conquerors, out of the character and habits of the latter, and out of the turbulent state of society which marked the times. In Gaul and Italy the barbarian conquerors found the soil, for the most part, in 1the hands of large proprietors and cultivated by slaves. In some districts they seized the entire territory, and divided it among them according to their humor and their interests. In other cases they divided the land, in proportions arbitrarily fixed according to their own will, between themselves and the former proprietors. But in all cases the peasants were excluded from a share in the possession of the soil, and compelled to labor for the new masters just as they had done for their predecessors. The system of slavery had existed among the barbarians as well as under the Romans, but in a somewhat milder form, owing to the family and tribal organization under which the former lived. Among them the slaves belonging to the domain of a, chief formed a part of his family; and as they were always under the master's eye there grew up between them and him a certain sympathy which was conducive to their wellbeing. Among the Romans, on the contrary, as well as in the Roman provinces of Western Europe, the landed proprietors were addicted to living in the cities and towns, and were rarely, if ever, seen by the slaves who tilled their fields. The new masters, bringing with them into the Roman provinces the manners of their own country, took up their abode on their domains ill the midst of their peasants. The Roman villa gave way to the less elegant but more formidable castle of the rural chief, which was a fortress as well as a dwelling. The rude tastes of the conquerors, coupled with the waste and destruction incident to a long struggle for raastery and a constant necessity for defense against aggressive neighbors, almost destroyed the demand for the products of the Cmore advanced industrial arts, led to a steady decline in the population of the cities and towns, and made the castellated dwellings of the nobles the centers of industrial life and the nuclei of social organization. It was a state of society established at the point of the sword, and the same weapon was for several centuries the principal source of law. Violence and depredation were the order of the day, and there could be no security for any one save as a member of some considerable community capable of united action in mutual defense. In such a state of things it was impossible for small landed proprietors to maintain their independence; and they generally gave in their allegiance to some powerful noble or placed themselves under the protection of the church, in either case surrendering their land and paying certain rent or service-dues in consideration of its usufruct. Everything else was sacrificed to military organ. ization tand efficient leadership, and isolated independence became impossible. Hence, outside of the walled towns, which in those days were few and feeble, all the detached elements of society necessarily gravitated to the seignorial castle, and there grew up, rathrer than was instituted, that form of society known as the feudal system, with its gradations of vassalage, its villeins, and its serfs. It has been remarked that in this new form of society, and in the transition state by which it was preceded, it was fouiid impossible for the small proprietors to maintain their independence. It should be said, however, that efforts were made by the kings to protect them from the aggressions of the nobles and the dignitaries of the church. On this subject a statute of Charlemagne, the master of an empire which embraced. the whole of France, a portion of Spain, more than onehalf of Italy, and nearly all of Germany, contains the following: The poor allege that they have been despoiled of their property, and they complain equally of the bishops, the abbes, and their patrons, and of the nobles and their sutbordin LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 65 ate military commanders. They also say tbat when a poor freeman shows himself unwilling to give up his heritage to the bishop, the abbe. the count, the judge, or the military official, these persons avail themselves of every occasion to treat him with harshness, and never fail to send him to the army, so that when completely ruined he may sell them his property on their own terms. This statute bears date A. D. 811. At a later (lay one of the sons of Charlemagne was constrained to come to the defense of the same class. "As to the precautions," says he, " which should be taken in favor of the poor, the care of vwhom is devolved upon us, it has pleased us to forbid the bishops, abbes, counts, magistrates, judges, and ail other persons to purchase or take by force the possessions of the poor and the feeble. For this reason, any one wishing to purchase anything from them is required to do so publicly on court days before two credible witnesses and upoin equitable terms. Any such contract made under other circumstances shall be null and void." Nothwithstanding the good sentiments expressed by various kings in regard to the small proprietors, the cupidity of the bIishops, abbes, and other members of the ruling classes, was stronger than the edicts, and they did not pause in their career of spoliation luntil they had completely stripped the poor of their heritage, and reduced them to the condition of serfs. Of the serfs there were three principal classes. They were all alike bound to the soil, but there were certain diffterences in the degree of their servitude. And this was also the case with respect to subdivisions of the three'classes. Thus among the ecclesiastical serfs there were two distinct degrees, involving differeit services. Those of the first degree, who were everywhere superior to the serf's of the laity, had to pay certain dues in labor, which consisted in the cultivation of a definite extent of ground, andiia other stated work. Each serf was required to sow and fence in and reap for the bishop, or for the convent, a piece of ground 400 feet long and 40 feet wide, to assist in getting in the harvest, and to mow and gatjer the hay from an acre of mneadow-laind. There were also other dues for the fields and pastures, and certain contributions in poultry anrd eggs. The ecclesiastical serfs of the second class were required to work three days in the week for the bishop or the abbe, and three days for themselves, and to furnish the teamls and impleiments necessary for various kinds of farm-work. If, on the contrary, the master furnished the. oxen and implements, he could exact so much the greater amount of personal labor. Their services also comprised the furnishing of work-horses, hauling produce, &c., a distance of fifty leagues,* carting in the hay, grain, and wine of the master, and various other duties, a failure in which exposed them to punishment. These two classes of ecclesiastical serfs belonged more especially to the great dignitaries of the church, who enjoyed sufficient power and consideration to enable them to contend successfullly with the kings and the great military chiefs of that warlike epoch. As to those who belonmged to the less poweriul ecclesiastics. whose authority was always contested by the secular lords, and whose expenses were comparatively heavy, their condition resembled that of the serfs belonging to thle nobility. In other respects there was, in those rude times, nothing definitely *The French postal league is a little less than 2~ miles. 5L 66 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. settled, the arbitrary will of the master alone deciding the degree of servitude to be exacted from the serf. There were, however, certain general rules established in assemblies of the nobles which were held at intervals, and these rules were accepted as laws by those who took part in the frarming of them. But it munst be remembered that only one of the parties interested was present in these assemblies. In distributing lands among the peasants the more extended and fruitful domains lying nearest to the seignorial dwelling were usually assigned to the most robust and active of the serfs, and to those having large families, to assist them in their labors; while to such as fiMon physical feebleness, or any other cause, lacked the requisite conditions for the advantageous working of their allotments, it was the custom to assign lands of inferior quality and of smallier extent. From the former class were exacted prestations in money and grain, war taxes, or tribute, a large amount of teaming, and many feudal tasks. Thle burdens imposed on the latter class were lighter ili appearance, but in reality more oppressive; for, if instead of wheat and timber, they were only required to contribute small grains and faggots; if, instead of the work of the plovw, they were only required to give that of their hands, it must be added that in lieu of the more valuable services which they were unable to render, they were required to perform the humblest and most menial drudgery, such as to grind the corn, perform guard duty around the castle, load and unload manure, &c. In short, one may gain an adequate idea of the services that they were obliged to render to the lord from the fact that they were required to give him five days' work per week. The imposts levied by the church, and known as tithes, unknown unrler the Romans, had been introduced by the priests, and in the ninth century were regularly enforced by the laws and sanctioned by the habits of the country. A formal decree of Louis the Pious contains the following provision: "As to him who has neglected to cultivate the dominical lands, in order to avoid the payment of the ninth and the tenth part of its fruits, and who, with this object in view, has taken the lands of others to cultivate, it is our will that he pay, according to law, the ninth pairt for three years." To invest this impost with still greater sacredness, the clergy excommunicated and anathematized such as fiailed to pay it. The tithes were levied not only upon all the products of the field, but' upon farm animals. For a drove of mares every tenth colt was exacted; or if there were only a few, a penny was charged for each colt. It was the same in respect to cows and calves. Every tenth cheese was also exacted, or else the milk of the cows for every tenth day. It was the same with butter, eggs, and all other products. To enforce these various dues it was often necessary for the ecclesiastical authorities to resort to vigorous punishments. The exactions to which the peasantry were subjected, however, did not stop here; for, besides the dues already mentioned, they were requiredl to render military services, and to pay a poll-tax, a tax for mast in the forests, and( tolls on the highways, the rivers, and in the cities. Each feuda.l chieftain was required to contribute to the army in war onetenth part of his peasants under pain of heavy penalties, and sometimes even of confiscation. The tolls on the highways, &c., were not only heavy but inconvenient and irritating in their character, being levied according to the number of the wheels of the vehicle, the load which it carried, and other conditions imposed by cities and by powerful nobles. The peasants were not LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 67 permitted to testify in courts of justice; and if a man murdered one of them, he was not prosecuted for the crime itself, bIut simply for the dama;g'e occasioned to the proprietor. For this reason the life of a free peasant was considered of no value, while that of a serf attached to the soil was estimated at 45 sous. The Ripuairian law inflicted the sarrme p)enalty upon him who had murldered a free man as upon him who had stolen a dozen niares, or one she-ass, six sows, or one boar. The ptlnishments inflicted on the serfs varied according to locality, and the disposition of the proprietor; thus, the code of the Visigoths prohibited the killing or the mutilating of a serf, and established the teruns upon which a settlement might be mnade for a wound inflicted upon one of them by another than the plroprietor. In the case of the latter it was considered that the injury he inflicted fell upon himself; and therefore he was not held to account. The bishops and their agents could cause peasants guilty of any misdemeanor to be punished without trial, and the number of blows which they inflicted was determined by their own estimate of the gravity of the offense. It is not necessary here to speak of the.mutilations and other cruelties to which fugitive peasants were subjected; suffice it to say that they were at the nmercy of their masters, who very often abused their power. And the choice which the masters had of selling or exchanging tllheir serfs, shows that the ties which bound tMle latter to the glebe had been relaxed for the benefit of their masters rather than their own advautage. All the serfs, even those who cultivated land on shares, were considered ag belonging to the soil, from which they could not be detached( except by the will of the proprietor. The latter hAd always the rigrht to oppose the marrage of the serf, when it was to be contracted with one not living on the estate. And the children of such unions, beilng the property of two mlllsters, were liable to be divided between them without. reference to their own wishes or those of their parents. The oppressions which have been narrated did not fail to produce resistance. Associations were formed, known in history by the name of the Ghildes, which quickly extended their ramifications over a large territory, though it was in Normandy and the Isle of France that they chiefly flourished. These associations had a triple olbject: 1st, conviviality; 2d, mutual assistance; 3d, political and civil reform. An idea of the rules which governed them may be obtained from the penalties that were pronounced against them, as well as from their own statutes, l)ublished at a later day in the districts where they were permnitted to exist. As early as A. D. 779 they were prohibited by a statute of Charlemagne, anJ another statute of the same monarch ordained certain penalties proportioned to the graxvity of the case. " First," says this st;atute,' any one who shall commit an offense in consequence of his membership in a guild shall be put to death. In the second place his accomplices shall be compelled to flog each other, and cut each other's nostrils; and, thirdly, members who are not guilty of any specific critle shall scourge each other, and cut each other's hair." These associations, whose efforts were principally directed against the tyrlnny of the nobles, were never able to organize themselves into all army as the Bagaudi had done. But toward the end of the tenth century the peasants attempted to assemble and unite their efforts for common action. Upon this important fact in the Ihistory of labor, Guillaume de Jumieges makes the following statement: The peasants forming themselves into secret societies in the different counties of Normaidy, adopted resolutions to the effect that they would live according to their 68 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. own pleasure, and submit to no established laws in regard to the use of the forests and of the waters, except such as they chose to make for themselves. From each local asseinbly two men were chosen to carry these resolutions to an assembly convoked at a central point in the interior, in order to have them confirmed. When the duke (of Normandy) became aware of this movement, he sent a body of troops under the conduct of Count Rodolphe to chastise the boldness of the peasants and disperse the central assemlly above mentioned. The count at once seized all the deputies and some others who were found in their company, and having cut off their hands and feet, sent theni back thus mu iated to the local assemblies whence they carne. Tile peasants, overrawed by this summary treatment, quickly abandoned their assemblies, and thus for the time being ended their efforts at organization and their projected strug gle for independence. During the period extending from the tenth to the fourteenth century the class of serf's who belonged personally to the lord almost entirely disappeared, and( the serfs attached to the soil made slow but steady progress toward personal liberty, although they were still the victims of most o-nerous exactions on the part of 1both the lor(ls and the church. In conceding lands to the peasants, the feudal proprietors weighed the advantages and disadvantages of serfdom, and tiley gradually found that free labor yielded them the larger revenue from their estates. Under this system the imlplements of husbatndry, the cattle, and the teams were at the account and risk of the peasant, who was thus stimulated to use them with proper care. The lord ceded his land in consideration of certain dues and services, and gave himself no further trouble excel)t to see that; the dues were paid and the services performed. *The dues attached to the occupation of land were plaid by the tenants in several forms: First, in money; secondly, in grain and wine, thirdly, in cattle and" poultry; fourthly, in articles ot consumption; fifthly, in timber and fire-woold; sixthly, in various prestations,and tasks. The dues in money were of two kinds, the one fixed an(l the other contingent, and known respectively as the'" censes" and the'"ventes." The " cense" was the tax which was paid in money at a specified time, usually at the festival of sone saint. It was most frequently the price paid for the use of the meadows. There wLas also another c ense," which was paid either at the death of the lord or at that of the tenant. The "' ventes" consisted of a tax paid to the seigneur for the alieination of laids dependent upon the "; seigniorie." or estate, and varied considerably in its form. The heaviest of the dues paid by the peasants was und(oubtedly that which was levied upon grain, for this was the one in respect to which the l6rds could most readily ent'orce their exactions. The sheaves could be' counted in the fields, or the grain measured on the thrashing-floor or in the barn, preparatory to haulingi away the share which belonged to the lord. The exactions of dues for oxen, cows, an(l horses having been recognized as injurious to the working of the land, wa-s abandoned; but instead of these, there were assessments upon hogs, sheep, lambs, goats, and calves, which served for the consumptionl of the lord's family and thaLt of his numerous retainers. Certain payments in ploultry were exacted from each family as a mark of dependence, and, in addition to these, it was customary to require large contributions of cocks, capons, pullets, geese, &c;e.-a custom whlic(h was not entirely discontinued in F;rance until after the revolution of 1789. There were also dues paid in cheese, butter, oil, wax, soap, &c., Easter and Christmuas presents to the lordl, the obligation to filrniish figg-ots, vine-poles, staves, hoops, &c. There were still other exactions equally burdensome andl vexatious, such as the requirement to furnish lodging for the.seigneur and his suite, to feed him and his dogs, and to furamish hay and grass for his horses. It is true that the right of lodging was purchased, but in many localities LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 69 the seigneurs imposed a splecial tax for their dogs. Trhey also imposed a tax on marriaoes, another on deaths, and a capitation-tax, which was collected in particular cases, most frequently when the seigneur knighted his son, gave his daughter in marriage, departed for the Holy Land, or was taken p)risoner. The same usage was followed by the church, only her demands were for the Pope, for religious services, and for the entertainmerlt of the king and his retinue when traveling through the country. In this time of continual strife betweenl rival nobles, the peasants owed their masters military services, and accompanied them to war in the capacity of infantry. It was they also who constructed and kept in repair the fortifications of the castle and performned. the teacluing necessitate(d by this work. Lastly, they were required on certain days and in times of danger to perform guard (luty arounld the castle for the security of the seigneur and his suite. Although lit this period the distinction between the free man and the serf was beginning to be observed, this distinction really amounted to little in tilhe presence of the ofvershadowing power of the seigneurs. "Each estate,77 says Mlably,;"was a veritable prison for its inhabitants, and these pretended free men could not dispose of their property, either by will or by their own ac t, while the seigneur was regarded as their heir in default of children domiciled in his fief. Within this limit he did not permit theml to dispose of their property, whether movable or inniovable, except to a siuall amnount; and even at this time they could not miarry without having purchased his permission. Burdened everywhere with fatiguing tasks, huimiliating duties, and ruinous contributions, they were constantly in fear of some penalty, some arbitrary tax, or the total confiscation of their goods. The seigneurs tenaciously clung to thle idea that everything belonged to them, and that the laborer did not possess even his own habitation save in a precarious manner, dependent on their liberality." Sovereignty was so united to proplerty that the peasants were practically given up to all the haughty -and fantastic caprices of the lproprietors under whose jurisdiction they lived; and it might truly be said that justice was nothing more than the will of the baron. A troubadour of the twellth century has left us, in the " Roman de Rou," a statement of the wants and aspirations of the laborers of the times. "Peasants and the inhabitants of the cities," says lihe, "the people of the forest as well as the people of the pltiain have held assemrblies to the number of twenty, thirty, or one hundred )ersons, meetiung in obscure l)laces, many of them having sworn tn each other tlhat they would never willingly tolerate either a seigneur or a patron of the church.' The seigneurs,' say tlhey,'do us notling but injury, and we cannot obtain from them either right or justice. They possess everything, take everything, eat everything, and compel us to live in poverty and suffering. So many are the services, the taxes, the provosts, andl the bailiffs that we have not a single day of peace. Why do we submlnit to such oppression. Are we less men than they? We have the samle members, the same stature, the sanme power of endurance; all we lack is courage. Let us bind ourselves toogether by oath, and present a united front in defence of our possessions. It is not so very difficult to fight; there are thirty or forty able-bodied peasants to each noble. Let us learn to conquer, and no one will then exercise dominion over us. W\Ve shall then be able to cut trees, catch game in the forests,,and fish in the rivers, and to use, at our own l)leasure, the meadows and the waters."' Such were the thoughts which agitated the pleasanits of that day. From the eleventh to the fourteenth century terrible insurrections broke out in France and in other parts of Europe, the peasants organ 70 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. izing themselves into army corps, and declaring war against the nobles, and other possessors of the soil. In the thirteenth century hundreds of thousands of them took up arms; and from Flanders, where the orgainization had its birth, they threw themselves into other provinces of France, gaining new recruits each day in their progress through the country. They were ultimately vanquished by the discipline and union of the nobles, but for more than two hundred years the debris of these. organizations infested the country, and unhappily their depredations were not confined to the castles of their oppressors, but often extended to the villages and defenseless cities. In 1358 occurred the revtolt known as the Jacquerie riots. After the disastrous defeat of the French at Poictiers there was, for a short time, such anarchy that all the ties which bound the vassal to his feudal chief were broken, eachi man obtaining almost complete independence. The nobility, whose merciless oppression had already driven the peasantry to desperation, now gave themselves up to the most fearful acts of cruelty. Assembling their troops, they fell suddenly upon the cities and villages, which they pillaged and burned, after slaughtering all who offered them resistance. When they captured any of the peasants they burned off their feet, and subjectedl them to the most horrible tortures, in order to compel tllel to disclose such treasures as they were supposed to have concealedl. " The peasants," says Michelet, "could no longer sleep. Those who lived on the banks of the Loire passed their nights on the islands in the stream or in boats anchored in the middle of the river. In Picardy the population dug themselves holes in the ground, in which women and children rotted for weeks and months, while the mere timnidly crept to the tops of the steeples to survey the country and see if the neiglhborhood was clear of armed bands. Despair armed the populationn; there was no longer anything to eat, sayve in the castles, and to the castles the peasants made their way. Tlhus began that terrible war known as the Jacquerie riots. Each T)easant, inspired by vengeance and by want, as munch as by hatred, attacked the castles as the tihmished wolf attacks a sheep fold. This insurrection, like that ot the Bagaudi, took its rise in the Isle of France, and spread over the northeasterni provinces. For six weeks, say the historians, the leasantts pillaged and ravaged the chateaux, committed the greatest cruelties, and gave themselves up to the most fearful excesses. In this, however, they only imitated the example of the seigneurs, and even their worst excesses'could not exceed the limits of a just retribution. Their very frenzy, however, was, one of the chief causes of their defeat; for, beinMg without dis(ip)liiie or unity of action, they could not withstand the military organiz(ation witlh which they were opposed by the nobles. Their chief, Guillaumell Cillet, was taken prisoner by Charles the Bad, of Navarre, who had hiln (rowned with a red-hot tripod of iron and then beheaded. A few weeks later the Captal de Buch and the Count of Foix slaulghtered sevenl thousand of these peasants in the vicinity of Meaux, and thus brought the insurrection to an end. What has been thus far said in regard to labor under the feudal system refers chiefly to France, and is conrlfined to the labors of the peasantry; but, as has already beel iointe(l out, the finer industrial arts were almost unknown at the perio(l under consideration, the town and city populations were very limited, and the work performed on the rural estates really comprised the great bulk of all the work for which, in that rude acge, there was any occasion or demand. The condition of the serts and peasants on the rural estates was therefore at that time the condition of the vast majority of the laboring population. LABOR IN EUROPE' UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 71 THE FEUDAL PERIOD IN ENGLAND. It is now time to glance briefly at the history of our English ancestors during the period of Saxon supremacy, and in the centuries immediately su:ceeding the iNorman conquest. In the former period twothirds of the people are said to have been either slaves, or in a state of bondage approaching slavery, to the remaining one-third. They might be put in botids and whipped; they miglht be branded, and on one occasion arie spoken of as if actually yoked. Cattle and slaves, in fact, formed a common measure of value under the denomination of live tmoney, and were a medium of exchange in which the prices of commodities were corn puted. The operatives and handicraftsInen of this period, as well as the agricultural laborers, were mostly slaves. The clergy and nobility employed as domestic servants persons of this class who were qualified to supply tliem with such'tfhlintgs as were then considered the necessaries of lite. Hence in monasteries we find smiths, carpenters, millers, illuminators, architects, agriculturists, and fishermen. Smniths and carpenters were the Umost lnumlerous andll important as ministering to the chief secular pursuits of the timle, both in war and husbandry. Great as were the l)olitical effects of the Norman invasion, it did not materially alter the condition of the masses of the people. Their services were as necessary to the new masters as to the old, and the terms on which these were rendered could hardly have been made more onerous than they hald been. In order to nmaintain more firmly the ascendency of the inv;aders the feudal relations were enforced with somewhat greater strictiless than before, but no changes were mtade in thle chain of subordination which had already been established. Hence for a long time after the conquest the Saxon subdivisions of society were maintained, and the inhabitants of the country continuedl to be divided into the two great classes of freemen and serfs or slaves. Except the baronial proprietors of land an(l their vassals, the free tenan ts and soemen, the country people were depressed in servitude w hich was uniform ili this respect, that no one who had either been. born in, or hiad fallen into bondalge, could acquire any absolute right to property. Aside from this, however, there were distinctions in the degrees of servitude. Otle class of villeins, or villagers, though bound to the most servile offices of rural industry, were lpermitted to occupy small portions of land to sustain themselves and faimilies. Other ranks of mnen, equally servile, are noticed in the ancient records, particularly the bordears and cottars. The former, in consideration of being allowed a small cottage, were required to provide poultry, eg,gs and other articles of diet for the lord's table; and the latter were emlployed in the trades of smith, carpenter, and other handicraft -arts, in. which they had been instructed at the charge of their masters. Inlferior to these were the thralls, or servi, pritlcipally employed in menial services about the mansion. Th'leir lives were professedly protectetl by law, a, nd with t he consent of their owners they were allowed in some cases to purchase their freedonm; but, in other respects, they were in the lowest degradation, so imuch so as to be considered mere chattels and regular articles of coi mmerce. Giraldus relates that the number of them exported to Ireland for sale in the reign of Henry- II was so great that the market was absolutely overstocked; and firom Willi-am I to the reign of John there was scarcely a cottage in Scotland but possessed an English slave. In the details of the border wars mention is frequently made of the 72 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. number of slaves taken prisoners as forming a priicipal part of the booty. It is not easy to ascertain from writers of this period the precise immunities of the several classes of bondmen mentioned; the chief differences in their condition arose probably from the relative utility of their occupations; the serri, or serfs, as least valuable, being a more ordinary article of traffic and transfer than the bordars and cottars, who had been trailed to useful arts or obtained a fixed habitation. All, however, alike alppear to have been denuded of the snbstantial attributes of freemeln; the lalw recognized in Ione the uncontrolled righllt to plroperty or change of place without the consent of a superior; the lord had the absolute disposal of his bondmien; they might be attached to the soil or transferetld by deed, sale, or conveyance froml one owner to another; in short, they were slaves in the strictest sense of the word-i- en under an obligation of perpetual servitude, which the consent of the imaster could alone dissolve, and in all probability they eljoyed less legal l)rotection from tile ill-usage of their oppressors than the humanity of modern legislation has extended to the brute creation. Attempts have been made to d&-termine the relative numlbers of the several classes of the population at the close of the Anglo-Saxon period, but; with no great pretensions to accuracy. In thirty-tbur counties the burgesses and citizens are set down at 17,105, the villeins at 102,704, the bordars at 74,823, the cottars at 5,947, and the serfs or thralls at 26,552. The remaining population consisted of freemen, ecclesiastics, knlights, thanes, and landowners. The final extinction of slavery in. England was a slow and gradual pr)ocess. The first blow which the system received was in the disuse of the ancient practice of reducing prisoners of war to tlhe condition of bondjmen, a step which was plrobably due to the humane teachings of Christianity, and which certainly marks a decided hadvance toward the sentiments appropriate to a higher and kindlier civilization. In the eleventh century the Pope formally issued a bull for the emancipation of slaves, and ill 1102, in the great council of the nation held at WTestminster, it was (leclared unlawful for any man to sell slaves openly in the market, which had previously been the common custom of tihe country. It was not until several centuries later, however, that slavery was finally and entirely abolished inl England. An attempt to extinguish it, made in 1526, proved unsuccessful, and even Cromwell did not scruple to send tihe Scottishl prisoners, taken at Dunbar in 16i50, to the WVest India colonies as slaeves. The system was finally abolished by statute in the reign of Charles II, but even so late as 1775 certain Scottish colliers were so fir rfri being free that their services were bought and sold with the estates to which they were attached, and to which they could be brought back by summary procedure before a mragistrate if they ventured to leave and. seek employment elsewhere. But though slavery ill the British isles, as well as on the continent, maintained a feeble spark of life until a comparatively recent period, the process of enfrianchisement, both personal and political, had been going on for nmany centuries, and had gradually ch.-an ged the face of society. One of the chief agencies in effectinlg this great change was the growth of the inlcorporated towns and cities. During the turbulent and lawless period which resulted in the development of feudalismu the warlike and predatory habits of the age left little security either for industry or conlmlerce; and from this fact, coupled with the absence of any demand obr the finer lproducts of industry, to which reference has already been made, it resltte. d bothl in England and in continental countries, that from the fifth to the eleventh centuries ther4e was no tendency among the population LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 73 toward urban life. Under these circumstances there was scarcely any growth of new towns or cities, and even those which Roman civilization had left were steadily declining in population, wealth, and infllence. So great, in fact, became the Ireponderance of rural population and power, that the cities were included in the domains of adjacent feudal lords, who often appointed their Imnagistrates, exercised arbitrary authority in various ways, and frequently exacted tribute which amounted to little less than pillage and spoliation. Thus we find the secondl Earl of Leicester exacting from one of the burgesses of the town of the same name the sum of 500 marks, and from other burgesses sums which were!)rol)ably as large in proportion to their wealth, in order to make a journey to iRome and purchase a dispensation for his wife, whom he had married ill violation of the canons of the church. But, with the compllete establishment of feudalism and that rude equilibrationl of the discordant elements of society which the event involved, t l;erve ciame into existence wants and tendencies which at once formed the ger'' of a new order of things, a new form of society. Thus there gradually arosee demand for the products of various industries which berioe had scarcely had an existence. These industries tended to concentrate in the towns and thus to attract population to these centers. Anlother circumstance which, in the opinion of Guizot, contributed materitliy to the early growth of the towns, was the right of asylum which the churches gave to fugitives, even at a time when the towns themselves hlad neither charters nor fortifications, and could not have afiorded such protection. It was not merely serfs and villeins who thus sought and found refuge within the precincts of the churches situated'in the towns. "The chronicles of the times," says Guizot, " are full of examples of men lately powerful, who, upon being attacked by some powerful neighbor, or even by the king himself, abandoned their dwellings, carrying away all the property they could rake together, and entering somle cits, placed themselves under the protection of a church. These men became citizens, and while the capital they brought with them gave a desirable impulse to industrial and commercial enterprise, the spirit of resistance to baronial or kingly authority which they also imported was not less useful in promroting the progress of the cities toward civil independence. As the opportunities for industry and trade increased the burgesses felt more keenly the exactions of their feudal lords, by which they too frequently saw the reward of their energy and enterprise swept away. The consciousness of what they could accomplish, if secure in their rights, stimulated them to organization, and each new injustice kindled their resentment, while the feudal lords themselves, by their conduct toward each other and toward their king, furnished the burgesses a perpetual example of the value of resolute will and energetic resistance. How many were the fruitless, and, because fruitless, unrecorded, struggles of the cities for liberty, we shall never know; but during thee eleventh and twelfth centuries we find them with arms in their hands, resisting baronial or kingly power, and as a consequence we find large numbers of them obtaining charters by which a liberal share of mnunicipal independence was guarahteel to them." In the opinion of EHallamn, such corporations existed earlier in Spain than in any other country. The charter of Leon, granted in 1020, makes mention of the common council of that city as an established and long existing institution. The earliest charters in France. those of St. Quentin and Amiens, were granted by Louis VI, during whose reign, and the reigns of the two succeeding kings, (11108 to 1223,) the principal totwns of France acquired the privileges of incorporation. The charter of Lon 74 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. doll was granted by Henry I, in the year 1100, but it is not clear that anly other corporate towns in England possessed the right of internal jurisdiction before the reign of Henry II, who ascended the throne A. D. 1153. There are not wanting evidences of the services rendered by the cities when once they attained municipal independence in undermining serfdom and villeinage, and, indeed, the feudal system itself. Thus a chronicler of the twelfth century relates that Louis VII of France founded under his protection a multitude of new cities, which he complains did great wrong to the monasteries and seignors in their vicinity, whose slaves came thitherfor refuge. In like manner the English proprietors in the fourteenth century are found complaining to Parliament of the wholesale absconding of villeins, and above all of the support afforded to these fugitives by the tribunals and the towns. It was almost impossible, they alleged, to reclaimu a villein who had escaped to another county or to London. By thus affording a refuge and employment for -fugitive serfs and villeins, the cities did much to bring albout a general substitution of free for servile labor. Not only did they afford occupation for a, large and growing class of paid laborers and handicraftsmen —a class that was steadily re-enforced by accessions from the serfs, villeins, bordars, and cottars of the country —but they also had a strong influence upon the relations of these classes of rural laborers to their manorial lords. The latter, finding that their subjects had opportunities of escaping from their service, were fain to treat them with greater leniency, and to secure their adhesion by allowing them increased( privileges and immunities. In the first two centuries succeeding the Norman conquest, a villein could be subjected to' unlimited service by his lord. They diflered from the thralls, or personal serfs. in the fact that they twere emploSyed in agricultural work, while the latter were assigned to the menial or domestic service of the manor; but so similar was the condition of these two classes that the term "' villani," or villeins, came to be indifferently applied to either. In short, according to Bracton, one of the most minute and thorough of the juridical writers who have treated on early English law, the agricultural serfs, or villeins proper, were entirely at the disposition of their lords' pleasure. It is true that they occuplied and cultivated for their own subsistence a portion of the lord's estate, but this, at least in the beginning, appears to have been a matter of custom and convenience, rather than the consequence of any recognized right which they possessed. The first step toward their emancipation was the substitution of fixed and specified services for services subject directly to the lord's command. Such a division of their time must indeed have been demanded by the lord's convenience, no less than that of the villeins themselves; but at first he had a right to interfere with this arrangement at his own pleasure, and could commland extra services whenever he chose. Moreover, the fixed services themselves were then exceedingly onerous. As a rule, a man of each vrirgata* worked for the lord three or four days a week from the first of August to Michaelmlas, an(l two or three days a week for the rest of the year. "' Beside this," as we are informed by`Nasse in his able and learned work on The Agricultural Community * The virgata, or virgate, of land has been said to be only twenty-five acres, but in some calculatiops it has been rated as hitgh as torty acres, and Mr. Rogers, in his history of English agriculture, expresses the opinion that both of these figures are below the mark. LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 75 of the Middle Ages, "the peasants plowed sometimes one day weekly, (except during frost and harvest time,) sometimes a definite extent of one acre for the sowing of winter or summer grain, and also as a rule for the fallow; they harrowed and sowed the plowed land, sometimes fuirnishing the seed themselves. They rendered further extraordinary service in the hay and corn harvests, bein'g obliged to turn out on the farm two or three times a year with their whole households, the housewife usually being alone excepted" To this must be added the occasional hauling of wood from the forest and corn to the market-town, as well as messenger duty, &c., and a variety of other services. Beside these services they were liable to numerous dues in kind and moneytaxes. It has been already stated that the charter of London was granted in the year 1100, and that other English cities were incorporated during the progress of the twelfth century. In the records of the thirteenth century we find. evidences of the substitution of money-rents for personal services. This is the case with the landed estates of the monastery of Worcester and those of St. Paul's church. In many land registers of this period there is a statement of dues and how they shall be paid in work or in kind, and side by side with this statement the amount of money-rent which would be accepted as an equivalent for these services. In the Hundred Rolls (English land records) are found clear traces of the gradual change of service into rent, the words ad voluntatent domini (at the will of the lord) often found in connection with the specification of the money value of certain labor, indicating that the lords at first reserved to themselves the right of returning to the system of payment in personal services. Mr. J. E. Thorold Rogers, in his history of agriculture and prices in England, refers to the marked contrast between the social condition of England in the reign of Henry II, (1153 to 1189,) and the condition which prevailed during the latter years of the reign of Henry III. It is Mr. Rogers' opinion that during the long reign of the latter monarch, (121f6 to 1272,) the mass of the English people passed from the condition of serfs, perhaps even slaves, to that of freemen, a small money-rent or a fixed and invariable amount of service for the occupation of land having been substituted for the right which the lord had previously enjoyed of commanding the services of his dependents at his own pleasure. The robber barons, who, like social beasts of prey, had kept the country in a state.of terror, had disappeared; the influence of established laws, with something like a regular administration of justice had begun to be felt, and habits of order were becoming diffused among the people. Mr. Rogers presents a mass of interesting facts bearing upon the condition of the English villeins during the century and a half ending with the year 1400. Although they were subject to restraints and liabilities which in our eyes must appear as outrageous violations of personal freedom, he holds that during the period under consideration the services and incidents to which they were liable were determinate, and in no case precarious, as they had been at (an earlier period. And degraded as their lot may have been, Mr. Rogers believes that'" it was not so grievous as the expressions used about their condition suggest, or inquirers into the state of our forefathers have concluded." In some cases persons of this class held positions of considerable responsibility. Thus Robert Oldman, a villein of Cuxham manor, one of the estates belonging to Merton College, was bailiff of that estate, in which capacity he must not only have superintended the operations of the farm, but also have marketed the produce and kept the accounts of the place. A serf on the estate just 7t6 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. mentioned, holding half a virgate of land, paid one-quarter of seedwheat at Michaelmas, a peck at Martinmas, four bushels of oats, three fowls, and two pennyworth of bread. The average value of these payments is estimated by RIogers at 7s. 6d. a year. In addition to this, he had to cultivate a rood of land and work six days in harvest on the manor farm, the value of whAch labor is estimated at 2s. 6d. The total annual rent was, therefore, equivalent to about 10s., which, supposing a half virgate to have contained twenty acres, was only 6d. an acre — a rate," says Rogers, "' which, considering the general goodness of the laud in Cuxham, as is evident fromi the comparative rate of production in that parish, cannot be considered excessive." The services exacted fronm the tenants in villenage at Farley, another manor belonging to Merton College, were all conmmutable for specified sums of money. " Thus, Hugh, the son of Chrispian at ilaghe, held a messuage and a quarteriuni of land, (which may probably contain the same quantity as a virgate,) tnder the following conditions: he, pays one shilling a year rent. He is bound to carry dung at a payneiet of a half-penny a day, or to give three halfpence in lieu of the service; to plow and be fed, or pay sixpence for the year's work; td gather nuts for three days, or forfeit three halfpence; to supply one man in harvest or pSay two shillings, in case the lord assents to such a commllutation; to plow half an acre fobr winter and half an acre for lent-corn, or pay sevenpence; to wash and shear sheep and lambs, or pay a half penny a (lay during the tinle; to hoe and be fed, or forfeit three farthing, a day; to collect stubble for three days before dinner, -and receive a half-penny, or forfeit three halfience; to give a hen of the value of two pence or a cock of the value of three halfpence, and finid a hell) for the thatcher or forfeit three farthings." Ten other tenants on the same manor held their land upon similar terms. Other villein tenants, holding from eleven to fourteen acres, pay a much smaller rent, their duties being mainly confined to harvest labor. The rent-roll of the manor of Thorncroft, (Leatherhead in Surrey,) supl)lies the following facts for the year 1334: Twelve freeholders occupied eac,h a virgate or more, the rent of a virgate varying from ls. 6d. to Gs. Four held half a virgate, eachl lot being described as a mnessuage *and thirteen tand a half acres of land. Others held quantities varying from seven acres down to half an acre of meadow. One l)lace containing thirteen and a half acres was held on condition of paying' a wreath of red roses on midsummer day. The same manor had one tenant in villenage holding a messuage and a virgalte of land and paying five shillings a year, besides which and the liability to pay heriots, the following labor-rents were exacted: I. To carry dung with cart and two horses alid a man for two days; to receive on the first day a farthing's worth of bread, and on the second day a repast, wortli three halfpence. II. To gather stubble four and a half lays, at no pay. III. To plow one aore in winter and another in Lent, with a repast worth three pence each time. IV. To harrow winter-seed with one horse for half a day, but receive no pay, and oats, with one horse, when they are sown, the lord supplying two other horses. V. To find one person to assist the thatcher, when the service is ueeded, at no pay. VI. To find one person to hoe the lord's corn, at a farthing every other day. LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 77 VII. To find one person to turn'and cock the hay, the lord being bound to scatter it. VIII. To find one person to carry the hay in one particular field. IX. To find one person to dig in the garden half a day, and to thrash half a day gratuitously. X. To find one man to drag straw from the grange to the hay-rick. XI. To find one woman to wash and shear sheep and lambs, and to do this for nothinlg. XII. To find a man and woman to reap and bind corn all the autumn, to receive two repasts a day, but no drink besides water. XIII. To find four persons at the lord's bidding in the time of harvest called " Alebedripe," (he himself coming the first hour,) to bind the sheaves and make stacks (hulae) of them, and to have two repasts and sufficient beer. XIV. The day after he shall find four persons to reap and bind the corn, and have two repasts without beer. XV. He shall find a cart for one day, and shall be fed on that day. XVI. He shall, reap, bind, and stack (hullare) an acre of wheat at his own cost. XVII. He shall present a cock and two hens at Christmas. Five other tenants held half a virgate, and were charged with analogous obligations and services. "These services," says Rogers, "are rather onerous, and represent more considerable liabilities than I have found elsewhere. But I do not think that, including the rent, the burdens laid on the tenant amounted to as much as fifteen shillings annually." On the same estate there were nine coterells, or cottars, each holding a cottage, and most of themn an acre of land, and paying from one to two shillings a year, besides performing slight services of the same character as those rendered by the tenants in villenage. Beside the services to which he was liable, the villein was subject to numerous restrictions. He was under the necessity of petitioning the lord for a license to marry, for which he was required to pay a sum of money varying in amount, and a breach of this regulation incurred a pecuniary mulet. He had also to pay for the privilege of sending his children to school, while the fine exacted for permanently quitting the manor was an obstacle to the selection of any other pursuit than husbandry, to which a legal impediment was added by a statute passed in the twelfth year of Richard II. It may be doubted, however, whether the statute was very effective, while the fact of its enactment is indica. tive of the increasing tenldency of the villeins to bring their children up to mechanical trades and other non-agricult.ural occupations. The chief ambition which they entertained appears to have been that of' sending one son to school, or rather to the university, with a view to his taking orders in the church, a desire which was looked upon with great suspicion. As early as A. D. 1164, the practice had aroused opposition, since one of the constitutions of Clarelldon was directed against it, and more than two centuries afterward the Parliament of Richard II petitioLed the king that villeins should be prohibited from sending their children to school to advncllnc clhem in the church. The villein was also restrained from l)urchase or manlufacture, except at the lorl's discretion. Thus the tenant on the estate of Merton College, at Cambridge, was required to buy his scythe at Chesterton, and at Pentrek a millstone could not be made ill the bailiwick without a license firom the lord of the mano1,1r. It is believed, too, that the use of the village mill, owned by the lord of the manor, was compulsory upon all such inhabitants as owed him suit and service. Thus the records of 78 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. the manor court of Kibworth, in Leicestershire, for the year 1331, show that on one occasion the etntire village were fined for not having ground their malt at the lord's mill, as they were bound to do. Other cases mentioned in the records of the same manor illustrate the social lependence of the villeins at that time. Thus Robert Goodyer prays the lord of the nanor for a license for his daughter Emman to marry, for which lie pays eighteen pence; and MIatil(a Godwene having married without the lordl's permission, Alice Godwene (probably her mother) subsequently pays a fine of twelve pence. Nicholas Harcourt pays two shillings for a license to make his son a monk, while Hugh Hlarcourt, in the following year, (1331,) obtains the same privilege for twelve pence. For two shillings John Scolasse obtains a license to betroth Alice, daughter of William Brown, anrd " to go and return according to his will whithersoever lie wishes, with his chattels and all his goods, movable and immovable." It is not difficult to understand the influence which the towns and cities would have in relaxing the restrictions and lightening the burdens to which the villeins were subject. A man ceases to be a slave the momnent it becomes impracticable forcibly to hold him in a state of slavery. And so when the lords found their serfs had refuges to which they could fly, and fronm which it was difficult, if not impossible, to bring them back, and that oppressive treatment drove many of them to seek these refuges, they were induced, by self-interest itself, to rewax the bondage in which they had held them. At first they were led to refrain from demanding any labor beyond certain regular fixed services, such as those already specified, attached to their "tenements" or holdings of land. Then these fixed services themselves were gradually diminished in amount, and finally, as already stated, they were made coinmutable into money-rent. The commutation, like the service which it replaced, was fixed in amount, but at first th6 lord could exact the service instead of its pecuniary equivalent, while the tenant, according to Rogers, could also insist upon giving the service, instead of the money, if he chose to do so. In course of time, however, the pa yment of monety-rents became an established custom, anid it is believed that in the latter half of the fourteenth century the number of tenants in villenage who paid rent by service was very small. It miay be remarked here that this change occurred much earlier in England than in continental countries, and, coupled with the rulings of English law-courts, was perhaps one of the causes which led' to the wide divergence between the subsequent career of the English agricultural class and that of the same class in the several countries of continental Europe. But whatever may have been its ultimate influence in promoting that complete divorce of the English agricultural llaborer from the soil which in mnodern times has been a source of such serious evils, its first inltroduction was an important step in the direction of lIersontal freedom. It left to the villein the control of his own time, and if by sulpeior energy he could produce for himself a surplus over what was reqluire(l to pay his dues to the lord, he was free to do so. Moreover, as thle lord could now demlan(l nothing fromn him but a fixed mnone paynlelnt, if he desiredl to secure his services as a laborer, lie mIust pay him stilulated wages. Thus there gradually grew up a large body of fiee paid laborers in the country as well as in the cities, a result which, as lmay bIe readily seen, was largely due to the fact that the cities lflborded a mlarkiet for rural lpro(luce, created cornmerce, and famnilialried the peopleC generally with the use of money as a measure of value and a medium of' exchange. The great plague known as the black death, which broke out in 1348, LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 79 exercised an immense influence upon the social condition of the country. Its immediate effects were disastrous in the extreme, sweeping away, according to some estimates, one-half of the population, but its ulterior consequences were seen in a great improvement in the condition of the masses of the people. The great rise in wages, which was one of its first results, rendered the system of farming by bailiff unprofitable; for even the high price of wheat which prevailed for more than a quarter of a century after the plague, hailed to compensate for the enhanced cost of labor. Under this condition of affairs, the practice of letting land on lease became quite general, and it is the opinion of Mr. Rogers that much of the land of the feudal lords was disposed of in small parcels, or, at least, granted at new quit-rents-a form of alienation which did not infringe the statute quia en~mptores. The rent of land at this time was very low, for the produce was worth very little more than the cost of production-a state of things which. however unfavorable it may have been to the owners of large estates, was highly conducive to the prosperity of the small occupier and the laborer-two characters which were often united in the same person. The great rise in the price of labor at the period under consideration made the services due from the tenants in villenage much more valuable than the money-rents which had been fixed upon as their equivalent; and it is probable that there was a determined effort on the part of the land-owners to revive the exercise of a right which they still possessed in theory, but which in practice they had long before abandoned. Mr. Rogers expresses the opinion that they also undertook to convey the same right to those who took land from them on lease; and it is not unlikely that the latter, animated by a mercenary spirit, endeavored to enfo)rce their claims with greater rigor than the lords themselves. At all events, the well-informed -writer just cited regards it as' clear that an attem)pt to enforce the alternative of labor (instead of money-rents) was one of the most powerful stimulants to the great uprising of the serfs," known in history as Wat Tyler's insurrection. The story of Tyler's swift vengeance on the Kentish tax-gatherer who had offered an indignity to his daughter is familiar to all readers of Englisl history; but the rising of the peasants was apparently the result of a deliberate plail, a widely-extended organization, and a general sense of oI)pression. The insurrection broke out on Monday, the 10th of June, 1381, uinder the lead of Tyler, in Kent, a thorough understanding having been entered into with the villeins of Bedford, Sussex, Essex, Norwich, and other counties. On the following Friday the rebels, who had already entered London, threatened that, unless the King (Richard II) gave them a conference, they would destroy the Tower, with all the persons in it, including of course the King himself and the royal faimily, who had taken refuge there. Richard, who was then a mere youth, met them at Mile-end, where, according to Froissart, he rode into the crowd and asked them to state their wants. They answered, "1lWe will that ye make us free forever. ourselves, our heirs, and our lands, aud that we be called no more bond, or so reputed.1" The King assented, bidding them to go home at once, but to leave three from each village, who should receive and carry back the charters of manumission-a sucggestion upon which many of them immediately acted. Tyler, however, remained, together with two other leaders, Ball and Straw, and a force of about 30,000 men. On the following dafy, at an interview with the King, Tyler was assassinated by Walworth, mayor of London. By dissimulation Richard appeased the people; but before evening he issued 80 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. a proclamation commanding all the country-folk to depart from London under pain of death. The insurrection was broken, and the King soon proceeded to take vengeance on its originators. He made a progress through the disturbed districts, demanding from the chief persons in all the towns and villages the surrender of the movers in the sedition. According to Froissart, no less than fifteen hundred persons were put to death-banged or gibbeted in chains-while such charters of manumission as had been granted in accordance with the King's promise were revoked and canceled. The terms of one of these charters addressed to the authorities of the county of Herts are given by Walsingham, and are as follows: Know that, of our special grace, we have manumitted all our liege and singular subjects and others of the courty of Hertford, freed each and all of thenl of all bondage, and made themn quit by these presents: Pardon them all felonies, treasons, transgressions, and extortions committed by any or all of them, and assure them of our summa pax. Dated June the fifteenth, anuno regni quarto. To certain delegates sent from Essex to request the confirmation of the charters of manumission and certain other benefits, the King, after some hesitation as to how he should answer these audacious petitioners, broke out in the following langualge: O vile and odious by land and sea, you are not worthy to live when compared with the lords whom you have attacked; you should be forthwith punished with the vilest deaths, were it not for the office you bear. Go back to your comrades and bear the king's answer. You were and are rustics, and shall remain in bondage; not that of old, but in one infinitely worse. For as long as we live, and by God's help rule over this realm, we will attempt by all our faculties, powers, and means, to make you such an example of offense to the heirs of your servitude, as that they may have you before their eyes, and you may supply them with perpetual ground for cursing and fearing you. The spirit of Parliament in regard to the same movement is indicated by the answer of that body to a communication informing the Commons of the King's action in granting the charters of manurmission, and desiring them to provide for the confirmation or revocation thereof. The communication set forth, among other things that if they (the Lords and Commons) should desire to manumit their villeins by common consent, the King would assent to it. The unanimous answer was,;" that all grants of liberties and manumission to the said villeins and bond-tenants obtained by force are in disinherison of them (the Lords and Commons) and to the destruction of the realm, and therefore null and void." To the suggestion in regard to manumitting their villeins by common consent they replied, "that this consent they would never give to save themselves from perishing altogether in one day." In view of the austere reply of Richard to the delegates from Essex, his suggestion to Parliament seems a little surprising; but, as Mr. Rogers suggests, " that answer may have been partly the expression of indignation, partly of fear, and therefore have had no more than a temporary significance." " W~e know, too," says the same author,' that the policy of the court was not unfriendly to the emancipation of the serfs; that every construction which lawyers could put upon usage or statute was favorable to the freedom of the serf; and we also know that in after years the King put his veto on those resolutions of the Commons by which they intended to subject the condition of villenage to social disabilities. This is particularly the case in the answer given to the petitions of Parliament in 1391, when the King declines to accede to the request that the sons of villeins should not be allowed to'frequent the universities, and to the complaint that villeins fly to cities and boroughs and are there harbored, anud that the lord, on attempting to recover his villein, is hinldered by the people; with a suggestion that thte remedy might LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 81 be allowed of seizing the villein without regard to the franchises of the place in which he had taken refuge. When the alarm felt at the actual insurrection was passed away, we may well conceive that the court was disinclined to strengthen the lords by tightening the bonds of servitude." It seems certain that, although the insurrection of 1381 was quelled and its leaders summarily punished, its result was to obtain for the villeins, within a few years, a very considerable extension of their rights and privileges. They had been masters of the situation for a week, and although disbanded, their spirit was not broken, their disaffection allayed, or their secret organization destroyed. Another rebellion was clearly a possible event, and experience had shown that the power of the peasantry was not a thing to be contemned. If the claim to service instead of money-rent had been one of the causes of the insurrection, the efbrrt to enforce it must have been abandoned; for neither then, nor at any subsequent period, was such an effort attended with any permanent or general success. Moreover it is believed that during the latter years of the fourteenth century the villeins attained a recognized place as freemen before the law, since it seems probable that they, as well as the small freeholders, were included in the election statute of Hen.ry IV (who usurped the throne in 1399) as suitors in the county court. The strength and importance which the yeomanry were acquiring at the close of the fourteenth century was promoted during the fifteenth by the p)rosperity of agriculture, and even by the desolating civil strife known as the wars of the roses. By the expenses, forfeitures, and proscriptions incident to this series of desperate struggles, the feudal aristocracy was almost destroyed, and the Crown, whose power had in the mean time been largely augmented, subsequently built up a new nobility on the ruins of the Church. But long before the destruction of feudalism, that system had been but the mere shadow of its former self. Villenage, as we have seen, was virtually extinct at the end of the fourteenth century; and long before the villein was formally recognized as a freeman before the law, he had been in the practical enjoyment of many of a freeman's rights. In the mean time, free wage labor had been steadily extending the sphere of its operations-a result, as already shown, which was largely due to the growth of the towns, and to the development of mechanical and manufacturing industry. During the earlier years of the reign of Edward III (1327 to 1377) the necessities growing out of the war with France brought about intimate commercial relations with the Flemish manufactories, and ultimately led to much industrial prosperity in Norfolk and some other of the eastern counties. A number of Flemish weavers had come over with William the Conqueror, and during the two succeeding reigns the manufacture of woolen cloth had made considerable progress. But under Edward II1, this industry received a new impetus. An expert Flemish manuftacturer who came to England in 1331, bringing his workmen with him, was very kindly received by this monarch, who issued a proclamation promising similar protection to all foreign weavers and fullers who should settle in England. In 1337 several additional statutes were enacted, one of which made it a felony to export wool, while another limited the use of foreign cloth to the royal family, a third forbade its importation, and a fourth invited cloth-workers into England, and ponomised them further protection and encouragement. These strong protective measures must have occasioned for a time inconveniences which might have been avoided by the more delicate arrangements known to modern legislation; but they appear to have been instrumental in build6 L 82 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. ing up a flourishing industry, which exerted no sqmall il3fluence cupon the economic, and, indirectly, upon the political and social development of the country. The multiplication of free occupations about the end of the thirteenth and the beginning of the fourteenth century is indicated by two taxing accounlts for the borough of Colchester, taken respectively in the years 1296 a-nd 13(01. The roll made up at the latter date contains the names of 391 tax-payers. Of these there are 229 whose occupations are not specially designated, and a.mong the remainder there are " twelve clergynen, ten persons apparently of considerable substance, sixteen shoemakers, thirteen tanners, ten smiths, eight weavers,eight butchers, seven bakers, six fullers, six girdlers, five nauztee,* four millers, four cissores, and three dyers, besides a number of fishermen, carpenters, and "' sicers."t The following trades are also enumerated in the same roll: cooper, seller of white-leather, potter, parchment-maker, pelliparius, cook, tiler, bowyer, barber, mustarder, wool-comber, lorimer, woodturner, linen-draper, wheelwright, glover, fuel-dealer, old-clothes dealer, sea-coal dealer, glazier, brewer, iron-monger, and wine-seller. Two of the girdlers united the trade of mercer with their other occupation, and one of the mereers included verdigris and quicksilver in his stock in trade. From the number of tanners it is inferred that Colchester had a special trade in leather, which, in the form of tawed skins, I is believed to have formed an important article of dress in medimval times. This borough, which was situated in the richer section of England, and is supposed to have had about 2.000 inhabitants at the time under consideration, may probably be talken as a fair representative of the county towns of that day. From the large body of information presented by Mr. Rogers. a number of interesting falcts may be culled in regard to the occupations pursued in England during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. It appears that all villages of any magnitude maintained persons who were engaged in mechanical avocations. No parish or manor, for instance, was without a thatcher, though it is thought that this labor was done by those who, at other times of the year, were engaged in ordinary farm business. Most of the villages had a smith who found steady employment. The bailiffs of manors, and probably also persons who cultivated small parcels of land on their own account, were accustomed to purchase their iron, and furnish the craftsman with it, paying him for his work, a custom which still prevails in India in the dealings between native artificers and their customers. During the latter part of the fourteenth century, however, it became customary to enter into yearly contracts for supplying horses with shoes-a change which indicates that at this time the artisan was, in a small way, becoming a capitalist. It is probable that most of the villages maintained a carpenter for common work, such as for repairs of firm-implements and buildings and for the manutacture of common carts and wagons, but the higher branches of this occupation were supplied by imigratory workmen, some of whom were paid very considerable wages for the time. Masons, tilers, and slaters must have been migratory, except perhaps such as lived in the larger towns, as few buildinlgs were of stone except the manor-house and somnetimes the grange. Evenuin towns, unless stone * Mariners, but probably captains, or pilots, in contradistinction to sailors. tThis word may be considered as the equivalent of "grocers," having the same origin as the French "dpiciers." $ Skins dressed with lime and fat. LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 83 was abundant and near, it is probable wood was more frequently used as the firamework of the building. The chimney, however, must have been built of stone, except in the very rudest huts, some of which are said to have been without that convenience. The first, mention of bricklayer s occurs in the statute of 1496, so that it~ is problb-lble the occulpation was unknown during the preceding- centuries, although tilers are mentioned in the statute of 1350, and tiles are known to have been in use in Suffolk at least as early as 1358. Sawyers are frequently mentioned, but probably did not. carry on a distinct business. They were paid by the day or by the one hundred square fteet sawn, and generally the two who worlked at the samle saw were paid together, which seems to imply that they had mutual arrangemlents in hiring. When separately paid, the top sawyer was paidat higher rates than thelower one. Of the farm servants soume were engaged permanently; others teilporarily and for special purposes. Thus the Illowing of hay was done partly by the regular servants of the farm, partly by tenants holding ]and by customary service, anted partly by hired labor, which was often obtained frotm a distance. The regular servants comprised the plowmen and drivers, the carters, a shepherd or two, according to the size of the flock, a pig-keeper, a cow-herd, and a dairy-woman.* When the work of the fieldls was over, the plowmen and drivers were engaged in home occupations, of which the principal was threshing. The winnowing, as a rule, was done by woipen, especially the dairy-woman, whose in-door work in winter was comparatively light. Where two shepherds were employed, one of them was assigned to the special charge of the ewes, and received better pay than his fellow-servant. The laborers were generally supplied with an allowance of beer, but as a rule none of thein appear to have been maintained in the house except occasionally during harvest. Indeed, they had land and stock of their own-that is, land which they held in ville'nage-and occasionally the shepherd was remunerated for his services by permission to use the lord's pasture for his own little flock, while the dairy-worman was often the purchaser of calves from the farm on which she was employed. It should be understood that the word " farm," as here used, refers to the portion of each parish or manor which was held by the lord himself and farmed for his benefit, under the direction of a bailiff. This usually comprised from one-third to one-half of the arable and better pasture-land.' The remainder (with the exception of the glebe, over which the feudal rights of the lord of the manor did not extend) comnprised the. estates of the small freeholders, who paid quit-rents, the holdings of the villeins, bordars, and cottars, andl the waste or common, upon which all the tena,nts had the right of pasture, and sometimes that of cutting turf. The holdings of the villeins were often as extensive as those of the freeholders. Respecting the physical condition of the English laborer at the period under consideration we possess but scanty knowledge, but it is evident that he must have lived in a very rude and primitive style, and that he was subject to much hardship and privation. His dwelling was constructed of the coarsest materials, most commonly of wattles daubed with mud or clay. Bricks do not appear to have been used until the latter part of the fifteenth century, as the first mention of brick-layers occurs in the statute of 1496. The manor-house was usually built of stone, but the tenements by which it was surrounded were of the meanThe work of the dairy was, however, sometimes performed by a man. 84 LNBOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. est description. The occupation of a glazier is mentioned in the statute just referred to, but although glass had at that date been long used as the ornament of churches, it was not used even in the better class of private houses until a much later period; for even as late as 1567 it was not common to find glass windows in the castles of the nobility, aid they probably were not used in farm-houses much before the reign of James 1. That it was an unknown luxury in' the hut of a medieval peasant it is unnecessary to state. Artificial light, too, must have been used very sparingly by the poorer classes, since a pound of candles would almost have absorbed a workman's daily wages. It is believed that fuel also was comparatively dear, and the poor man's home iln winter must, therefore, have been the scene of severe privation and discomfort. Hence the advent of spring was hailed with a joy and gladness of which we in modern times can form but a faint conception. Even as late as the reign of Queen Mary the peasant lived in a wretched clay-built hovel; and according to Erasmus the dwellings of the poor generally were unprovided with a chimney to let out the smoke, while their beds consisted of straw, with a block of wood for a pillow, and the flooring of their hats was nothing but the bare ground covered with rushes, among which was " an ancient accumulation of filth and retuse." The valuation of the movable property in the borough of Colchester made in the year 1296, which has been already referred to, gives an idea of the degree of domestic comfor.t enjoyed by tile small tradesmen and artificers of that period. The amount of household furliture possessed by each family appears to have been very limited, consisting chiefly of a brass pot valued at from Is. to 3s., and a bed vlalued at fromn 3s. to tOs. The former was apparently almost the only culinary utensil then used in the households of the poor. The valuation taken at the same place in 1301 is still more curious and minute. Among the articles mentioned in the list then made out are found the following, along with which are given the figures indicating the range of their respective values: s.d. s. d. A bed...1..6.......................... 6 to 6 8 A tripod...................... 3 to 9 A brass pot........................................... 1 0 to 2 6 A brass cup................................ 6 to 1 0 An audiron......................................... to 8 A brass dish..6....... 6 to I 0 A gridiron....................................... 6 to 1 6 A rug or coverlet....................................... 8 to 1 6 A broad-ax....................... 3 to 5 An adze.............................................. 2 A square.......1....... 1 A blacksmith's tools were valued at from 2s. to 5s.; a cobbler's stock in trade at 7s. 5d.; that of two other cobblers at l0s. 6d. and 12s 2d., respectively; and that of a tanner at ~9 17s. 10d. There is reason to believe, however, that these prices were considerably below the real value of the articles. At the period under consideration the manor-house itself was but scantily furnished, while the mova.bles of the "' ordinary house" consisted, according to Mr. Rogers, of " a brass plot or two for boiling, and two or three brass dishes; a few wood(en p)latters and trenchers, orl, mo0re rarely, of pewter; an iron or latten candlestick; a kitchen knifei or two; LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 85 a box or barrel for salt, and a brass ewer and basin. * * * The walls were garnished with mattocks, scythes, reaping-hooks, buckets, corn nleasures, and empty sacks. The dormitory contained a rude bed, anld but rarely sheets and blankets, for the gown of the day was generally the coverlet at night." In the same connection (page 13, vol. i, History of Agriculture and Prices) Mr. Rogers presents the inventory of the effects of John Senekworth, who for several years was bailiff of Merton College, at its m anor of' Gamlingay, in Cambridgeshire, as well as at other places before. "1 Senekworth" says this writer, "' was evidently a valued servant of the college. (of which one of his brothers was a fellow,) and for a few years before his death the society presented him with five pounds' ex speciali gratia sociorum. " " The date of the inventory is 1314, the deceased bailiff having bequeathed his goods to the college. It contains a tapetumrn valued at 7s., two others at 5s., one more at 20d.; 6 lintheamina, (sheets,) at 4s. each, and a materace,* at Is.; a red coverlet, at 2s.; a couLnterpane, (co-opertorimn pro lecto,) at 4s.; a red gown, at 8s.; another, at 3s.; a blue gown, at 4s.; a kaynet gown, at 2s. 6d.; a russet tunica, at, ls. Gd.; a banker, i. e., a cover for a seat, at 15d.; a table-cloth, at is.; two more and two napkins, at 6s.; three quisins, i. e., cushions, at 9d. each. Beside these articles of linen cand clothing Senekworth possessied three gold rings, one of which was broken, the whole being valued at 18d.; a purse, at 4d.; a pouch, at 3d.; a knife, at a penny; a forcer-that is, a chestat 3s.; and another, at Gd.; a leathern forcer, at 3d.; two glasses, (mnurrae,) one with a silver staind, worth 7s,; a second, 8d.; four silver spoons, valued at 3s. 2d.; two silver seals, (firmacula,) 2s., one of these being 1mounted by a. gilded l)enny as a sym-bol; three books of romance, valued at 3d.; two pair of linen panni, at a shilling; a basin and ewer, at a shilling; beside some less characteristic effects. Seelekworth, however,:ir mlst have been an official of more than usual opulence and social position." \Owing to the highi prTice of clothing the dre C'tss of the mediaval peasant must hLave been exceedingly plain, and the statutes Nwhich limited them to the use of the lower-priced materials must have seemed to the mass of the laboring people a very superfluous precaution. Shirts were such va~luable articles that they were often tl;e objects of charitable or ostentatious doles, and even in considerably later times the, were frequently dlevised by will. The dress of the laborers in the latter part of the fourteenth century is, however, described as beingc simple and well-contrived, comprising a jacket and a coat, buttoned and fhastened round the body by a belt or girdle, a bonnet of cloth, and hlose of the same materiafl, shoes, andl occasionally a heat, though the latter was not much used until a century later. The latter article is mentioned in a statute of Richard 1Ii, in which the price is limited to 20d. In respect to food, the English peasantry of the thirteenth, fourteenth, alld fifteenth centuries aptpear to hirve been tolerably well oft: The records of agriculture indicate that, wheat was the principal grain consumled by the people. In the allowrances to farm-servants it was somnetimes mixed with rye or barley, but then, as now, the latter grain was chiefly used in the manufacture of beer. Meat appears to have been cheap, and, therefore, was probably in fair supply. Mutton could be bought in plenty at about a shilling the car. case, which could scarcely have been more than a farthing a pound; and beef was very little dearer, since the carcase of an ox could be had for 10s. Yet, even at these prices, mutton or beef was a far more expensive diet than wheat, of which, on an average, six pounds could be bought Ior a penny. Butter and cheese, though abundant and cheap in comMattres,. 86 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. parison with their modern prices, were at least twice as high as meat. Poultry was to be lhad in plenty at low prices, and is believed to have been kept by the poorest classes. The most common varieties were geese, ducks, and fowls. Eggs were also exceedingly plentitul and were extensively used. The kind of meat most commonly used by the working classes was pork. Mr. Rogers shows that a hog for the farmlaborers invariably figured in the expenses for autumn on one of the estates belonging to Merton College, while the same estate also allowed its laborers two red herrings a day. Beer was often furnished to laborers by their employers, even where board was not included in their compensation, and on some manors they were feasted at the conclusion of the harvest. Notwithstanding the abundance and comparative cheapness of meat it was not uncomLmonl to eat the flesh of animals that had died of disease; but it is possible that this arose rather from the want of delicacy and ignorance of hygienic laws than from necessity. The consumption of such meat certainly does not appear to have been confined to periods of scarcity, for we find Walter de Henley, in an ancient treatise on the management of sheep, laying down the following rule: "If one of your sheep dies put the flesh at once into water, and keep it there from daybreak to three o'clock, then hang it up to drain thoroughly, salt it and dry it. It will do for your laborers." It may be inferred irom this rule that the practice of using diseased meat was not general, otherwise it would hardly have seemed necessary to point out to the thrifty husbandman this particular mode of economizing his means. Tlhe difficulty of keeping stock through the winter caused its slaughter in large quantities during the autumn, and for more than half the year fresh meat was untasted by a great majority of the people. Vegetables were also scarce, for not only was the potato then unknown, but the people were without various other roots, such as carrots, parsnips, &c., which are now in common use. Mr. Mr. ogers expresses the opinion that onions and cabbage were almost the only esculent vegetables in use, though nettles may have been quite commonly used as greens, since urtice (supposed to mean nettles) were occasionally sold from the garden. The household roll of the Countess of Leicester, (for 1265,) which is more particularly referred to further on, mentions dried peas and beans, parsley, fennel, onions, green peas, and new beans, and it is possible that the term potagium, may include other varieties. It is not by any means necessary to infer, however, that these were all in general use among the people. In France, cresses, endive, lettuce, beets, parsnips, carrots, cabbages, leeks, radishes, and cardoous were grown as early as the reign of Charlemagne; but it is not probable that many of these varieties were cultivated in England until a much later period; for even in the fifteenth century the produce of the English kitchen-garden was contemptible in comparison with that of the Netherlands, France, and Italy. The only fruits of which mention is made in the Countess of Leicestei's roll are apples and pears, and it is believed that few other kindss were generally cultivated in England prior to the latter end of the fiiteenth century, although Matthew Paris, describing the bad season of A. 1). 1257, observes that "' apples were scarce and pears scarcer, whllile quinces, vegetables, cherries, plums, and all shell-fruits were entirely {destroyed." In the wardrobe-book of the fouirteenth year of the rei~gnu of Edward I is found the bill of Nicholas, the royal fruiterer, in which tile only fruits mentioned are pearls, apples, quinces, inedlars, and nuts, the supl)ly of which from 3WhitsUntide to November cost ~21 14s. 14d. The great scarcity of vegetabies and flruits, coupled with the con LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 87 sumption of salt-meat and salt-fish for more than six months out of the year, gave rise to scurvy in its most virulent forms; and even leprosy, modified, perhaps, by climate, is spoken of by Rogers as a common disorder. The tend(ency to these and other diseases was doubtless aggravated by the prevalent uncleanliness of the peasantry, their wretched habitations, and the indifference which they showed to the simplest sanitary pr-ecautions. Even in the latter years of the sixteenth century their habits in this respect had apparently undergone no great change for the better; for the embass'1adors of Philip II, who visited EnglaLd several years after the Spanish invasion, commented on the abundance of food and the uncleanly habits of the common people, remarking that "' these peasants" live(' like hogs," though they fared "as well asthe king." In the latter particular, especially as regards bread and meat, the English peasants were probably much better- off than their brethren of continental Europe, for Fortesque, who wrote in the reign of Henry VI, says of the French peasantry that " tlhey drink water, they eate apples with bread right brown, made of rye; they eate no fiesche, but, if it be selden, a littel larde, or of the entrails or heds of beasts sclayne ifor the nobles or the merchaunts of the lond." But although the sul)ply of food in England was generally good, there were times whenl the people suffered intensely through the failure of the crops. The great English statistician, Dr. Farr, in an essay published in the Journal of the Statistical Society, states that -durilng the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries there was, on an average, a degree bf searcity amounting to falline once every tourteen years. The series of unproductive harvests during the reign of Edward II occrasioned intense suffering among the peasantry. In 1308 the price of wheat exceeded all previous experience; was still higher in 1309, and not imluch reduced inl 1310. In 1314 it again exceeded all experience; was greatly enhanced in 1315, and in 1316 was three times as high as the average for 1314. In 1.317 the price wvas about the same as in 1314; was again excessively high in 1321; and did not materially decline until 1322. In the two fobllowing years wheat still remained dear, but from that time unltil the breaking out of the great plague in 1348 the abundatlce of the harvests was continuous and remarkable. For the first twenty-five years after the plague the average lirice of wheat was quite high, but the last twenty years of the fourteenth century constituted a period distinguished fobr its abundant harvests. It is said that during the long period of scarcity in the early part of that century, a scarcity attributable to incessant rain, and cold, stormy summers, the people ate the flesh of horses Cand dogs, and were even reduced to the necessity of subsisting upon roots. Stories still lltore terrible are told of the acts to which they were driven in their dlire extrenlity; and Mr. Rogers, who makes much allowance for exaggeration, says that " nlo years in the whole course of the economical history of England approach the scarcity of that time, except, perhaps, the few years at the end of the eighteeeuth and the commencement of the miineteenth centuries." The effects of a bad harvest in any particular locality were far more (lisastrous, at the time under consideration, than they would. be at present, owing to the want of those facilities for transportation which we now possess in ourrailways, canals, and ships; yet there is reason to believe that the means of communication in England were better llnd the habit of travel more general in the thirteenth and fourteenth centum-ies thain they were two or three centuries later. The trade of graill-dealer was, however, ulknown, and it does oit appear that, exccpt in thle abbey granges, grain. was anywhere collected in large qaantities. Tile 88 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. consequence of this was that a season of comparative plenty was often followed before the next harvest by a yery inconvenient scarcity; and the fluctuations in prices were sometimes extremely sudden and violent. Thus Stow relates that in 1317, one of the years of scarcity above referred to, the harvest was all got in before the Ist of September, and that wheat, which before harvest had been selling as high as ~4 per quarter, immediately fell to 6s. 8d., one-twelfth of its former price. Upon a general survey of the field. it is clear that during the thirteelth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, there was a vast improveitient in the average condition of the English people. The progress of the industrial arts brought with it a great augmentation of their comforts; rapine and violence gave place to the orderly habits which grow up under the influence of an efficient administration of justice, and the masses made a great advance in securing from the crown and the aristocracy a recognition of their personal and political rights. "The wail over universal oppression, violence, and lawlessness, which is heard in the writings of Hioveden is exchanged in those of Matthew Paris for indignant comment on unwise administration, and uncourtly criticism on the king's domestic and foreign policy;" yet the first of these ancient chroniclers closes his history with the year 1202, and the latter with the year 1273.' Such was the progress made in the thirteenth cen tury. A little more than a century later we find the insurrectionist under Wat Tyler, who were chiefly villeins, boldly demanding from the king the rights of freemen, the liberty to trade in the market towns without tolls or imposts, and the legalization of the money-rents, which in practice had already superseded personal services in payment for the occupation of land. And it has already been seen that although the insurrection was crushed, it did not fail to exert a powerful influence in hastening the consummation of the objects aimed at. It was not without many struggles, however, that the lords relinquished their control over their subjects. In the middle of the fourteenth century, when free labor had become quite general, they made their first attempt to recover, by parliamentary enactment, the substantial results of that authority which, as individuals, they Ihad found themnselves unable to maintain. The great plague of 1349, above referred to, had swept off a large portion of the population, and(l labor, as we have already seen, became extremely dear. To reduce its price. a royal proclamation was issued, fixing the rates of wages, and this, having proved in. effective,.was speedily followed by the famous "statute of laborers," which provided for the enforcement of obedience to its enactments by means of fines and corporal punishment. The statute states that since the pestilence no person would serve unless he was paid double the usual wages allowed five years before, to the great detriment of the lords and commons; it then provides that in future carters, plowmen, plow-drivers, shepherds, swine-herds, and other servants should be content with such liveries and waes as they received in the the twentieth year of the kingls* reign, and two or three years before; and that in districts where they had been severally paid in wheat, they should receive wheat or money at the rate of ten pence a bushel, at the option of their employers; they were to be hired by the year and other accustomed periods, and not by the (lay; weeders and haymakers were to be paid at the rate of one penny, mowers five pence per acre, or five pence a day; reapers during the first week in August two pence a day, and from that time till the end of the month three pence a day, without dciet or other perquisite. Laborers of this description were enjoined to carry * Edward III. LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 89 their implements of husbandry openly in their hands to market-townV, and to apply for hire in a public quarter of the town. The wages for threshi3ng were then regulated. A man, for threshing a quarter of wheat or rye, was allowed 2Jd.; for threshing a quarter of barley, oats, beans, and peas, l1d., or a certain number of sheaves or bushels. In places where it had been customary to pay in kind, laborers were to be sworn twice a year to observe these regulations, and offendlers were punishable with three or more days' imprisonment in the stocks. Wages of artificers were fixed at the following rates: A tiaster-carpenter, by the day, 3d.; a master mason, by the day, 4d.; other carpenters, by the day, 2d.; other masons, by the day, 3d.; their servants, by thle day, 1ld.; firom Easter to Michaelmas without diet. Tilers, by the day, 3d.; their knaves, by the day, l1d.; thatchers, by the day, 3d.; their knaves, by the day, 1.dZ.; plasterers, and other workers of mudwalls, by the (lay, 3d.; their knaves, by the day, l1d.; from Easter to Micehaelmas without diet. In 1360 the statute of laborers was confirmed by Parliament, and it was )rovided that servants absenting themselves from their work, or quitting their place of abode, should be imprisoned fbr fifteen days and branded in the forehead with an iron in the form of the letter F. In cases where laborers fled into the towns, the magistrates were directed to deliver then up; and if they iailed to do so, were subljected to a penalty of fifteen pounds, of which ten pounds went to the king and five pounds to the miaster by whom the fugitive was claimed. In 1363 a law was enacted to regulate the diet anCd apparel of laborers. It directed that artificers and servants should be served once a day with meat and fish, or the waste of other victuals, as milk and cheese, a.ccording to their station; and they should wear cloth of which the whole piece did not cost more than twelve pence per yard. The cloth of yeomen and trac.desmen was not to cost more, than one shilling and sixpence per yard. Carte[rs, plow men, ox-herds, neat-herds, shepherds, and all others employed in husbandry, were to use no kind of cloth but that called blacck russet, twelve pence per yard. Clothiers were commanded to manullcture the necessary kind of cloth, and tradesmen to have a sufficient, stock on hand at the established legal prices. Twenty-five 5-ears llter:another law was enacted prohibiting servants from changing their pllace of abode. Under I-telry VI justices of the peace were empowered to fix the price of labor every Easter and Michaelmas, by proclamation; and in 1444 the wages of agricultural laborers was limited by act of Parliament to the following rates: I. -YEARLY WAGES. A bailiff in husbandry, ~1 3s. 4d., with food and drink, and 5s. for clothing. A chief-hind, carter, or chief-shepherd, ~1, with food and drink, and 4s. for clothing. A common farm-servant, 15s. with food and drink, and 3s. 4d. foi clothing. A woman-servalnt, 10s., with food and drink, and 4s. for clothing. A child under 14 years of age, 6s., with food and drink, and 3s. for clothing. II.-DAILY WAGES. A mower, with food and drink, 4d. a da(y; without, 6d. a day. A reaper or carter, with food and drink, 3d. a day; without, 5d. a day. 90 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Women, and other laborers, with food and drink, 2-1d. a day; without, 4d. a day. A farm-servant intending to leave his place at the end of the year was required to give his master six months' notice; and if he failed to do so, he was obliged to remain with him another year. The following were the rates of daily wages for artificers, as fixed by the same statute: Between Easter Between Michaelanrd Michaelmas. mas and Easter. With Without With Without diet. diet. diet. diet. d. d. d. d. & master mason-.........................4 54 3. 4 A master carpenter.. —- -.. —-—. —--- 4 4. 3 44 Atiler.......... -..-. -... A slater —... ---- 3 4 —- 2 4 A rough nmason- ------------—....- 3 4. 2j 4 A conmmon carpenter ----------------— I —.. -- J Comnmlon workman.' 2 34 14 3 In the reign of Henry VIII it was enacted that no serving-man under tlhe degree of a gentleman should wear a long gown or coat, containing more than three broad yards, or trimmed with fur, under the lenalty or' iforfeiture; nor lany garde hose, or cloth above the price of twenty pence. The fiashion of wearing peaks to shoes or boots, of a length exceeding eleven inches, was prohibited to all but gentlemen. The rate of wvages may be collected from the statute of 1496, mentioned above, and was as follows: Agricultural servants, with diet for one year. To a bailiff of husbanldry, not more than ~1 1Gs. 8d.; for clothing, 5s. A chief-hind or cllief-slhepherd, ~1; for clothing, 5s. A conmmon servant of husbandry, 16s. 8d.; for clothing, 4s. A womrnan-servant, 10s.; for clothing, 4s. A child under 14 years- of age, 6s. Sd.; for clothing, 4s. The daily wages of artificers and other laborers, as fixed by the same statute, was as follows: Between Easter and Between McllhaelMichaelmas. mas and Easter. Per diema. Pcr diem. A master mason, master carpenter, rough With diet, 4d With diet, 3d. mason, brick-layer, mastertiler, plumber, Vithoit diet Gd Without 5d. glazier, ctarver, joiner....... Vitht.,. WithWth diet, I'd. Other laborers, (except in harvest) Without (liet, 4d -. With diet, 3d. ~ With diet, 4d.... In harvest, every mower, by the day..... With diet, 6d Without diet, 5 d, vith diet, 3d —-- A reaper, by the day --------------------- Without diet, 5d_A earter, by the dly...................... With iet, 5d Without diet, 5d3.. VWomet-n and other laboirers, by the dnay... it diet, 2~ d o a tVitlhoat diet', 4-j2 LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER FEUDAL SYSTEM. 91 If any unemployed person refused to serve at the above wages, he might be imprisoned till he fobund sureties to serve according to the statute. The latter part of this statute regulates the hours of work and meals, by providing that the hours of labor, from March to September, shall be from 5 o'clock in the morning till 7 in the evening; that one hour shall be allowed for breakfast, an hour and a half for dinner, and half an hour for noon-meate. The hours of laborin winter are from "'springing of day" to dark, and one only hour is allowed for dinner, the extra half-hour at the meal being allowed for sleeping, from the middle of May to the middle of August. The same scale of prices as is given in the foregoing table was substantially re-established by the statute of 1514. It must not be supposed, however, that the prices fixed by statute were universally, or even generally, adhered to among the people,* and for evidence in regard to the actual rates of wages and the cost of subsiftence, it is necessary to look to other sources. Thanks to the learned researches of Mr. Rogers and his patient examinations of ancient records, a large fund of authentic information upon these points is now available. The following tables, which are taken from that author's History of Agriculture and Prices in England, probably contain a greater amount of detailed information upon the subjects to which they relate than has ever before been given to the public, showing, as they do, the prices of labor and commodities in England for a period comprising nearly the latter half of the thirteenth and all of the fourteenth century. Table I shows the highest prices for threshing a quarter of wheat, barley, and oats, respectively, in the eastern, midland, southern, western, and northern counties of England, and in North and South Wales.t The prices are exlpressed in pence. Table II shows the average cost of reaping an acre of (1) wheat, (2) barley, (3) drage, (4) oats, (5) rye, (6) beans, peas, and vetches. In that table the seventh column contains the rate for mowing an acre of grass, the sign t, when used, slhowing that the making of the hay is included. The eighth column relates to the daily wages of thatchers, the ninth to that of a thatcher's assistant, and the tenth to the wages paid to the thatcher and his assistant together. In Table Ill, the first column shows the average, and the second the highest daily wages of carpenters. The columns relating to masons, tilers, slaters, and sawyers show the highest daily wages in these trades. In the case of tilers and slaters, the sign * indicates that, wherever it is used in the columns relating to these two trades, the wages of an assistant is included. Table IV shows the prices of threshing, reaping, mowing, and thatching, and of various kinds of mechanical labor, by decennial averages, with the general average (1) for the ninety years before, and (2) for the fifty years after, the great plague. Table V shows the price of the same kinds of labor for the same periods, expressed in grains of pure silver: * Despite repeated legislation and incessant complaint, the laborer ultimately secured the advance which he demanded for his service.-History of Agriculture and Prices, vol. I, p. 62. t North Wales is included with the northern, and South Wales with the western, court ties of England. 92 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. TABLE I.-HIGHEST PRICES FOR THRESHING East. Midland. South. West. North. A.D. a, C aai ae a P3 O B F9 O B 9 O B~ a AaA Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. -Pence. Pence. Pence. 121.FS.. 2 1 10,02.... -......-.................... —-—..-..-........... 1260................. 2 11262.,..,1.-. 1-. 1~. — 0 - --- 1261.........-............ 2.................................................................. 1264.-1,,-.,. 1..! 1,1 4 1262. 1-1......~.............. is ------ -- ----- -— ~ —--- I —----...................... 9 9 12 3..................... 5 10 20............ I*.......................................... 1265 —. 14 —1 10 20 ~1266...~ ~~~~~. 2 ~.4 19 92 12 4..................... 5 10 20...................................................... 1267....2....- -— 2. 1268... 4~ 1k;4 1 —--— 1~ —-— 1 —--- ~i4 9 9 — 2 1265................. 5 o 20...................................................... 1269... 2......... *- - - ------- 2 14 12(7.0 -' i:::..... 3.:....2.......... — -- -. - -.-............. 127~~.. 23 19 q. ~....-1 —...-( 4 3 1...1.1...-.1.-,I 1 12768.. 4 l -...... 4 1..... —-.*. —- 1 —--- --- - - 2...... 12769. 24 1 1 -—................. —-2 1 2-1 —-- - 2 -...... I 1270... 1 ----- - -.................. 127 t... 2 8 --- --- 1...................................... 127... 24 1.................. - - - 2...... 1274... 2 14 l 1-..1 3 1i 1............ 127.. 24 1k 4 14 1t 3 1278.. 32 1. 1- 1 ~. It 1 1279.. 3 2 k 14 1 34 14 11'~75- - 1 t I t 2...... I...................................................... 126(... 2, 1 1 2 1 3 1 1.................................... 12877... 2 1 2 1.................................... 1278... 3 i 1.................. 3 1 1.................................... 12879... 3 1 1 2 1 I 1.................................... 1284... 24 14 1 2k* 1-.-. - 1285... 2 1 4 1 * I2 1 4 1 23 I.* -................... 1296... 3 14 1 2 1 3 1i......1............................ 1267..'. 3 i 1 2 1...... 4 1................................... 1288... 3 12 1 34 1 1 2 1 1......................... 1289... 2k 1 2 1 2 1 -.................................. 1290... 3 14 1 2 1 - - 2- 14 -1 - - -- - -- -- 12891- - - - 2..14 1 *2j.. 1.3 1..1 —............ 1290... 3 14 1 24... 2 14 1 3............ 2.... 1 3 ~ 1.................................... - -.. 3 1t- 1 2j ---- ---- 4 2~.................................... 129... 3 1i 1 2 14 1 2 i 1 *3............. 1294... 3 13 1 2 14} 1 *21 A1~ *14 2 *14*1.................. 12I95 - 3 3i 22 i................................. 1296... 24 14 1 2 1 *2. * *1 2.............................. 1297... 3 1k 1 2 1 2 2 14 2 1 2 1 1 1'296... 2 I 24 1 1 2 14 14... 2 1k 1299.. 4 2 1 3 2 1 34 2 1 2 2j 1. 1300-.. 3 14 14 3 14 1 31 14 1 2- 14 1. 1301. 3 2 1 24 1 1 24. 1 1 1302... 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 133... 3 2 14 2 1 24 14 1 2 14 1 1304... 3 14 1 24 14 1 24 11 1....-....-.......... 3 1 1:105... 24 14 1 2- - - -24 1 1 24 -.. 13Or~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~............. 136... 3 24 2 2- - - 24 14 1 -- 3 2 13(07..-. 3 1 14 2 14 2.- 1 1308... 13 2 1 1 2 1 24 2 *14*1..... 1309... 3 2 1 24 1 1 3 2 1 2. *14 3 2 1 1310... 3 2 1 24 1 1 2 1 2...... *1 1:3~111~ ~~.. ~..~. 1 4 ~2 r4 1 24i l o {I.....1.1-....... 3 1..... 1312s. l-.. l. —.. 24 — 14 1 3 24 1 I-.-.l — -.-.. 3 14 1 1313.. 24.... 1. 2 I 1 2 14 1 131.3- 21 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~2...... 1 1 1 1 1............................ 1314....-. — - 3 2 1 24 1i 24.....-....... 3 14 1 1315... -....4........ 4 3 1 1 2 1 4 1 1316... 2421. 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 24 14 *1 1317... 5 2 1 3 2 1 2.....'1................. 1318l —l. -—. —...I ---- - 2 14 1 24 14 1 2 4....1 2. 1. 1 1l19... I 11 14 24. 1 1 44 3 14 2 1 *1 24 14 1 1320... 3 2 24 14 1 3 2 14 2 I 1 - 2[ "{' 1 3-)21... 44 2 14 34 241 1 3 2 14 3.3 1... 13,22... 4 2 1. 1l 1 24 11 1 2.....3 1 1 1.323.. 3 2 1 24 14 1 3 14 1 24 14 1 3 1 1 1324... 3 1 1 3 14. 1 3 2 1 2I..4 1...... 1123.. 3 1 24 1.I 1 2 2 1 2 1 *.................. 1326... 3 14 1,4 1 1 2. 14 1 *1 2 2 1 1327. 3 14 1 3 1..... 1 2 14 1l.... 1321... 3 1- 1 1 1 24.. 14 I I 14 1 —....... * With wilowiog. t Tou bushels at 3d. | Nine bushels. LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER FEUDAL SYSTEM~. 93 TABLE I. —HIGiEST PRICES FOR THRESHING —Continued. East. Midland. South. West. North. A..D. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence Pence. Pence. Pence.-Pence. Pence. 1329... 3 if 1 2j if 1 21 1~ 2~- 1 } I 1................... 1330.. 3 1.i l 3 1 j 1`2 1 ~ 1 2i......' 1.................. 1331.. 2 ] } ]. 3 If.1~ + +2,j ++j 1~ I 2 1{ f...... 3:9 1 1332... 3 ] ~j 1 2j`2 ++l~ 3 {~ j j +I ++C ~~ 1 3 3 2 1333.... 3 29 I~`2j 1 ~ ] ~ 2,~`2 1..................... 1334.. 2i I]I 1 ~ 9{ ]' 1~ j ]~2- 1' 2'1 2'1................... {335,. 3j:9 1 ~ 2~ 1. 1~ I e2i I 1, *fl. *],f.1.................. 13..- 3 2 I`2j 1, I1J`21 1,}' f2~ t1 ft1~................... 1337... 3`2 I~ 2f 1~ 1 2{- I1 1 2{- 1 j 1,j 3.... 1 1338...- 3 if1~ 2] ] II1 3 2 ] {- 21 li* I ~.................... 1339-. 3`2 1~ 2 1' { 3:9 It.................. 3 29 1 1340.. 3 1 ~ 1 2~ if 1 2j l j I.............................I...... 1341... 3 1, 1 2{ I{- 1 2f 1 j 1 2 1~ 1 {-........... 134t3.. 3 i 1tj 1} I`2i 1~ 1~ 2{- 1 i.......... 1344.. 3 ]~ I 1]:i 2. 1I I it 2i It i.................. 1344 -. 3 11-, 1 2, 1j 1 2 2 1 I......... 1346 - 3 1 1 1 If 1 2 1 j 1 2 ~ I 1 I.............. 1347... 3 if, 1 2 ] ~ l 1 2- 1- i 2 1 }........................ 1348... 3 ]j I 2~ 1'21 ].... 1349 -. 5j 3{. 2j 6 3 3 6 3 l 3`2 I.................. 1350 - j 4.... 2 4'............. 1 5.. 4j 3`2 43 2 4 if 3i 2 i9............. 13 3 —-—. ----- - j 3 j 3 3 1 2........... 13562 j. 3 3' 2 3 2 1j... I......... 1357 - 3 1 j 3 2... 4 2j 2 ] 3 3.... 4 2 i 135..................... 3 2 2~ 2i 2 1 Qf 2..................... 1359... 3, 2 I 2 3 3............ 1360 3 2 1 j 4 3 1 f 3 2.............. 1355. i 21 3 3............... 3`2 2-..........-... 1362 ] I 7 -- - 4~ 3 1~ 4............. 3 2 2............ 13563.. 3 2t 1. 4 3............... 3 32 1 3C.............. 13574... 6' 4........ 3 2i 3 2 i............. 13 5 14 —-- 12J 4 3... 3 2 I4 3] 2 3........... 136................ 4 4 1.......................................... 1367..................... 3,,...,.......... 3 2 1j......... 13689............... 3 3 3 3 29 I 3 3 3........... 13690........... 3`2......I 3 2 2 i 3 2 II................... 1370l... 3 2~~33.................. 3 2 -- - 62...... 3`......................... 13712... 8 7 4 3 ]................... ---- 3 2 3:9 3......!............ 1372.. 3' ]' 43.................... 3 3 3 4 3 2 3 2 i.................. 13734.....4.3. 4............ 3 3.... 4 4 2,........................... 13745.............. 1.... 3 3 3. 3 2 1 4 3 29 1................... 1375........ 3........... 4 4 2'l' 3....................................... 13767..................... 3 3 3............... 3 2 1~.................. 1377..................... 3 3 3...... 33............ 3 2 11 4...... 2 13786 9 3...................................... 3`2... 1379... 5 3 +3 3 3 3 4 3 ~2 3 29 1I 4............. 1.380..................... 3 2..... 4 3 2.................................... 1381.................. 4`}...... 3 3~ -- -- ---- -- — 2 —-- 31.................. —-- 1382 7 I 2 3 2..................` 2 1.................. 1383..................... 3 3 4 4 2:29.2 I.......................... 1384..................... 4 3 j' " " 3 2 2............................. 1375... 4...... 3 3 4 4 23.........................3 2 2.376.........,...... 3 2 3 2'~- 2 3 2 Iit......... 1387............... i...... 3 2 3 j 3 2................. 2 1 ~.......: 1388.....3.3.............. 4 3 i 3 2 i..............................3` ~....... 1389............3.. 3 2 2 3 2 3 29 1............... 1390..................... 2 2j:9 3 4 3`2............. 1391...~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~'......i......;...... 2 13 2 2 2................. 1392l..................... 3 2....... 3 2221 1;................... 1393... ~~~~~~~~~~~~..................I3 2 2 2.................. 1394..................... 3 2 2 3 2 4 --- -- --- - i395~~~~~ ~ ~ ~.......... 2... 3 29 If 4,1i.................. 1396...................... 4 3~ 3. 3 2 2f.................................... 13985... 4.............................+ +393 2 21 f.......... 13986...............?...... + 3`2 3 3 2 2 3 j:9 i........... 13 9................ 5 3 + 3 2 I 3 2 2................ 1400................... +3 3 3 2 2............ 3 j 2 Nine bushels 3 { Te buhes + Wnoe......... 94 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. [ ABLE II. —PRICES OF REAPING, MOWING, AND THATCHING. Reaping, per acre. a a __ __ __ a Years. c ~ ~~~~ ~ ~~~ na a - a Ca~~~ Pence. Pence. Pence Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. 1~261......................................................... 1......'...... 1261...................................1............. 11~64........................................................ 3'.................. 1266................................... 6:... 6...... j......... 1267 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~3.......................... f 6.... 6,....... i.......... 126................................... - -- - - 12,69.................................... 6~ 6 i ------ 6i............. 4j.................. 126................................... IQ72............................................................. j 2.... 3 1-279.................... 4~ 4~......... 4~...... 2 i...... 124................................... 5 - - - - -............ ~~~~~~~~~~5 15115........................ 1 2......,............ 5 1 i 12 6..............................................................i"2... 1275j 1. 128...66 -6.......6...............6 6.. 6... 434 -. —- —.. 3 1267.. -- ~~~6* 6*..- 6* - - 4* -.,,,.,,.,, 1 - 45 —--------- 5 2 170-.......................5......... 4 5i12,.71 —..... —.,........-.............. 3 354 41.... 37 54 2......1 1'272......:............:........... - - —..- *.44 231-. 1273...-........................... 4 4 -.........4............. 1274 -- ~~~5 4 1~ —— ~1- -41 2*- 3j 71284.............2*............. 41........... 5.............2 1 3...... 1276 - - - - -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 —- - -6 2 1....... 11..........................................4........4........... 1277.......... —............j 6. —-.- 2.33....... 61 21. a4 1285.................................... 6 4 4 3 1289................................... 4/ 41...... 4...... 4 7/....../ 1279................................... 5 6 5 5 5.. 4 2/.-. 3 1291~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~,.................. 43 1............. /......! 4f! 28056................................... 5 41. 41...... 2j 1* 3j 1281 —................1 4 5 4* 3 7 4 2 12................................... 5 51 5 4* 5 41 5* 33 12834................................... 41 5 1 * h.-....../, 3I. 1284 -- ~~~~41 54. —. 4* 4* 3* 5 1285'.4. 65............... 55 3 41 31 / 4 / 1 3' 128................................... 5 7j 5 4..3..2 5 1 3 1287-.............. 44 6 34 31 4 2 i a4a 1288 -5 6.. 4 4 -2* 1 z 1289... -- ~~41 41.... 4 1 — 4* 7 21 1 1290 - - - - - - - -- -. 2 3 121...................................- - - 2 4...... 1 — 41 —----- 5 4* —4*...-. —.. 2* 1 1....... 3*1 1293 -- 415 44 5 4 3 5 2* 3 19..5................................. 5 54 4 5 4.....4 2 1 3 1295 -- 41......................... 51 5 31 3 5* 6 2* 1 3. 1296 —.............. 5 5 41 4 --- 4* 41 2j 1* 3 1297.,.,.,,,,,..,.,....- 5 5* 5 31 31 4* 4* 2* 3* 1398..-..1...4........3... 4 5 4............. 21. 3 1299 —........... 6* 5 51 41 6 6* 5* 2* 1 4 1300...- -.6* 5 51 5 - 6* 2* * 3* 1:301.......................... 5 -- 4* 4 4 2 1 3 1302- ~5 4* 4* 44 44- 4 2* 1 2* 3303 -.~.,~.-.-,.,.,,,,. 51 5+ 6 34 6 4 2* 1 1304......-............................. 41 41 4 5 2* 1 3 1305....-.......- -4...1............... 4* 56= 4 5 4* 21 1 3 1106................................... 4 6 4* 47 4..*... 4 2 1...... 1307...............-. 4 6 46 4 6./ 6 6 2* 1 1:308 -- 5* 51 44 44 5 51 21 1 5 1309.9.. — 6...7.................6..1..... 4 5 4 6 5 5. 3* 1.. 131-4................................. 65 61 6 5 5 56 5* 2/ 1 3 111 — 5-..-.... 1 61 6/ 51- 6|-i. 5*- 6 2*/ 1.. 13129....-.......... 6 1e6......6 6 5 6 6 5 3 1 4 13137................................. 6 67 6 5 6 6 3* / 1 4 1319................................... 6 6 6 1 6 5..1 6 3 1 4 1310 5... -.........7 7 6*. — 8.. 4 46 1116- -- — 6 61 6... 6.. 54 351 1t 41 1317 -- ~~~~61 71 6* 54 ~-. 5*... 29 1* 41 13................................... 5 51 5- -...... 7 21 1 4 132.....3.9..................- 6*.. 6* 5 4-6 21 1 43 1320.....-..-......................- 5...... 1 51 4 5 6 21 1 4 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~/ 6/325......./.............. 66 I j 7 4 / 2..... 3 1321 —5....5*.........~..-.......... 4.1.. 5.. 4 3... 1. 4 1:3042................................... 2~ 2..../.......... 5 2 1.. 1;~2 -- 5* 51t 515*I 5* 7~,-..~.... q l 5~ / 21 1 4/ 1.30.....6...*... 616.- 62..1......... 4~ 4 5 / 4 - 21. 1 31 132................................... 1 61 6 71 6 6 3 1 4 1325.......- -6*..8.....I.................... 56 74 6* 4 3* 3* 1326.. -- 5* 5* 5~ - -5* 21 1 137..............-.........7................ 41 3 1 V183~s...~-~..~..-4 5 5* 5..5..*5.5 * 21 1 /...... 1329..............51....... 5 6 1 5 5* 51 6* 5 3/ 1 0- ~~~~~7*... 61 5 (.1-.. — 5 3 1* 31 1331...........................-.7.... 6*. — - 41.. 6* 5 3 1 44 1332...........-........... i 7 6*6 5 6* 6 3 1* 4 1333..............................- 71 9* /.. 61 S 7 5j 31 1 44 1334............................ 5.. 51 54 54..... -. 4*. 2 I 1 44 t See note on page 91. a Thatcher and two men. LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER FEUDAL SYSTEM. 95 TABLE II.-PRICES OF REAPING, MOWING, AND THATCHING-Continued. Reaping, per acre. c Years.Pa Cc w. w. Pence. Pece. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pen ce. Pence. Pence. Pence. 1335................................... 6 7j 5 4j 51 5* 5~ 2* 1 4+ 1336.................................. 6 9 5 5 7...... 1 4 1337..............-.................... 5+ 6*..... 5 5] 5{ 5J 2- 1- 3* 1338...-..................... 51 6+ 4 3*-.. — 4 4 -2 1 3/ 1339.-................................. 51 6 6 41 41 4 5l 3....... 3* 1340................................... 5 51 4 5 4 4 2 1 4 1341............................. 5 5 6 41 5 51 5- - 1 3* 1342...... I6 61 6* 5+ 6+ 5 I 5. 2/ 1 3* 1343....5............................ 5. 5* 57 5j. 5+ 2* 1 3+ 1344................................... 5 7 5 5. ——.. ---—. 51, 1345................ 6 6... 5....-. 4j 2t 1 4 1346............,................. 5I 6 5 4* 5+ 5. 5 2. 1 3 1347................ 51 7......7 4 6 4 5 1 3 1348..............,,...............,. 61 9+ 6+- 71 7* 5j 9 3* 1i 41 1349...........7 7 7 7...... 77 9 3* 1* 5 1350........................... -. 71 i 6*... 7* 11 31 21 6 1351...................................I 7 I 9.................. 7 f I 8 I 3 it......4 1352...................................J 71J 71 ~ -......J 7~ 7 9 3~J ]iJ 5 133................................... 8'l...... 5 --- 1 3 f 6 3354................................... 6j7o............... 71 86 3i ].... 135...................................-.. 7 8 3 1,.. 6132... - 6+ 7 7..... 7 6+ 3+ 1* 6* 1353......................... 8 8J...... 5...8. 8 7+ 3* 1* 6+ 1354.... ~6* 7+ 71 61 7+'6+ 5+ 3+ 1+ 5 1355... - 9+ 9+ 7+ 1~ — 7 6 3+ 1*t.~~. 3356... ~8* 9+ 8* —- 9 8* 7* 4 3 4* 1357..................- - 8 8 6 6...... 6 6 3* 2+ 4/ 1358..... -........ 6... 6*............5 4 2 6 1359.....~..............................I 7t 7 97 7... i9 I8 7 1 6 41 t /4 1360...................................I 8 I 81 6...I6 5 -/ 4 1359....~7 7 7 7 1.-.I7 6 4* 2 6* 13360.-,._..,,.._-.._-~.. —-..~.~... —. 9+ 10+ 14 —--- 7* 91 9 5+ 3- 1* 5 1361............................. -. 7 8*....... 7 7* 7. 6 3*.. 54 1362.............................. 8 8 8 8... 8 7 3 2 6+ 16:3................................... 71...... 87 8 3+ 2+. 1364............................................ 10 3 2 5 1365................... 71 9* 7* 8 8 9 4 2 6 1366.............7*....... 7....11+ 7 7 7+ 3* 2+. —--- 1367.................. 7+.. 7+......... 7+ 7 4 6 1368................................... 6-.................. 83...... 6 1l69.......................... 8 3!...... 5 1370......................./..................... 6 3............ 13715................ 11 11 11 8 4 7j 13729.... 11+-11+.11+. 7.11 9+ 4* 2. 1373...................11 11 HI —- 11- 4+ 2 7* 1373...................................I 1 ], I7. I......I 17 I...... 43l 2 1374........................~ I...... t 8... 8* 8+ 41 3 7 1375....................... 6 6 6+...... 6* 8 4 4 6 1:176......................- - 8 4* 2 6 11377...... 1..+.... -. 12. 12+ 10+ 10*. 10 7 4 2 6 1378s.-. -....................... 7+ 7+ 7 7 7. 7+ 7 + 2... 1379.............................. 12 12...... 12. 12 7+ 4 2. 1380........................10 10 10 10......10 4 21...... 1381........................... 9 9 9 9...... 9 7 4 2 5 132................................... 10 10 10 10 7 4 2 6 1383.......................... 9 9 9 9... 9 7+ 4 21 6 1384....1 10.... 1010...... 4'..... 7 1385.............................8..... 8 S 8...... 8 71 4 2 6/ 1386................I.. 9 9 9 9 9 + 4* 2+ 6 1387.... 88.../....../..S........ 8..... 8+ 7+. 3+ 2 6 1388............................ 78 7* 7. 7* 61 3 2. 1389.......9 9 - 9 9 7 31 2+ 6 1390.................................1.0 10... 10 10 7 4 2 1:391.................... 9* 9* 91.. 9*.-.... 91 7* 5 2* 6 1392........,..,..............".. 7+ 8. *... 7 7 6. —-—... - 7... 1393............ 8+...... 8i 8+ 8+ 6 31 2* 71394....6................ 6 6 *...... 6 6 4 3 10 1395................................. 7 1. 7 7 7 3 2 8 1396.............................. 6 6 7............ 6 8 3 2 6 1397......... 7 7...... 7 7 7 6+ 4 2+ 8 1398................................... 61 6 6 6 6 6 4...... 2 1399,...... 6* 65* 6..... 5.. 6+ 7 24 2. 6. 1400.......-. 7+ 7* 7+ 7. 7* 7+ 6* 4. 2j 9 96 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. TABLE III.-PRICES OF MECHANICAL LABOR......'...~~~~~... 0*... ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~a..... CZ~~~~~~~ S. 0.? S. ~ ) Ye ars. Yea r Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. 1263.. 31 4...........2 2k....... 1334. 3* 6 3P 3* 6c 31 —. 1264...2*... - ------ - - 1335. 3* 4* 4*6. 3 1265.. 3 3 2.. 3i 2*...... 1336. 3* 4 4 *7 31.. 1266...21...1337. 3 4...... 4...... 133.. 3 1267.. 3 3...... 1...... 1............ 1338. 3 4~ 4 "5.. 1268.. 2 4............................... 1339. 2N 4 *7 4*. 1271.. 2j 3............................... 1340. 24 5 3*... *4 24. 1272.. 2! 3...................1341. 21. 5 3 *8 *5... 8 1274.. 2* 3...................1342. 2t 3.. 6.*5*A 24. 2 j''...... 1275.. 2* 24.2.. 1343. 3 4 *5 1277.. 2* 2*.............................. 1344. 2* 3 *5.... 7 1278.. 2* 2*.. — --- ----—....1345. 34 4* 3* 4' *4*... 7 1279 — 3 3......................... 1346. 2* 3 4 *5...... 9 1280.. 2 2............*.................. 1285.. all a5... 4 4.. 1348. 3 4 *7 1282.. b~j 85.6 2*.. 1349. 4* 5 4 5.. 3 1283.. al a4.... *5.... 2*.....1350. 4* 7 3....*10*........ 1284.. 3 3...- --- --- --- -— 1351. 31 4.... 4 7....... 1285.................... 3..1352 4 a9"'3. 4. 1286.. 3 4 5.3 1353. a12...... *7... 1287.. 3 3 c3.......................... 1354. 4 6 3 8.... 8 1288.. 3* 5 4*........... 9 1355. 4* 6. *6.... 4... 1289.. 3 41 3. *5* 3*..3356. 6 6... 10 1290.. 24 2* a4...6 1357 4* 5..... 5 4 1291.. 2* 3....... "'."...... "'..' 1358. 4 4 6 6.. 129~2.. 2 2...- --- --- --- -— 1359. 4* 6 5*... 4 6... 1293.. 21 3 3*..1360. 4* 5 5 123-a94.. 21 4...... 2...... 1361- 4 6 5 5...... 12954. 2I 3 3. 4* 2....1362................... 4...... 1296. 21 4.3............ 7 1363. 4 6 6....... 6. 1297..!2 4 2 4 *4 —----- 7 1361. 4 15 5 -3*. —-------- 1298.. 2 4 *6............ 8*...... 1365. 4* 6 5512..1299.. 3* 6 ---- *54.. — --- -— 1366. 4* 5 4 ---------- 5... 1300.. 3 4 3.3* 8 1367. 4* 5 6* 5 *.................. 1301.. 3 5...- --- --- --- -— 1868. 4* 5.... 5 5 5... 1302. 2* 3. *4 *5.. 1369. 4 6. 15 5 3303.. 2 3 3*...... 4............. 1370. 4 6...... 5 1304.. 34 4..3 21...... 1371. 41 6 7 6...... 1305.. 3 5 2..1372. 5 7 6*.... 6 1386.. 3 3. *6*.. 1373. 4 6 6 *9...... 6...... 1307-. 2* 3* 3* 4................... 1374. 41 6 5 6 5 5. 1338. 3 4........3..5. 4..4. *...... 1375. 4* 6 5-5.... 1309.. 31 5 4 2 *6 3...... 1376 4 6 6 1310.. 2* 4 4 4 3 4... 1377. 5 6 84...... 1311.. 84* 6.6.1 1378. 41a12 6 4.....4 1 31P2. -. 31 4 *5..1379. 6 10 4*10 1313.. 4 6 *6. 3..1380. 4* 5........ 1314.. 3j *...... *5 *5...... 8 1381.4* 5 7 *12 1315.. 3 4 4 *7............ —12 1382- 4 4 5. 1316.. 3*6 2*5*... 383. 5 a8 6 5......5. 1317.. 3 5 4 ". 5........... 1384. 5 5 6 5 5.. 1318.. 3f 5 4.. 64...... 1...... 385. 41 6...... 6.................. 1319.. 2* 3.. 5... 1:86. 4* 6 4.. 1320.. 3* 5 4 *6 64.. 1387. 5 5. 4A. 1321.. 31 5 4 *6.... 3....1388. 5* 6 6. —- 5j....... 1322.. 31 4 4 *7. —- --- 9 1389. 4* 6 6............. 13.23.. * 4 4,6. 7 1390. 41 6* 8 6. 1324.. 3 5 3 *5....... 1391- 4* 5 6 5 8.." 1325..- 3* 44 - 4....... 3 7 1392. 5 6 6 5.......... 1326.. 3 5 4.. 1393. 6......6 1327.. 3*1 4 31 *4*. 8 1391. 4 ia12........ 8 6 16 1328.. 34 4. *48 1395. 5 6 6 *12 5 6 1302.. 3* 4 4 *6.... 3.. 1396. 4* 6 6 44 4. 1330.. 34 41 44 *6 6 *:.... 1397. 4* 6 4 7...... 5. 1331..a4 6* 4* *7 61.. 1398. 4* 5 5 *8 4 6. 1332.. 3* 4 4 *6 3*.. 1399. 4* S* 8 8. 6 1333.. 3* 4 4. *5.... 1400. 4* 6 44 *13 6 See comnmenits on Table III, page 91, for explanation of ~ aLondon.. 8 Chiefly Oxford.. Oxford only... LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 97 TABLE IV.-PRICES OF THRESHING BY DECENNIAL PERIODS. (v) Decennial averages. Threshing, (per day.) East. Midland. South. West. North. Years. - a: a o Ca d. d. d. d. d. d. d. d. d d. d. d. d. d. d. 1259-1270.......................... 2 2 1...... 2 1 1271-1280............................ 2a 1*, {* 21 *-1 3 1 I 2....1 211 1 128 1-1290............................3 1 2j i 2. 1291-1300............... 3 1 1 -1 I*1 2I * 121 I *1 2 it 1:301-1310...........................3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 2 1 1311-1320........................... 1 1 3 2 1' 2 1 1 1 2* 1 1 3 1* 1 1321-1330..................3 11 1* 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1* 1331-1340....................... 3 11 1' 2 1 * 211- I2 j I 4I 22 4 2 11 I 3 2j 2 1341-1350............................ 311 2 1 3 1 1o2* 8 * 1 3 1 131-1360.................3 2 11 3 21 1 3 2 1 2 2 1 4 2 1361-1370........................ 41 21 2i 3* 3 1* 3 { 2 1 3 2 2.... 1371-1380...............5 3 3 3*2 3 4 32 32 *14 I. 4 2 1.381-1390......... 3* 2 1* 3* 2* 2 3 2 3 2 1,. 1391-1400............................ 2 4 2. 3 2 1I 21 1 1*.3 2 2* Average up to1350.....3* 1 1 2. 1 1 2*1 1 21 1* 2{1 I 1351-1400.........4* 2. 2* 3* 21 2* 3* 2* 3 2* 1* 3* j 2* 2 (b) Decennial averages. Reaping, mowing, thatching. Reaping, per acre. Years.. ~ A Cc~~~a E-4 E8 0.2 td a l 0 a 17120.............................. 5 I6 f 4' 5 2,1 1 I 3j' 18-20.............................. {j 5{ 5 41 4 4 4 Q* I 2j 19130.............................. 5 5f 4 4 i 5I 2{1 m{ 3h { 28 1 4 Pence. 1Pene. PencePence. Pence. Pence. tPece. Pence. Pence. Peace.. 126-1270.......... 5* 5* 5* 5*...41 4 2 34 1271-1280........5 41 6 4 4* 46 5 21 1 34 1281-1i290...... 5 51 5 4* 46 4* 4j 2* 2 1291-1300............ 5* 5 5* 4 4 5 5 2* 1 1301-1310......... 5* 5 5 4* 41 5* 4 2* 1 53 fi4 / b s s 2.{ 1~ I 3,1 1311-1320................ 6..6 6* 5* 86 6 6. 2... 2 5 1321-1330............................. 6 6* 6 57 6 5j 5{ 3I 1 } 3 1331-1340... 6lo................ 7 * 6 24{ 1} 4* 1341-1;]50..6 * 6 5 6*- 5 6 2* 1*{ 4} 1351-1360..7 8* 6* 61 8* 7.61 2 5 j 1361-1370 7* 8* 8j 7* 7* 78 7* 3* 2 5* 1371-11380.,,,,,-,1. I,,. 1, 0 10. 9 9*9* 7* 4* 2* 61, 1381-1390..............10 10 9 10......10 7 3 2 6 1391-1400.................... 71 7 7 7 7 7 61 4 21 7 General average: 1261-1350.......................... 5 51 5 4* 5* 5* 5* 21 1 31 1351-1400.......................... 8 8 8 71 8 7 31 2 6 7L 98 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. (c) Decennial averages. Carpenters,,c., (per day.) l I l l I _ _ _ Years. E. > Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. 1263-1270................. 3 23...... 2...... 22 1271-1280............... 2~ 2.......... 5. 1281-1290........................ 3: 4 4 3 5...... 5 3. 7 1291-1300.o......3........... 2 31 4 3 5 44........ 74 1301-1310.................................... 3 4| 4 34 4 3i 6...... 1311-1320...................................... 3 4 3 6 3t 10t 1321-1330...................................... 4 3- 4 54...... 6| 3~ I 8 1331-1340..................... 31 4 44:34 3-. 61 3 64 3 8 1341-1350..................................... 3 4i 31 5 5i.. 64 21 71 1351-1360..................................... 5 4 5 8 5-..4. 44 8 1361-1370........................ 4* 54 51 5 5...... 5.. 1371-1380..................................... 5 64 64 54 94 4 5 [.... 1381-1390..................................... 4 5 6 5 12 5... 5 1391-1400.................................... 6 5 6 11/ 44 8 5I 16 General average: 126 -1;350............. 34 44 34 4 54 34 6- 3 8 1351-14,0.............................. 5 5 5 10 5 8 5I 12 TABLE V.-PRICES OF THRESHING, ETC., IN GRAINS OF SILVER. (a.) Threshing, (per day.) East. Midland. South. West. North. Years. i- i -. -'...-..o 1259-O270........... 59. 03 25. 78 15. 47 4:3. 83 20. 62 12. 89...51. 5625. 78 18. 05 1271-1280 —.......... 56. 7230. 92 18. 05 43. 831 33. 5 20. 62 65. 4530. 92 23. 2 41.25.....2.. 0. 62 48. S8:30. 92 15. 47 128L-12,90............ 62. 87130. 92 20. 6~ 48. 98!:30. 9 20. 62) 1. 56128. 36 18. 05 51. 56..... 1291-1303........... 62. 87j:30. 92 20. 62 48. 98:30. 92 20. 62 54. 14 33. 51:20. 62'46. 4 33. 51 23. 2 441. 25.25. 78 18. 05 1301-1310......... 62.8738.6723.2 46.4 30.92120. 6251. 56130. 9220. 62146.4 30. 92 0.920. 62(2. 8741.25120. 62 1311-1:120.......7.... 73. 19 36. 09 23. 2 62. 871 41. 25123. 2 56. 72i38. 67123. 2 151. 56:30. 912 (). 62162. 87:10. 9'2 20. 62 1821-1330........... 68. 03136. 09 23.2 156. 7233. 51 20. 62 54. 141 3. 51120. 62151. 56 30. 92 2(. 62,59.:3 13.51123.2 1331-1:40........... 62. 8736. 09 23.2 151.56130. 92'25. 78 54. 14133. 51123. 2 48. 98:30. 92 25. 78162. 87148. 98128. 36 1341-1350........... 70. 61 38. 6725. 78159. 3 141.25128. 3662. 87 33. 51 3. 2 48. 98 53. 51 5. 7862. 87::30. 92...21.. 1351-1360............ 68. 03 41. 25128. 36173. 19 56. 72130. 92 7:3. 19 41. 25130. 92 59. 3 43. 83:30. 92 82. 5 54. 14 30. 92 1361-1370.......... 87. 66178. 34146. 4 73. ]9168. 8738. 6775. 7641. 25j36. 0962. 87 46. 4 41. 251........ 1371-1380.':....... 103. 12162. 8762.8765. 45 59.3 62. 87 82. 5 68. 03 41.2?565.4 46. 4 30. 9282. 5. 41.5 138L-1390........... 73.19|41. 25i30. 92165. 45 551. 56 41. 5. 874 1. 2538, 67 62. 8, 41. 25 30. 92.-.. 1391-1400....-...... -.- 51. 56182. 5 51. 56 54. 14 62. 87 4 1. 2538. 67156. 72 38. 67 30. 92162. 87 51. 56.51. 56 Average up to135~r 0.......t 65. 4533. 51 20. 6251. 56133. 51 209 6 54. 14 33. 51 624. 92 04. 92 23. 2 56. 72 36. 0920 62 1351-1400..,.... 85. 08146. 41 43'. 83173. 19 56. 72 43. 83 73. 19 46. 41 36. 09162. 87 43. 8 5. 1. 4125 s~ i~ 1a1~:1~ ~ ~41s LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER FEUDAL SYSTEM. 99 (b.) -Reaping, ~c., (per day.) ReapiLg, (per acre.) a a ___ ___ ~ ~J a V Years.. a e 0 0,n a. 0 2; F 1261-1270.......... 113.44 113.44 113.44 108 28............... 82.5 41.'25....... 63. 19 1271-1280.......... 103. 12 97. 97 123. 75 87. 66 92. 31 100. 55 108. 28 48. 98 20. 62 6;8. 03 1281-1290.......... 1(5.7 118. 59 103. 12 87. 66 87. 66 95. 39 100. 55 43. 83 18. 05 59. 3 1291-1300..... 108. 28 103. 12 1(8. 28 87. 66 85. 08 105. 7 105. 7 51. 56 18. 05 1;3. 19 1301-1310.......... 105.7 118. 59 103. 12 87. 66 97. 97 105. 7 100. 55 51. 56 20. 62 70. 61 1311-1320.......... 126.33 134.06 16.33 113.44 126. 3:3 123.75 136.64 59.3 25.78 92.81 1321-1330.......... 123. 75 128. 91 12: 3.75 10. 86 12:1. 75 1110. 86 110. 86 62. 87 20. 62 80. 92 1331-1340.......... 12:3. 75 144.37 108. 26 100. 55 123.75 113. 44 103, 12 59.3 23. 2 85. 08 1341-1350.......... 126.33 146.95 123.75 118.59 128.91 121. 17 134.06 59.3 23.2 835.08 1351-1360.......... 159.84 172. 73 141.8 139. 22 175. 31 152. iI 131.48 73. 19 41.25 113.44 1361-1:370.......... 146. 95 175. 31 18:3. 05 157. 26 162.42 159. 84 154. 59 73 19 41. 25 118. 59 1371-1380......... 207.`25 207. 25 186.62 2 4 67........ 204.67 149.53 85.08 51.56 1:9.22 38!-1890.......... 207. 25 207. 25 189. 2 207. 25....... 207. 25 149. 53 80. 92 43. 83 123. 75 1391-14ij0.......... 152.11 154.59 144. 37 146. 95 144.37 14;. 95 139.22 85. 08 54. 14 144.:7 Average: 12(61-1350...... 116.01 121.17 116. 01 100. 55 108.'28 108.'28 108.28 54. 14 20. 62 73. 1 1351-1400...... 175. 31 183. 05 167. 58 170.16 159. 84 172. 73 144.37 89. 92 46. 4 1-8. 9 Mechanical labor, (per day.) Years.a be cca a a ~~ ~ ~ ho 1263-1270............ 65. 45 73.19 51.56... —------ 51.56....... 51.56........ 1271-1280............ 51.56 56. 72............... 108.28 41.25.................... 128-1'290................... 73. 19 82. 5 82. 5 6'2. 87 103. 12... 118. 59 65.45 154.59 1291-1300............ 54. 14 68. 34 56. 72 7:3. 19 105. 7 92. 81...... 59. 3 146. 95 1301-1310.................. 62. 87 87. ((8 81. 5 65.45 82. 5 68. 03 126. 33 70. 61.. 1311 -1:~s0................... 75. 76 1(0. 55 78.34 123. 75 121. 17.. 1.... 8. 59 68. 03 209. 83 1321-1330................... 70. 61 100. 55 781. 4 8'2. 5 113. 44....... 134. 1 6 68 03: 165. 1331-1340............ 68. 0:3 95. 39 80. 92 68. 34 126. 33 78. 34 126. 33 62. 87 165. 1341-1350................... 65. 45 87. 66 73. 19 103. 12 121.17....... 131. 48 56. 72 159. 84 1351-1363................... 8?. 66 1 i8. 59 1.0. 55:ll3. 12 172. 73 110. 86........ 95. 39 165. 1361 -1370................... 87. 66 I 13. 44 110. 86 103. 12. 1.! 13. 44........ 103. 12....... 137t-1:380............. 10:3. 12 134. L6 126. 33 113. 44 196, 93 90. 23........ 113.44........ 1381-1:3.0................... 97. 97 1113. 44 12:3. 75 113. 44 247. 5 10:. 12.. 103. 12....... 1391-1400................... 95. 39 128. 991 116. 01 123. 75 235. 61 92. 81 165. 116. 01 330. Average: 126:-!350............... 65.15 85. 8 73.19 82.5 110. 86 6. 45 16.33 69. 7 165. 1351-1400............... 95.39 121.17 116. 0 110. 86 212. 41 103. 12 165. 105. 7 247. 5 The eleven tables which follow give the prices of various commodities in England for the period comprised in the foregoing tables on wages: TABLE I.-_AVERAGE PRICE OF GRAIN BY DECENNIAL PERIODS, (PER QUART{R.) Malt. (first Decade. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Beans. Pease. Rye. qalt(irty quality.) s.d. s.d. s.d. s.d. s.d. s.d. s. d. 1261-1270...................... 4 8 3 5)i 111[ - 2 10 3 0 4 4) 3 7* 1271-t280...................... 5 7 4 2 41 4 3 1 4 9 4 4 1281-1290...................... 5 0) 3 5~ 2 3 3 4E 3 21 31 11 4 8 1291-13'10...................... 6 18 4 5) 2 58 4 581 4 {4 4 8S 5 1I 1301-1310............ 5 7~ 3 11 2 58 4 18 3 98 4-4j 4 113.11-13:20...... 7 101 5 9 5 29 6 5 6 6 1321-1330...................... 6 4 6 2 8 5 6 4 8 5 3 5 10 1331-1340...................... 4 3 5 2 3 5 3 0 3 31 3 5.9* 3!$393 3 1341-1350..................... 53 3 8 23 38) 2 1( 3 81 4 2 1351-136!)...................... 6 0i 4 7 2 1 0 4 4 ~i 3 Hi 4 51.5 Q 1351-13~~~~6:1.6w) 4 7'210 4 4+ 3 11~ 4 5{} 5 6+ 1361-137)...................... 7 3) 5 ) 3 21 5 31 441 5 2 6 7+ 1371-1380.....................1 6 1 0 3 10 2 5 4 2 3 3~3 4 1 4 1* 1381-1390. 3.2.... 45.3...4..... 5' 3 41 2 2 4 5+ 3 4 3 8) 4 41 1391-1400..................... 5 3 3 5 2 3 4 33 5 3 4 4 5 General average, 140 years. 5 101 4 31 2 51 4 38 3 9 4 41 4 10 100 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. TABLE II. —AYERAGE PRICE OF GRAIN, BY DECENNIAL PERIODS, REDUCED TO GRAINS OF PURE SILVER, (PER QUARTER.) Decade. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Beans. Pease. Rye. Malt, (first quality.) 1261-1270.-............... 1167. 89 856. 51 483.11 720.3 742.5 1077.66 899.76 1271-1280...................... 1397. 34 1077. 66 592.93 1049. 3 957. 48 1186. 9: 1077.66 1281-1290................... 1255.55 850.78 557.87 84:3. 05 796. 64 970. 37. 1165.31 1291-1300...................... 1508.2 1098.28 602.28 1103. 44 1080.23 1157.58 1268. 44 1301-1310...................... 1387. 03 983. 26 607. 44 1020. 94 931. 7 1082. 81 1015. 78 1311-1320...,................ 1944. 91 1374.14 768.28 1434. 28 1289. 06 1590.7 1619. C6 1321-1330...........1725.76 1116.3: 667.73 1374.14 1167.89 3315 84 1455.06 1:331-1340...................... 1170.47 845.62 510.47 855.94 74'2.5 8:0.84 978.11 1341-1350................. 1302.95 917.81 557. 87 90. 08o 930. 61 922. 97 1049. 3 1351-1360.............. 1705. 14 1134.17 702.25 1077.66 975.53 1100.86 1366.41 1361-1370..................... 1798. 53 12:39. (8 786. 33 1308. 11 1085. 39 1281. 3:1 1634. 53 1371-1380..................... 1510.78 954.91 597.12 1041..56 810.53 1015.78 1013.2 1381-1390.o......... 1278.75 832. 7: 5:6. 25 1100. 86 830. 16 917. 81 1087. 97 1391-1400................... 1300.37 863. 67 563. 03 1052.87 845.62 84(1. 47 1111. 17 General average, 140 years. 1450. 22 1041.34 612. 59 1063. 19 929. 12 1087. 97 1197. 25 TABLE II.-AVERAGE PRICE OF CATTLE AND HORSES, BY DECENNIAL PERIODS. e Aifriand, CartDecade. Oxen. Cows. Bulls. sbott. horses. Stotts. horses. a. d. a. d. a. d. a. d. a. d. 1261-1270....................................... 10 3 6 10 6 11 32 17 I 1271-1280.......................................... 12 21 7 li 9 61 ]3 1, 17 1 1281-1290........................................ 10 6 10 8 29 31 91 21) 9 1291-1300....................... 10 7 8 I1 8 8k 10 6~ 14 5 130-1310.......................................... 11 11 8 7j 11 4k 11 51 16 4{ 1311-1320.....1............. 14 4 10 101 11 11 13 k 19 4 1321-1330.................................... 14 61 12 * 1110k 12 5k 21 0 1331-1340................................. 12 91 9 3k 9 k 10 7 19 5j 1341-1350...................................... 11 8~ 9 10 11 11 2 17 5+ 1351-1360......................................... 13 5k 10 2 10 4j 11 7~ 17 136t-1370........................................... 17 41 11 10k 12 9k 13 4 23 9* 1371-1380.................................... 1510 11 41 10 10i 21 2* 2-2 9 1.38/-1390......................................... 13 4` 8 71 9'Ill 17 2 23 29 1381-1:190.. ~~~~~~~13 41r 8 7k 9 111 17 2'23'2* 1391-14800.......................14 91. 10 8 9 4* 39 7k 20 8* General average............................... 13 l' 9 5 10 4 13 5 19 3 * The affri was an'ill-looking, little horse, used chiefly in farm-work. TABLE IV. —AVERAGE PRICE OF SHEEP AND HOGS, BY DECENNIAL PERIODS. Decade. n' ~ 0~~~ 0.0 c~~~~~~~~ n 0 0 Co O 9 a o B,.a. P 0 0 ~d. s. d. s. d. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. a.d. d4 1261-1270...................... 1 5 5 I 0 4 o 71 2 2.......1 2 6...... 1271-120....................... 1 5/ 1 3 1 21 8i 1 6k 3 3 3 6 421 6j 1281-1290................. 1. I I 1 5k 1 3k 8j 1 9 2 53 2e 2 461 31 1291-1300.................... 1 10* 1 3k 0 11 5*- 1 8* 2 61 331 51 4 1301-1310....................... 1 91 1 1 5 4 I 8 2 101 2 91 83 6 1311-1320..................... 2 2k 1 61 1 11 9* 2 1 3 51 2 9k 5. 7 5j 1321-1330................... 2 1* 1 6 1 3 9* 1 Il 2 9k 39 4 31 5* 1331-1340..................... 1 8 1 2/ 1 61 7k 2 9* 3 61 3111 4k 1341-1350....................... 1 8/ 1 2 0 9* 7* 110 2 8j 29 3 331 5k 1351-1360...................... 21 18k 1 4k 8i 1I 3 11 479 441 61 1361-1370................... 2 3 1 7~ 1 6 10-I 2 3 3 8 51 50 5* 1371-1380....2................. 2 2} 1-9* 1 41 l0 1 9 3 21 3 4 t 71391-13'0....................... 1 91 9 1 4 1 2 91 1 5 3 3 2 7 40 6 1391-1400................... 2 1 4k 1 79 1 61 3 2 311 5 6 41 General average.......... 10 1 5 1 2 8 1 8 2111 3 4 4 7 5 t Porculi is supposed to mean lean hogs; Porci, fatted hogs; and Porcelli, sucking pigs. LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 101 TABLE V.-AVERAGE PRICE OF POULTRY, BY DECENNIAL PERIODS. ~......__ Decade. p a~~~~~~~# o p C ~o 0 o 13 Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. 1261-1270........................... VI i it i 24.............. 1 1271-1280..................... 2 1 3* 1281-12(-90................2........ 12 1 ~ 4 iI 1 2 1291-1300.........2 3... f* 1 3* 301-1310........................... 2 3 1 3 I 2 Tg 3j 21 if 3j 1311-1320........................... 3 1i it * 4j 2 2 3 1321-1330........................... 3 1i 1 1 3j 21 2i 4* 131-1340..............2a la it 3 2 1. 3* 1341-1350 o....2..... 1- - -— 3 - 3* 1351-1360....................... 31 2* 1* 4 21 4 3* 1361-1370.......................... 4 2* 2* 1 4....... 2 6 1371-1380........................... 3 2 2 1* 4 2 2 4 1381-1390........................... 3 2 2 1 3i 3 2 4 1391-4LO........................... 3 1 1* 4....... 2* 4, General average............ 3 1 1 1 3{ 2~ 2 31 TABLE VI.-AVERAGE PRICE OF WOOL, BY DECENNIAL PERIODS. Decade. Wool, Lamb. Pound. Decade. Wool, Lamb. Pound. (great.) (great.) s. d. s. d.' d. s. d. s. d. 1260-1270........... 2 3 1 3* 2* 1341-1350...... 8. I 0B 3* 1271-1280............ 2 3* 3 0 3 1351-1360............. 1'1 1 0 2* 181-1290........ 2 24 2 2 3 1361-1370......2 3 1 6........ 1291-1300.......... 1l l 1 4 2i 1371-1380............. 2 8 I* 1 0 2* 1301-1310............ 2 3 2 0 3 1381-1390............. 2 0 1........ 1311-1320........ 2 5: 2 4* 3- 1:191-1400...... 2 0 1 3 4{ 1321-1330.. 2 4* 2 Of 4* 1331-1340... 1 9. 1 39 3 General average... 2 1 1 11 34 The prices in the first column refer to the fleeces of sheep, and those in the second to fleeces of lambs. The average weight of the fleece is 1 pound 71 ounces. TABLE VII. —AVERAGE PRICE OF HIDES, BY DECENNIAL PERIODS. Decade. Ox. Cow. Horse. Stott. Horse, (latwed.) s.d. s.d. s. d. s.d s.d. 1260-1270................................... 2 3}1 I o10 0 9. 1271-1280........................................ 1 o 0 181-1290............................................ 1 8 1 6* 1 o 1 0 1 10 1291-1300........................................... 2 2 1 91 0 Ii 0 t11 1301-1310...........'2 8 2 1 I * 0 11 1 1311-13'20... 2 6 1 11 0.. 1 4 1321-13:0........................................... 2 7 1 81 1 6 1 0 2 2 1341-1350.. 2 6*; 1 8 010. 1 7* 1351-1360........................................... 7 il 1 1..... 1361-1370......................................... 2 1 68 0 10. 2 1371-1380........................................... 1 1 6*1......... 6 1381-1390..1...8................... 1 1 - 0..... 2 4 1391-1400........................................... 11 13 20...... 1 8 General average............................ 2 2* 1 - 1 4j 0 1'* 1 10 102 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. TABLE VIII.-AVERAGE PRICE OF CHEESE, BUTTER, AND EGGS, BY DECENNIAL PERIODS. Cheese. Butter. Eggs. Decade. Wey, Stone, Clove, Wey, Stone, Clove, Gallon Pound lund., (1961bs.) (14 lbs.) (7 lbs.) Pound.(lb8.) (4 lbs.) (7 1bs.) (120.) s. d. ~ d. d. d. d. d d. d. d d. 1260-1270......... 10 1 7 7........ - 7 4 4' 3! 1271-1280........ 9 8 6........-........ 9 9 9 5...... 4 1281-1290.......... 8 Il C............. 8 9~ 7k 5 6 * 31 1291-1300.......... 9 7- 7..................... 6 3 1301-1310..........9 9 8 5... 5............ 9 6 4 1311-1320.......... 11 7 9 4k - 9{........ 9........ 4 1321-1330.......... 11 3 10 5........ 16 9 4 i~~~~1 3{` 1 0 } 5 i].~.i i""1 13:31-1349....... 10 9 4..100..... 5 7k 4{ 1341-1350.......... 8 4 8 48........9 0. 40 8.. 41 1:51-1360.......... 0 9........ 5....................... 4........ s 1361-1370.......... 10 2j ----- 4. 100........ 5 9..-..... 4* 1371-1380.......... 5. 4....................... 4 9........ 1381-1390.....9 6 45...................... 5 1.391-1400.......... 10 2 4...... 4....... 4* 8 1 5] Generalaverage.. 9 11* 8 4. 9 6 9 4* 7...... 4 TABLE IX.-AVERAGE PRICE OF WAX, CIDER, APPLES, ETC., BY DECENNIAL PERIODS. Cider. Decade. ()Wax, (tun of 25 2 Apples, Charcoal, Sea-coal, Fagots, Decade. (tn(b glns.) 2 qr.) (qr.) (qr.) (100.) d. a. d a. d d. d a. d. 1860-1270.6................................ 10 5 0 6* 31... I 0 k%71-1280................... 61 10 2k 0 8 8 0 9 1 11* 1281-1290................................. 5 10 4k 0 10* 7* 1 0 2 7] 1291-1300.................................... 7 2 0 7 5 1 0 7 1301-1310.................................... 7 10 5* 0 9 6 0 10 2 6* 1:311-1320...........................6 10 6 1 4......... I 1 2 7 Ml1-13:30................. 6* 13 6) 0 Ili 8* 1 0 3 6* 1331-1340.................................... 6 0 4 0 8 6 1 0 2 I11 1341-130.6............... 1( 1 0 6k 6* 0 7 2 7j 131-1360.............7 12 4 0 4* 8 3 5* 5 6 1361-1:370.................................... 7......... 2 4 2 7 171-1380.................................... 6 13 4... 10 1 1 2 6 1381-1 39................... 5* 9 2j............. 2 4 1391-1400........................ 6................ 10...... 2 10 General average....................... 6 11 4 0 9 7 1 4i 2 8 TABLE X.-AVERAGE PRICE OF HERRINGS, FOREIGN PRODUCE, ETC., BY DECENNIAL PERIODS.'f I ^ 1 I Decade. E t.d s. d. s: cd. s. d. s. d. s. d. d. s. s d. 1259-1270............................ 4 7 2 1 1 1.... 1 41 3 9 13 0 1271-12805........................ 5 1 2 6* 1 0 0 8 1........ 1281-1290.............................. 4 2 6 0 9.... 0 9....... 5 5 1291-1300...................9.. 6 9 111*~1 3*`1 0 8 2. 6 0 130-1310............................. 7 0o 4 0 1 * 1 6 1... 5 0 1311-1320............................ 10 2* 3 9k 0 11 011./........... --- 4 2 13'2-1330..................... 8 3~ 4 4 1 3x1 12 {` 1 1 31 5 0 1331-1340.............................. 9 2 4 5 1 3*1 01* 011 1 1 4 4 2* 1341-1350............................ 9 3 10 1 1 64 1 LIt 1 2 2] 1 9) 15 0 1351-1360............................. 138 1 2 1 5........ 3 1 4 1361-1370............................. 13 4 8 11 1 5{ 1 4.... 1371-1380......................... 14 4 9 6 1 6 1 4 1 9 3 1 6 15 8 1381-1390.......................... 15 31 7 Ili 0 11 1 4 1 5* 3 1 5 II 11 1391-1400.................... 18 2 66 1 0 12k 1 6 3 23 1511 Average: 1259-1350....................... 7 5 311 1 1 1 2 1 6. 5 1351-1400................... 15 0 8 2* 1 4 14 1 7 3: 1 7k 142 LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 103 TABLE XI. —AVERAGE PRICE OF CANVAS, LINEN, AND WOOLEN CLOTHS, BY DECENNIAL PERIODS. Cloth. Cauras: I iaeblne Canvas, Hair-cloth. Linen. Table (coarse.) linen. Second Decade. Best. quality. Doz. ells. Doz. yds. I Doz. ells. Doz. ells. Pannus of Pannus of 124 yards. 24 yards. s. s. s.d. s.d. E s. d. s.d. 1260-1270....................... 2 3~ -—.. ——. 5 0 3 0 4 2 0 1 12 3 1271-1280.-.......................... 1 6.. 5 7 2 5 I 1 9 1i 12.81-1290.5....... —.-.-... —.... I.......... 2 6 2 o10 4' 11 9 1 19 2 1291-1300............................ 2 21 3 9 3 8i 3 2 311 8 11710 1301-1310. —...- -—. —.-..-........ 2 8 2 0 3 8 3 I..1....... 1 6 21 1311-1320............................ 3 0 4 0 4 Ci 3 5) 4 3 4 1 13 21 1321-1330 -—. —-.....-.. —... — ----- 2 10 5 0 4 0) 4 1 3 15 3 14 10 1331-1340....................... 2 8 4 0 4 4.... 170 1311-1350.. —.. ——. —... —-. —- 2 544 30 3 14 0 119 5* 1351-1360.......................... 8 1{ 5 3j 4 4 8 2 50 1361-1370...................... 5 3) i3 9 11 61 6 8 210 2) 1371-1380............................ 5 1{ 8 0 9 71 7 6 4 10 8+ 2 10 2 1381-139'3............................ 3 9~ 6 9 7 5 7 2 3 19 7j 2 5 6 1391-1400.............. 3 9~ 510 6 1) 6 4~} 317 El 2191 Average: 1260-1350........................ 2 61 3 9 4 1 3 3 3 19 8 1 13 21 1351-1400........................ 4 10) 8 1 8 4) 6 7) 4 3 2 2 661 TABLE XII.-AVERAGES PRICE OF BUILDING-MATERIALS, LATHS, ETC., BY DECENNIAL PERIODS. Laths. Plaintiles. Crests. Tile-pins. Lath- Board- Millstones. nails. nails, &c. Years...... Per 1,000. Per 1,000 Per 1,000. Per 1,000. Per 1,000. Per 1,0(10. Foreign. Bucks. s.d. s.d. s.d. d. s.d. d. s.d. s. d, 1261-1270........ 4.......... 2 3 1 0 9) 21 34 8.......... 1271-1280............ 4 4). 3 5.. 0 8i 3 36 9.......... 1281-1290..... —...... 3 6 2 I{ ----- 1) 0 8t 3) 36 6.......... 1291-1300........... 4 5) 2 5. 3 4f 1~ 0 9) 3) 48 9.......... 1301-1310........... 4 2* 2 11 4 6 1 0 9 3 46 1.......... 1311-120.......... 4 5{ 2 7) 2 10 1i 0 10 3) 44 0 12 6 1321-1330.. —......... 4 2 5 3 1 1i 0 9) 3 378 76 1331-1340........... 5 6) 2 4) 2 4 1i 0 9 3) 39 10. 1341-I350..... 5 2 5) 2 o 10) 1 0 8 3- 300 o 12 9 1351-1360............ 7 5 2) 6 1C0 3) 1 7) 5* 56 3 15 5 1361-1370..-......... 7 5 4* 101 3) 1 7 7 68 4 14 9) i371-1380......... 6 3 4 71 8 11) 2 1 4 6* 87 10.......... i381-1390........... 7 9* 3 9f 10 5) 3 1 4) 6 6 8 13 4 1391-14(00...... 7 10 4 2) 8 7 3 1 3 5) 66 2 14 1 Average: 1261-1350...... 4 5 2 9 3 1 0 9 3 39 4 0 1 1351-1400...... 7 2i 4 t 91 3 1 5) 6) 691 145 7 9~ 4 ~{ 9 l 1 5 ~ 6 914 Comparing the rates paid for threshing in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, as shown in the foregoing tables, with those paid for the same labor in 1767, as given by Arthur Young in his Northern Tour, Mr. Rogers concludes that the medieval laborer was rather better paid than his descendant in the eighteenth century; for "; while the laborer in Arthur Young's time got one-twenty-fourth part of wheat and barley,, andl about the one-and-twentieth part of oats, the laborer of tile four — teenth century received rather more than an eighteenth in wheat, a twenty-second part of barley, and a little less than a fourteenth part of' oats. These proportions are taken from the eastern counties, in which the rate for threshing wheat was above the average, that of barley rather less, and that of oats rather more. If, however, the other districts had been 104 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. taken, the rate would still have been favorable to the medieval laborer, though not to the extent which may be inferred from the case of the eastern counties." * * In this connection Mr. Rogers remarks that " no kind of labor appears to suggest more distinctly than that of threshing what was the ordinary rate of wages to an agricultural laborer." Elsewhere he refers to a p)ractice not uncommon among farm-servants of contracting for the produce of cows, and even ewes, (for ewe-milk cheese was not unknown,) at an annual rent. This heregards as " an evidence that the condition and means of the persons who entered into hired service at annual wages and allowances with the lord's bailiff was far better than anything of which our modern experience informs us as to the condition of the descendants of these farm-servants in our own time." Indeed, he once expresses the opinion that the wages of labor generally, in the period embraced in the above tables, were: virtually higher than they have been from 1825 up to within the last five years, if, indeed, they were not higher than even they are now." From an account otf the expenditures of Merton College in rebuilding the bell-tower of their chapel, Mr. Rogers obtains the wages paid for certain kinds of labor for a period about half a century later than the conclusion of that embraced in his tables, the structure in question having been commenced in May, 1448, and concluded in May, 1450. "The laborers," says he, " are well paid. The chief mason, besides an annual pension of 20s., receives, whenever he is at work, 8d. a day. It appears that he resided in Oxford, for the college purchases straw and hay of his wife. The other masons get a fraction under 7d. a day for the greater part of the year, and froom 5Ed. to nearly 6d. in the three winter months. The carpenters who are merely engaged in rough work are paid 4d. a day, as are also the laborers, who seem to wait on the masons. The quarrymen are paid from 44d. to 4jd. These wages may, if we estimate them in modern money, be reckoned by the multiple of 12, and fully bear out that which has been often stated that the condition of laborers relatively to the price of the necessaries of life was high, not only in the period before us, but, as in this case, fifty years afterward; for the price of wheat during the first half of the fifteenth century was actually below the general average of the fourteenth." It may be remarked here that the relation of wages to breadstuffs in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, as compared with the relations between the same things in the eighteenth and nineteenth, does not alone furnish a sufficient test of the comparative condition of the laborer at these two periods; for even in the eighteenth century, to say nothing of the wonderful mechanical improvements of more recent times, the advance of the industrial arts must have placed within reach, even of the limited means of the working classes, many comforts and convenienes which were previously unknown to them. It must be confessed, however, that the progress of the nation has dealt very unequally'with the descendants of the villeins and other servile classes of early medieval times; for while millions of these descendants, as farmers, tradesmen, merchants, manufacturers, and members of the learned professions, are now in the full enjoyment of political liberty and the blessings of modern civilization, there is a class, comprising the bulk of the agricultural laborers and the unskilled operatives of the manufacturing.and commercial towns, whose condition is all the more wretched from its violent contrast with that of the more fortunate classes, and whose lot in life could scarcely have been more hopeless had they been born in the twelfth century instead of the nineteenth. LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 105 MANNERS, HOUSEHOLD EXPENSES, ETC. To the foregoing tables may be added, in a less concise form, information derived from (1) the household-roll of Eleanor, Countess of Leicester, for A. D. 1265, and (2) the "Expenses" and "Accounts and memoranda " of Sir John Howard, first D)uke of Norfolk, for the ten years from 1462 to 1471, inclusive.'These quaint and interesting (locumnents, together with the accounts of the executors of Eleanor, consort of Edward I, bearing date A. D. 1291, were prepared for publication by Beriah Botfield, esq., who also wrote a valuable introduction explaining the papers, and giving some account of the lives of the persons to whom they relate. The papers and introduction together constitute a royal-octavo volume of 716 pages, which was issued from the Shakespeare Press, London, in 1841. The two earlier documents are printed in mildle-age Latin; the other in the English of the time in which it was written. In addition to the statistical information which they contain, they furnish curious illustrations of the manners of the periods to which they respectively relate, and they also contain interesting memoran(la of the lives of persons conspicuous in English history. The period between the insurrection of the barons, in the reign of Henry III, and the contest of the rival houses of York and Lancaster, in the fifteenth century, was signalized by some of the most important changes which the manners and ilnstitutions of the English people have ever undergone, and the effect of these changes upon the condition of the people is strikingly illustrated by a comparison of the accounts and memoranda of Sir John Howard with the household-roll of the Countess of Leicester, which was written about two hundred years earlier. " The increase of population," says Mr. Botfield, "has occasioned a greater division of labor, and those arts which at the former period were generally carried on by the domestics of every tfaily of consequence, now [i. e., in. the time of Sir John Howard] support persons who make them the means of au independent livelihood. Brewing and baking have become profitable trades, and the tailor has ceased to be a domestic servant. * * * Notwithstanding the country had long suffered from civil commotions, it is obvious that wealth is greatly increased; inns have beell established in country towns; a traveler no longer takes with him his wine and provisions, ais (lid the Earl of Leicester; taverns have arisen in London, and become places of common resort for people of rank;' Mastres Ysabell lodges at the Bell in Westminster, and her father, Sir John, takes his wine and waffers at the San in Lombard street, or breakfasts with mny Lord Audley at the Greyhound in Eastcheap. The salme increase of wealth has brought with it a corresponding degree of luxury in dress and the general conveniences of life. The countess wore some garments of sheepskin, and was content with woolen gowns of which the nap was shorn more than once. My Lady Howard has her'plytes of fyne lawne,' and Humphrey Gentili, the Lomblard, supplies Sir John with costly cloths of damask, satin, and velvet ulpon velvet' pyrled with goold.' In the age of the countess ladies arranged their dress with skewer-like implements, but fair'Mastress Anne' Howcard used'f'yne pynnes.' * * * Of all things the means of comnmunication between distant places was, perhaps, the least improved. Roads and bridges were still wanting. I)obbe, the shepherd, guides the Countess of Leicester from Odiham to Porchester, and Sir John, on his road to Chester, gives a penny'to a mayde that tawte the way ovyr Tyddysbery (Didsbury) forthe.' "It would be easy to institute a more minute and less desultory com 106 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. parison between the manners of the two periods, as illustrated by the present work. The accounts of Sir John- Howard show the state of almost every department of domestic economy in his time. We have payments to bakers and brewers, builders, armorers, and shilpwrigats; silversmiths, mercers, drapers, tailors, and cordwainers; to sailors, soldiers, and servants; they contain notices of farming and stockinlg fish1ponds; and, taken in conjunction with the Paston letters, they furnish the liveliest picture we possess of any period anterior to the invention of printing." The household-roll of the Countess of Leicester contains considlerable curious information in regard to the diet of both the upper and lower classes in her time, but so much of it as would be suitable to the present work has been substantially anticipated. The following list, however, will serve to show the prices of a number of articles then comprehended under the general term " spicery,"' and but little used except among the wealthy: Sugar, per pound, is. to 2s.; almonds, 21d. to 3-d.; anise, 3d.; cinnamon, 10d.; galingal, ls. 6d. to 3s.; ginger, lod., Is., is. 6d., 2's.;* pepper, 8d., 10d., Is.; cloves, 10s. to 12s.; cumuin, Ad.; fennel, dried, 3d.; rice, lid.; saffron, 10s. to 12s. In connection with the subject of condiments, it may be noliced that mustard, veijuice, and vinegar were used in considerable quantities. Items occasionally occur for the purchase of table linen, plates, dishes, and drinking cups. In respect to wearing apparel the roll contains little information. Woolen cloths were thb chief material of female apparel, but the following materials are also mentioned, viz, linen, sindon,t scarlet and rayed or striped cloths of Flemish, French, or Italian make, pers, or blue cloth, manufactured chiefly in Provence, russet, say or serge, and blanchet, or blanket, a name supposed to mean flannel. When woolen cloth was new the nap was generally very long, and after wearing it some time it was customary to have it shorn, a process which was repeatedwas long as the cloth would bear it. Thus the Countess of Leicester sends IHicqe, her tailor, to London to get her robes reshorn. There are two passages in the roll in relation to the cost of a pocket breviary for the use of Eleanor de Montt-ord. Twenty dozen of fine vellum, purchased for this book, cost 10s., and the writinrg, which was execulted at Oxford, cost 14s. A noteworthy circumstance connected with this document is the fact that the household servants mentioned therein are generally distinguished by Saxon names, such as Hande and Jacke of the bake-house, Hicqe the tailor, Jacke the keeper of the countess's harriers, Dobbe the shepherd, Diqon, Gobithesty, and Treubodi, who were often employed in carr.ying letters, and Slingaway, a courier, whose name was probably descriptive of his gait and manner. The accounts of Sir John Howard relate to a period posterior by from sixty to seventy years to the date at which Mr. Rogers' tables terminate. They were transcribed from the original manuscripts, of which, at the time of the publication of Mr. Botfield's book, there were trwo in existence, one of them forming a part of the valuable archaeological collectibn of Sir Thomas Phillips, bart., at Middle. Hill, while the other was the property of the Duke of Norfolk. Mr. Bot -field states that the only *When several different prices are given they are obtained from difflrelnt entries. It seems strange, however, that the price of ginger should have varied in so short a time from 10d. to 2s. t This has been interpreted to mean satin or very fine linen. LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 107 liberty taken with the text has been that of extending contracted words and inserting a few points. In the published work the modern printed characters are necessarily used instead of the manuscript letters of the fifteenth century, but the quaint and irregular spelling of the original dlocuments is faithfully preserved, the same Nword being sometimes spelled in two or three different m5ways in a single entry. Tlhe accoulnts were kept by a steward who refers to Sir John as " my ma styr;" but occasional entries are found in the handwriting of Sir John himselt; and these are indicated by printing them in italics. The " Explenses" and "Acconnts and memoranda " cover 473 pages of Mr. Botfield's )oo0k, and the following extracts embrace onlly occasional entries, wlhich have been selected so as to include the prices of a considerable variety of articles and the wages of different kinds of labor. In many of the entries a few unnecessary words are omitted. Thus, the entry on page 111,' IFore costs fore my lady lyinge at London be xiiij dayis in bred a:d vy taylle, xvijs. jd.," is prece(ed in the original by thle words,' Item, the samlle day my master payd to Seynclow." Occasionally explanatory words are interpolated and put in parentheses, aind in a very few ilnstances easily distinguishable by the torm of expression, the language of the oliginal entry, for the sake of clearness or brevity, has been entirely abandoned. The following are the extracts, with the years to which the different entries relate: A. D. 1462. Item, ffor makynge off a jacket off crymysyn clothe ffor my sayd lord.... ij. 8. iiij. d. Item payd for lynynge to the said jacket................................ xij. d. Item, fro niruakynge off a long gown and lynynge the slevys..................... ij. s. Item, pa. d ffor makynge off a short gown off roset............................ xx. d. Iteni, payd fifor iij zerdys off blakkeffryce I................................. ij. s. ob. Item, paxyd ffor makynge off nmy lordys tawny cloke lynyd wyth velvet.... vj. d. Item, payd ffor mlakynge off a jaket off the kyngys levery.-............. xx. d. Itetml, ffor lynynge to the same jakett........................................ xij. d. Item, payl ffor browderynge off a kloke............... xvj. d. Item, payd to John Frawnseys ffor to pay to John Kooke ffor ffurynge off my lordys long gowne................................................... vi iij. s..ix. d. Item, payd ffor a new tronke flor my lord whych was delyvared to Willyam off Wardrope.............................................. -X. 8. Iteml, my mastyre payd ffor a whyte bonett for my lord...................... xvj. d. Item, my nmastyre payd fior iij. zerdis off blakke velvet -..................... j. Item, payd fifor a horsse to Rogere Tego.................................... xxx. 8. Item, payd ftir a daggere ffor my sayd lord.................................... xx. d. A. D. 1463. Item, my mastyre payd at Donwyche ffor a samon ffor my sayd lord........... xx. d. Item, my nmastyre payd the xj. day off Jully, at Yipswyche, ffor ij. tonns off Spanyshe wym1e flor my seyd lord............................................... xvj. mare. Item, fifr xx. drynkyng dyscheys......................................... x. d. Item, v. doseyn platerys........... _. iij.. iiij. d. Item, flor v. doseyn sawceres x. d. Itenm, payd ffor iiij. c. stokfyscheys.......................................... iiij. li. Item, viij. pypys salt....................................................... xiij.. Item, iiii. barellys salt........................................................ ij. 8. Item, payd * * * * ffor ij. peyre off morrey hosyn ffor my mastyr...... xiij. s. Item, payd to Thomas Goldsmythe ffor a chene off goll.......................... xl. 8. Item, to Thomas Thorppe ffor a peyre shoyis.................................. vj. d. Item, ffor di. t a pownd of dynamaun........................................ x. d. Item, fior v. li. datys8..................................................... ij. s. vj d. Item, vj. Ii. almundys...................................................... xviij. d. Item, fior j. li. sugar....................................................... xviij. d. Item, the same day payd ffor a potelle wyne................................... v. d. Item, payd to the cordwaner ffor ij. peyr shoyis and a peyre botuys ffor my mastyr.............................................................. ij. vj. d. * Black frieze. t One-half. t Cynamaun. 108 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Item, payd to Clayson for v. pypys of byer, the sayd day, iiij. of them for my masterys balynger spent to Caleyys ward, and j. pype thys day............... xxvj. 8. viii. d. Item, payd the sayd day flor xvilj. yerdys of lynen kloyt, bowyt of Dene of Herwysche..........................................................: v.8. iij. d. Item, ffir a pot off trayacle ffor my lady....................................... iiij. d. Item. ffor an elle off canvas.................................................. iiij. d. Item, payd for a peyre knyvys ffor my mastyr.................................. v. d. Item, payd the sayd day for wayshyng of my masterys shyrte................. d. Item, payd the xxx. day of Octobyr, for ij. bosshellys otys, at the Holt...... vj. d. oh. Item, payd for a goys* for my mastyr........................................iiij. d. Item, payd for a peyre shoys for John Reschardde, the scheld t of the stabylle.. - vj. d. Item, my mastyr paid the xvj. day of Novembyr, for iij. lodys hay -..... vij. 8. Item, ffor flotynge off a peyr botys, ffor John Davy........................ vj. d. A. D. 1464. Item, payd for a payr hosyn ffor the chyld off the stable........................ x. d. Item, for ij. breshys.......................................................... iij. d. Item, for iiij. zerds and di. off damaske, to John Martyn.. -x...........xvj......... xv. s. Item, the same day my mastyr payd ffor iij. zerdys ffusteyn blakke........ ij. 8. iij. d. Itemn, the same day for x. zerdys off Chawmpeyn clothe.................. iij. 8. vii. d. Item, to Thorp for a shyrt the same day...................................... xij. d. Item, ffor ij. mennys dyner the same day.................................. iiij. d. Item, the same day payd ffor x. zerdys sarsynet to Thomas Rowson, merser in Chepesyde -XX..8............................... xx. 8. Item, the same day payd to my masterys taylor ffor makynge off a tawny gown ffor my mastyr..................................................................... iii.. item, the same day ffor iiij. off your mennys dyner at Lambythe ---- -------—. viii. d. Item, the same day for x. zerdys off blew bokeram, prise the zerd vi. d.... summa, v. s. Item, the sayd day payd ffor a blaklke bonet for my mastyr.................... xx. d. Itenm, the sayd kay payd ffor a qiuarte wyn....................................... ij. d. Item, the same tyme payd for a ili. candyllys...................... j. d. ob. Item, the same day payd to John Smythe, sadeler, for ij. sadelys............. sxiiij. s. Item, the same day my mastyr payd to the smyth in Stanstret for shoyng of xx. shois.............................................................. ij. s. vj. d. Item, the sanme day payd for a quarter otys.................................. xviij. d. Item, for a payr sporys $ for Jake of stable................................... viij. d. Item, the same day my mastyr payd for a c. and a quarter of saltffyshe......... xv. s. Item, for shoynge of a horse at Lanam-......... -.............................. ij. d. Item, payd bor a pype of new Gascoyne wyn................................. xxxv. s. Item, the xxvj. day of June, my mastyr payd to Scraton for a zerd and a quarter of blakke clol he. —..-. - --------—...-.. —- —.-.. —-- --------- xvj. d. And I payd the same tyme fore a scherte and for a peyer shoes fore Jake........... x. d. Item, the same day payd to a man of Colchestre, for xvij. ellys of corse Holond clothe................................................................ vij. S. j. d. Item, the vj. day of Jule, my mastyr payd to Payne, for iiij. dayis werke...... viij. d Item, my mastyr payd for xx. lenges 11...................................... ii. ii. Item, the same day my mastyr payd for x. coddys.......i.. Item, the i ij. day of Octobre, my mastyr payd ffor iij. ellys of fyn Holond for a shyrt for hym selffe...... —.... ——....... —---------------- ----- ----- iiij. s. vj. d. Item, payd for a payr botez for my master.................................-.. iiij. 8. Item, my master gaffe to the bryngere of them -.............. d. Item, payd fore a payre shoes and a payr penssons --—....................-... xij. d. Item, payd fore ij. payr shoes and ij. payr sokkes for m. Thomas and m. Nichollas........................... ——..-.......... xvj. d. Item, payd fore a payr hosen for Lew........................................ xxj. d. Item, payd for a shert for the same Lew...................................... ix. d. Item, the xxviij. day of Desembre, my master payd to yonge Wendam fore a dagger....................................... —----—........ —-----------—...... —-- ------------ iij. s. iiij. Item, the same day my master payd to Thomas of Wardroppe, fore makenge of my ladyis goune of cremson velvet-..-.....: —-. ——.-.. — -—. —--- ------ vj. 8. The xviij. da3y of Desembre my master payd to Lumpner, the mersere, for xiij. yerdes of crymysyn velvet, pryse the yerd, xvij. s....8 —-------—. summa totalis, xj. ii. xij. d. For xij. yerdes of fyne cremysen velvet, pryse the yerd, xvij. s...... summa, x. ii. iiij. a. Receyved for a cowes hyde.................................... xv. d. Receyved of John Noryse for talow of the said cow..x.................. xix. d. Receyvid of John Doket for a boloke hyde.. -............................... xii. d. For vj. ii. talow of the said bollokke........................................ v. d. For the fate and the offaile of a boloke....................................... iiij. d. Paid fore a payre shoes fore Anne Fuller...................................... iiij. d. * Goose. t Child. $ Spurs. 1I Ling. Q Cod. LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 109 Fore clowting of master Danyelles shoes-....................................... ij. d. For makenge of ij. petycotes for mastres Marget and m. Anne...........-...... iiij. d. For iij. ii. candelles-...................................................... iiij. d. ob. Fore a pygge-............................................................... iiij. d. Fore ij. saltfyshes —........'...................x. d. Fore a kow bout at Blakborow at Seynt Katerynes feyre-... 8.. vij.. v. d. Paid to John Pepyne for a bullok-..................................... ij. 8. viij. d. For a pekke of otemelle...................................................... iij. d. Fore a quarter beffe x............. Xx. d. For vj. spones.-................................................................ ob. For xv. bowstryngges........................................................ v. d. For a shepe-.................................................................. xx. d. A. D. 1464-5. Item, my master gaffe to the Kynge a cawser* called Lyard Duras, the same day, the wiche coste my master...................................................... xl. ii. Item, my master gaffe to the Quene a cowser called Lyard Lewez, the wiche cost my master.................................................................... viij. ii. Item, to Cuniberton for a letelle panne, the same day......................... vj. d. For an axe for the chambre.................................................. viij. d. For botehyre fro London to Grenewyche-. iiij. d. Item, for a ii. of whyzthe soppe -,.-.-.-,. -.-,,,,,,,.-.-..................... ij. d. ob For a di. an nnce of tawny sylke --------------------- vij. d. To Arnold, gooldsmythe, for a jasynt sett in goold. —.........................xx. 8s. Payd for a doblet for Boton —- --- ---------- --------- - iij. s. For vi. elles canvas for the chambre at Eltam................................ xxj. d. For a payr shone for Boton at Eltamv........................................ ij. d. For shoying Thurstone's horsse -......................iiij. d. For Thurstone's bors Senete at Eltami i.-..-......................ij.. id. For makynge of Boton's hosez and his gowne................................ xvj. d. The same day, in exspenses of iij. Mennev i.................. Vij. d. For iiij. yerdes of russet firysei fore his (Sir John's) longe gonne of velvet - iJ. 8. iiJ. d. For iiij. yerdes and di. of blakke fryse fbr his russet goune of velvet..- ij. s. vij. d. ob. For iij. yerdes of blak frysse for hys goune of blakke --....................... xxij. d. For a yerd of blak sarsenet fore ly] yny ge for ij. typettes of russett velvet -.... v. s. Item, the same day my master gaff to Ser Thomas a Borow a dagger that cost hym ---------------—.............. viij. 8. iiij. d. Item, the iiij.th day of Feverer, my master payd fore his soper at the Grewd,$ in Esehepe.............................................................. iiij. 8. ij. d. Item, payd for ij. yerdes and a quarter of cremysen engreyned for a gonne for rmastres Margret..................................................... xvj. s. vihj. d. For a furre -- -................ —--- -—. —----- -. -..-. —-—. —--—.. viij. s. iiij. d. Fore xij. elles canvas, prise the elle, iiij. d..................................... ij 8. Item, my master gaff to a barbour............................................ iiij. d. Fore a peyre shoes and a peyre of patyns..................................... xij. d. For a boke conteynynge vij. quayres off fyne paper 8. j. d Fore lyynyge of.my master's longe blak goune... —.................... iiij. 8. viij. d. Fore makenge of the said goune-.............................................. xx. d. Item, the xxvj. day of Janevere, paid fore vij. menes dyners................... x. d. For a peyre shoes for my master............................................ viij. d. Payd to a barbor............................................................ iij. d. Fore wyne and waffers at the Sonne, in Lumberd strete...................... ij. d. Item, the iij. day of Feverer, payd Mastres Ysbelles costs at the Belie at Westemenster..................-.xvj. d. Item, the same day, paid ffore iiij. menues sopers that brout her to London... -.- vi. d. Item, paid for Braham sopere at Lyncolnes Ynne, the same tyme.-............ ij. d. For a quarte malmesey...................................................... iiij. d. For a quarte wyne for James Hobard and Solyard............................. ij. d. Fore ij. mennes dyners.......................................................v. v.d. For a Ii. candelles............................................................ ij. d. Fore vj. mnennes dyners-...................................................... vij. d. For Braham's dynere......................................................... ij. d. For Braham's soper at Lyncolln Yn -i................. ij. d. To the cordwanere for shoes for my master................................... xij. d. For an horsse be iij. dayes-................................................... xx. d. For wrytynge of a superviso.................................................. ij. d. For vj. mennes sopers...................................................... xiij. d. To the barbor.- -........ -.............................. ij. d. Courser. t Fieze. Greyhound. 110 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Fore horssehyre to Stoke be iiij. dayis................................... ij. 8. vij. d For botehyre fro Westemenster to London................................... iij. d. For a quarter coles........................................................v. d. Fore a fiaken ale for nmy lady -................-x.......... d. A. D. 1405. For ij. payre old shetes................................................ iiij. S. viij. d. Item, the xj. day of Jenevere, my master bout of Rygon x. coverlytys of taptery werke, a pece couteynynge xxx. flernyshe elles, and ix. peces con0teVynyge xx. fenlyshe elles, every peee pryse the pece, xx. 8.................................. sumlma, X. x. 8. Payd to Arnold, gooldsmythe, ffoore a tablett of goold -.............. i;j. li. xx. d. Fore iij. ryngge s with stoones...................................... xxv. s. Fore a flaket of sylver...................X...................................... Bout of Arnold, gooldsmythe, a dyvyse of goold for Mastres Margret, the pryse thereof is.....................-............................... xl.s. Payd for iij. yvery combes ------—.... -—..-......................................... xvj. d. For iij. carpettes -xxiii. --—... —-... —.s. iij. d. Item, the xv. day of Marche, my master boont of goldsmythe in Chepe sertayn selvere veselles, and my rmaster to pay the said goldsmnyt!e for every unnce -... ——. iij. s. Item, the day and yere above wreten, my master paid to Freman, his bedml akere, for nmakenge of a bed wyth v. costres to the same............................... xx. S. Item, paid hym for xxviij. li. lyere, pryse the Ii. v. d.............. summa, xij..s. xi. d. Item, paid hym xxix elles canvas, pryse the elle, v. d-............ suimna, xij. S. v. d. Item, payd hym for viij. Ii. corde, pryse the li., v. d. —.. ——... summa, iij. 8. iiij. d. Item, pay(l hym for v. Ii. di. of frenge. pryse the li., xvj. d........ summa, vii. s. iiij. d. Item, paidl ym for leags fore xij. coshones..................................... v.s. Item, paid him for vj. stone feders, pryse the stone, ii. s................. summa, xij. s. Item, paid hym fobre takeenge of the same koshons............................. ij. s. Item, paid hym fore performynge of the valaunee.............. iij. ns iiij. d. Item, the, yere a foresaid, and the xxviii. day of Mlarche, my master bout of Umllfey, the goldsmythe, a chaffer of silver weyinge xviij. unnces and a quarter, and Mny master payd hbyl therfor of old grotes 8................................ s. And in new grotes. —--..................... —----------------—.............. —- ------------------ ij. s. vi. d. A short gourle, clothe of cremysen velvet, pryse the yerd-....................... x. s. A short goune, clothe of tawny velvet, prise the yerd........................... x.s. A sadylle, a lytylle harneys, & xij. roynes...... xj. 8. viij. d. Item, John Hule, off the town off Cley, in Norffolke, owyth hym be oblygacicni flor a shype.............-...-......................x........... gij. ii. Item, ffor a combe whete............................................ j. iij. d. Item, for a payr shone for my lady............................................ v. d. Item, for a payr shone for mastres Margett................................... iiij. d. Item, the samle day my mastyr paid to Mawt Clerke, for a ram and xix. ewes, pryse the pece xx. d......................... snumma, xxxiij. s. iiij. d. Item, paid here the same day for v. lanmbes, pryse the pece xij. d -....... sulmma, v. 8. Item, the same day my mastyr paid her ffor a sowe.................. ij: a. Item, my mastyr paid her for a gander, iiij. bredegese and v. yonge goslyndges, the prise of alle drav yth........................................................... iiij. s. Item, the same day paid for a fferken ale...................................... x. d. Item, my mastyr paid to Cumbert n for an hatte........................ ij. a. viij. d. Item, for a payr sheres and a payr gloves for mastres Ysbelle.................. iiij. d. Item, my mastyr paid to the cordauner for ij. ptayr shoyis for him selff........ xvi. d. Item, my mastyr hat he paid for iij, pelewes t of downe -........... vi,. s. viij. d. Item, for ij, tylers iij. dayis, every day viij. obt... —............... summa, iiij. s. iij. d. Item, for a laborer iij. dayis......-..-........ —-- - ----—.. xvj. d. Item, for j. lode of saunde...................................................... d. Item, iij. sakkes lyme.......................... vj. d. Item, for Ix. fete of elmen borde................................... xs. d. Item, for ij. carpenters iiij. dayis and di., the (lay viij. d. ob... summa, vj. 8. iiij. d. ob. Itemn, the same day my mastyr paid for xxvj. i. flax..................... -vj 8,. Item, fbr xij. ii. datesvj................... v. s. Item, for vj. li. reysops of Corauns................. v........ d. Item, for j. li. of ponder of gynger......................... xvj. d. Item, the same day my mastyr paid to a Ducheman fir vj. ferkens of whygthe hereng(e i.J..... ii8j. j. iij.d. Item, the same day my mastyr paid for xxxij. fresche herenges...-.-. —-.. vj. d. Item, the same day my mastyr paid to James Peterson for a galone oyle......., xij. d. Item, the v. day, a quarter beffe, the prise............................ xix. d. Item, paid for sewenge of iij. federbeddes, iij. bolsteres, and ix. pelewes.... vij. s. vj. d. Comb of wheat. t Pillows. $ A halfpenny. LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 111 Item, the same day my mastyr paid for vij. payr of fyn gloves............ ij. 8. iiij. d. Item, the xiiij. day of Aprylle, my mastyr paid to a draper in Canwey strete, for ij. yerdes of depe bltiw, prise the yerde, vj. s. iij d. ——...................... summa, xi.. vj. d. Itemnl, xxiiij. &hepe, pryse-................................. xlviij. 8. Item, xx. laml, es, pryse. —--... —-..-...... ——...........-. xxvj. X. x. d. item, xxx. pygges, pryse..................................................... xv. s. Item, xij. fi, sawntes, pryse.. —.......... —-------..... —-—. —.. xii 8. Item, xxxij. galones mylke.-....... —---. ——.... —.. —-—. ij. s. viij. d. Item, xvj. barelles of syngelle here, prise the barrelle, ij. 8............ summa, xxxij. 8. Itt:m, the same day my mastyr paid for di. a yerde of damaske. —--.... iiij.'s. ij. d. Item, for xvij. yerdes and a quarter of rede satyn, prise the yerde vi. s. viii. d..-.......-....... v. li. xv. S. And v. lytelle horse, the prise of a pece vij. 8s-..................... summa, Xxxv. 8. Also my master mnste pay fore a quarter whete -...,.....,, -. -....... v. 8. Also fore a fore horse I bowuete the8 day of the seyd Wever.-... —-.-........... zxi. i. Aln d Jbr a peyr qloves.-............ ij. d. A Balenger. ~ Item, the v.th.yere of Kynge Edward the iiij.th, Thomas a Chanmbre sold a balynger of myn masters, the pryse in silver.-.......... viij. marc. vj. s. viij.d. For xj. yerdes russet, ij. yerdes brode, prise the yeld, ij. 8. v. d.......... xxvj. 8. vij. d. To the Kynlgges cordwaneres man flor iij. payre of shoez..-...... -............ ij. s. Fore ij. gerdels of sylke, with a harneys of sylver and geltt. —----------- vj. s. viij. d. For ij. payre of murry hosen engreyned...................................... xiiij. 8. Fore sarsnet fore his (Sir Johu's) tepet, and fore lynynge of hys gounys.-. xij. s. v. d. Item, my master payd for a hat ij. and blonettes for hym sellffe.. v. 8. iiij. d. Item, the same day my mastyr gff to Jemes Redesman a rynge, prise.-. —. —-- v. s. Item, geven to Roger Rey a rynge, the same day, pryse.. —----- ------------—. Xij. 8. Item, my master gaff to the heraudes the same day............................. x. 8. Item, my master gaff to the menstrales the same day....... x.s. Item, my mnaster gaff to the troumpettez the same dasy —... -.X.. ——. x.s. For board of workemen engaged on some work for Sir John Howard, each man per diem-. —... —-. —----—........ —----—...... —-..... —-—... ----- ij. d. iij. c. of oken bord, for every hundred-.. —- -.-.-..-....-.... xxviij. d. For x. stodes, pryse every pece iij. d.-.-...... -- -....-. summa, ij. 8. Vj. d. For a beeme -—.. — -----—.. —----- -—.. —... —.. —...... — ------. viij. d. Fore iiij. smale stodes. —....-..... —... —-- —...... iiij. d. Fore a baye stoole.............-.....-.. —-—. ---------—.. ——.......... xij. d. For iilj. uoyneles to the same bay wyndow, pryse of every pece- - - - -- - -- - - -- ij. d. Fore xj. day werke in carpentry................... iij. 8. viij. d. For iij. dayis werke uppou a bay wyndow and a stodye....................... xij. d. To John Cobdok off Sudbury for a day werke and a hallf...................... vj. d. Fore Jolhn Copdoke of Halsted for ij. di. dayes werke.-. —----- -----------... iiij. d. Fore ij. dayes werke of Joll: Strete, prentys to the same John Copdok.-...... iiij. d. Bly master paid for his brekefalst at Westemenster.. —---—... —--------- ix. d. Payd for John Despayns botes.-......................... —-------—..... ——.... —....... xiiij. d. For a horsecambe ----..-..... --- ----—. —. ——. —--........... ij. d4 For caryinge of a feder bed fro Westmlenster to London......................... ij. d. My master payd to hys cordwanere fore iij. pair shone.......................... ij. s. Fore a payr patyns for my master............................................ iij. d. Fore a payre shoes fore mastres Marget...................................... iiij. d. My master payd foPe a hatt.................................................. iiij. My master paid for a typett fore my lord of Norffolke..iiij. 8.iii Fore costes fore my lady lyinge at London be xiiij. dayis, in bred and vytaylle. xvij.. j.d. Fore a barelle and a kylderkene ale, to the wyffe of the Garlond in Escbepe..................... iiij. 8. ii. d. My master spent at hys brekefasste with my lord Audeley, at the sygne of the Grewud............................................................... j. s. x. d. For ij. yerdes clothe fore a goune fore Braham.......... 8.. d. My master paid for a tonne wyne, that is to say, a pype and ij. hogges hedes.. c.s. For a new sadelle -............... — -—...... —-...................... viij. 8. iiij. d. For a doblet and a payr hosen for lew.................................. v. 8. iiij. d. For a potelle wyne. -...................-....................... —. —..... iiij. d. For iiij. barres to the hoggeshedes of wyne................ iiij. d. Paid at Westmenster for a bed by xi. wekes............................ iij.. viij. d. Fore ij. elles Holand clothe. —---—.. —.........-..-.. —-------—.. ——. ij. a. viij. d. Paid to WVadselle for hangynge of aras be iij. dayis, and for ma'kenge of a payre sleves to a kertelle. —-.. —.................. ——. ij. 8. For a plite of laune.................... x.d. Fore an elle and di fiyne Holand clothe................................. ij.. vj. d. For iiij. elles of corse holand............................................ ij. 8. Vj. d. Paid to Nete and to John Mase for ij. day werke at Stoke Halle ponde -.-.. xij. d. My master gaffe to the persone of Framyngham for his potentes........ viij.. iiij. d. 112 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. To Nicholle Perye for wrytynge of the said potentes.............-....... iiij. 8. ij. d. For ij. boshelles of saltte......................................... xx. d. For ix. fote of glasse to the new closet.................................... iij. S. ix. d. For xilj. galons age..................................... ij. s. Fare xxxj. c. sali)fshe, prise of c., xxv. 8...................... summa, xxxvij. li, x. 8. Fore a quartere beleff.................................................... xxiij. d. A saddle, price............................................................. v. s. A bonnet... xii. d. Fore a sadlylle -..v........................... vj. 8. A. D. 1466-7. Fo-re makenge of xij. coshones of cremesene and grene velvet, prise............ iiij. 8. Fore the stuffenge of the said coshones, fore vi. stone fethers, prise the stone ij. S.. xij. s. Fore a bonet fore master Gorge.......................................... xij. d. xviij. yerdes of fyne plonket, prise the yerde.......... iij. s. iiij. d. X peces of counterfet tapstre, every pece conteynenge xx. flemyshe elles, prise the pece xj. 8. Item, the xviij. day of December my mastyr bowt of Bolstrode x. yerds of russet for ij. longe gownes for my lorde and a gowne for my lady, the yerde vj. s. viij. d -—............ —-—. —.......... —----- summa, iij. Ii. vj. s. viij. d. Iteml, my mastyr paid to Edwardes wyffe for j. cade. of rede herynge, the wyche my mastyr sent'to John Hoobbes. —...............................-.. ---------------- v. 8. Item, payd to Thomas Purcer, for Willyam Fykett, for ij. dayis werke........... vj. d. Item, my mastyr paid to ij. carpenters of the Holke, for werkenge on his werke, ij. dayis eche of themm................................ xv. d. Item, my nmastyr paid to Jemes Peterson for a galon oyle for the peyntenge of the payovses' *ij. d. Item, * y* my mastyr paid for a Ii. t of whygthe led.. - -....-.. iij. d. Item, my mastyr rekened wyth Willyam Welshe, and the said Willyam axsethe for tylenge of my masters place at London, be the space of xx. dayis, every day *viij. d....... —----—......-....................... ------— summa, xiij. 8. iiij. d. Item, fore his laborer servynge him, be the said xx. dayis, for every day v. d. ——.. ——........ --... -—.. —.. —.. ——. —-. summa, viij. 8. iiij. d. Item, * * for iij. lodes of sand..................................... xviij. d. Item, the same (lay my mastyr payd fore a hatt............................... iiij. s. Item, the same day paid for v. mennez deners............................... viiij. d. Item, the same day paid fore ij, mennes sopers....................... iij. d. Item, paid for iiij. barelles of pyche and terre -------------------—....... xv.iij. 8. Item, the yere a bove sayd, and the xxviij. day of Feverer, t my master bout iiij. sponez of sylvere weyinge iiij. unnces, marked wyth a rose, and my master payd for every unnce ilj. —-----. —......-..-....-................. summa, xij. 8. Item, the same day paid fore vj. mannez dyners............................... vij. d' Item, the same day at nyzthe for iiij. mennes soppers....................... viij. d. Paid for a bowe at Caleys.............................................. iij. 8. iiij. d. A sadylle, pryse.................. An entry records that "Danyelle," a servant, began service with Sir John on the next day after HIoly Rode day, in the 7th year of Edw. IV. His yearly wages in money was to be.. —---—. —-- ------... -xl. s. He was also to receive "ij. gownes and a howse for his wife tq dwelle at Stoke." Item, my master toke hym (Danyelle) a peyre of botes that cost hym........... iij. s. Item, an olde peyre of spores tht coste my mnaster-.... —........ vj. d. Item, my imaster toke hym a standard bowe that Melsone gaff hym, and it is worthe in money................................... vj. s. viij. d. An entry records that Robart Messendene receives by the year....... xxvij. s. viij. d. A pair of hose.................................................;j.. i ij.. d. A doublet and a pair of hose...................... vj. 8. For a shiyrte................................................................xv. d. For a shyrte.............. iij. 8. iiij. d. A. D. 1468. For v. c. salt fyshe, the price.................................................... ii. For xiiij. barels of fyshe........................................ iiij. li. xiij. 8. iiij. d. For ix. barels of flishe, price.................................................. iij. lii Item, the secunde day of September, and the yere afore seid, my ruaster made comenaunte with John Matlow to brue hym lxxx. pipes of beyr by this day fourthnighte, paieng for the pipe and the beyr vj. 8. iiij. d............................... X.. X * Large shields. t A pound. t February. ~NOTE.-The numerals " iiij. x 1" printed in italics are in the handwriting of Sir John Howard, and relate, not to the aggregate cost of the beer, but to the number of pipes, which was eighty-or fourscore. LABOR IN EUROPE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 113 Paid to the godewife at the Sone in the Kinges strete at Westmynster for vj. pipes, price of the pipe, viij. d..-.............................. —. sumlma, iiij. s. For an hogreshed...........iiij. d. Item, the iiij.th day of September, my master paid to Waneshed for xxv. bullokkes of small and gret, the price of a pece, xii. 8. x. d summa, xxiij. marc. xv. 8. For a M. fyshes, the prise of a c., xx. 8......................... summa, x. li. For vj. barels fyshe, price of a barelle, vj. s. viij. d.......... xl. s. Item, the iij.d day of September, bought of Lewes Galyot viij. Xx* and xvi. quarters whete, after the account of ix. bushels fore viij., payng fore every quartere, vij.........................................summa, j. i. xxij.. Item, paid to Clase for c. and di. of pipe hopes...-.... v. s. Item, the ix. day of September, my master bonught of Waneshed xlij. oxene, plice..-..x....... xxviij. li. x. s. Item, paid for a barge hyre to bryng fyshe from Wheneheth to Redcliff. iij. s. iiij. d. Item, paid for lxiij. cheses, weyng ij. weyt and a halfe, price of a wey, ix................................................... summa, xxiij. s. ix. d. Item, paid for ij. wey salt, price the wey, xv. s.. —-.. —--. sumnia, xxx. s.. Item, paid for vj. waneshottes, price of the pece, vii. d...... iij. s. vi. d. Item, paid for vij. wey of leay salt, price the wey, xiiij. s -. summa, iiij. li. xviij. s. For ix. xx quarters (180 quarters) whete, and to every quarter a bushelle, the price of every quartere, vij............................................... summa, xiij. li. Paid to Robert Diesone fore xxv. M. le and di. of wode, price of a M. le, iiij. s. viij. d..................................... V. li. xvj. s. viij. d.. Item, paid to John Wilkokkes, the xv. day of September, for xx. oxene-. xvj. li. Item, paid to hym fore xiij. oxene of a noder sorte, the same day, price of a. pece, xiij. s. viij. d.-........... summa, viij. li. xvij. s. viij. d. Item, paid to hym the same day fore xx. gret oxene..-.. xvij. li. For x. smal oxene....................................... vj. Ii. vj. s. viij. d. For xx. kyene... x. s. For viij. oxene and steres....................................... v. ii. vij. s. viij. d:. For other ij. oxene.-. -.................... —.......... —. xxiiij. s. viij. d. For iiij. oder oxene.............................. viij. d: For v. steres............................. ii. li. For vj. new salkkes..........................V............................... vj. s Item, my master paid to Warrewick, my lord of Warwyk harofide for ccc. xij. quarters. of whete, safe a bushelle, price of a quarter of whete..... viij. s. Item, paid to Richard Semer, ffyshemongere, for viij. c. dryed saltfysshe, price, of a c. xxiiij. s.............................................. summa, ix. ii. xij. 8. Item, the xxj. day of September, my master paid to a buchere of London for xx. oxene,. price of a pece, xv. 8. vi. d.................................... summa, xv. li. x.. Item, paid to the same bucher for x. bullokkes, the same day, price of a. pece, xij. s................................ summa, vj. i. For viij. wey of salt, the price of a wey, xiiij. s. vj. d............. summa, v. li. xv. S. Paid to master Coke for v. pipes........................................ iij.. iiij. d. Item of Reynold, wynedrawer, vij. pipes, price.......................... 8s. Item, paid for bryngyng downe of xx. empty pipes frome Kinges hed in Chepe to the watir side.................................... xvij. d. Item, paid fore a.barge that brought vij. wey of salt and lxiij. cheses,.and a. pipe of wvine to Redelif............-............................. xvj. d. Paytd to PRoberd Porfoot and to Rychard Porfoote be Whitham, for xv. quarters whete,. price quartyr, ix. (bushels) for viii., viii. s........ summa, Yj. ii. vj. s. Item, p)aid to a Docheman of London for lxij. waneskottes, prie of............. xx. s.. Item, paid to the same Docheman' for ij. c. xij. fyshe, by the smalle tale,. price.................................................. d. Paid *' for vj. barels pyche and terre, price the barel, iii s. viij. d... xxviij. 8.. Fore iiij. barels picho and terre, price the barel, v. s 8 —- summa, xx. s. Item, to iij. cartes of Cobham for carying of ij. lodes and di. of tymber fro Dorkyng to Kyngestone.............iiij.. ij. d.. Item, peaid fore iiij. XX (four score) chese waneskottes, price the pece, vi. d. summa, xl. s.. For xxxviij. othere smallere waneskottes, price the pece, iiij. d. ob.. summa, xiiij. s. iij. d.. For iiij. barelles of pyche and terre..................................... j. S.. Fore iiij. cabilles, a hawsere, and iij. other ropes, weyng xxij. c. xxvi. lb., price the c., viij. s viij. ii. xvij. S.. Paid to a gentel mane of the Kynges house that went with me to the beyr houses. x. d.. Item, paid to the torners for j.c drynkyng bolles, vj.c sawcers, price the c., xvj. d............................................................. viij. s. *The numerals " viij. xx"" mean " eight score," the aggregate quantity of wheat pur — chased being eight score (or 160) quarters, plus sixteen quarters, or 176 quarters. t The wey comprised fourteen stone, or 196 lb. 8 L 114 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Fore iij. c. platers, price the c., iiij. 8.........................................,xij. 8. For iij. gret tankerdes.................................................. iij. s. vj. For xv. galone tankerdes.............................................. vij. s. vj. d. For xv. potelle tankerdes........ For vj. baskettes, price the pece, iij. d.-......... —.......... xviij. d. For xx. gret trayes...............-..................... vj. s. iij. d. Item, paid to a bark fore bryngyug downe of vj. pipes floure, ix. pipes beere, iiij. pipes fleshe, xiiij. c. fyshe to Gravesend...... v.s. For vj. bs. mustard sede.-.............. —..-.... —-. —--- xx. s. For ij. copir ketyls weyng xlviij. ii., price the Ii., vij. d..................... xxviij. 8. Fore iij. brode clothes of russet, the firste clothe contenyng xxv. and di. yerdes, the ij.d pese contenyng xxiiij. and di. yerdes, and the iij.d pece contenyng xv. and di. yerdes, price of a yerde, iij. s. —. -----... —-—. —--- summa, ix. li. xvj. 8. For iij. yerdes and j. quarter and di. of morrey engraned, for gownes for master Thomas & master Nicholace, price of a yerd, ix. s.. —-. —-- -- xxx. s. iij. d. Item, the xxx. day of September, paid for a harnes complet fore hym (Master Nicholace Howard) and an estriche fether..-.... —-- ------—. ——. ——. vj. li. xvj. 8. viij. d. A. D. 1468-9. iiij. barels of fuille heryng of whyte heryng, the price of every barelle, xj. 8.... xliiij. 8. Bocelte of'To7as Molense v. brode clothe.s, iij. plonketes, ij. dereke rosetes, and they conteyen in yerdes viii. x., viii. yerdes, the yerde ij.. iiij. d.; the same drawethe-. i. xii. xij. a. A blake k;lothe kaled pewelve brode klothe, coeteynenge xxj. yerdes and haife, the yered xxx. d.; the some is ------.................... — liij. s. ix. d. For vij. xx ij. qitarteres and a halfe of wete, London mbesewer, (London measure,) the pryse of the quarter is.... —-...... — --—.... —----—... —---.... vj. s. viij. d. Paid to Richard Ashe for xij. pipes of beyre, price the pipe, vij. s. viii. d. summa, iiij. li. For xyj. peses lede, the weyte iiij. foder, cc., iij. quarteres, xxi. Ii., the foder v. li. vj. a. viij. d.; the some is.-..x............................. xxij.li. ij. s. xj. d. Paid to Thomas Burne fore a dagger.................................... vj. s. viij. d. Paid to William Martyn for a lonle of hey................ viij s. iiij. d. Fore a peyer pensones......................................................... iiij. d. Fore a lode hey. —-... —-...-..........-...............................ij. a. Fore a lode strawe............ —.........-....................... —---------- ---- -- ij. s. iiij. d. Paied to Godfrey uppone fte Northe for makencge of xij. jaketes of mayle, and imakeunge clene, and fore the goldsmythes werke to the same -....-..-. —----..- xv. s. Fore a standard of mayle 1-..................... iij. 8 A. D. 1469. For vj. brydille bittes, price the pece, xiij. d............................... vi. ij. d Paid for xiiij. wey salt................ —..................... --—....... ——..... xiii. marc. For xij. elles of fyne holond clothe. -....................... xix. s. ij. d Fore makyng of a long gowne for my masters owne selfe...................... xx. d Fore a di. yerd of blak frese fore the same gowne................................. iiij. d For makyng of a longre blak gowne furred with cony............... —-............ ij. s Fore ij. yerdes and di. of blak lynguge fore the same............................ ii. s Fore lnakynge of a shorte gowne of sdike fore master Nicholace.................. v: 8. Fore a yerd anid a halfe of blak lynyng for the same. —........................... ij. Paid to Hauis, cordwanere, fore ij. pare of shoes fore my master................ xvj. d For ij. pare of shoes fore Edmonde -...................................-..-.. viij. d For Howeth child shoes................................ —---- -—. -—................ —--- v. d. Fore a pare of patens......................................................... iij. d Fore a peyre of shoes fore Herry Hont........................................ vij. d. Fore a peyre of botes for Theome of the stabille................................ vij.-d Fore damaske fore a inew dobelete fore selfe, (Sir John). —--................ —........... —------- xx. s8 lFor ij. yercles of porlpel schamelete fore a jakete fore my selfe-x......................... 8 A. D. 1471. Stefen Hioluethe, be yere' -j.. marke John Blya,bte, be yere................................................... v. marke lelyene 1'?ernewelel, be yee*................................................. v. arke Biery Polyngton, be yere-................................................... v. markhe Johle Schote, be yer e*........................................................ v. lmarke. Yeven Bekersdal, be yere.................v................................... m arke Semlond Man, be yere................................................... iiij. makke Welyeme Palgrave, be yere*-.......................................... xlvj. 8. viij. d. * Either a list of servants, with their yearly wages, or else a portion of a roll o, retainers. ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH POOR LAWVS. 115 ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH POOR LAWS. It has already been remarked that the progress of the nation has dealt very unequally with the descendants of the medieval serfs and villeins. Liberated from their legal thralldom, they enjoyed greatly enlarged opportunities for the exercise of their powers, and a large proportion of them rapidly improved their position, furnishing the bulk of the material out of which the great and influential middle class was gradually built up. It was the misfortune of the English villein that in securing his personal enfranchisement, he relinquished his hold upon the soil to which he and his ancestors had been attached. The consequence was, that in many instances his liberation was but a leap from bondage into pauperism; a result against which the English government of that day took no such humane and statesmanlike precaution as wastaken by Alexander II, in abolishing serfdom in Russia in 1861. Hence as villenage gradually disappeared, there grew up not only the class of free agricultural laborers, and that of artificers and tradesmen in the towns, but a class of mendicants and thieves, whose number became so formidable as to occasion no little trouble and embarralssment to the authorities. The first mention of this class in the statute-book occurs in the year 1349, when it was enacted that "because many valiant beggars, as long as they may live of begging, do refuse to labour, giving themselves to idleness and vice and sometimes to theft or other abominations, none, upon pain of imprisonment, shall, under the colour of pity or alms, give anything to such Which may labour, or presume to favor them in their sloth, so that thereby they may be compelled to labour for their necessary living."" " The nuisance, however," says WVade' in his " History of the Micdle and Working Classes," "was not abated; " and in 1376, we have evidence of a strong dislposition to vagrancy among laborers, in the complaint of the.House of Commons, that masters are obliged to give their servants high wages to prevent them running away; that many of the runaways turn beggars, and lead idle lives in cities and boroughs, although they have sufficient bodily strength to gain a livelihood, if willing to work; that others become staf:strikers, (cudgel-players.) wandering in parties from village to village, but that the chief part turn out sturdy rogues, infesting the kingdoml with frequent robberies. To remedy these evils, the Corrmons propose that no relief shall be given to those who are able to work, within boroughs or iln the country; that vagrants, beggars, and staffstrilkers shall be imprisoned till they consent to return home to work, and whoever harbors a runaway servant shall be liable to a penalty of ten pounds. These enactments show the earliest opinion of Parliament on mendicity, and, from the language of the Com1mons, we learn that the objectionable classes under consideration were chiefly found in towns, where, owing to commerce and the introduction of manufactures, the principal wealth of the nation had accumulated. Two years after, by 12 Richard II, c. 7, it is directed that impotent beggars shall continue to reside in the places where they were at the time of passing this act. In case those places are not able to maintain them, they are to remove to some other place in the hundred or to the place of their birth. From the tenor of this act, it is evident that the district where they finally settled was bound to maintain them, and the legislature of 1388 proceeded on the same principle of compulsory assessment embodied in the celebrated act of Elizabeth in 1601. It seems, too, from the enactments of this period that the indigent classes had a legal claim on the revenues of the clergy. In 1391 it is declared that, in all appropri 116 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. ations of tithe for the support of monastic institutions a certain portion shall be set apart for the maintenance of the poor. In these regulations we see the foundation of the system of poor-laws; and, instead of referring their origin to the 43 Elizabeth, we ought only to ascribe to that act the concentration and development of an ancient practice that had prevailed long before her time. It is apparent, indeed, from the acts to which I have referred, and from other statutes which might be quoted, that, for nearly two centuries prior to the Reformation, the legislature was sedulously struggling against the evil which accompanied the transition from slavery to free labor, and that their policy was directed to objects similar to those which have lately engaged attention, namely, to analyze the mass of vagabondage, imposture, and real destitution which afflict society-to punish the former and relieve the latter. Branding, whipping, imprisonment, and setting in the stocks were the punishmients chiefly employed for the suppression of vagrancy. Scholars were liable to these penalties unless provided with written testimonials from the chancellor of their respective universities. Sailors, soldiers, and travelers were also to be provided with passports, and were required to travel homewards by the shortest road: Artificers and laborers (11 Henry VII, c. 2) were forbidden to play at unlawful games, except tluring Christmas; and two justices were empowered to restrain the common selling of ale in towns and places where they should think expedient, and to take surety of ale-house keepers for their good behavior' as they might be advised, at the time of the sessions." By an act passed in 1530 beggars were divided into two classes, namely, the aged and impotent, anDd vagabonds and idle persons; and justices were empowered to license persons of the first description to beg within certain precincts. Their names were directed to be registered and to be certified at the next sessions. Begging without a license, or without the limits assigned, subjected the offender to imprisonment in the stocks for two days and nights, and to feeding on bread and water. Able-bodied vagabonds found begging were flogged at the cart's tail, and then sworn to return to their places of birth, or where they last dwelt for the space of three years, and there put themselves to labor. It is probable that inconveniences arose from begging being authorized by the legislature, for within five years several material alterations were made in the laws respecting the impotent poor. In the 27 Henry VIII, c. 25, we have a near approximation to the principle of a poorrate. The preamble states that it had not been provided " how poorpeople and sturdy vagabonds should be ordered at their repaire and coming into their countries, nor how the inhabitants of every hundred should be chargedjbr their reliefe, nor yet for the setting and keeping in worke and labour the said valiant beggars at their repaire into every hundred of this realme." From these expressions the legislature seems to have been convinced of the necessity of a compulsory maintenance, and although a regular tax for that purpose was not immediately imnposed, yet it seems to have been conceded, from the regulations of the statute, that the poor, even at this period, should be maintained by the plublic. The act makes it obligatory, under a penalty of twenty shillings a month, on the head officer of every parish, to maintain, by the collection of voluntary and charitable alms, the poor of their parish in such a way that none of them " of very necessity " might be compelled " to go openly on begging." The alms to be collected on Sundays, holidays, and festivals. All ministers, in their sermons, collations, biddings of the beads, confessions, and at the making of wills, are required to "'exhort, move, stir, and provoke people to be liberal in contributions to ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH POOR LAWS. 117 wards the comfort and relief of the poor, impotent, decrepit, indigent, and needy people, and for setting and keeping to work the able poor." Certain of the poor are directed twice or thrice every week to go round and collect from each householder his broken meat and refuse drink for equal distribution among the indigent, but precautions are taken by fines and penalties to guard against the embezzlement of the parochial alms and doles by constables and church-wardens. At the period under consideration the police regulations of the country, rigid as they were, appear to have been utterly inadequate to the )preservation of order. Never were severe laws enaeted in greater profusion or more'rigorously executed, and never did the unrelenting vengeance of authority prove more ineffectual. Harrison informs us that seventy-two thousanDd great and petty thieves were put to death during the reign of Henry VIII; and that even in the time of Elizabeth there was not " one year commonly wherein three hundred or four hundred " rogues "were not devoured and eaten up by the gallows in one place and another." Looking at the subject from the more enlightened stand-point of m-odern jurisprudence, we can hardly be surprised to learn that, " in spite of these sanguinary punishments, the country continued in a dreadful state of turbulence." " Every part of the kingdom," we are told, "was infested with robbers and idle vagabonds, who, refusing to labor, lived by plundering the peaceable inhabitants, and often strolling about the country in bodies of three hundred or four hundred, attacked with impunity the sheep-folds and dwellings of the people." It will be shown further on that a cause which goes far toward explaining this deplorable state of affairs is to be found in the revolution in land-tenures which occurred under the Tudor dynasty. To the same cause may be attributed the greater part of that increasing pauperism which continually called for new enactments. "The long reign of Elizabeth," says WVade, " is filled with statutes for supplying the deficiencies or correcting the errors of former poor-laws. In the year 1597 several acts were passed relative to vagrancy and mendicity, and the provisions of former acts in some degree moulded into a uniform system. In one act four overseers are directed to be chosen inll each parish for setting poor children and others in want of employment to work, and for raising, weekly or otherwise, a stock of materials for that purpose, Justices are empowered to levy the rate by distress, and for the relief of the impotent poor the church-wardens and overseers are authorized, with the permission of the lords of manors, to build'convenient houses on the waste at the general charge of the parish, and to place inmates of more families than one in each cottage. Parents of old, blind, lame, and other poor persons are bound to assist their children as shall be directed at the general quarter-sessions, on penalty of twenty shillings for every m onth they fail to do so. And begging, unless for victuals, in the parish, is entirely prohibited. Several acts were also passed for the relief of soldiers and mariners, and every parish charged a certain sum weekly for their maintenance. " Increasing inconveniences at length produced the celebrated statute of 43 Elizabeth, which concentrated in one act the accumulated experience of previous years, and long formed the groundwork of our poor-laws. By comparing this statute with the. provisions of that referred to in the last paragraph, it appears that its most material provisions were not, as many erroneously suppose, originally framed in 1601; on. the contrary, the principal clauses of the act of 39 Elizabeth, respecting the appointment of overseers, levying the rate, setting the able to work, providing relief for the impotent, and binding out children as apprentices, were 118 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. copied almost verbatim. From the tenor of the last clause in this great legislative measure it was evidently intended only to be experimental. It was, however, continued by subsequent statutes, and by the 16 Car. I, c. 4, made perpetual. "Although Scotland is, for the most part, exempted from the poor-rate, it is remarkable that a compulsory provision for the poor was established by law in that kingdom twenty-two years before the passing of the act of 43 Elizabeth. In James VI's Parliament, held at Edinburgh, in 1579, an act was passed in which every branch of the English system-the punishment of vagabonds, of runaway servants, the mode of passing soldiers and seamen to their parishes, the regulation of hospitals for aged and impotent persons, the settlement of the poor, their maintenance by the parish, the appointment of overseers and collectors, the manner of treating those who refuse to work; and the putting out of poor children as apprentices-is more fully detailed than in any English statute. The assessment for the poor is very general:'the haill inhabitants within the parochin' are to be' taxed and stented according to the estimation of their substance, without exception of persones, to sik ouklie, (weekly,) charge and contribution as sall be thocht expedient and sufficient to susteine the saidis pure peopil.' " It is impossible, at this distance of time to form any accurate idea of the comparative number of the receivers and payers of parochial contributions immediately after the establishment of the poor-rate. Sir F. _M. Eden was of opinion that, at the period he wrote, (1797,) the pauper class constituted a larger proportion of the community than at the close of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth centuries. But the fact is, though the act of 1601 empowered parishes to levy a poor rate, it was not for many years after carried into execution in various parts of the kingdom. The author of a pamphlet published in 1698, entitled' Bread for the Poor,' says that, though parishes were enabled (by the act of 43 Elizabeth) to make rates, and the owners of estates obliged to the payment, yet in many places no such rates were made in twenty or thirty years after. " It is probable that thle dearth of corn and other articles of subsistence, which took place toward the close of Elizabeth's reign, greatly accelerated the passing of the act for raising a compulsory poor-rate. In 1587 wheat rose to ~3 4s. the quarter; in 1591 it was ~2 16s., and in 1595, ~2 13s. 4d. the quarter. For several years there had been a succession of bad weather and scanty crops. " In the year 160l,however, the season was more favorable; which, by rendering the condition of the poor more comfortable, concurred to recolnmendl, even beyond its deserts, the new measure of the legislature. "Among the various fiunds appropriated to the relief of the poor, previous to the act of 1601, may be mentioned pecuniary forfeitures, which, for many statutable offenses, especially those relative to profaneness and immorality, were applied in aid of the poor. As early as 1558 churchw-ardens were empowered to levy twelvepence upon every parishioner who omitted going to church on Sunday. In 1570 a moiety of the forfeitures for detaining goods belonging to a bankrupt's estate was directed to be distributed among the poor of the town in which.the bankrupt was resident; and in the same Parliament half the penalty for not wearing a -woolen cap on a Sunday was appropriated to the same purpose. One-third of the fines for saying mass, and other offenses against the established worship, were given to the poor; also penalties for swearing, tippling, and disorderly conduct on the Lord's day. It is not improbable that these various mulcts for offenses against THE INCLOSURES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 119 religion and morality were intended as part compensation to the poor for the loss they had sustained by the dissolution of the monasteries and the new disposition of ecclesiastical property." TIIE INCLOSURES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. The revolution in land-tenures, tabove referred to as having occurred during the Tudor reigns, was one of the most momentous events in the economical history of England. A detailed inquiry into the tacts connected with it would far transcend the limits assignable to such a subject in a work like this; but to pass it by without notice would be to leave out of view the principal cause of that increase of pauperism, vagrancy, and crime which characterized the period under consideration, as well as the chief explanation of the present status of the agricultural laborers of England. It has already been intimated that the substitution of money-rents for personal services in payment for the occupation of land was instrumental "in promoting that complete divorce of the English agricultural laborer from the soil, which in modern times has been a source of such serious evils." It was, indeed, a part of the process of emancipation from feudal dependence and servitude —a dependence which had been degrading, and a servitude which at one time lhad certainly been extremely galling and severe; but in Englalnd this emancipation was attended with unfortunate conditions-a tact which will be better understood if we first glance briefly at the legislation which attended the emancipation of the Prussian peasantry at a much later (lay. In Prussia the feudal system existed, at least in form, until after the beginning of the present century. Mr. R. B. D. Morier, in an essay on "'The Agrarian legislation of Prussia during the present century," gives the following account of villenage and villein tenure as they existed in Prussia prior to the edict of October 9, 1807: The status of villenage differed according as the villein was "Leibeigen," (i. e., as his lord had rights of property in his body,) or only " erbunterthiinig," i. e., in a state of hereditary subjection to the manor, " adscripti glebae." In its worst form the villein could be held to unlimited service, and could be deprived of his holding and located in another. At his death the whole or the largest portion of his personal estate fell to the lord. His children could not marry without the lord's consent, and could be kept an unlimited number of years as personal servants ("Gesinde ") in the service of the manor. He could receive corporal punishment to heighten his productive power and to enforce respect, but his life was protected. This extreme form was, however, the exception to the rule. It occurred mostly in the more remote provinces. The milder form differed from the former in the services to be performed and the dues to be paid, being limited by local custom, and in a greater freedom in the disposal of the holding. The villein knew what work he and his team would have to perform in the course of the year, the number of years his children would have to serve in the household of the lord, the tax he would have to pay on their marriage, the amount of the mortuary dues which at his death the lord would have a right to. He could also buy his freedom at a fixed price, and, with the permission of his lord, dispose of his holding. The free peasant differed from the villein in having no personal dues to pay, and in his service and dues being usually recorded in writing in the grants made to him, and, therefore, bearing more directly the character of a legal contract. He could not, however, acquire by purchase or inheritance other than peasant land,* nor could he change his position by changing his country life for a city life; nor could he in the country exercise any trade or calling but that of agriculture. The land cultivated by the peasant, therefore, was divided intp two principal categories: 1. That in which he had rights of property. 2. That in which he had only rights of usufruction. In both cases services were rendered and dues were paid in kind or money to the manor. But in the first case these services and dues may be considered as having had a public, in the latter case a private, origin. The soil was divided into noble land and peasant land. The former could not be acquired by a peasant nor the latter by a noble. 120 LABOR IN. EUROPE AND AMERICA. As regards the land in which the peasant had only rights of usufruction, it was divided into two principal categories: 1. Land in which the peasant had hereditary rights of usufruction, and could transmit his holding to his descendants and his collaterals, according to the common law of inheritance. 2. Land in which the occupier was only a tenant for life, or for a term of years, or at will. In neither case, hoewever, could the landlord re-enter on this land. The lords of the manor had been deprived of this right, if it ever existed, by various edicts of the former Hohenzollerin kings. Among other provisions of the edict above mentioned was one prohibiting the creation of any new relations of villenage, "either by birth, marriage, or the acquisition of a villein," after the publication of the edict. Another declared that from the same date all peasants holding by hereditalry tenures, they and their wives and their children should cease to be villeins. Another abolishes every remaining form of villenage at Martinmas in the year 1810, after which date it was declared there should be IIone but freemen in all the king's dominions. It was to be understood, however, that these freemen should remain subject to all obligations flowing from the possession of land or from particular contracts to which as freemen they could be subjected. Up to this time the mass of the Prussian peasantry had been bound to the soil. The edict of 1807 gave them personal freedom, but did not deprive them of any righits which custom and feudal law had given them in the land they held, nor did it release them from any obligations which had been attached to the occupation of such land. MIoreover, the conditions of their tenure were such as to make their holdings in most Cases a valuable possession. Without releasing them from the land, the law had gradually improved their position onf the land, as may be seen in the edict of Frederick the Great prohibiting the re-entry of the lord on peasant land. He could exact the service and dues belonging to him in virtue of his;" over-lordship," but he could not evict the peasant and take personal possession of the land. Virtually, therefore, the land was subject to a species of joint ownership, for the claim which the peasant had upon it constituted a sort of property, as also did that of the lord. It was a property, however, which was subject to the great inconvenience that it could not easily be transferred, for so complicated were the relations of lord and peasant that it was difficult to determine the cash value of their respective rights, or the deductions to be made from that value on account of their respective liabilities. As-a remedy for this complicated condition of land-tenure the edict of September 14, 1811, " for the regulation of the relations between the lords of the manor and their peasants," established, among other things, the following rule: That in the case of hereditary holdings the lords of the manor shall be indemnified for their rights of ownership in the holding, and for the ordinary services and dues attached to the holding, when the tenants shall have surrendered one-third portion, of all the laends held by thenm, and shall have renounced their claims to all extraordinary assistance, as well as to the dead stock, to repairs, and to payment on their behalf of the dues to the state when incapable of doing so. The lords and the peasants were left free to make what arrangements they pleased as long as the proportion of one-third was maintained; that is, by mutual agreement the indemnity might take the form of a payment of capital, or of a corn or money rent, instead of a surrender to the lord of one-third of the peasant's holding. But the rule to be followed (and a departure from this rule required a distinct motive) was, that the indemnity should be paid in land where the holdings exceeded fifty morgen, (about 33 acres,) and in a corn-rent, where the holdings were under that size. In respect to the class of holdings held by tenants-at-will, or for a THE INCLOSURES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 121 term of years, or for life, the edict provided that the lord should receive one-half of the land so held as his indeninity for the loss of the dues, services, and rights which he surrendered to the tenant. In other respects the conditions of the adjustment were much the same as in the case of the hereditary holdings, but with occasional differences, which were in tavor of the lord of the manor. The new conditions of land-tenure inaugurated by this edict necessitated corresponding changes iin other portions of the agricultural systell, and to bring these changes about, the " edict for the better cultivationl of the land" was issued on the same day as the one last considered. To present even a brief statement of its provisions would require more space than can be spared in this connection; but there is one passage which so well illustrates the policy of the Prussian government in regard to the distributiotn of land an)monlg the people that it mnay properly be quoted in full. Attel providilg that " the proprietor shall benceforth (excejpting always where the rights of third parties are concerned) be at liberty to increase or diminish his estate by buying or selling as may seem good to.him," to leave the appurtenances thereof to one heir or to malny, as he pleases, to " exchange them or give them away, or dispose of them in any and every legal way without requiring any authorization for such changes," the edict enumerates various advantages which will result from'" this unlimited right of disposal," and among others the following: But there is yet another advantage springing from this power of piecemeal alienation which is well worthy of attention, and which fills our paternal heart with especial gladness. It gives, namely, an opportunity to the so-called small folks, (Kleine Leute,) cottiers, gardeners, boothmen, and day-laborers, to acquire lauded property, and little by little to increase it. The prospect of such acquisition will render this numerous and useful class of our subjects industrious, orderly, and saving, inasnmuch as thus only will they be enabled to obtain the means necessary to the purchase of lund. Many of themn will be able to work their way upward and to acquire property and to nmake themselves remarkable for their industry. The state will acquire a new and valuable class of industrious proprietors. By the endeavor to become such, agriculture will obtain new hands, and by increased voluntary exertion mnore work out of the old ones. In respect to hereditary leaseholds, this edict enacted that the services and fines attached to such holdings might be commuted into rentcharges, which in their turn could be redeemed by a capital payment calculated at the rate of four per cent. That is, by a pa.yment of twentyfive times the. annual rent charge, it might be forever extinguished and the leaseholder be thus made a freeholder. Such were a few of the leading features of the great measures familiarly known as the Stein and Hardenberg legislation. Several laws of minor importance were subsequently adopted, but the only ones which need be noticed here are those of March 2, 1850, viz, the "' law for the redemption of services and dues, and the regulation of the relations between the lords of the manor and their peasants," and the " law for the establishment of rent-banks." These were designed to complete whatever had been left unfinished by previous legislation in the great work of establishing free and separate ownership in the soil. The former abrogated the " dominiumn directurn," or right of over-lordship so far as it was still held by lords of manors, commuted all remaining services and dues into fixed money-rents calculated on the average money value of the services and dues rendered and paid during a certain number of years preceding, and finally provided that these rents should be compulsorily'redeemable, either by the immediate payment of eighteen times the annual rent charge, or by an annual payment of 4. or 5 per cent. 122 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. for a specified time* on a capital of twenty times the annual rentcharge. The other law provided the machinery by which this wholesale redemption was to be effected, the state, through the instrumentality of the rent-banks, constituting itself the broker between the tenlnlt and the landlord. The bank established in each district advanced to the landlord, in rent-debentures bearing interest at the rate of four per cent. per annum, a capital sum equal to twenty times the annual rent-charge, and the peasant, along with his ordinary rates and taxes, paid into the hands of the district tax-collector, each month, one twelfth part of a rent calculated at 5 or 4~ per cent. on this capital sum, according as he elected to free his property from incumbrance in 41 —2 or 56-1 years, the respective terms within which, at compound interest, the 1 or the i per cent., paid in addition to the 4 per cent. interest on the debenture, would extinguish the capital. From the foregoing brief outline of the agrarian legislation of Prussia during the present century, it will be seen how earnest and persistent have been the efforts of that monarchyt to protect all the customary rights in the soil which the peasantry enjoyed under the feudal system as it existed at the beginning of the present century, to give them a full equivalent for such rights under the new system of land-tenure, and in so doing to constitute the masses of the tillers of the soil a sturdy yeomanry cultivating their own fields, and not a race of dependent hirelings living and laboring upon the land of others. It is here that we see a marked contrast between the agrarian revolu" If the annural payment was 4t per cent. it was to be continued 56-,1 years; if 5 per cent. it was to be continued 41-u years. t The Russian government, in abolishing serfdom, also adopted measures having for their object to secure to the serfs a permanent interest in the soil. Previous to their emancipation the serfs of each estate had occupied land which they cultivated for their own subsistence, the proprietor allowing them three days in the week for their own work and claiming three days for himself. The amount of land assigned to them on their emancipation varied according to circumstances and locality, considerable scope being left for voluntary agreements between the proprietors and the peasants, under conditions calculated to leave the latter as nearly as possible in possession of the same land which they occupied as serfs. The occupation of this land, whatever its amount might be, was obligatory upon the peasants for nine years, as also was the payment of a certain money-rent, or, at the option of the peasant, the performance of a certain amlount of labor, the amount for the maximum holding being forty days of man's work and thirty days of woman's, making seventy days in all, of which threefifths were to be summer and two-fifths winter days. It should be said here that the Russian serfs as a rule lived in villages and cultivated their land in common-a mode of life which prevailed among their ancestors before they were reduced to serfdom, (in 1601,) and to which a considerable proportion of them, perhaps a large majority, will probably adhere for many years to come. The land was assigned to them at the rate of so much per male head of the village community or "mir," and it appears to have been the object of the government to leave the peasants as free as possible either to continue their system of common property in land, or to dissolve the " mir," and establish individual ownership with separate cultivation. The average maximum share was about twelve acres, for which the average money-rent was about $6.80 per annum, or at the rate of 56 cents per acre. As the average rent ($6 80) is treated as the equivalent of seventy days' labor, the average value of the latter must have been set down at a fraction less than 10 cents per diem. This, however, is less than the average market value of agricultural labor, and therefore the arrangement is calculated to stimulate the peasants to pay for their land in money rather than in labor. As a rule the rental value of land under tillage is considerably higher than the price fixed, so that while paying rent the peasants are not in the position of tenants who pay full competition rents. Moreover, the law gives them the right to purchase their land upon payment of 161 times the annual rent; or, if the community is dissolved, each peasant may insist upon his individual right of purchase. In this case, however, the price is increased by twenty per cent. The government has also adopted a system somewhat analogous to that embodied in the Prussian rent-banks for assisting the peasants in the purchase of their land, and thus smoothing their way to complete independence. THE INCLOSURES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 123 tion accomplished in Prussia within the present century and that whlich took place in England upwards of three hundred years ago. In England and Prussia alike the change in the, system of land-tenure was accompanied by a change in the mode of cultivation. Indeed, it is probable that the former change was due in a great measure to the necessity which existed for the latter; that is, to the change from cultivation in common by each peasant community to the system of sepalrate holdings cultivated by individuals, or, to use two old English terms, from "' champion country" to " severall." " To the student of English history," says Morier, " the word which corresponds to this change is' inclosure,' the true significance of which has, however, not always been seized by either English or foreign writers on the subject. The great ilnclosing' movement in the sixteenth century is -usually described as if it had merely had for its object to turn arable land into pasturage. Its irnportance as a joint effort on the part of the lords of the manor to withdraw their demesne lands from the'communion' of the township has been overlooked. That this object was in itself highly desirable, and the'conditio sine qua non' of any improvements in agriculture is undeniable; it was an organic change through which every Teutonic community had necessarily to pass. The evils which attended the process in England at the time referred to, arose from the fact that instead of being effected by impartial legislation, as has been the case in I'russia during the present century, the change was forcibly brought about by the one-sided action of the landlords. Any one acquainted with the practical difficulties experienced in Germany in making analogous separations, will readily comprehend all the injustice which one-sided action in such a process on the part of the stronger must have implied. In the most favorable case the withdrawal of, say, one-third or one-half of the land from the' commonable arable land of a township, such half or third portion, be it remembered, consisting, in many cases, of small parcels intermixed with those of the commoners, must have rendered the further common cultivation impossible, and thereby compelled the freeholders and copyholders to part with their land and their common rights on any terms. That in less favorable cases the lords- of the manor did not look very closely into the rights of their tenants, but interpreted the customs of their respective manors in the sense that suited them best, and that instead of an equitable repartition of land between the two classes, the result was a general consolidation of tenants' land with demesne land, and the creation of large inclosed farms, with the consequent wholesale destruction of agricultural communities or townships is well known to every reader of history. * * * * "Three great countries-England, France, and Germany-began their political life from a similar agricultural basis. In each of them the great conflict between immunity and community, between demesne land and tenant land, between the manor annd the peasant, has had to be fought out. In England the manor won; the peasant lost. In France the peasant won; the manor lost. In Germany the game has been drawn, an(l the stakes have been divided." Yes, in England the manor won, and the victory, complete as i-t was, appears to have been achieved without any serious difficulty. The maritime advantages of England, her comparative exemption from the danger of invasion, and the superiority of her internal police tended to make her, even at an early period, a commercial nation. The opportunities for remunerative employment presented by trade and man ufac. tures attracted the peasants to the towns; and their readiness to sever 124 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. their connection with the soil, a connection which in their minds was associated with subjection and servitude, must have been unfavorable to the growth of those prescriptive Tights which in time would have, made them, like the Prussian leasants at the beginning of the present century, coproprietors with the lords in the land which they occupied. The actual course of events was calculated to encourage the pretensions of the nobility to the absolute control of the soil. One of their earliest encrachments upon the customary rights of the peasantry was the legalization of the claim of the lords of the manor to inclose *for their own use a portion o' the common pasture-land. In a law passed in 1235 or 1236, it was set forth that many large landed proprietors, who hadl made over in fief small holdings on their manors to knights and other small freeholders, could lnot make use of their waste lands and forests, inasinmuch as they had let to their vassals the appurtenant pasturagerights, together with the land-plots. On this account it was enacted that if the tenants should complain of the withdrawal of this right of pasturage, uanid if upon judicial inquiry it should appear that they had as much. pasture as was necessary to their holdings, together with free ingress aind egress, the complaint should be dismissed. Another law passed in 1.28_5 went a step ifirther, and to the right of inclosure which the lord posessesse as a,gainst his own vassals, added the same right as against other commoners who were not tenants of the manor. These laws, however, had reference only to complaints made by the free ten.ants; and as the villeins are not mentioned, it is pIrobable that with regard to them the lord of the mnanor was entirely unrestricted in his encroachmnents on the common pasture. The right established by these laws was frequently exercised, and is believed to have been of great value, although the land inclosed was somnetimnes used as a private manorial pasture or park, and not for the pyurpose of tillage. The origin of many of the, vast pleasure-parks now attached to the mansions of the nobility may doubtless be traced to the inclosures of those early times. Mr. Nasse, however, expresses the opinion* that up to some time in the fifteenth century the agrarian movement of the icldle Ages was, on the whole, advantageous to the position of small landed proprietors, but he says that its further development was "as ruinous to their interests as it had before been favorable." After the general substitutiou of money-rents for personal services, the lord of the manor had no longer an in'terest in the preservation of the small tenant, since it was more convenient for him to draw the same ameount of rent from a sma'ller number. It was advantageous to him to diminish the number of claimants to rights in the manorial pasture, and was much easier to convert large peasant-holdings into lease-hold tenures than smaller ones. We first perceive, says Nasse, in the reign of Henry VII the complaints, subsequently so numerous, of tthe decreasing numbers of the small landed proprietors, of the inclosures, and of encroachments on the pasture. Two laws of the fourth year of that king's reign (1488) gave public expression to the apprehension excited by the agrarian revolutionl, which was then in progress. The first, cap. 16(, particularly noticed by historians, relates especially to the grass husbandry and the depopulation of the Isle of Wight; the other, cap. 19, "An acte against pulling down of tounes,"t is of a general character, and applies to the whole country. "' Many houses and villages in the kinlgdom are deserted, the arable land belonging to them is inclosed and converted into pasturage, and idleness (the cause of all evil) is therefore generally prevalent. Where, formnerly, two hundred men supported themselves by honest labor, are now to be seen only two or three shepherds." In the first law, which referred to the Isle of Wight, on 3" The a.gricnltural community of the Middle Ages and inclosures of Ihe sixteenth century in England." t " Toune" is manif'estly here used in its old sense, not of city, but dwelling-place, or village. THE INCLOSURES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 125 account of the especial necessity which still existed for a strong population as a defense against the French and other enemies, it was ordered that no one should have a leasehold of more than ten marks of yearly rent, and that no one should pull down farmn-buildings or suffer them to fall into decay. The second lays down, gdnerally, that all dwelling and farm buildings which within the last three years have been leased with twenty acres of land, shall be preserved in as far as they are necessary for carrying on an arable husbandry. If this law should be violated, the next superior feudal lord, from whom the land in question was held on lease, was to take half the revenue of the land, the farm-buildings of which had not been maintained. These complaints may be traced throughout the sixteenth century into the beginning of the seventeenith, in the same manner, without interruption. We find them also in the following reign again most plainly expressed in the statutebook, in the introduction to the laws by which the practice of encroachments was sought to be restrained. Thus, in 6 Henry VIII, c. 5, and 7 Henry VIII, c. 1, where the mischief done is as plainly described as in the just-cited law of Henry VII: " Pulling doune and destruction of tounes wythin thys realme and laying to pasture-lands which customably have been nlanured and occupyed wyth tyllage and husbandry." When such houses, it goes on to say, have been destroyed since the first day of the present Parliament they are immediately to be rebuilt and the closed lands restored to tillage. The penalty for violation of the law is the same as that of 4 Henry VIII, c. 19, but with the aggravation that if the next feudal lord should neglect to interpose, then the next superior, and finally, above all, the king is empowered to enforce the penalty. These last rulings were later (24 Henry VIII, c. 24) repeated, with the modification that they applied to all agricultural buildings which had fallen into decay since 4 Henry VII, as well as to arable land which had been converted into pasture since the same period, and that generally for thirty to fifty acres of arable land a dwelling-house should be established in which a respectable man could live. Shortly after this followed the law 25 Henry VIII, c. 12, 13, (1533-4,) which is especially dlirected against the encroachments with regard to sheep-farming. "Different individuals in the last years had accumulated in their owl hands a nmntber of larded properties, a multitude of cattle, and especially of sheep. Some of them pos — sessed 24,000 sheep, others 10,000, &c. Tillage is thereby displaced, the country depopulated, and the price of sheep and wool raised in an unheard-of manner.' No one, therefore, shall possess more than two thousand sheep, with the exception of laymen, who, up6u their own inheritance, may possess as many as they please; but they must not carry on sheep-farming on other properties." Especially it was dwelt upon that in Suffolk and Norfolk the owners of fold-courses within the properties and manors over which their rights extended, redeemed or rented from all the other possessors of land who had the right to pasture their sheep writh the manorial flock their pasture-right, and against this customl a prohibition was issued. There is good reason to believe that the evils so generally complained of were materially aggravated by the confiscation of the abbey lands in the later years of the reign of Henry VIII.J This measure might have yielded great advantages to the nation had the immense domains of the church, comprising from one-fourth to one-half of the kingdom, been wisely disposed of for the best interests of the people; but, under the selfish and unstatesmanlike policy of Henry, they were transferred from the ecclesiastical corporations to landlords, who, as a rule, were far more exacting than the abbots had been,4 without giving more attention to the cultivation of their estates. The religious houses, situated in the midst of their domains, had themselves afforded to the tenants a market for a considerable portion of their produce; the new'landlords not only exacted higher rents, but spent the greater portion of their incomes in the capital, thus inflicting upon the country the well-known evils of absenteeism, of which Ireland has more recently afforded so striking an illustration. Moreover, the transfer of title from the ecclesiastical bodies to the king, and through him to new proprietors, appears to have been effected without proper reservations for the rights of the occupiers of the soil, many of whom were not mere tenants at will, but persons having a sort of qualified. The rise in the price of sheep and wool was doubtless one of-the catuses of the state of things complained of instead of being one of its effects. The measure was authorized by Parliament in the year 1539. It is admitted that the abbots were most indulgent landlords. 126 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. ownership. Thus it was set forth in a publication, which appeared in 1546,.that the new possessors of church property claimed that its secularization had extinguished all the old rights of copyholders on church lands, who were obliged either to give up their holdings, or retain them on temporary leases. In the end the liberation of the land firom the shackles of mortmain was doubtless conducive to a higher cultivation, but it must be remembered that these were not the only shackles by which English estates had been bound, nor were they at all times the shackles whose effect was most injuriously felt. The Hon. C. Wren Hoskyrns, M. P., in a careftully-prepared paper on "the land-laws of England,' published in 1870, refers in the following language to the effect of the two fatmous statutes (Quia ENmptores and De Donis Conditionalibus,) passed in the reign of Edward I: These two statutes for nearly two centuries crushed the growing effort to emancipate land from its feudal fetters, at least, by open alienation, and had the further mischievous eft'ct of making the position of the unfortunate tenant in agriculture more insecure than ever, as no leasing power of one tenant-in-tail was binding on his successor. Thence all good farming betook itself to the monastic houses, whose mortulain lands became the fixed asylum of agricultural knowledge and improvement. Certainty of tenure out of doors, wand the classical writers on husbandry studied and transcribed iwithiLn, told powerfully upon the soil, and were draining and redeeming into cultivafion the fens and marshes of Lincoln and Somerset and Sussex, while elsewhere the pressure of feudal exaction upon the fee-simple proprietor, and the insecurity of the farminug tenant, even under lease, reduced cultivation to its most precarious and servile condition, and dwarfed the agricultural growth of the kingdom. The remedy for the effects of these statutes was gradually found in a practice which drew from the machinery of the law the instrument of its own evasion by means of what was called a common recovery. Sir F. A. Eden remarks that "the statutes which enabled the nobility to alienate their estates, the seizure and sale of the abbey lands by Henry VIII, and the general effects of increasing industry, must have powerfully operated toward a more equal division of property than could possibly have taken place in times when the nation was poorer and the shackles of inortmain and entails more rigidly observed." He admits, however, that, " while these powerful causes were gradually transferring a great portion of the estates of the church and the nobility into the hands of country gentleimen, the race of cottagers was going fast to decay.," He adds: "'This must ever be the case in an ilproved state of agriculture," since "the half-starved proprietor of ten or twenty acres will often be persuaded to part with his land to a rich neighbor who farms oill an extensive scale.' The predilection of an English baronet for the system of large farms was very natural; but without stopping to discuss the advantages of la petite culture, as exernplified in different parts of Europe, and especially in portions of France, and in Belgium, it may be sai(l here that the decay of "the race of cottagers," or peasant farmers, was undoub.tedly one of the causes of that enormous increase of vagabondage and mendicancy which, at the period under consideration, was the theme of such constant complaint. About the middle of the sixteenth century, the popular discontent at the agrarian revolution, which was making such rapid progress, became intense. The pamphlets of the time, says Nasse, are filled with it, and the most celebrated preachers zealously inveighed against it as. the ruling sin of the times. Bishop Latimer, in his famous " Sermon of the Plough," preached before the court of Edward VI on the 8th of March, 1549, complains that, where formerly there were dwellings and inhabitants, now there are only the shepherd and his dog. He reproaches the nobles, who were among his audience, as'" inclosers, graziers, and rent THE INCLOSURES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 127 raisers," who made dowerless slaves of the English yeomanry. Still more vehemently did Bernard Gilpin raise his voice against tile conduct of the gentlemen: " To drive poor people out of their dwellings they consider no crime, but say the land belongs to them, and( then cast them out of their homes like vermin. Thousands in England now beg from door to door who formerly kept honest houses. Never," said he, " were there so many gentlemen and so little gentleness." Scory, bishop of Rochester, in the year 1551, presented a petition to the King, in which he complains that now there are only " ten ploughs, where formerly there were from forty to fifty." Two acres out of three have been put out of culture, and where his majesty's predecessors had a hundred men fit for service, now there are scarcely half that number, and those in a much worse position. The country population in England would soon be " more like the slavery and peasantry of France than the ancient and godly yeomanry of England." The following passage fromn one of Latimer's sermons incidentally illustrates the condition of substantial English yoemen at the beginning of the sixteenth century, and at the same time serves to show how great a change the lapse of half a century had. made in the circumstances of that class: My father, he says, was a yeoman, and had no landes of his owne, onely he had a farme of 3 or 4 pounds by year at the uttermost, and hereupon he tilled so tmuch as kept half a dozzen men. He had walke for an hundredth sheepe, and my mother milked xxv kine. * * He kept me to schole, or els I had not bene able to have preached before the Kinge's majestie now. He maryed my sisters with five pound, or xx nobles a peece, so that he brought them up in godlynes and feare of God. He kept hospitalite for his poore neighbouires, aDd some almes he gave to the poore; and all this did he of the said farme. Where he that now bath it payeth xvi pound by the yeare, or more, and is not able to doe anything for his prince, for himselfe, nor for his children, or ge-ve a cup of drinke to the poore. After the accession of the boy-king, Edward VI, the lord protector appointed an extraordinary commission for the redress of the grievances attendant upon inclosures, exhorting its members to fulfill the duties of their office without any respect to persons, and fearlessly to bring to account those who had violated the laws of Henry VIII for the lmaintenance of tillage. "A kind of memorial," says Professor Nasse, t"has been handed down to us of the state of things which was laid before the commission by John Hales, one of their most active members. These could not be painted in darker colors than they are there described. Ruined dwellings and evicted hubsbandmen were everywhere to be seen; where formerly 12,000 meni dwelt, there were now scarcely 4,000; sheep and oxen, destined to be eaten by man, have devoured men; the defensive power of the country had. fallen into danger by depopulation; the King had been obliged to take into his service foreign troops, German, Italian, and Spanish, &c. He specifies the following five principal heads of grievances: Ruin of villages and agricultural buildings; conversion of arable land into. pasture; great multitude of sheep; amalgarnmation of farms; and the failure of hospitality on account of the dissolutionl of monasteries. He also expressly mentions that inclosures, (in themselves,) which every one undertakes himself on his own ground and soil, are beneficial to the common good, the question only being of such inclosure-sby which the rights of others suffered, when' houses of husbandry were pulled down or arable land converted to pasture.2"' These representations, as well as the recommendations based upon them, were barren of results; and Hales complained that the sheep had been intrusted to the protection of the wolf.' "It is no wonder," says Nasse, "that under such circumstances the 128 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. coumtry population attempted to apply a remedy themselves. The for. midable insurrection of the peasantry in 1549, in the eastern counties, had principally for its object the removal of the inclosures. Similar disturbances were frequently repeated at a later period on a smaller scale; and even at the end of the sixteenth and commencement of the seventeenth century, insurrections of the peasants occurred in Oxfordshire and other places in central England, in order to root out the hedges (levelers) and to restore the tillage. "We may learn, also, that the agrarian revolution progressed under Elizabeth, from, among other things, an interesting dialogue,'A compendious or briefe examination of certayne ordinary complaints,' &c., by W. S., gentleman, of London, 1581. In this dialogue, the inclosures, as the crying evil of the times, were discussed by different persons —a doctor, a nobleman, and a farmer. The farmer complains that he and his class are ruined by the inclosures, which raise rents and cause a dearth of arable land. He has witnessed in his district, in a circuit of less than six English miles, in the last seven years, a dozen plows lying idle, and the lands where sixty persons and more had gained their living, were now occupied by the cattle of one. " It is still very remarkable how the supplanting of so many landed proprietors just then took place, when that class among them which stood in the most unfavorable position in a legal point of view, had obtained a protection at law for their rights of property.'i In spite of this, these copyholders were driven in great numbers from their rural hides.* When an extraordinary royal commission like that of the protector, ordered to inquire into illegal inclosures and the eviction of peasants, could not prevail against the ruling classes, it is very easy to conceive that the protection of the high courts of judicature or the judges iln their circuits could afford little help to the poor small peasant. His rights rested on the custom of the manor, which was to be proved from the manor-roll, in the possession of the lord of the manor; and a copyholder could lose these rights by numerous acts, by which he failed in his obligations toward the lord, or even by acting otherwise than in unison with rights established by custom of the manors. The small copyholders were not in a position to establish such rights before learned tribunals when opposed by experienced advocates. Latimer, on this account, accuses the judges even of injustice and corruption, (being open to bribes,) and maintains that,'in these days gold is all-powerful with the tribunals.' Certainly, also, a time like that under the rule of Henry VIII, and the following years, while so great a revolution in church and state was in progress, could not have been favorable for the support of rights which were dependent upon custom. " It is no part of our task here to follow these movements beyond the sixteenth century; but this much is certain, that however powerfully they showed themselves at that time, they only attained their object to a limited extent. The official reports concerning the duration of the agrarian conmmunity up to this century have been already referred to; and it has also been shown thalt the smaller landed proprietors had certainly in no wise completely disalppeared in the sixteenth century. "The ireeholders had, for the nmost part. maintained their holdings, and the copyholders ha.d not nearly all been supplanted or converted into leaseholders. Still, in the beginiling of the seventeenth century, Coke could say, in a well-iknown ju(lgment, that the third part of England The termn hide refers to a quantity of land, the extent of which is variously estimated at from t60 to 100 acres. THE INCLOSURES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 129 consisted of copyhold. But the revolution which then began has confinued even in our times. Its progress has been sometimes quicker, sometimes slower, and gradually the conlection which there was at the commencement between the two phenomena —inclosures,and peasant eviction —has been less close; but it still remains unmistakable that, among the many circumstances which have caused the complete'disappearance of the medieval peasant class, the first and most important was the dissolution of the old communities in land. " Admitting that the dissolution of these communities and the establishment of separate and independent tillage were essential to the progress of agriculture, it must still be regarded as a great misfortune to the masses of the English people, and, indeed, to England as a nation, that this change was not effected without a complete sacrifice of the interests of the peasant to those of the noble. It has been shown that the abolition of the feudal relations in Prussia was followed by measures expressly designed for the creation of a freeholding peasantry, and substantially the same thing occurred in other German states. In like manner the emancipation of the Russian serf * was accompanied by measures which exhibited at once the humane regard of the government for his future well-being and its-enlightened recognition of the'fact that material independence is an essential condition of true freedom-a condition without which the much-vaunted civil liberty of Anglo-Saxon nations may become to millions of the unfortunate an dmpty name. In France, Switzerland, Belgium, Holland, and, indeed, throughout the greater part of Europe, the people who cultivate the soil are, for the most part, the people who own it. In England the agricultural laborer does not own so much as the hovel in which he dwells. " Theirs," says Mr. Fawcett,t speaking of the members of this class, "is a life of incessant toil for wages too scanty to give them a sufficient supply even of the first necessaries of life. ZNo hope cheers their monotonous career. A life of constant labor brings them no other prospect than that, when their strength is exhausted, they must crave as suppliant mendicants a pittance from parish relief. Many classes of laborers have still to work as long and for as little remuneration as they received in times past; and one out of every twenty inhabitants of England is sunk so deep in pauperism, that he has to be supported by parochial relief." In the paper on " The Land Laws of England," from which an extract has been already given, Mr. C. Wren Hoskyns speaks as follows: It is true we commonly hear our agricultural system spoken of as comprehending the landlord, the tenant, and the laborer, and so, in a certain sense, it does; but no one who considers the position of the laborer in English agriculture will assert that he has any fixed peisonal tie within the structure-that he stands to it in any relation but that of an auxiliary, more or less in demand at different seasons of the year, subject to the precarious vicissitudes of that demand; no longer, indeed, as in former times adscriptas glebce —free to go and come as he pleases, but without part or parcel in the land he helps to cultivate, or any certain abode upon it, near it, or in connection with it, for himself or for his family. In many respects the people of England are far more fortunate than their neighbors on the continent. The insular position of the country exempts it from the ravages of war, greatly diminishes the cost of the military establishment, and, by warding off external dangers, increases liberty at home. Enriched by an enormous commerce and a prodigious development of manufacturing industry, and enjoying the blessings of free speech, a free press, and a government which is republican in all but the name, the middle classes occupy a truly enviable position; and' See note on page 122. t Economic Position of the British Laborer, p. 6. 9 L 130 LABOR IN -EUROPE AND AMERICA. even the more fortunate of the working men enjoy a very fair degree of comfort. But, whatever may be said of other classes of the English people as compared with corresponding classes in other counties, no one can seriously compare the condition of the agricultural laborer* of Great Britain with that of the peasant proprietor of France or Belgium, who, however severe may be his toil, has a home from which no landlord can expel and an employment from which no master can dismiss him. The comparative advantages of large and small farms, with a view to economy of cultivation, may, perhaps, be regarded as an open question; but to those who regard the state of the people as being of greater moment than the state of agricultural industry, no system of land-tenure will seem less satisfactory than one which reduces the great mass of the tillers of the soil to the condition of hirelings and paupers. FROM3'THE REIGN OF ELIZABETH TO THAT OF GEORGE III. From the causes already referred to, as well as from others that need not here be discussed, the circumstances of the working people of England during the Tudor reigns underwent a decided change for the worse. " In 1495," says W ade, " A laborer could purchase with his wages 199 pints of wheat; in the year 1593, only 82 pints; in 1610, only 46 pints." Eden expresses the opinion that in the sixteenth centuryt the consumption of meat was principally confined to the cities, and that bread commonly of an inferior quality was the principal diet of the laboring people. About the year 1576, Harrison wrote that " the gentilitie " commolly provided themselves" sufficientlie of wheate" for their own tables, while their households and their poor neighbors in some shires were obliged to content themselves with rye or barley. He adds, "Yea, and in time of dearth many with bread made either of peas, beans, or oats, orof all together, and some acorns amonDg, of which scourge the poorest do soonest taste, sith they are least able to provide themselves of better. I will not say that this extremity is oft so well seen in time of plenty as of dkarth, but if I should, I could easily bring my trial. For albeit that there be much more ground eared now almost in every place than hath been of late years, yet such a price of corn continues in each town and market that the artificer and poor laboring men is not able to reach it, but is driven to content himself with beans, peas, oats, tares, and lentils." The following extract from the " orders, rules, and directions,' issued by the jlustices of the peace of the county of Suffolk in the year 1588, affords an example of the food then allowed in houses of correction, and may, perhaps, be regarded as supplying some.indication of the. ordinary fare -of the poor: Item. It is ordered, that every person committed to the said house, shall have for theire dietts, theis portions of rmeate and drinke followinge, and not above, (viz:) At.every dynner and supper on the fleshe daies, bread made of rye, viii ounces troye weight, with a pynte of porredclge, a quarter of a pound of fieshe and a pynte of beare, of the rate of iiis. a barrell, every barrell to conteyne xxxvi gallands; and on every fyshe daie at dynner and supper the like quantitie made eyther of milk or pease or:such lyke, and the thurd part of a pound of chese, or one good heringe, or twoe white or redd, accordinge as the keper of the house shall thinke meete. item. It is ordered that Fsuch persons as will applie theire worke, shall have allowance of beare and a little bread betwen meales, as the keper of the house shall fynd that he toth deserve in his said worke. Item. It is ordered, that they'which will not worke shall have noe allowance but bread and beare only, untill they will conforme themselves to worke. * It must be confessed that a large proportion of the unskilled laborers of the towns and cities are quite as badly off as the most wretched of the agricultural laborers. tIt was probably the latter part of that century which he chiefly had in view. FROM ELIZABETH- TO GEEOIZGE III. I31.In the reign of Henry VIII bacon appears to have formed a part of the regular diet of laborers; and Latimer, in one of his sermons, says it " is their necessary meate to feede one, which they may not lacke.7. Tusser, who died about the year 1580, or 1585, says, Good ploughmen looke weekely, of custome and right, F'or rost meat on Sundaies and Thursdaies at night. But if roast meat was used by "' good ploughmen " twice a week, it seems probable that at the time Tusser wrote meat of some kind, or fish, was used as often as once a day. As late as the year 1532 the price of beef was fixed by act of Parliament * at a halfpenny per pound, and that of mutton at three farthings. These rates, low as they now appear, were higher than those which had previously prevailed, for we read in Stow's Chronicle that fat oxen were sold for ~1 Os. Sd. a head; fat calves or wethers for 3s. 4d.; and fat lambs for is. " The butchers of London," says Stow, "sold penny pieces of beef. for the relief of the poor-every piece two pounds and a half, sometimes three pounds, for a penny; and thirteen, and sometimes fourteen, of these pieces for twelve pence." Mr. Froude in forms us that the act just mentioned was repealed in consequence of the complaints against it, but that prices never fell again to what they had been. He states, however, that as late as 1570 beef was sold in the gross for a halfpenny a pound, while in country markets a fat goose could be bought for fourpence, a capon for threepence or fourpence, a hen for twopence, and a chicken for a penny. But in the later years of Queen Elizabeth's reign there was a general and exce.ssive rise of prices, in consequence of an uninterrupted Suc-,cession of bad seasons. In the year 1587 wheat rose to ~3 4s. per quarter; in 1594 it was ~2 ls.; and in 1595 ~2 13s. 4d. Blomefield, in his history of Norfolk, states that during the latter year the price of wheat at Norwich was ~2 per quarter; of rye, ~1 10s.; of barley, ~1; of'oatmeal, ~2; of beef, 3s. per stone; of the best sheep, 14s. per capita; of lambs, 5s.; of calves, ~1; of fat capons, 3s. 4d.; of pigeons, 3d.; of rabbits, Sd.; and of cheese, 4d. per pound. He adds that in the beginning of 1596 prices fell, but says that " by reason of a wet May they rose again, so that wheat was sold in the market at 28s. a comb in the beginning of August, but fell to 18Ss. the same month; and in the month following all things rose again to such large prices that it was a very hard year with the poor." How high these prices were for those times may be better appreciated if they are compared with those of the one hundred and forty years embraced in Mr. Rogers's table, from which it appears that the average price of wheat from 1261 to 1400, inclusive, was only 5s. 10d. per quarter; that of barley, 4s. 33d.; that of oats, 2s. 5ad.; and that of rye, 4s. 47-d. Froude states t that in the middle of the fourteenth century the average price of wheat was 10d. per bushel, and that of barley 3s. per quarter. "With wheat," he says, "the fluctuation was excessive; a table of its possible variations describes it as ranging from 18d. the: quarter to 20s.; the average, however, being 6s. 8d. * * * * The same scale, with a scarcely appreciable tendency to rise, continued to hold until the disturbance in the value of the currency. In the twelve years from 1551 to 1562, although once before harvest wheat rose to the extraordinary price of 45s. the quarter, it fell immediately after to 5s. 4d. Six and eight pence continued to be considered in Parliament as the average; and, on the whole, it seems to have been maintained for that time with little or no variation." * Statute 3, 24 Henry VIII. t History of England, Vol. I, p.'29. 132 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The high prices which Blomfield gives as prevailing at Norwich in 1596 were exceeded in many other portions of the kingdom. At Bristol wheat sold as high as 18s. and 20s. per bushel andcl rye at 10s.; and, according to an old manuscript chronicle, such was the prevailing distress that " every alderman and worshipful man, and every burgess of this city that was of any worth, was appointed every day to find with victuals at his table so many poor people that wanted work, whereby the poor of our city were all relieved and kept from starving or rising." During the same period the prices of a large number of commodities were greatly enhanced by a cause that was artificial in its character, namely, the granting of patents of monopoly by the Crown. " The English sovereigns," says Macaulay,* "had always been intrusted with the supreme direction of commercial police. It was their undoubted prerogative to regulate coin, weights, and measures, and to appoint fairs, markets, and ports. The line which bounded their authority over trade had, as usual, been but loosely drawn. They therefore, as usual, encroached on the province which rightfully belonged to the legislature. The encroachment was, as usual, patiently borne till it became serious. But at length the Queen took upon herself to grant patents of monopoly by scores. There was scarcely a family in the realmu which did not feel itself aggrieved by the oppression and extortion which this abuse naturally caused. Iron, oil, vinegar, coal, saltpeter, lead, starch, yarn, skins, leather, glass, could be bought only at exorbitant prices. The House of Commons met in an angry and determined mood. It was in vain that a courtly minority blamed the speaker for suffering the acts of the Queen's Highness to be called in question. The language of the discontented party was high and menacing, and was echoed by the voice of the whole nation. The coach of the chief minister of the Crown was surrounded by an indignant populace, who cursed the monopolies, and exclaimed that the prerogative should not be suffered to touch the old liberties of England. There seemed for a moment to be some danger that the long and glorious reign of Elizabeth would have a shameful and disastrous end. She, however, with admirable judgment and temper, declined the contest, put herself at the head of the reforming party, redressed the grievances, thanked the Commons in touching and dignified language for their tender care of the general weal, brought back to herself the hearts of the people, and left to her successors a memorable example of the way in which it behooves a ruler to deal with public movements which he has not the means of resisting." The patents of monopoly, howe-ver, were too valuable a source of income to be overlooked by Elizabeth's successor, by whom they were renewed to be again abolished. Even the exercise of skilled industry was hampered by the arbitrary and exclusive regulations of the incorporated guilds and trade companies which monopolized the commerce antd industry of the principal cities, and vigilantly guarded their prerogatives against all trespassers. The system of regulating wages by statute, which has been noticed further back, was maintained under Elizabeth. An act passed in the fifth year of her reign, (A. D. 1563,) recognized the rise of prices which had already taken place, and in view of which the wages fixed under Henry VIII had become inadequate to the needs of the laborer. It empowered the justices of the peace to fix the rates of wages from year to year, according to "the plenty or scarcity of the time and other circumstances necessarily to be considered." The following synopsis of its * History of Enlgland, Vol. I, p. 49. FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III. 133 leading provisions, as well as those of two other statutes passed a few years later, is given by Eden, in the work already referred to The persons affected by it may.be divided into three classes: menial servants, laborers, and apprentices. With respect to the first, all single persons between twelve years old and sixty, and married ones under thirty years of age, and unmarried women between twelve and forty, not having a visible livelihood, are compellable by two justices to go out to service in husbandry or certain specific trades; and no master can put away his servants, or servant leave his master, before the expiration of his term without the assent of a justice, nor even at the end of his term without giving a quarter's warning. Servants departing from their masters before the end of their term, unless upon some reasonable cause to be allowed by a justice, or refusing to serve, for the wages appointed by the magistrates, are punishable with imprisonment till they consent to serve. The givers of greater wages than what were allowed by the statute were made liable to ten days' and the takers to twenty-one days' imprisonment. Laborers and artificers, hired by the day or week, are bound to work, in summer, from five in the morning till between seven and eight at night, and in winter from daylight till dark; they are allowed the same time for meals as in former statutes. Artificers are compellable to serve in getting in the harvest. Laborers, who cannot procure harvest-work in their own countries, are permitted to go into other countries during the hay and corn harvest, provided they carry with them a testimonial from a justice of peace. The statute enables householders, in time of husbandry, to receive apprentices under the age of eighteen to serve till twenty-four years of age by indenture; and the householders in corporate towns, exercising any art, mystery, or manual occupation there,.and all persons elsewhere using the trades specified in the statute, are empowered to take apprentices, under certain qualifications, to serve them for seven years, provided the term does not expire before the apprentice is twenty-four years of age. And male children of poor persons, by a subsequent statute, may be apprenticed out by the overseers, -with consent of two justices, till twenty-four years of age, and females till twenty-one, to such persons as are thought fitting. Blackstone remarks that " gentlemen of fortune and clergymen are equally liable with others to such compulsion: and that the statutes for the regulation of wages extend only to servants in husbandry: it being impossible for any magistrate to be a judge of the employment of menial servants, or, of course, to assess their wages." The first Parliament under James I extended the rating powers of the magistrates to the wages of " laborers, weavers, spinsters, and workmen, or workwomen, whatsoever, either working by the day, week, month, or year, or taking any work at any person's hand whatsoever, to be done in great or otherwise." An act intended to have a somewhat similar effect was passed in the thirty-ninth year of Elizabeth, but appears to have been inoperative. One of the effects of this extension of the power of the magistrates was to enable employers in many cases to fix the rate of wages for their own workmen. In respect to one branch of business this evil appears to have been foreseen; for it was provided by the last clause of the act above referred to, " that no clothier, being a justice of the peace in any precinct or liberty, should be any rater of wages for any weaver, tucker, spinster, or other artisan that depended upon the making of cloth; and in case there were not above two justices of the peace within such precinct but such as were clothiers, the wages should be rated and assessed by the major part of the common council of such precinct or liberty~ and such justice or justices as were not clothiers." Before the close of the reign of James I, (1625,) some amelioration iii the condition of the working classes had apparently taken place. The discovery of America had by this time begun to exhibit its effect in stimulating commercial enterprise, and manufactures had received a new impetus in consequence of the ferocious persecutions of Philip II and his lieutenants (particularly the notorious Alva) in the Netherlands, which, during the preceding reign, had compelled thousands of indus%trious Flemings to seek a refuge in England, where they established the manufacture of baizes, serges, and other stuffs, and successfully carried on a variety of textile industries. 134 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA.'The policy of encouraging ship-building by public bounties had been'inaugurated under Elizabeth, and under James large sums of money were devoted to this object, while the tvwenty-two years of uninterrupted peace with which this reign was favored afforded a rare opportunity for the development of the new industries which had taken root. The increase of capital is indicated by the fall in the, legal rate of interest, which during this reign was reduced from 10 to 8 per cent., and whatever may have been the condition of the working classes, that of the country at large appears on the whole to have been prosperous. The increasing activity of industry, no doubt, diminished the amount of pauperism and vagrancy; but the increase of wages which it brought with it does not appear to have been equal to the increase in the prices of commodities. From a proclamation issued in 1623, directing the purchase of wheat, rye. and barley for storage in public magazines, whenever these grains fell below 32s., 18s., and 16s. per quarter, respectively, it appears that these prices were at that time considered low; and from the Windsor table of prices it appears that the average price of middling wheat from 1606 to 1625 was ~1 14s. 1 -d. per bushel, (Winchester measure.) Meat was also extremely high in comparison with its price in former times. Mr. Birch, in a life of Prince Henry, presented the prices paid for meat by the purveyors of the princecs household, and it appears that beef was 34d. andmutton 3ad. the pound. This was probably about the year 1610, at which time the wages allowed by the magistrates in a midland county to men employed in agricultural labor ranged from 6d. to 10d. a day, without board, while women employed in hay-making were allowed 4d. a day without board. From a contract for victualing the navy, entered into by King James in 1622, the text of which is given in RPymer's " Foedera," we obtain the following statement of the fare allowed to common seamen at the time in question, from which some idea may perhaps be formed of the diet of the laboring classes: Every man's daily allowance was one pound of biscuit, one gallon of beer, and two pounds of beef, with salt, four days in the week; or else, iistead of beef, for two of the four clays, one pound of bacon, or pork salted, and one pint of pease, as heretofore hath been used and accustomed; and for the other three days of the week, one quarter of stock-fish, half a quarter of a pound of butter, and a quarter of a pound of cheese,. except that on Friday only one meal of fish, butter. and cheese was allowed. Herrings or other fish, according to the season, were to be provided in lien of stock-fish. The allowance to the contractor was, for every man's victuals, in harbor, seven — pence half-penny, and at sea, eightpence the day. In a tract published in 1615, advocating the fitting out of busses* to enable the English to compete with the Dutch in the herring fisheries, we find a minute statement of the provisions which the author considered necessary for the sustenance of sixteen men and boys on one of these vessels for a period of sixteen weeks, together with a statement of the price of each commodity. The proposed daily allowance for each man or boy was one gallon of beer, one pound of biscuit, half a pound of oatmeal or pease, one-fourth pound of butter, one-half pound of Holland cheese, and as much fresh fish as they could eat. In addition to the above each man or boy was to be allowed 2 pounds of bacon (for four meals) per week, and 3 pints of vinegar daily were to be divided among the entire number. There was' also an allowance of 800 Kentish fagots for fuel to last through the voyage. The prices were as follows: Beer, ~2 per tun, or 21d. per gallon; Ubiscuit, 13s. 4d. per. cwt., (of 112 pounds,) or 13d. per pound; oatmeal or The name of a class of fishing-vessels. FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III. 1 pease, 4s. per bushel; bacon, 31d. per pound; butter, ~1 per firkin, (56 pounds,) or 42d. per pound; cheese, 2id. per pound; vinegar, ~1 per tierce, (of 42 gallons,) or 55d. per gallon; faggots, 8s. per 100.. The wages of the crew were stated as follows: Master or captain, per month, ~5; two mates, each, per month, ~1 4s.; six men, each, per month, ~1; six other men, each, per month, 16s.; a boy, per month, 6s. It should be observed that these wages are high when compared with those of agricultural laborers at the same period. In forming an estimate of the fare of the common people at the time under consideration, it must be remembered that many esculent plants, now commonly used, were then but little known, or were confined exclusively to the tables of the rich.' Potatoes;'" says Eden,' which are now very generally used by the poor in every part of England, where fuel is cheap, were, in Kiing James's reign, considered as a great delicacy. They are noticed among the different articles provided for the Queen's household; the quantity, however, is extremely small, and the price is is. per pound. in 1619 two cauliflowers cost 3s., and sixteen artichokes 3s. 4d. prices which would now be deemed extravagant, but they were then regarded as rarities, as they are still in the remoie parts of the kingdom. Tea and sugar, which are now to be met with in most cottages in the southern parts of England, were still greater rarities. The latter is, indeed, noticed by many authors even as early as the fourteenth century, but continued to be very dear even in James's reign." From a small pamphlet entitled "' Grievous Grones for the Poore," published in 1622, it appears that beggary was still a prevalent evil, and that the poor laws were not rigidly enforced; for the writer complains that "though the number of the poore do dailie encrease there hath beene no collection for them, no not these seven yeares, in many parishes of this land, especiallie in countrie townes."' During the early years of the reign of Charles I the condition of the working classes was much the same as it had been under his immediate predecessor; and after the commenementof the civil war. as well as under the Protector, the attention of the government was so much engrossed with exciting public events as to leave little time for legislation in regard to the interests of the poor. In 1646 there was published a small quarto tract, entitled " Stanleye's Remedye: or the way how to reform wandring beggers, theeves, highway-robbers, and pickpockets," in which it was argued that'the condition of the poor might be greatly relieved " by the means of work-houses in all cities, market-townes, and all able parishes in the kingdome." The following extracts from the concluding portion of this pamphlet will serve to illustrate the prevalence of mendicity and crime, as well as the summary manner in which the authorities were accustomed to deal with these evils: The poor may be whipped to death and branded for rogues, and so become felons by the law, and the next time hanged for vagrancie, (by an act made in the days of Queen Elizabeth, of famous memorie,) before any private man will set them to work, or provide houses for labor, and stock and materials for them. The public must join their shoulders to the work, else it will never be done. To conclude, it is very lamentable that poor rogues and beggars should be whipped, or branded according to law, or otherwise punished, because they are begging, or idle, and do not work, when no place is provided for them to set them to work. I have heard the rogues and beggars curse the magistrates unto their faces, for providing such a law to whip and brand them, and not provide houses of labor for them. I make no doubt (most gracious soveraigne!) but it is evident to all men, that beg * This was near the close of the last century. 136 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. gary and thievery did never no more abound within this your realm of England; and the cause of this misery is idleness, and the only means to cure the same must be by his contrary, which is labor; for tell the begging soldier,, and the wandering and sturdy beggar, that they are able to work for their living, and bid them go to work, they will presently answer you, they would work if they could get it. But if workhouses were set up in all able parishes, it will take away all such defensory and usual answers, and then it will be tried whether it will work or not. There is no doubt that the civil war, which at the time this pamphlet appeared had been in progress for several years, occasioned much distress among all classes; yet manufacturing and mechanical industry had taken root so firmly in the country, that under the commonwealth it was quickly restored to a prosperous condition; and the progressive increase of capital, as compared with the demand for it, is indicated by the fact that in 1651 the legal rate of interest was reduced from 8 to 6 per cent. In 1662 there was passed the important statute in relation to settlements, by which the mass of the laboring poor were practically restricted to a residence in the parish in which they were born. Up to this time they had been free to seek employment wherever it was to be found, only those who were unable or unwilling to work being compelled to reside in the places of their settlement, i. e., the places where in case of necessity they were entitled to parish relief. But the act of 13 and 14 Charles II,* provided against the possibility that workmen might at some future time become chargeable to the parish by preventing them from wandering from their usual places of abode, "lest particular parishes," says Eden,' "which, from their situation, their privileges, or other circumstances, held out inviting prospects to new-comers, should in the end be overburdened with poor." By this act it was provided "That the residence in a parish necessary in order to procure a settlement should be reduced to forty days, and that within that time it should be lawful for any two justices of the peace, upon complaint made by the church-wardens and overseers of the poor, to remove any new-comer to the parish where he was last legally settled, unless he either rented a tenement of ten pounds a year or could give such security for the discharge of the parish where he was living as the two justices should deem sufficient." "' The law respecting settlements," says Eden, " unavoidably led to the commission of frauds, both by poor persons who were desirous of obtaining settlements, and by the parish officers who allowed them to acquire settlements, by a clandestine residence in the parish they came to; it was, therefore, enacted by the 1st of James II that the forty days' continuance of any new-comer should be accounted only from the time of his delivering notice, in writing, of the place of his abode and the number of his family (when he had any) to one of the church-wardens or overseers of the parish to which he should remove; and in order to prevent parish officers fromn collusively receiving such notices, it was further enacted, by the 3d of William and Mary, that the forty days' continuance in a parish should be accounted only from the publication of such notice by its being read in the church, immediately after divine service, on the Sunday after it was delivered to the overseer. While, iowever, the legislature thus restrained the laboring poor from obtaining settlements by a notice, it appointed other ways by which a person might gain a settlement without the publication of a notice, namely, by being charged to the public taxes and paying them; by exe-'Although Charles actually ascended the throne in 1660, his reign is officially dated from the time of his father's death in 1649, and the various acts of Parliament are numbered accordingly. FROM ELIZABETHI TO GEORGE III. 137 cuting an annual office in the parish, and serving in it a year; by serving an apprenticeship in the parish; by being lawfully hired into any parish for a year, and (as a subsequent statute requires) continuing in the same service a twelvemonth. As might have been foreseen, the effect of these regulations was to keep large numbers of people in poverty and idleness in their own parishes, when employment might have been readily obtained in other localities, had they been free to go and seek it. This was set forth in the preamble to the act of 1697, which provided that if any person coming to reside in a parish should deliver to to the church-wardens or overseers a certificate under the hand and seal of the church-wardens and overseers of the parish where he was last legally settled, allowed and subscribed by two justices of the peace, he should not be removable merely on account of his being likely to become chargeable, but only on his becoming actually chargeable, to the parish, when the parish which granted the certificate should be required to pay the expense both of his maintenance and removal. It was not, however, until near the close of the eighteenth century that the law was so changed as to'afford any material relief from the unwholesome and senseless restrictions imposed by the law of settlements. It does not appear that the reigns of Charles II and his immediate.successor were unfavorable to the industrial and commercial prosperity of the country, however unsatisfactory they may have been in their political aspects. In 1662, the second year after the Restoration, the revenue from customs amounted to ~414,946; in 1688 it had increased to ~781,987. The intervening period had also been marked by an increase in the number of buildings, the consumption of luxuries,and other indications of material prosperity. Sir William Petty, in his Political Arithmetic, published in 1676, says that the number of houses when he wrote was double what it had been forty years before. The royal navy had doubled in the same period, and the shipping of Newcastle had increased fourfold. He also notices the increased imports of wine and the general improvement in the style of living. His contemporary, Sir Joshua Child, observes that inl 1688 the number of men on'change worth ~10,000 was greater than the number worth ~1,000 had been in 1650; that in those earlier times gentlewomen thought themselves well clothed when wearinga serge gown, in which a chamber-maid in 1688 would have been ashamed to appear; and that, besides the great increase in clothes, plate, jewels, and household furniture, the number of coaches had increased one hundred fold. HEow far the working classes shared in these improved conditions we are not informed. The following classification of the population of England by professions, occupations, &c., for the year 1688, is based upon the estimates of Gregory King: FAMiILIES AND THEIR INCOMIES IN 1688. Ranks anl professions. F _Tmoalo............................... 0 I 160 Temporal lords........4..~................................. ~40 2, 800 26 Spiritual lords........................................................... 20 1, 300 800 Baronets.............6................................... 16 880 600 Knights.....................................................................13 650 3, 000 Esquires - 450................................................ 10 450 1-, 000 Gentlemen................................................ — 8 2Q0 5. 000 Persons in greater offices................240 5 000 Persons in lesser offices.........................1.....0..................... 6 10 138 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. FAMILIES AND THEIR INCOMES IN 1688-Continued. Ranks and professions. 2, 000 Eminent merchants and traders.. —.. —... —...-.~................... ~8 400 8, 000 Lesser merchants and traders...............................................6 200 10, 000 Persons in the law7..................................... 7 140 2, 000 Eminent clergymen.......................................... 6 60 8, 000 Lesser clergymen...................................................... 5 45 40, 000 Freeholders'of the better sort......................4......................... 7 84 140, 000 Freeholders of the lesser sort................................................ 5 50 150, 000 Farmers............................ ------------------................... 5 44 16, 000 Persons in liberal arts and sciences...................................... 5 (;0 40, 000 Shopkeepers and tradesmen.................................................. 4 45 60, 000 Artisans and handicraftsmen..4............................. 4 40 5, 000 Naval officers............................................................... 4 0 4, 000 Military officers..-......................................... 4 60 511, 586 Average............... 5 67. 0 50, 000 Common seamen. 3 20. 0 364, 000 Laboring people and out-servants....................... 31 15 0 40, 000 Cottagers and paupers..................................................... 31 6.1 40, 000 Cottagers and pn pers-31 6. 10 35, 000 Common soldiers...........................................................1 2 14. 0 489, 000 General average............ 10.10 It may not be amiss to present here some extracts from tihe account which Macaulay* gives of the condition of the English working classes a few years before the revolution of 1688: "The great criterion," says he," of the state of the common people is the amount of their wages, and as four-fifths of the common people were, in the seventeenth century, employed in agriculture, it is especially important to ascertain what were then the wages of agricultural industry. On this subject we have the means of arriving at conclusions sufficiently exract for our purpose. " Sir William Petty, whose mere assertion carries great weight, informs us that a laborer was by no means in the lowest state who received for a day's work 4d. with food, or 8d. without food. Four shillings a week, therefore, were, according to Petty's calculation, fair agricultural wages. " That this calculation was not remote from the truth we have abundant proof. About the beginning of the year 1685 the justices of Warwickshire. in the exercise of a power intrusted to them by an act of Elizabeth, fixed, at their quarter sessions, a scale of wages for the county, and notified that every employer who gave more than the authorized sum, and every working-man who received more, would be liable to punishment. The wages of the common agricultural laborer, from March to September, were fixed at the precise amount mentioned by Petty, namely, 4s. a week without food. From September to March the wages were to be only 3s. 6d. a week. " But in that age, as in ours, the earnings of the peasant were very different in different parts of the kingdom. The wages of Warwickshire were probably about the average, and those of the counties near the Scottish border below it; but there were more favored districts. In the same year, 1685, a gentleman of Devonshire, named Richard Dunning, published a small tract, in which he described the condition of the poor of that county. That he understood his subject well it is impossible to doubt, for a few months later his work was reprinted, and was, by the magistrates assembled in quarter sessions at Exeter, strongly * History of England, Vol. I, pp. 323-330, Appleton's edition of Macaulay's works. FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III. 139 recommended to the attention of all parochial officers. According to him, the wages of the Devonshire peasant were, without food, about 5s. a week. "' Still better was the condition of the laborer in the neighborhood of Bury St. Edmunds. The magistrates of Suffolk met there in the spring of 1682 to fix a rate of wages, and resolved, that where the laborer was not boarded he should have 5s. a week in winter and 6s. in summer. "In 1661 the justices of Chelmsford had fixed the wages of the Essex laborer, who was not boarded, at 6s. in winter and 7s. in summer. This seems to have been the highest remuneration given in the kingdom for agricultural labor between the restoration and the revolution; and it is to be observed that in the year in which this order was made the necessaries of life were immoderately dear. Wheat was at 70s. the quarter, which would even now be considered as almost a famine price. * * " In the year 1680, a member of the House of Commons remarked that the high wages paid in this country made it impossible for our textures to maintain a competition with the produce of the Indian looms. An English mechanic, he said, instead of slaving like a native of Bengal for a piece of copper, exacted a shilling a day. Other evidence is extant, which proves that a shilling a day was the pay to which the English manufacturer then thought himself entitled, buts that he was often forced to work for less.'" One of the most remarkable of the popular lays chanted about the streets of Norwich and Leeds in the time of Charles the Second may still be read on the original broadside. It is the vehement and bitter cry of labor against capital. It describes the good old times when every artisan employed in the woolen manufacture lived as well as a farmer. But those times were past. Sizpence a day was now all that could be earned by hard labor at the loom. If the poor complained that they could not live on such a pittance, they were told that they were free to take it or leave it. For so miserable a recompense were the producers of wealth compelled to toil, rising early and lying down late, while the master clothier, eating, sleeping, and idling, became rich by their exertions. A shilling a day, the poet declares, is what the weaver would have, if justice were done. We may, therefore, conclude that in the generation which preceded the revolution, a workman employed in the great staple manufacture of England thought himself fairly paid if he gained 6s. a week. a * * * * "It seems clear, therefore, that the wages of labor, estimated in money, were, in 1685, not more than half of what they now are, and that there were few articles important to the working-man of which the price was not, in 1685, more than half of what it now is. Beer was undoubtedly much cheaper in that age than at present. Meat was also cheaper, but was still so dear that hundreds of thousands of families scarcely knew the taste of it. In the cost of wheat there has been very little change. The average price of the quarter, during the last twelve years of Charles II, was 50s. Bread, therefore, such as is now given to the inmates of a workhouse, was then seldom seen, even on the trencher of a yeoman or of a shopkeeper. The great majority of the nation lived almost entirely on rye, barley, and oats. " The produce of tropical countries, the produce of the mines, the produce of machinery, was positively dearer than at present. Among the commodities for which the laborer would have had to pay higher in 1685 than his posterity now pay were sugar, salt, coals, candles, soap, shoes, stockings, and generally all articles of clothing and all articles of 140 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. bedding. It may be added that the old coats and blankets would have beeh not only more costly, but less serviceable than the modern fabrics." Mr. W. T. Thornton, in his work on " Labor," published in 1869, takes issue with Iacaulay ifi respect to the advantages which, according to the latter, the modern English workman possesses over the workman who lived in the last days of the Stuarts. In support of his view he cites " that most minute, careful, and comprehensive of inquirers," Daniel Defoe, whose description may be taken as applying to the early years of the eighteenth century.'" It is curious to observe," says Mr. Thornton, " how, item by item, as if of malice aforethought, he disproves the whole of Lord Macaulay's proofs. "Although in Yorkshire, and generally in the Bishoprick of Durham, a laborer's weekly wages might, he says, be only 4s., in Kent, and several of the southern and western provinces, they were 7s., 9s., or 10s. Often when he (Defoe) had wanted a man for work, and had offered 9s. a week to sturdy varlets at his door, he had been told to his face that they could get more by begging, and'once,' says he,' I put a lusty fellow in the stocks for making the experiment.' Again, he represents himself as habitually paying six or seven men together on a Saturday night, the least 10s., and some 30s., for work, and he mentions one man who for several years gained of him from 16s. to 20s. a week by his handiwork at the'mean, scoundrel emplonyment of tile-making.' Turning to manufactures, he says nothing was more common than for journeymen weavers to earn from 15s. to 30s. a week; and he appeals to silk-throwsters, whether they were not in the habit of giving 8s., 9s., and 10s.' to blind men and cripples to turn wheels.' Then he speaks of' the difficulty of raising soldiers, the vast charge the kingdom was at to officers to procure men, the many little and not over holnest methods used to entice them into the service;' and all this he explains by the ease and plenty in which Englishmen lived. If, he argues, they had' wanted employment, and consequently bread, they would have carried a musket rather than starve, and have worn the Queen's cloth, or anybody's cloth, rather than' go naked and live in rags and want;' but he that could earn 20s. at an easy, steady employment, must be mad or drunk when he'lists for A soldier to be knocked on the head for 3s. 6d. a week.' " True, the high wages that prevailed were not always turned to the best account. They were higher here than in any other country in the world, but whereas a Dutchman with 20s. a week would be sure to grow rich and to leave his children in very good condition, an Englishman'could often but just live, as it was called,' might, perhaps,'hardly have a pair of shoes to his feet, or clothes to cover his nakedness, and might have his wife and children kept by the parish.' But then this was caused entirely by the extravagant humor of our poor people in eating and drinking, for they' ate and drank, but especially the latter, three times as much in value as any sort of foreigners of the same dimensions in the world.' If it had not been for the ale-house, every one might have lived comfortably, for it was incontestable that there was'more labor than hands to perform it,' and that the' meanest labor in the nation afforded the workman sufficient to provide for himself and his family.' "' Not even Macaulay's eloquence and ingenuity can countervail these sturdy affirmations of Defoe, which place beyond dispute that there has not, since the earlier writer lived, been any such marked or general rise of money wages as the other imagined. Besides, money wages a century or two ago were very far from representing so accurately as at present the sum total of their recipient's resources. Among the proceedings, legal or other, which, with whatever motive instituted, have, together with FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III. 141 many beneficial results, had the baneful one of utterly divorcing the English laborer from the soil, the most efficacious have been inclosure bills, which did not come much into fashion until the middle of George II's reign.* Previously, whoever wished' to build himself a cottage, might, without much objection, squat himself down on one of the many tracts of neglected land which, scattered about on every side, then made up a full fourth of the whole area of the kingdom; while the ease with which rent-free dwellings were thus obtainable, necessarily lowered the rent of other dwellings of a similar class. Laborers, consequently, in rural districts had to pay little or nothing for lodgings, and no small portion of their board also was procurable on equally easy terms. "The peasant's garden, cribbed probably, like the site of his cottage, fromn the waste, supplied him with roots and herbs; on the adjoining common he had grazing for a cow and a few sheep, as wull as for pigs and poultry; some neighboring wood or heath furnished him with fuel for the gathering, and he was lucky if he lived too far from a meer or marsh to allow of his catching an occasional eel or mallard, as well as the ague. It may be that where he once fed a flock of geese, is now an orchard rich with apple blossoms; and that the fen in which he snared wild fowl, has long since been drained and divided into corn-fields and turnip-fields; that the moor where he cut turf among the furze bushes, is now a meadow bright with clover, and renowned for butter and cheese. But of whatever advantage such transformations may be to the country at large, to the poor countryman they have been of less than no advantage at all. His share of the gain resulting from them is a miserable set-off against his concomitant loss, for what he has gained is simply access to shops and markets, stocked more abundantly than before from the augmented produce of the improved land, while what he has lost is all that the same land would have yielded if left in a state of nature. It was by supplemental aids derived from land in that state that the Yorkshire hind, when earning no more than 5s. a week in money, was nevertheless enabled, as we are expressly told he was, to live much better than working-men in any of the manufacturing countries of Germany, France, or Italy. When this was the case in Yorkshire, where labor was cheapest, it is very certain that in Kent and Sussex, and in the southern counties generally, where agricultural wages were on an average twice as high as in the north, and were supplemented in the same manner, the condition of the laborers in husbandry cannot have been one which their successors have any reason to look back to with contempt." The apparent discrepancies between Macaulay's conclusions and the statements of Defoe may, perhaps, be explained in part by an actual improvement in the condition of the working-classes having taken place between 1685, the year to which Mr. MIacaulay's description refers, and 1704, the date at which was published the pamphlet from which Mr. Thornton has quoted. t Mr. Rogers, in the work heretofore mentioned, says that the mass of the people recovered to some extent during the i Mr. Thornton does not here bring in question the great inclosing movement of the sixteenth century. The later inclosures by act of Parliament are a different matter, though contributing largely to the same result, namely the monopoly of the soil by the aristocracy. Macaulay says that the number of inclosure acts passed since the accession of George II to the throne exceeds four thousand, and that the area inclosed under the authority thereby conferred exceeds, oil a moderate calculation, ten thousand square miles. The inclosure of this area was doubtless a desirable thing in itself, but this might surely have been accomplished without taking it away from the people to annex it to the estates of the nobility. t Giving alni. no chCarity. 142 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. seventeenth century from the depression into which, from various causes, they had fallen during the sixteenth, and that they " had a golden age during the first half of the eighteenth." Whether they had attained a,condition which warranted this description as early as 1704 may, indeed, be doubted; butthat their circumstances were better than they had been at the close of the reign of Charles II is quite probable. The war with France which followed the accession of William III to the throne in 1688 occasioned a considerable falling off in external trade, the amount of shipping clearing outwards from English ports having declined from 285,800 tons in 1688 to 174,791 tons in 1696, while the value of merchandise exported fell in the same period from ~4,086,089 to ~2,729,520. This decline in commerce was, however, accompanied with increased activity in a number of domestic ind(ustries. This was the case in the manufacture of copper and brass, silk, and the finer descriptions of glass, which latter had up to that time been chiefly imported from France. A swordblade company which had settled in Yorkshire, established a prosperous business, and so great was the improvement in the manufacture of men's hats, previously imported in large numbers from Normandy, that the English article soon excluded its foreign competitor, than which it was at once better and lower in price. These and other improvements in manufactures were largely promoted by the influx of French refugees which followed the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685. The intolerant bigotry of Louis XIV drove from his kingdom nearly half a million of his Protestant subjects,* who were among the most industrious, enterprising, and intelligent of the population. Consisting largely of manufacturers and skilled artisans, they carried their experience, skill, and artistic taste, as well as a large amount of capital, to the several countries of Protestant Europe in which they found refuge. It is believed that not less than fifty thousand of them settled in England. Voltaire, in his Age of Louis XIV, states that a part of the suburbs of London (Spitalfields) was peopled entirely with French manufacturers of silk, while thousands of French refugees, engaged in other industries, established themselves in the suburbs of Soho and St. Giles. Others, he says, carried to England the art of making crystal in perfection, which for that same reason was about this same time lost in France. Anderson, in his History of Commerce, (Vol. II, page 569) estimates the amount of capital, in money and effects, brought into the country by these immigrants at an aggregate of three million pounds sterling, and says: I" To the French refugees England owes the improvement of several of its manufactures of slight woolen stuffs, of silk, linen, paper, glass, and hats; (the last two since brought to perfection by us.) The silks called ia la mode and lustrings were entirely owing to them; also brocades, satins, black and colored mantuas, black paduasoys, ducapes, watered tabbies, and black velvets; also watches, cutlery-ware, clocks, jacks, locks, surgeons' instruments, hardware, toys, &c." The peace of Ryswick, negotiated in September, 1697, was quickly followed by evidences of increased prosperity. The improvements which had been made in manufactures, and the new industries introduced, now co-operated with a revived commerce to produce an era of increased industrial activity. In 1697 the merchandise shipped from English ports amounted to only ~3,525,907. During the first three years of peace it averaged ~6,709,881 per annum. The increased activity of internal traffic may be in part inferred from the great increase which occurred in the use of the mails. During the eight years of the war the' revenue of * The number has been variously estimated at from three hundred thousand to one million. FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III. 143 the post-office amounted to only ~67,222 per annum. Its annual revenue during the first four years of peace averaged ~82,319. Among other causes of the improved condition of trade have been mentioned the re.coinage of the silver, with the withdrawal of debased coin, the establishment of the Bank of England in 1694, the enlargement of the bounds of religious toleration, and the augmented confidence in the'future which arose from a more definite settlement of the political constitution of the kingdom. The reign of Anne, extending from 1702 to 1714, was distinguished for the successful military campaigns of the famous Duke of Marlborough. Out of the entire period, only two years were years of peace. It does not appear, however, that the activity of internal trade and industry was interrupted; and though foreign commerce may have languished for a time,it did not suffer as it had done during the preceding reign. It was more seriously crippled during the earlier years of the reign of George I, under whom England was successively involved in petty wars with various states which had sheltered the pretender to the British throne. There are eviden'ces, however, that the country was in a prosperous condition. The taxes yielded increased revenues; money was abundant; the government seldom borrowed at a higher rate than 4 per cent., and at the close of George's reign in 1727 the market rate of interest was but 3 per cent. The abundance of capital did not fail to arouse the cupidity of the speculator, and it was during this period that the famous South-Sea bubble expanded and collapsed. The following brief account of the condition of the country during the reign of George II (1727 to 1760) is given by John Wade in his history of the middle and working classes: Of the thirty-three years of this king's government, only thirteen were years of war; the remainder of peace, prosperity, and great internal improvements. Shipping increased; agriculture, commerce, and the manufacturing arts flourished. Under numerous inclosure acts, the waste lands were reclaimed; new roads were opened and old ones improved; bridges were erected, and numerous rivers widened and deepened for facilitating internal communication; vast quantities of corn were annually exported. The balance of payments in return for the excess of exports in grain and other commodities kept up the circulation almost without the aid of a paper currency; commercial interest ran steadily at 3 per cent. The prices of the public securities rose above par, so that ministers were enabled to reduce the annuities, by offering the usual alternative to the creditors, of either the payment of the principal, *or the acceptance of a lower rate of interest. The activity of national industry and abundance of capital are evidenced by the extent of local improvements, especially in London and Edinburgh. In London no fewer than eight new parishes were erected between the Revolution and the end of the reign of George II. An act had passed in Queen Anne's reign for the building of fifty additional churches in the metropolis. The extension of commerce and manufactures caused a great addition to the population in the chief seats of industry and enterprise in the country-in Manchester, Birmingham, Liverpool, Bristol, Glasgow, Leeds, Sheffield, Frome. One source of the general prosperity was the growing importance and increasing tempations held out by the colonies of North America. Already the New World had become the land of refuge and of hope to the needy and adventurous both from England and the continental states. In one year, that of 1729, there emigrated to the single province of Pennsylvania no fewer than 6,208 persons, of whom, as in the existing stream of emigration, the great mass were Irish, forced into exile, as at present, by high rents and destitution. In the following paragraph MIr. Wade mentions a few of the leading improvements in agricultural industry introduced during the first half of the eighteenth century: In 1710 the winnowing-machine was introduced from Holland, and about the same time the thrashing-machine began to be used in the northern parts of the island. In 1732 the celebrated Jethro Tull commenced his experiments on his farm in Berkshire, but thirty years elapsed before they excited much practical atten 144 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. tion and before the more valuable parts of his system began to be adopted by intelligent agriculturists. He introduced the drill-husbandry and recommended the substitution of labor and arrangement in the place of manure and fallow in the culture of land. A rotation of crops and the cultivation of turnips, clover, and potatoes in the field became more general. That agriculture was extending is shown by the course of legislation. More land was demanded for cultivation. In the belligerent reign of William III not a single act was passed for the inclosure of wastes or the draining of marshes. In the equally fighting reign of Anne there were only two inclosure-acts, but in that of George I the number was twenty-six, and in the thirty-three years' reign of George II two hundred and twenty-six were passed.* The period under consideration witnessed the birth of a number of those inventions which, after successive improvements, were destined to effect a revolution in most of the industrial arts. The revival of Greek learning had brought to the knowledge of modern scholars certain ancient applications of the power of steam which, trifling as they were, contained the germs of those stupendous applications of the same force with which we are now familiar. During the fixteenth ahtid seventeenth centuries the subject had occupied the minds of a number of mechanicians, and in 1663 the Marquis of Worcester, in his "Century of Inventions," announced that he had invented and constructed a steam-machine, by means of which he could raise a column of water to the height of forty feet. This was improved upon by Savery a few years later, and in 1690 the piston, in a rude form, was devised by Dr. Dennis Papin. In 1705 Thomas Newcomen patented an engine which gradually came into very general use for pumping water out of mines, and which, after successive improvements by Potter, Beighton, Smeaton, and others, formed the basis for the famous inventions of James Watt, the first of which was patented on January 5, 1769. In the year 1738 Mr. John Kay, a native of Bury, in Lancashire, then residing at Colchester, one of the seats of the woolen manufacture, sug. gested a new mode of throwing the shuttle, by the use of which a weaver was enabled to turn out nearly twice as much cloth as he could before. In the same year a patent was taken out by Lewis Paul for spinning cotton or wool by the aid of rollers; and although his machine was unsuccessful in practice, it contained the principle subsequently developed by Arkwright in the spinning-frame, which he patented in 1769, within a few months of the time when Watt obtained his patent for the engine, in conjunction with which the new devices for spinning were soon to work such wonders. t These and other inventions of the same period did not begin to produce their' great effects upon manufacturing industry until near the close of the century; but they are evidences of the intellectual energy that marked the period now under consideration, and of an industrial activity which taxed to the utmost the modes of production then iu use, thus stimulating inventive genius to those efforts that'were soon to achieve such magnificent triumphs. The growth of the cotton-manufacture between 1697 cand 1764 is illustrated by the following table, showing the quantity of cotton-wool im* That the large number of inclosure-acts passed during these two reigns is an evidence of the flourishing condition of the country at the time may readily be admitted; but we need not, therefore, infer that the permanence of this condition was promoted by the measures in question. To bring the common lands under cultivation was obviously a means of increasing the aggregate resources of the country. To annex them to the great estates of the nobility was not the way to make their cultivation most conducive to the welfare of the masses of the working people. t The spinning-jenny was invented by Hargreaves about 1764, and patented in 1770. In 1775 Samuel Crompton invented a machine, since known as the mule, which combined the actions of Arkwright's frame and Hargreaves's jenny, and in 1785 the powerloom was invented by Cartright. FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III. 145 ported to, and the value of cotton goods exported from, Great Britain at different times between the years just mentioned: Quantity of cot- Value of cotton Years. ton -v wool imported. goods exported. Pounds. 1697................................ -.................... 1,976, 359 ~5, 915 1701............................................................. 1,985, 868 23, 253 1710......................... 715,008 5, 698 1720.................................................................. 1,972, 805 16, 300 1730...................................................... 1545,472 13, 524 1741.................................................................. 1, 645, 031 20, 709 1751......-........................... 2,976, 610 45, 986 1764................. 3, 870, 392 200, 354 It will be seen from these figures that the exports of cotton goods in 1741 were more than three times as great as they were in 1697, and that in 1764 they were nearly five times as great as in 1741.* Defoe, speaking of Manchester, in his " Tour through the Whole Island of Great Britain," published in 1727, says: Here, as at Liverpool, and also at Frome, in Somersetshire, the town is extending in a very surprising manner, being almost double what it was a few years ago.'* * The grand manufacture which has so much raised this town is that of cotton in all its varieties, which, like all our other manufactures, is very much increased within these thirty or forty years. An article in the Daily Advertiser, of September 5, 1739, and which was also copied into the Gentleman's Magazine, says: The manufacture of cotton, mixed and plain, is arrived at so great perfection within these twenty years, that we not only make enough for our own consumption, but supply our colonies and many of the nations of Europe. The benefits arising from this branch are such as to enable the manufacturers of Manchester alone to lay out about ~30,000 a year, for many years past, on additional buildings.'Tis computed that two thousand new houses have been built in that industrious town within these twenty years. During the same period considerable improvement took place in the manufacture of iron, and before the middle of the century Lord Dudley's plan of smelting iron with coal, instead of charcoal, was successfully carried on at various points. The increase of production thus effected led to the use of iron for purposes to which it had never before been applied, and thus stimulated improvement in other directions. The hardware manufacture steadily grew in importance, and Birmingham and Sheffield, the chief centers of this industry, rapidly increased in wealth and population. The various operations connected with this industry were carried on chiefly by hand, but machinery was used in the rolling of metal sheets, the stamping of dies, and other processes requiring a greater power than human muscle could apply. In the *The growth of the woolen manufacture is indicated by the number of pieces of broadcloth milled at the various fulling-mills in the West-Riding of Yorkshire at different dates from 1727 to 1795, inclusive, which was as follows: Number of Number of Dates. pieces. Dates. pieces. 1727........................ 28, 990 1765..... 54, 660 1735..................... 31,744i 1775..................... 95, 878 1745........................ 50, 453 1785.... 157, 275 1755........................ 57,125 1795........ -.. 250, 993 10 L 146 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. making of nails, an industry which was extensively carried on in the neighborhood of Birmingham, it was not uncommon to employ the labor of females, as appe.ars from the following passage in HEutton's history of that town: When I first approached Birmingham, in 1741, I was surprised at the prodigious number of blacksmiths' shops upon the road, and could not conceive how the country, though populous, could support so lmany people of the same occupation. In some of these shops I observed one or more females, stripped of their upper garments, and not overchatrged with their lower, wielding the hammer with all the grace of their sex. The beauties of their face were rather eclipsed by the smut of the anvil. Struck with the novelty, I inquired whether the ladies of this country shoed horses, but was answered with a smile, "They are nailers." It is evident that the growvth of these manufactures and of many others.which either came into existence, or were greatly improved, during the same period, must have reacted powerfully upon agriculture by furnishing an ample and ready market for its various products. The advantages arising from this source appear to have been enjoyed for many years by the ftarmers, and, probably also, to a considerable extent, by their laborers, before the landlords, by a general enhancemenf of rents, asserted their claim to the increased pecuniary returns obtained from their lands. A neighbor of Arthur Young informed that eminent agricultural writer, that between 1770 and 1780 an aged relative of his had frequently expressed surprise at the rise of rents that was then taking place, for during the long period through which his experience extended the renewal of leases had been commonly regarded as a matter of course; and father, son, and grandson, in turn had occupied the sanme farm without such a thing as ah increase of the rent entering into the thoughts of either landlord or tenant. To this fact, in conjunction with the activity of the various industries, the prosperity of the working-classes, during the period in question, was doubtless mainly due; while the raising of rents, the extension of land monopoly by the inclosure acts, and the disturbance of industry incident to a period of transition in the methods of production co-operated with war and commercial revulsions to produce that deterioration in their circumstances which occurred in the latter part of the century. Of the improvement in their condition between the revolution of 1688 and the accession of George III in 1760, an indication is afforded by the fact that at the earlier date the use of wheaten bread by the common people was mainly confined to a small proportion of the inhabitants of the southern counties, whereas, at the later, it was used by about fiveeighths of the population of England. That the fare of the laboring people was by no means scanty may reasonably be inferred from the treatment of the inmates of work-houses. The following account taken from a parliamentary return, shows the expense of maintaining the work-house at Saint Giles's in the Fields for they ear ended April 18, 1727: ~ s. d. For baking.............. 2 13 4 For milk............................................................. 59 1 3 For butcher's meat............................ 180 0 6 For cheese..................... 81 7 2 For bread and flour....................................................... 321 6 6 For oat-meal............................................................ 26 3 9 For peas................ 0 10 0 For beer............................................................ 161 12 6 }For shop-goods........................................................... 61 7 A5 For herbs............................................................ 8 9 6j For mackerel............................................................ 1 6 4 903 13 31 FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE I1I. 147 Considering the comparatively low price of meat at the time in question,* the amount obtained for the expenditure above given must have been quite liberal, while the supply of beer, then worth about 1id. per gallon, was large enough to attest the generosity of the managers of the establishment, however unfavorably it may impress us in regard to their judgment. The bill of fare of the inmates of the work-house at Bedford about the same time was as follows: Day of week. Breakfast. Dinner. Supper. Sunday..... Bread and cheese.... Boiled beef and suet-poddin...... Bread and cheese. Monday...... Broth................. Cold meat left on Sunday......... Do. Tuesday... Bread and cheese...... Boiled beef and a little mutton Do. and suet pudding. Wednesday.. The same as Monday. The same as Monday.............. Do. Thursday.... The same as Tuesday The same as Tuesday.... Do. Friday....... The same as Monday.. The same as Monday............. Do. Saturday..... Bread and cheese. -. Hasty-pudding, or milk-porridge.. Broth, or bread and cheese. The writer who furnishes this information further says: Their bread is wheat dressed down and made into large household loaves by a woman in the house. Their drink is beer, turned in froinh the public brew-house at three half-pence per gallon. The overseers do sometimes put a cow upon the common for them; and that nothing may be wasted or lost, they have a pig or two brought in to live upon their wash and dregs, and fragments; which when well grown, is fed and killed for the house. They have also a little garden for herbs, onions, &c. Mr. Wade states that from 1720 to 1760, there was no material variation either in the prices of provisions or the rates of wages.'" Throughout the whole of that period," says he, " wheat kept steadily at from 32s. to 35s. the quarter, which was lower than it had been about the time of the revolution. WVages of husbandmen rose a little toward the close of the reign of George If, but not those of artificers. According to Mr. Barton's tables wages in husbandry were in 1725, per week, 5s. 4d.; in 1751, 6s.; in 1770, 7s. 4d." Eden, however, writing near the close of the eighteenth century, expresses the opinion that in mlost parts of England, except in the vicinity of the large towns, the price of labor had nearly doubled within the preceding sixty years. The following statement shows the expense of maintaining the family of an agricultural laborer in 1762, the second year of the reign of George III: Per week. 8. d. Bread, flour, oat-meal....................................................... 2 6 Roots, greens, beans, peas, fruit............................. 0 5 Firing, 6d., candles, 3d., soap, 2ad.................. 0 11. Milk, lid., butter, lid., cheese, 5d............................................. 0 8 Flesh, 6d., rent, 6d., pins, worsted, thread, &c., ld.............................. 1 Clothes, repairs, bedding, shoes.......................................... 1...I 0 Salt, beer, exotics, vinegar, spices............................................ 0 8Total per week.......................................................7 4j As these are actual expenses, they indicate the mode as well as the cost of living at the time in question. * According to a table published further on, the average price of mutton from 1706 to 1730, was only 18. 8d. per stone of 8 pounds, or 2~d per pound. In 1740 the same price was paid for beef by the victualing office, and four years later the same meat was purchased for lid per pound. 148 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The following statement shows the contract-rates of wages at Greenwich Hospital in 1760. 8. d. Carpenter, per day..................................... 2 6 Bricklayer, per day-.... 2 6 Mason, per day.............................................................. 2 8 Plumber, per day............................................................ 3 6 The contract-rate of wages for artificers had undergone no change from 1729, and continued without variation till about 1795, when they suddenly rose from 2s. 6d. to 5s. per day. The contract-prices for provisions and clothing in 1760 at the same hospital were as follows:;~i. s.. ~d. ~. a.d. Flesh, percwt............... 1 11 6 Beer, per barrel.............. 0 5 7] Bread, for 131 ounces....0..... 0 0 1 Candles, per dozen pounds.... 0 6 6 Butter,perpound........... 0 0 51 Shoes, per pair..-...... 0 4 0 Cheese, per pound............ 0 0 3J Coals, per chaldron........... 1 12 8 Pease, per bushel............ 0 3 6 Stockings, per pair........... 0 1 8 Oatmeal, per bushel........... 0 4 0 Hats, each......-...... 0 2 0 Salt, per bushel.. 0 4 0 Suit of bedding............... 0 4 4j Malt, per quarter............. 1 4 9 Coats, each................... 1 1 0 Hops, per cwt........ 4 13 4 Mr. Howlett, in a pamphlet on " the insufficiency of the causes to which the increase of our poor and of the poor's rates has been ascribed," published in 1788, maintained that, for a considerable period prior to the time he wrote, the rates of wages had not kept pace with the rise in the prices of provisions. An expensive war had brought an additional debt of more than one hundred millions sterling, and the increased taxes thus occasioned had fallen in part on articles which were necessaries of life, even among the poorest of the people, such as soap, leather, candles, &c. Within twelve years the price of these articles had increased one-fifth. Wheat, in the mean time, had cost the poor man nearly 6s. abushel; butter and cheese had risenthree half-pence apound, and meatapenny. The general increase in the price of these commodities he reckons at one-fifth, or 20 per cent., and asks, "What advantage have they (the working-classes) had to enable them to bear this augmented burden? What advance within the last ten or twelve years has been made in their wages? Very little indeed; in their daily labor nothing at all, either in husbandry or manufactures. In some branches of the latter, by the iniquitous, oppressive practices of those who have the direction of them, they are at this moment considerably lower. The only advantage they enjoy more than they did a few years ago is in piece-work." He thinks, however, that while this " augments the wages of the workmen it shortens the duration of their lives, and of their capacity for labor." Extending his review to a somewhat longer period, Mr. Howlett says that wheat, "which, between the years 1746 and 1765, was only 32s. a quarter, was almost from that time to the year 1776, above 45s." To counterbalance this, "the rise in the price of labor was very little, if anything, more than twopence on the shilling, except only the money earned by piece. work, which, ten or twelve years ago, was not nearly so general as at present." To show the very moderate rise of wages in the south of England, during the fifty years from 1737 to 1787, he gives the following statement: Wages per diem 1737. 1787. Agriculture: d. d. Laborers out of doors, in the country.....................................10 12 Threshers................................................................ 9 12 Laborers out of doors, near great towns................................... 16 16 FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III. 149 Cloth-manutfacturers: Scribblers....................................-.................,..... 14 15 Shearmen......................................................1.......... 5 18 Women spinners.......................................................... 6 7 The wages of weavers during the same period, he says, had been raised " about 2d. a day in the coarse trade and nothing at all in the superfine." Below are presented a number of tables, extracts from old accounts, official orders, &c., illustrating the rates of wages and the cost of living during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: WAGES AND PRICES FROM 1596 TO 1796. TABrLE I.-Showiring the wages of servants, laborers, and artificers in the county of Chester as fixed by thejustices of the peace of the said county, at the said city of Chester, in the thirtyeighth yeai'r of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, (d. D. 1596.) Wages by the year. Wages by the day. Occupation. With meat Without With meat and drink. meat and and drink. drink. ~. s. d. ~. 8. d. ~. s. d. m ith.............................................................1 11 8 5 00 2 Wheelwright..................................................... 0 0 5 10 0 2 Plowwright....................................................... 1 10 0 5 0 0 2 Millwright — 1...... 3 4 5 10 0 3 Master carpenter.................................... 2 13 4 5 13 4 4 Servant carpenter................................................ 0 0 3 10 0 1 Joiner.......................................................... I 10 0 4 0 i 2 Joiner -- 1 100 4 00 2 Rough-mason............................................... 1 6 8 5 0 2j Plasterer........................................................1 0 0 5 0 0 2 Sawyer....................................................1....... 8 0 4 10 0 2 Lime-maker......................................................, 1 3 0 4 6 8 2 Brick-layer....................................................... 1 0 0 4 0 0 24 Brick-man........................................................ 1 6 0 4 10 0 2 Tiler............................................................. 1 5 0 313 4 2 Slater........................................................... 1 60 4 00 24 Tile-maker....................................................... 1 10 0 4 0 0 2 T- r 10 0 4 C0 2 Linen-weaver..................................................... 1 0 0 4 0 0 1 Turner........................................................... 16 0 3 0 0 1 oolen-weaver.................................................. 8 3 13 4 1 Cooper.. -.-,-.- 1 10 0 4 0 0 2 Cooiller.......................................................... 110 0 4 0 0 2 ]Miller............................................................ 1 10 0 4 4 0 2 Fuller....................... 1 6 0 3 13 4 14 Walker..... 1 3 4 4 0 0 1i Thatcher........................................................ 1 0 0 4 0 0 1 Shingler....1...................................................... 10 0 4 0 0 2 Shearman....................................................... 1 0 0 3 13 4 1 Dyer...................................................... 1 6 8 3 13 4 1Hosiers.......................................................... 1 3 0 3 10 0 1 Shoemaker.......................................................|1 10 0 4 00 2 Tanners..........................................................- 1 6 0 4 00 1 Pewterers...................................................... 1 0 0 3 13 4 24 Bakers........................................................... 16 0 3 10 0 1 B3rowers.......................................................... 1 0 3 10 0 1 Glovers.......................................................... 1 6 8 3 16 0 1 Cutlers......................................................... 1 7 0 4 10 0 14 Saddlers................................................... 1 5 0 4 0 0 14 Spurriers....................................................... 1 5 0 4 00 10 Cap-makers...................................................... 1 0 0 3 10,0 2 Hat-maker............................................-........ 1 10 0 4 10 0 2 Bowiers, (bow-makers).................................. 1 8 0 4 0 0 2 Fletchers........................................................ 1 0 0 3 10 0 2 Arrow-head makers..............................................- 15 0 3 10 0 1 Butchers........................................................ 1 6 8 3 10 0 1 Cooks..............................................l.............. 1 00 3 5 0 1 Bailiffs of husbandry............................................. 2 0 0 4 0 0 3 Mowers of grass.................................................. 4 Taskers.............,,,......................................... 4 reapers.......................................................... Mowers of corn....4....................................................... 4 Servants of the best sort.................................1........ 0 0 3 10 0..... Servants of the second sort.......................................0 2 10 0. Servants of the third sort...............................8 0 1 16 0. I I 150 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. TABLE II.-Showing the wages of servants, laborers, and artificers, as fixed by the justices of the peace at Okeham, in the county of Rutland, oi the 28th day of April, 1610. Wages per annum. ~. s. d. A bailiff of husbandry, having charge of a plow-land, at least............ 2 12 0 A man-servant for husbandry of the best sort, who can sow, mow, thresh, make a rick, thatch and hedge the same, and kill a hog, sheep, or calf.. - 2 10 0 A common servant of husbandry, who can mow, and cannot expertly make a rick and thatch it, nor kill and dress a hog, sheep, or calf............. 2 0 0 A servant who can drive, plow, pitch, cart, and thresh, but cannot expertly sow and mow....................................................... 1 9 0 A boy under sixteen years of age........ -.............. 1 0 0 WAGES OF WOMEN-SERVANTS. A chief woman-servant, who can cook, bake, brew, make malt, and oversee other servants.................1........................... 1 6 8 A second woman-servant of the best sort, who cannot dress meat nor make malt, but can brew, &c............................................... 1 3 4 A "mean or simple woman-servant," who can do only out-work and drudging................................................................. 0 16 0 A girl under sixteen years of age........................................ 0 14 0 WAGES OF MlILLERS. A chief miller, who can "expertly beat, lay, grind, and govern his mill".. 2 6 0 A common miller, who cannot, &c....................................... 1 11 8 WAGES OF SHEPHERDS. A chief shepherd, who is skillful in the ordinary of his cattle, winter and summer.............................................................. 1 10 0 A common shepherd..............-.............................. 1 5 0 WAGES OF MOWERS AND HARVEST-FOLK. With WithOccupations. m e. out meat. d. d. A mower by the day........................................5 10 A man reaper................. 4 8 A woman reaper................................... 3 6 A man hay-maker................................................ 4 8 A woman hay-maker.............................-.......... 2 5 A follower of scythes............................................. 3 6 A raker of barley and peas......................................... 3 6 A hedger.....................................-................. 4 8 A ditcher........................................................ 4 8 Every other laborer not before set down, (harvest excepted,) shall. have from Easter to Michaelmas................................ 3 7 And afterward, every such laborer shall have from Michaelmas to Easter...................................................... 2 6 FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III. 151 WAGES OF ARTIFICERS AND THEIR APPRENTICES. From Easter From Michaelto Michaelmas. mas to Easter. Occupations. With With- With With out out meat. meat. meate. meat. d. d. d. d. Chief joiner, per day........................... 6 12 4 8 Joiner's apprentice, per day..... 4 8 3 6 MIaster sawyer, per day.......................... 6 12 4 8 Plow-wright, per day...........................5 10 4 8 10 [ 4 Thatcher, per day............................... 5 9 4 8 Hurdle-maker, per day........................... 5 9 4 8 Horse-collar-maker, per day...................... 6 10 4 8 Master mason, per day-........................... 8 12 6 10. Rough mason, per day....5.... 10 4 8 Master carpenter, per day........................ 8 14 6 14 Expert carpenter, per day............. 5 10 4 8 Carpenter's apprentice, per day.......... 3 7 2 6 Bricklayer, per day.............................. 5 9 4 8 Bricklayer's apprentice, per day.................. 3 7 2 6 Tiler or slater, per day........................... 5 10 4 8 Tiler or slater's apprentice, per day............3 7 2 6 Turner, per day...1....................... 6 12 6 12 Gardener, per day.......................... 6 12 Tailor, per day.................................. 4 8 4 8 It appears, by the high constable's catalogues of persons hired under the statutes from 1626 to 1634, that the rate of wages for servants above given was then complied with. TABLE III.-Showing the wages of artificers, laborers, and servants as fixed by the justices of thepeace at Chelmsford, in the county of Essex, on the 8th of April, 1651, "according to the true meaning of a statute made in the twenty-ninth year of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, having a special regard and consideration to the prices at this time of all kinds of victuals and apparel, both linen and woolen, and all other necessary charges wherewith artificers, laborers, and servants have been more grievously charged than in times past." By the day By the day from March'from Sop- By the whole to Septem- tember to year. ber. March. Occupations. -__. --- di. d. d. di. ~ s. d. s. d. A master mason........................................ 12 18 10 16 4 0 0 10 0 Amasterroughmason.................................. 10 17 8 14 3 0 0 10 0 A master mason's servants and apprentices, above the 0[ 10 age of fourteen and under eighteen................... 4 10 3 7 1 10 0 8 0 A master carpenter..................................... 1 0 16 4 0 0 10 0 A mastei carpenter, journeymen, and servants, above eighteen and under twenty-four years............. 14 6 12 2 10 0 8 0 A master carpenter, servants and apprentices, above fourteen and under twenty-four years..........6 12 6 10 1 4 0 8 0 A master sawyer1....6........8.14.................... 14 4 10 0 10 0 A master sawyer's laborer.8 8......................... 12 4 0 0 8 0 Palers.................................................. 8 8 12 4 0 0 10 0 livers of paleo n and clap-oard and laths -................ 10 i 8 16 4 0 0 10 0 Amillwright........................................... 2 10 16 0 0 0 0 0 A plow-wright and cartwright.......................... 1 16 0 0 0 0 0 Coopers................10 66................ 10 1 14 0 0 0 0 0 A master shipwright1 2......4 62......P.. 16 0 0 0 0 0 A hewer or common shipwright.. -1 1 8................ 1. 18. 14 0 0 0 0 0 A hewer or common sbipwriiht..............-....-....... 4 0O 152 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. TABLE III.-Showing the wages of artificers, laborers, and servants, 4-c.-Continued. By the day By the day fromMarch from Sep- By the whole to Septem- tember to year. her. March. Occupations. 4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...~~~ s~~ ~3Ld Cdt~ d. d. d. d.. s. d. s.d. An able clencher........... -............... 10 18 8 14 0 0 0 0 0 An ableholder................................. 8 14 7 12 0 0 0 0 0 A mastercalker........................................ 14 24 10 16 0 0 0 0 0, A calker, laboring by tido...............-......... 10 18 8 14 0 0 0 0 0 A common calker....................................... 9 16 8 14 0 0 0 0 0 A master joiner or carver.............................. 10 s18 8 16 4 0 0 10 0 A master joiner or carver's servants and apprentices, above eighteen and under twenty-four years......... 8 14 6 12 3 10 0 10 0 A master joiner or carver's servants and apprentices, above fourteen and under twenty-four years.......... 6 9 5 8 1 13 4 6 0 A master bricklayer, tiler, plasterer, and shingler....... 10 18 8 16 4 0 0 10 0 Second bricklayers, tilers, and slaters, above sixteen and under twenty-four years......................... 8 16 6 14 2 0 0 10 0 Their servants and apprentices, above twelve and under twenty-four years.................................... 6 10 5 8 0 0 0 0 0 Brick and tile makers, burners of wood, ashes, and lime. 8 1i 6 12 3 0 0 10 0 Their servants and laborers.............6........... 6 11 5 10 2 10 0 10 0 A plumber and glazier -......................... 10 16 8 14 3 5 0 10 0 Their servants and apprentices, above fourteen and under twenty-four years............................... 6 10 5 8 1 10 4 6 4 Master thatchers............................ 10 16 8 14 3 0 0 10 0 Their servants.......................................... 8 13 6 12 2 10 0 10 0 Woodcutters, ditchers. hedgers, thrashers, and all other common laborers, (the time of harvest excepted)..... 8 14 6 12 3 5 0 10 0 Loaders of corn and meal............................... 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 10 0 Knackers, collar-makers, and armorers................ 9 18 8 14 6 0 0 0 0 A bailiff of husbandry......-........................... 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 10 0 A chief hind, best plowman, carter, shepherd, or neatherd.-..................................... 0 0 0 0 4'10 0 10 0 The second hind, carter, or servant in husbandry....... 0 0 0 0 3 10 0 10 0 Apprentice at husbandry, with board and clothes.... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 The best woman-servant, being a cook able to take charge of a household................................ 0 0 0 0 210 0 0 0 The second woman-servant............................. 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 A dairy-maid or wash-maid........ -............... 0 0 0 0 2 5 0 0 0 A chamber-maid..................................... 0 0 0 0 2 10 0 0 0 Gardeners............................................. 8 16 7 12 3 0 0 10 0 Haymakers, men -........................, 8 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 women -................................ 5 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Weedersof corn...-............................... 4 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mowers of corn and grass....-............. 10 18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 A fallower............................................. 6 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Reapers, men.....-............................. 12 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 women........................................ 8 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 Best journeyman clothiers............................. 0 0 0 0 3 10 0 0 0 Bestjourneyman weavers in fine cloths................ 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 10 0 Second journeyman weaver and clothier................ 0 0 0 0 1 10 0 8 0 A journeyman wool-comber, above the age of twentyfour.............................................. 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 10 0 Wool-combers doing their work by task, for every warp*. 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 A journeyman tucker, fuller, shearman, and dyer....... 0 0 0 0 2 10 0 10 0 Tailors and hosiers...................................... 8 14 6 12 2 10 0 10 0 Shoemakers, cutlers, smiths, farriers, saddlers, spurriers, tanners, and coopers-.................................. 0 0 0 0 2 10 0 10 0 Millers, bakers, brewers, butchers, and cooks....-.... 0 0 0 0 2 10 0 10 0 The second sort of said artificers -..-.............. 0 0 0 0 2 10 0 8 0 ~ Weavers doing their work at home were left to make their own agreements with the clothier. WAGES OF ARTIFICERS AND LABORERS, BY TASK, OR IN GREAT, WITHOUT MEAT AND DRINK. ~ s. d. the mo wing' of an acre of grass, after land-measure... -... -. 0 1 S The well-making, clean-raking, and cocking of an acre of grass ready to carry...-............................................................. 0 2 0 ihe reaping, binding, cocking or shocking, of an acre of wheat, rye, or mixtlyn................................................. 0 3 4 The reaping, binding, and shocking of an acre of barley.................-. 0 2 6 The reaping, binding, and shocking of an acre of oats -..................... 0 2 6 A mlixture of wheat and rye, FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III. 153 The reaping, binding, and shocking of an acre of beans.................... 0 3 6 The " making " of an acre of peas, vetches, and tares..................... 0 1 9 The mowing of an acre of barley or oats............................... 0 1 2 The follower, making bands, raking and laying the same per acre.......... 0 1 0 Thrashing and winnowing wheat or rye, per quarter...................... 0 1 10 Thrashing and winnowing barley or oats, per quarter.................... 0 0 10 Thrashing and winnowing beans, peas, and tares, per quarter............. 0 0 10 Sawing plank, the hundred, (six score).................................. 0 2 6 Sawing boards, the hundred............................................. 0 2 6 Slitting work, the hundred............................................ 0 2 6 Riving lath, the hundred................................................ 0 0 4 Riving pales, the hundred-.......................................... 0 1 0 Riving clapboards, the hundred......................... —............ 0 4 0 The making of a plow, all new with meat and drink.. 0 1 6 The bodying of a plow, with meat and drink............................. 0 0 10 The heading or bodying of a plow, with the handle, with meat and drink.. 0 1 0 The making of a pair of cart-wheels, without meat and drink............. 0 8 0 The hewing of all the stuff of a body of a cart, without meat and drink... 0 1 8 The making of the body of a cart, without meat and drink................ 0 3 6 The hewing of every gang of felloes...................................... 0 1 4 The setting on of a felloe, without meat and drink......................... 0 0 8 The hewing and riving of every gang of spoke-timber, the gang containing 25............................................................... 0 1 0 Brick making and burning, straw and all other necessaries being provided per thousand, (without meat and drink)............................... 0 2 6 The striking, drying, and setting on piler, every thousand tile, without meat and drink........................................................ 0 0 10 The whiting and nealing of every thousand tile, without meat and drink... 0 1 0 TABLE IV.-Showing the wages of artificers, laborers, and servants as fixed by the justices of the peace of the county of Warwick, on Tuesday next after the close of Easter, 1684, " according to the laws and statutes of the realm, in such case made and provided, having a special regard and consideration to the prices at this time of victuals and apparel, and all other circumstances necessary to be considered." By the day. Occupations. With meat nd drinak. mWithout. 8.. s. 8. d. A master mason........................... 0 6 1 4 A master brick-mason...... 0 6 1 0 Their servants'and apprentices, above the age of eighteen years................................................... 0 4 0 8 Master carpenters.............................. 0 6 1 0 Their servants and journeymen, above the age of eighteen years.................................................... 0 6 1 0 Their servants and apprentices......-....... 0 4 0 8 Plow-wrights and cart-wrights............................. 0 6 1 0 BMaster brick-layers....................................... 0 6 1 0 Tilers, plasterers, and shinglers............................. 0 6 1 0 Master plasterers.......................................... 0 4 0 8 Their servants and apprentices, above the age of twelve years. 0 3 0 6 IMaster thatchers.......................................... 0 6 1 0 Their servants............................................. 0 4 0 8 Fellers of wood, thrashers, and all other common laborers, the time of harvest excepted................................. 0 4 0 8 Hay-makers, men........................................... 0 4 0 8 Hay-makers, women....................................... 0 2 0 4 Weeders of corn........................................... 0 2 0 4 Mowers of corn and grass.................................. 0 6 1 0 A raker in corn harvest.................................... 0 3 0 6 Reapers, men............ 0 6 1 0 Reapers, women...........................................0 4 0 8 154 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. From the middle of September to the middle of March, the wages was to be one penny a day less than the above rates. WAGES BY THE YEAR. ~ 8.d. A bailiff of husbandry.................................................... 4 0 0 Chief hind, best plowman and c'irter...................................... 5 15 0 Shepherds................................................................5 0 0 Inferior servant-man.............. 2 10 0 A woman-servant, able to manage a household............................ 1 15 0 A second woman-servant.................................................. 1 6 8 A dairy-maid or wash-maid 1 10 0 TABLE V.-Showing the wages of artificers, laborers, and servants in the county of Lancaster, as fixed by the justices of the peace at Manchester on the 22d of MAay, 1725, "upon conference with discreet and grave men of the said county respecting the plenty of the time and other necessary circumstances." WAGES BY THE YEAR. ~ s.d. A bailiff of husbandry or chief hind, not above.............................. 6 00 00 Experienced millers, without meat and drink, not above.................. 10 00 00 Experienced millers, with meat and drink, not above...................... 5 00 00 Chief servants in husbandry, that can sow or mow and do other husbandry well, not above........................................................ 5 00 00 Common servants in husbandry, twenty-four years of age and upward, not above............................................... 4 00 00 Men-servants,- from twenty to twenty-four years of age, not above.... 3 10 00 Men-servants, from sixteen to twenty years of age, not above 2 10 00 Best women-servants, that can cook or take charge of a household, not above................................................................. 2 10 00 Chamber-maids, dairy-maids, and wash-maids, or other ordinary servants, not above............................................................. 2 00 Women-servants under the age of sixteen, not above...................... 1 10 00 WAGES BY THE DAY. Occupations. e ~ s.d. ~ s.d. Best farm-laborers, from the middle of March to the middle of September, not above....-..... —. —--... 0 0 6 0 1 0 Ordinary farm-laborers, from the middle of March to the middke of September, not above..-...................................... 0 0 5 0 0 10 Best farm-laborers, from the middle of September to the middle of March, not above......................... 0 0 5 0 0 10 Ordinary farm-laborers, from the middle of September to the middle of March, not above................................................. 0 0 9 Hay-makers, men, not above...-....... 0 0 6 0 0 10 Hay-makers, women, not above...................................... 0 0 3 0 0 7 Mowers of hay, not above.......................................... 0 0 9 0 1 3 Reapers, men, not above............................................ 0 0 6 0 1 0 Reapers, women, not above.......................... 0 0 6 0 0 10 Hedgers, ditchers, palers, thrashers, &c., not above..................... 0 0 6 0 0 10 Masons, carpenters, joiners, plumbers, tilers, slaters, coopers, turners, master workmen, not above......................................... -.. 0 1 2 Masons, carpenters, joiners, plumbers, tilers, slaters, coopers, turners, who are not master workmen, not above.......................... 0 0 6 0 1 0 Brick-layers, plasterers, white-limers, not above..................... 0 6 0 1 0 Master brick-layer who has others working under his direction, not above.............................................................. 0 1 2 above. —-0 12 Apair of sawyers.-............... 0 1 0 0 2 0 Master tailors 0 0 6 0 1 0 Their journeymen and apprentices.................................. 0 0 5 0 0 10 FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III. 155 WORK BY TASK. ~ s8.d. Threshing, winnowing, or fanning a quarter of oats.......................... 0 1 0 Threshing, winnowing, or fanning a quarter of barley, beans, and pease....... 0 1 6 Threshing, winnowing, or fanning a quarter of wheat and rye................ 0 2 0 For hewing a gang of felloes -.................................. 0 1 0 For making a plow-...... 0 2 0 For making brick, including all labor, per thousand, (six score to the hundred). 0 3 0 Miners in a standing delf, for 24 baskets, (one ton)........................... 0 1 0 Miners in a sitting delf, for 24 baskets, (one ton)............................. 0 1 3 Pavers, for every square yard, (the foundation being prepared and the materials on the ground)............................................................ 0 0 1 The order of the justices provides that the above rates shall not be exceeded in any part of the county, but suggests that as the county is eighty miles long, the work-people in the northern portion of it ought not to demand so much, but should "be content with what the custom of the country hath usually been." The mayor or chief officer of every corporate town is called upon to have the order publicly proclaimed, and the sheriff of the county is to cause it to be proclaimed in every other market-town within the county. After proclamation, publicly and solemnly made on the market-day "at the height of the market," a legible copy of the order is to be posted in some open public place in each of the said market-towns, and " the wages, rates, and allowances" therein established are to remain in force until " an alteration be made, and such alteration afterwards proclaimed." In connection with the order, the justices publish the " denunciations, penalties, punishments, and forfeitures which the statutes appoint to be inflicted impartially upon such as oppose or transgress what is ordered." These are as follows: 1st. Asto artificers, workmen, and laborers, that conspire together, concerning their work or wages, every one of them so conspiring shall forfeit, for the first offense, ten pounds to the King, and if he does not pay within six days after conviction by witness, confession, or otherwise, shall suffer twenty days' imprisonment, and during that time shall have no sustenance but bread and water; for the second offense, he shall forfeit twenty pounds, and that not paid within six days, as aforesaid, shall suffer the the pillory; and for the third offense, shall forfeit forty pounds, and that not paid within the said time, shall again suffer the pillory, lose one of his ears, and be forever after taken as a man infamous, and not to be credited..2 and 3 Edw. VI, chap. 15. 2d. An artificer or laborer who undertakes a piece of work by the task may not leave the same unfinished, unless for notpaying the wages or hire agreed on ( or to do the King service,) without license of the owner of the work, on pain of imprisonment a month without bail, and five pounds forfeited to the owner of the work, besides his cost and damages, to be recovered by law. 3d. That master and servant may know that no servant that hath been in service before ought to be retained without showing a testimo. nial that he or she is legally licensed to depart from his or her last service, and at liberty to serve elsewhere, such testimonial to be registered with the minister of the parish whence the servant departs, and subscribed by the chief officer or constable, and two honest householders in the town. The master or mistress retaining a servant without showing such a testimonial forfeits five pounds; the person wanting such a testimonial shall suffer imprisonment till he procure it; and if he do not produce one within twenty-one days after his imprisonment, or if he show a forged one, to be whipped as a vagabond. 156 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. 4th. Nio person shall put away his servant, nor any leave his service, before the end of his term, and none to, be put away or depart at the end of the term without a quarter's warning before the end of the said term, unless for causes allowed by one or more justices of the peace. Such as put away a servant without cause so allowed before the end of his term forfeits 40s.; and the servant refusing to serve out his time or departing without cause so allowed shall be committed without bail till they become bound to serve according to their retainer. 5th. The person that gives more wages than is limited and appointed by the justices shall forfeit five pounds and be imprisoned ten days; and the servant retained that takes more wages than by the justices' order are limited, to be imprisoned twenty-one days without bail. 6th. The forfeitures are, one moiety to the King, the other to the informer, or him that will sue for the same. And lest these penalties and punishments might not suffice to keep masters and servants con. formable to the wages limited by the justices' orders, but that some secret agreements might be made to elude them, the statutes further provide that every retainer, promise, gift, or wages, or other thing whatsoever, contrary to such orders, and every writing and bond to be made for that purpose, shall be utterly void and of none effect. 7th, and lastly. We the said justices, as the laws in this case do enjoin us, shall from time to time make strict inquiries and see the defaults against these ancient and useful statutes severally corrected and punished. TABLE VI.'-Showing the rates of wcages paid for agricultural labor in 1768 at various places in -England, with the distance of each place from London. Pay per week. Places. Distance. Harvest. Haytime. tWinter. Medium. Miles. 8. d. s. d. s. d. 8. da. Hatfield.............................. 20 13 3 9 0 6 6 7 6 Stevenage........................................ 3 12 0 9 6 6 6 7 4 Offey.......................................... 34 15 0 11 0 6 0 7 3 Houghton............................ 37 15 0 11 0 7 0 8 0 Milton........................................ 41 14 3 8 6 5 6 6 6 Wanden.................... 49 13 9 11 0 5 0 6 4 Broughton....................................... 13 0 9 0 5 6 6 5 Astwick........................................ 46 5 0 8 0 4 3 5 6 Biddenham........................... 47 15 0 8 0 4 6 5 6 Hale Weston...................................... 53 14 6 9 6 6 6 7 5 Catworth.....5....75....... 57 13 0 9 6 4 9 510 Aychurch..................7............. 70 13 3 11 0 4 9 6 1 Casterton....................................... 85 12 6 11 0 6 0 7 2 Paonton..................................... 99 0 9 0 6 0 7 0 Fossen....2........................ 112 11 0 11 0 8 6 9 0 Cromwell..................................... 123 11 0 11 0 9 0 9 4 Drayton-..... —. --.......... ——..... —.. ——. 134 11 0 11 0 9 0 9 4 Cantler..-.................................... 150 10 0 10 0 9 0 9 2 Coneysbro'....................................... 155 10 0 10 0 6 6 7 2 Ecclesfield....................................... 167 10 0 8 6 6 0 6 8 Woolley......................................... 165 8 0 7 0 4 9 5 3 Kiddel.-....................... 194 10 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 Wilbersfort........192 11 6 7 0 4 0 5 0 Hatton................................... 188 13 0 13 0 7 0 8 5 Risbysb..............1........ 12......185 12.6 7 0 8 5 Stillingfleet...................................... 192 13 0 13 0 8 0 9 0 HEolderness.........................e193 14 0 14 0 8 6 9 7 Howden................................. 173 9 6 7 0 6 0 6 5 Thorne.......................................... 168 12 6 9 6 6 0 7 0 Wentworth..................................... 155 10 0 10 0 8 0 6 10 Driffield............................. 200 13 0 11 0 6 6 7 7 FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III. 157 TABLE VI.-Showing the rates of wages paid for agricultural labor, fc.-Continued. Pay per week. Places... Distance. Harvest. Haytime. t Winter. Medium. Mvile 8 d s. d. s. d. 8. d. Yeddingham...................................... 225 14 6 11 6 9 0 9 9 Newton........................................... 220 14 0 14 0 8 0 9 3 Nunnington..... — 2........................ 225 10 0 10 0 7 0 7 7 Kirb......................................... 238 8 6 8 6 7 0 7 3 lirkleatham..................... 260 10 6 9 0 5 0 5 11 Schorton........................................ 240 7 9 7 0 6 0 6 3 Gilling............................................ 264 15 0 7 6 5 0 6 3 Rookby....................................... 70 16 0 10 0 8 0 9 0 Fremington....................................... 260.. 7 0 6 0 6 1 Kiplin.................................... 238 10 0 10 0 5 0 6 0 Swinton........................................... 230 9 4 10 Oft 7 0 7 6 Craikhill.......................................... 232 6 6 6 6 4 9 5 1 Sleningford........................................ 232 6 3 7 6 4 9 5 2 Danby......................................... 235 7 6 6 0 5 0 5 4 Asgarth........................................... 240 7 6 7 6 7 0 7 1 Raby.............................................. 250 9 9 80 6 0 6 6 Gosworth.......................................... 279 9 6 12 6 6 0 7 0 Morpeth.......................................... 291 10 0 9 6 5 0 6 0 AInwick.......................................... 310 8 3 8 3 5 0 5 8 Belford.......................... 325 6 0 6 0 5 0 5 2 Hetton...................................... 325 9 0 66 4 6 5 1 Fenton....................................... 330 9 0 9 0 6 0 6 7 Berwick.............................. 340 6 0 6 0 5 0 5 2 Rothbury.......................................... 301 10 9 89 6 0 6 9 Cambo............................................ 290 10 0 100 8 6 8 9 Glenwelt......................................... 276 8 0 7 0 7 0 7 1 Ascot........................................ 296 8 0 10 0 8 0 8 2 Penrith......................................... 282 9 6 8 6 5 6 6 2 Keswick.......................................... 286 6 6 6 6 7 0 6 10 Shapp............................................ 268 8 6 116 7 0 7 7 Holmeo......................... 246 10 0 10 0 7 0 7 7 Kabers............................. 230 10 0 10 0 7 0 7 7 Garslang......................................... 223 10 0 90 7 0 7 6 Ormskirk........................................ 200 6 0 40 5 0 411.Altringham...................................... 180 7 3 66 5 0 5 4 Knotsford........................................ 170 9 6 96 6 0 6 9 Holm's-Chapel................................ 158 14 0 14 0 7 0 8 5 Stone.............................................. 141 9 6 7 6 6 6 6 10 Shenstone....................................... 117 6 6 6 6 5'6 5 8 Aston............................................. 112 11 0 11 0 8 0 8 7 Hagley.................................... 110 11 0 11 0 6 0 7 5 Broomsgrove................................ 118 11 0 11 0 6 0 7 0 Pershore.......................................... 102 11 0 11 0 60 70 Bendsworth...................................... 96 11 0 96 6 6 73 Moreton.......................................... 85 13 0 96 6 0 7 0 Henigton~ ley...47............... 47 15 0 6 6 7 1 Henley.................35 12 6 96 6 6 7 5 Maidenheatd.~.~~,.~~..~.~~~.~~...~~~~ ~ 27 114 0 9 6 6 6 7 6 Maidenhed...................................... ] 7 14i96 66 Harmondsworth................................. 16 12 6 8 6 6 6 7 3 Kensington.......................... 2 12 6 96 9 0 94 Mims...............................................1 43 9 Mime,,.~.~~~~.~...~~.~~~..~ ~~.~~~~ 17 14 3 9 0 7 0 7 9 Averages.............................................. 10 8 95 6 5 7 1 *Tables VI,VII, and VIII are taken from Arthur Young's Northern Tour, Vol. IV, pp. 442, 447, and 470 Under the general term "winter" Mr. Young includes the entire year, with the exception of hay. time and harvest, to which he assigns, respectively, six weeks and five weeks. 158 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. TABLE VII.-Showing the yearly wages of different classes of farm-servants, and the weekly wages of women employed in field-work in 1768 at various places in England. rrj'C~Women per week. a). q 6 ) Places. Q ho bt c~~~ed ~~~f! C o 0 00'6;k~ t R-c a a ~ s.Ed. s s. d. 0 s.d. ~ s. d. d~ s.d. s. ~s.d,. s.d. s d. s.c. s. d. Risby.................. 12 001200 7001000 500 Stillingfleet............11 00 8 00 6 00 8 60 5 00 4 40 4 12 0 -........ Hlolderness............. 13 00 9 00 5 00 9 00 3150 3150 3150.................. Howden..............11 00 11 00 4 00 8130 4 00 4 00 4 00.................. Thorne.................11110 11110 4 00 9 00 3 50 3 50 3 50................. Wentworth............ 9100 7100 4 00 7 00 3 00 3 00 3 00 6 9 3 3 2 6 Driffield................131008 10 0 1150 7180 4150 4 00 4 76 7 6 3 6...... Newton.-..............11100 5 00 2 00 6 30 5 00 4150 4176 4 9 3 9 2 0 Nunnington..........12 1100 5100 310 0 7 30 4100 3100 4 00 4 6 3 0 3 6 Kiby...................8 00 5 00 2 00 5 0o Kirkleatham........... 112 10 0 10 00 3 0 0 810 0 5 0 0 4 0 0 4'10'0 8"6 4"0 2 0 Schorton...............12 00 9 O0 4 00 8 66 4 00 4 O0 4 O0 7 9 3 3 26 Gilling................. 005 100 4 00 7 30 4100 3,100'4 00 7 6 3 0 2 6 ookby................ 4 0 0 3 0 0 6 60 5100 3 00 4 50 14 6 11 6 56 Fremington............ 9 0 0 7 0 0 2100 6 3 0 4 0 0 4 0 0 400.....-. 46...... Kiplin-.................. 13 0 0 10 0 0 4 0 0 9 00 5 00 3100 4 50 5 3 3 0 26 Swinton............... 11100 7 00 3 00 7 30 5 00 3170 4 86 5 6 3 9' 3 0 Craikhill................ 0 9 00 310 0 7130 4100 3100 4 00 5 3 3 9 2 6 Sleningford............. 12 0 0 9 0 0 410 0 810 0 5 0 0 4 0 0 4 10 0 5 0 3 0 3 0 Danby............ 15 0 0 8 00400 9 0 0 5 10 0 04 00 4 15 0 5'3 4 0 Asgarth...............10 10 0 7 0 0 310 0 7 0 0 3100 3 0 0 3 50 5 6 5 6 4 Raby...................3 00 11 00 6 00 10 00 5 00 4 00 4 100 7 0 3 6 2 3 Gosworth...-.......... 12 00 8100 3 00 7166 4 0 0 310 0 3150 5 6 3 0 3 0 ]Morpeth..............11 00 7 00 3 00 7 00 3100 3 00 3 50 4 9 3 0...... Alnwick..9.......... 9 00 6 00 3 00 6 00 4 00 4 00 4 00 7 0 3 0.. Belford................. 9 00 7 70 5 00 7 20 3 30 3 30 3 30 6 0 3 0 2 0 Hetton....-.........10 00 7 00 5 00 7 66 2100 2100 2100 6 0 3 0 2 0 Fenton. -...-......... 8 00 6 00 3 00 5130 2150 2150 2150 5 0 2 0 2 0 Lerwick................ 9 00 7 70 5 00 7 20 3 30 3 30 3 30 6 0 3 0 2 9 Rothbury.............. 12 00 8 00 3 00 7130 3 50 3 50 3 50 7 0 4 6 2 0 Cambo.................12 00 8 00 3 00 7130 4 00 4 00 4 00 7 6 5 6 3 0 Glenwelt....-.......10 00 6 00 1 00 5130 5 00 4 00 4100 6 6 5 6 4 6 Ascot..................- 1 010 7 36 1 50 6 90 2150 2 76 2120 6 6 6 6...... Penrith...-..........13 00 9 00 3 00 8 66 5100 3100 4100 5 3 4 3 3 3 Keswick..-........10100 6 00 3 50 6116 4146 3 30 3186 6 3 6 3 33 Shapp.................. 9 0 0 7100 2100 6 66 4100 4100 4100 5 6 5 6. olme.................. 0 6 00 3 00 6 30 4 40 2170 3106 6 6 5 6 4 6 Kabers................. 9 00 5 00 2 00 5 66 3 00 2 50 2126 6 6 5 6 4 6 Garslang............... 10 000 7 00 1180 6 60 3100 3 00 3 50'5 6 5 0 4 6 Ormskirk........... 7 0 0 5 0 0 1100 4100 3 00 2100 2150 6 0 4 0... Altringam..... 8 0 0 5 0 0 2 0 0 5 0 0 4 10 0 210 0 310 0 6 3 4 3. JHolm's Chapel........ 1.0 10 0 7100 1 00 6 66 3100 1176 2136 6 3 3 9...... Stone................... 8 0 0 6 00 3 00 5130 3100 3100 3100 3 9 3 9 Shenstone.......1......11 00 6100 2100 6130 4 00 2100 3 50 6 0 6 0 2 9 Aston.................. 7100 5 00 2 00 4166 3 50 3 50 3 50 3 3 3 3 Hagley-..............10 0 0 6 15 0 215 0 6 8 6 3 100 215 0 3 2 6 6 0 3 3 2 6 Broomsgrove...........8 00 6 00 2100 5100 3 00 2100 2150 6 0 6 0 3 3 Pershore.-....... 9 100 8 00 3 00 6166 3 00 3 00 3 00 60 3 3 2 6 Bendsworth. -..........10 00 8 0 0 3 0 0 7 0 0 4 0 0 215 0 3 76 6 0 3 6...... Moreton................ 7100 5 00 2 50 4186 4 00 3 00 3100 6 0 3 0...... Bensington............0100 8 00 1176 6186 3100 2'5 0 2176'- 3 3...... ~~Henley-.. 8 0 0 5 100 2 0 60 5 30 4 0 0 3 00 3 10 0 6 3 3- 3. Maidenhead —,.,.7 70 5 00 2 00 4156 4 00 3 50 3126 6 3 4 0 3 0 Etarmondsworth........ 9100 7 00 3 00 6100 3 50 3 50 3 50 9 0 4 3...... Kensington............. 10 5 0 7 36 3 00 6160 4100 4100 4100 8 0 5 3 4 0 Mime.s -. 11 50 8 00 2 60 7 30 4150 415 0 4150 6 0 5 0 3 0 Averages.........10 86 6 110 3 2 0 5 50 3190 3 50 3 90 6 3 4 4 3 0 8~ 9s. 9d. * Under the general term "winter," Mr. Young includes the entire year with the exception of hay. time and harvest, to which he assigns, respectively, six weeks and five weeks. FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III. 159 TABLE VIII.-Showing the weekly wages of operatives in various industries at diff'erent places in England in the year 1768. Places..Manufactures. Labor. 8. d. Beofoen...ice.W.omn. 4 6 Bedford -------— Lae..................Lae...................... W mn..................6 Girls -... -............. 40 Men..................10 0 Rotherham -------------- Iron, potteries-Boys..................- 3 0 R~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~oysrhz..-...-.~-. By.,,,.,...,..... 3 0 Men..................13 6 Sheffield...-...... ——. - Plating, cutlery, &c..-.. —---... —- ---------- Women............... 4 0 Girls.. —............... 3 0 Men..-.....-.... 1 0 ~Wakefield...By1......... Cloths. o....... Boys.......... 1 9 Colliers............... 0 (Men.................. 8 3 Women...............3 6 Leeds.........................do.................................. Boys.................... L sBoys-....-............ 50 [ Girls1 8............. 1 8 Ayton- -- - ------ Alum.................................. Men.................. 7 6 Men..................76 Fremington............. Lead-mines.-W...............m........... Women6 0.........6 Boys andgirs........ 3 3 Darlingtonu.... —........... uckabacks..-..............M............ Men..-............... 8 6 Newcastle....-....-....... Colliers...-...M....................... Men..................15 0 Carlisle.-.......-..-...... Cotton-checks.............................. Men. 0........... 9 0 Men -—. —...9 —..... 9 5 endal..................-Stockings, cottons, linsey-woolsey, tannery.. Women.-.............. 3 3 Children....... —....... 20 (Men..-........... 8 7 Warrington. —.. Sail-cloth, sacking, pins, soes.............. Women.-4........... 46'n (Children......-........ 2 26 Liverpool -............ orcelain, stockings, glass-....... Men........... 8 11 ~ Porcelainstockings, lass.................Men.................. 7 11 (Men - ~~7 1 Manchester.............. Fustians, check, hats, small wares..-........ Women.5 4......... 5 4 Children - -........... 35 IMen..-.......-..9.6 Dise,.................Pteis................................... Wmen................. Puralem - - Potteries-Women-..-........... 6 6 (Men....-............. 7 6 Newcastle............... Shoes, hats- Women -.............. 4 6 Children............-.. 10 Porcelain, loves —----- ----------- -Men -9........... 9 0 WI'V~~~~orcelioster..................... Wornen.....r......... 4 6 Children.............. 2 3 s. d Average of men................................................................... 9 6 Average of women-.....................................................................::......... 4 7 Average of children.....8.............8................................ 2 8 TABLE IX.-Showig the p1rice of nieat (chiefly of mutton) at different dates fronm A, D. 1596 to A. D. 1734, inclusive. MUTTON.. s.d. 1596. A whole mutton.-..................................... 0 18 0 A fat wether................................................-..-. 0 15 0 1597. A fore-quarter of mutton. - 0 5 0 A fat wether, in wool........................................... 0 18 0 Afat sheep -......................0 14 0 1610. A mutton weighing 44 pounds or 46 pounds' the stone, (8 pounds). - 0 2 3 A lamb-......................................................... 0 6 8 1618. A leg of mutton....... 0 1 10 A mutton-....................................................... 0 10 0 1660 to 1690. Mean price of mutton, the stone, (8 pounds).............. 0 1 4 1700. Live sheep, the pound, from..................................... 0 0 2~ to 3 1710. Beef, the pound.. ._0 0 1 — Veal, ditto...................................................... 0 2 Mutton, ditto...... 0 0 2 Lamb, ditto.-................................................... 0 0 2-i%9 1706 to 1730. Mutton, the stone....................................... 0 1 8 1730 to 1760. Mutton, the stone....................................... 0 2 0 1734. Mutton at Smithfield market, the stone.......................... 0 0 9 160 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. TABLE X. —Showing the prices paid by the British Victualing Office for beef,pork, and butter, and for Cheshire and Suffolk cheese, from 1740 to 1795. Cheshire Suffolk Beef. Porls, ~Butter. Beef. Pork. Butter. cheese. cheese. Date. Cwt. Pound. Cwt. Pound. Pound. Pound. Pound. ~ s.d. ~. s.d. c. d.. cd. 1740.......................... 1 3 74 24 111 04 3*. 1741............................. ~-31 4 94 24 1.16 3. 34................... 1742................................ 1 44 9 f 2* 1 9 3~........................... 1743.......1...2.................. 41 4 2 1 17 2 9 3 1743................................ 0 19 91 2 1 7 2' 2............................ 1744............................ 18 31 1 1 2 5~ 2~............................ 1744.0183* 141254 021. 1745.............01994 2 119 4.................... I 17486......................113 241...... 2. 1747.01944........................... 2 14............ 1748..24..2*. 1749....2............................... 2. 0. 1 45-16 i 1750.............................2...2 4.......... 2 2-.......... 1751. 2*...24 44 1* 1752.................................. 3 4 2 1753.............. 2...................... 2........ 24 5*.. 1754........................2.... 3 54 1. 1755............. 2.... 34 Si. 1756...........................................2*..... 34 57-16 3 1757..........................24......... 31 54 34 14 1758............................................ 4 57-16 3.......... 1759.......................................... 2.......... 3 4 2.......... 1760.....2.... 4..2...................... 1 4. 2~ 31~2 1761 5............................................ 5 21.......... 1762.. ~~ ~~~~2..-..- i 34 64t 3 7-16. 17642.................................................. 313716..........3 1763.....2..................5............................. 2.......... 1764................................2.......... ~.......... 4 4 51 3.~ 1765...............................2.......... 2.......... 4* 5 3.. 1766s..................................................................................... 1766...... 5.......... 1767,.1......5.9 24....54:::::::I'si 3 1768................................ 1 5 3 2..... 5 213.16.... 1769................................1 2 9 2 1 13 0 3 59.16 2.......... 1770.................................1 2 24 24 2 1 5 41 54 34......... 1771.1 2 6 2* 2 3 34 4 6 34.......... 1772................... 1 6 3 2 212 6 5 6 3.......... 1773................................1 4 0 2 2 911 5 7 3....... 1774................... 1 8 8 3 1.18 3 4 6- 3.......... 1775.............................. I 110 4 31 2 4 74 41 54 3 -1......... 1776......................... 1 8 7 3 2 2 11 44 61 3.. - 1777...............................1 8 5I 3 2 3 11 44 74 3.......... 1778................................1 5 8 2 2 3 0 4 8 3.......... 17791.133...4.118......6...4.3. 113 2 1780................................ 1 11 2 3 20 9 4 7 3.......... 1781................................1 6 3 2 1 17 6 4 54 3.......... 1782............1......... 6 8 24 2 1 0O 4 6 3.......... 1783.711....0...........I 1 10 4 3 (*) -.. 6 4........ 1784........................ (. 7 4.......... 1785............................... 156 5 4 6 4.......... 1786............................... 1 8 6 3..........6 4 1787................................ 1 6 5 2......5 4.... 1788.....9........................ 1 9 1 3 27 11 5 5 4......... 1789................................ 1 92 3 2311 4 4 3.......... 1790.1.......9..................... 1 8 9 3 2 3 2 44 6 4.......... 1791................................. 1 8 6. 3 2 6 5 44 6 7 4.......... 1792.1......................8.... I 8 7 3 2 6 5 44 6 4.......... 1793.1....................... 1 10 4 3* 2 6 5 41 6 4.......... 1794.11....0............... 1 11 10 3* 2 7 7 5 6 4.......... 1795................................ 1 1311 3 2 11 3 54 7 4.......... * None bought. t Ready money. oE.-These prices are considerably lower than the price paid by the consumer, which, in 1795, was.. about 7d. a pound for beef and mutton; they, however, show the proportion between the prices of,' different periods. In the price per pound fractions less than one-fourth are omitted. FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III. 161 TABLE XI.* —Showing the prices of the principal articles of subsistence in 1768. at different places in England, with the distance of each place jfi-orn London. ~~Places. twce.2Bread. Butter. Cheese. Mutton.1 Beef. Veal. Pork. of Mveragts. Places. ace t~auce. cof meants. Hatfield.........- -. 0 2 7 4 4 4 3 3 Stevena --- - 32 2 7 34 4 34 4 4 Offley....-..... -....-....... 34 2 7:3 4 4 3- 4 31 Houghton..-......-......-...... 37........ 4 3 4 4 34 MAilton......... -............... 41 1 7 { 4 3 3 4 34 Wanden. —------------------- 49 14 7 4 4 34 3 34 34 Broughton. — -..1................. I 6 4 34 4....... 34 Bidtlenham -..........-......... 15 6 4 4- - -...... 4 Wyersto5...................... 57 4 4 3 4 4 34 Catworth-...57................ 57 2 6 4 3/ 4 341 4 33 Aychurc -.7.............0 1. 6 4 3 3...3..... ~oss e n ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~ 1.2. 2 ---- ------ Casterton.....-......85.. 1...6 3 3 3 3 3 Bvyten.............. 921........ 3 4 4 3' 4 3.... 34 Paouton -9.9........... 99........ 6 4 3 31 - -3 Fossen.-1..2..6...... 3 3....... 15{12 3.....-.. 3 Cromwell2............... 3........ 6 4 3 4 /. 34 hra yton ----------------------- 134...... 7 4 3 2...4........ 2 Canlselr.. -.................. 150... 7 4 3 4 2. - 3 Coneuybrough -............. 155....... 6 4 3% 3 3 3 oterha..................... 161 1 6 4 3/ 3 3 4 34 Ecelesfield -1....67........... 14 1 34 3/ 3 4 3* oolle165...................... 6 4 3 3 Wakefield-................ 178 1 7. 3 3 3. 34 Leeds-190 14 64 4 4 4 2 4 Leeds.................... 190 ~ 61 4 4 4 tl 4 Kiddl —---— 194...... 4 3i:1 2-k 3 hitunmoor....................2 -Wilbersfort............. 192...... 6/ 2 3 3{ 3i lHatton -.... —......3....... —- 188 6..... 3 4 4.. 34 Risby......................... 185 54 2' 3 3 4... 3 Stilling"flet................... 19:~. Stllugict192 1 54 2.3 3 34 7% Howden -3............... 173 1 3 3 3 -3 Thorne.................. 1 4 3 3 3 21 3 3 Around Wentworth. -... —..-... 155 1 6 3 3 3- 0.3 3 Driffrield.........- -. 200 4 6 2 3 3 -........... 3 Iton'anby-2.................... 2 1 6 2 3. -..... 3 Newtonl —---------- - 2-20 4 4 2 3 3 3 4 Nuinington.................... 2~20 5 2 3 3 | — 4 34 Nunnuington -—....- - 5 %25 4 4. 2 7 3 4 4? Kirby...............-.......... 238 14 74 24 34x 3 4 } 34 Kirkleatham........... —...-.... 260 1 6 34 3} 3- 4 3% Sllorion2.........6........ 240 6 3 3 3..... 3 Gilling —----- ----- - 264 1. 7. 24. 3 3........ 3o Rookby...........- -..2.... 70.1 6 22 3 3 2... 3 Brough2..14........ 6....2.. 2S4 s 3 34 2*...... 3 Fremington -..-........... 230..2 3 3 34L 3 3 Kiplin —........................ 238 21 24'0 2; 32 240 4,~~~~~~~1'....1 Swinton —..-................... 230 ~ 2 3 3 3 34 3 Craikhill-..... 5..........23. 5 1 341 3 31 34 ilenin ord. —-.. —.. —.. —...-23- 1 2 3 3 3" 3 Dtnby -23 —----- ----------- 5 1 6 2 3 3 3 4 31.ABsrth -------------------- 240 1 5k 2 3 - - 3% Kaby -------------------- 250 1 C1!24 34 3' 31 4 34 \,ewcastle-........-........... 276 q 7 14 24 3 2 ]...... 2' wiorpeth-29........... 291 8 2 3 3 3 4 34 Alnwick-......0.. 4....... 310.... 6 2 2 2 3 Belford -................... 325 5. 3 2 3 2 -. 2 lOtt on.........3......2.... 35....... 5 2 2 33 Esaton3........................ 2 3 3 2 3 Rotbury — 2... ——..... —........ 30 5 2 3 4 2 3 Canibo2.9..... —... — ---........ 4 2 3 3 3 Glenwelto-2 6 2....... 2......... 6 2 3 2 3 0 A.scot. —........... —.. —. 296 - 6 2 2 3 24 4 0''errith-.................. 282 54 2 2 2 3 Glenwelt~~~~~~~~............ 26 2 -I 2 Keswick --- -------------- 286 5 2 2 12 2 3 04 Shapp-282 —2 —----- ------------ 268.......266 2 24 22 1 24 44 01 Kendalt....................... 256 1 6 3 1 2 2 4 13 Keswick~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 4............. Holrme ------------—. -- --- -- -. 246 356 3 5... 2 2 4 0~ Kabers....-................ 230 8 3 01 24'.. Garslan.-2..3................ 26 7 3 3 3 3 3 Warringtoun — 18 —-2 —------- 7 31 3 3 3 4 3 Liverpol..................... 200 1 7 3 3 2 4 4 4 Alt-lghr8................... 3180 6 3 2 3 33 uotslord....................170 6 2 3 21 4 4 3.olm.es-Chapel 158 6 1...3....2 34 3. 3 Newcastle under Line........-. 150 1 8 3 3 3 3 Shlienstonc -..... —............ 117 1 7 21 4~ 2 - 3 21. Aston........................ 112 1 8 1 2 3 agley...................... 110 6 4 3 3 3 3 * Tables XI, XII, and XII are taken from Arthur Young's "Northern Tour," vol. iv, pp. 424, 435, and 469. 11 L 162 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. TABLE XI.-Showing the prices of the principal articles of subsistence, 4c.-Continued. Places. Dis Bread. Butter. Cheese. Mutton. Beef. Veal. Pork. Average tance. of meats. Broomsgrove.........6... 118 1 4 31 3 3 2 4 3 Pershore.............. 102 1 7 3 3 3 2 4 3 Bendsworth.................. 96 1 8 3 3 2 3 33~ 3 Moreton...................... 85 Ii 7 3 3 3j 224 34 Bensingon.................... 47 1~ 6 4 31 3 3 4 3 Henley...... 15 1 "7 34 3m 3 4 Maidehead................. 27 1 7 4 3 3 4 4 31 Harsworth...16....... 1 7 4 3~ 3 4 4 3 Kensington........... 2 1 8 4 3k 2} 3} 4 31 Minis..................... 17 14 8 45 3 31 4- 4I 4 Averages................. 6 3 3 3 3 3 3 TABLE XII. —Showivg the yearly expenditures of workingmen for house-rent, fuel, and th, wear of tools, at various places in ILgla, d in 1768. House- Firing.use Tools. PTool s. Places. Firing. Tools. rent. rout. L a. d.[. d. L. d. s. d. s. d. a. d. Hatfield........... 215 0 2 0 0 5 0 Asgarth.......... 015 0 1100 0 50 Stevenage......... 20 0 00 0 11 0 Raby......... 1. 150 1 5 0 0 00 Offley.............. 22 6 110 0 1100 Newcastle........ 1100 1100.......... Ioughton......... 20 0 2 10 0 01 0 Gosworth......... 1 100 1100.......... Milton.......... 110 0 1 5 0 06 0 Morpeth.......... 0100 010 0. Wauden....... 20 0 00 0 0 15 0 Alnwick.......... 1 00 1 0 0 0 90 1Broughton....... 100 210 0 0 O Beltord......... 1 00 140 0 0 0 Hale-Weston -... 17 6 110 0 1 0 o0 Ietton........... 0100 0150 00 f Catworth....... 10 0 15 0 08 6 Berwick.......... 1 00 150..... Aychurch......... 03 9 210 0 0 8 0 Fenton..... 0 10 6 100 0 0 0 Casterton.... 0 14 0........tothbury......... 015 0 1 0 0.......... Byten. —-.. —-.. —. 0190 110 0. Cambo............ 0100 016 0. —Paonton........... 210..0 2 0 0. —-- Glenwelt...... 015 0 010 0.... Fossen............. 015 0 110 0. —.......- Ascot.... —----—. 015 0.......... Cromwell........... 15 0 1 0 0.Perith........... 1 00 1100.......... Dra.Vton.......... I 0 0 115 0 014 01 Keswick.......... 1 0 1 5 0-. --- Cantler........... 110 0 10 0 0 50 Shapp........... 1100 150 Coneysbrough.... 110 0 1 4 0 0 5 0 Kendal manufacEcclesfield........ 20 0 10 0 0 6 0 turc.......... 1100 276 - Woolley.. 1100 I 0 12 0 0.. R.. ei... ne.......... 126 176.. Wakefield manu- Kabers. —- 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 10 6 factures -........ 25 0 10 0 0 —-- Garslang. 176 1100.. Leeds manufactures 2 0 0 1 0 0... Warringtou manKiddel... 0180 1 0 0 5 0 ufactures...... 150 0160 Wilbersfort........ 1 0 0 110 0.- Liverpool. -- 1 5 0 017 - 6.... HIatton......... 10 0 100 0 1 0 Altriu|hain... 110 0 100 —...,.sby...... 1 0 0 0 5 0 0 15 0 Knuotslbrdl. —- 2 5 0 1 00.. Stillingfleet........ 1 0 0 I 0 0 0 5 01 Holmnes-Chapel.. 1 7 6 1 0.. Howden...... —- 1 10 0 015 0...... Newcastle manuThorne............ 15 0 012 0 05 0 factures —... 212 6 126.......... Wentworth........ 1 5 0 012 0 04 0 Stone............. 011 3..... Driffield....... 1100 1100 000 Shenstono..... 1150 11 00. Newton....... 0180 15 0 050 At. —------- 2 0 150 076 Nuunington,... 15. 0 0 15 0 0100 aley......... 2150 1100 0.50 K3irby.......... 15 0 010 0 050 Broom|arove 2 0 1100..Kirilenathamon...... 10 0 110 0 02 6 Pershore.. 15 0 1100 0 10 0 Sehorto....... 100 180 05 0 Bendsvorth...... 0 6 150 0 26 Giinc 018 6 110 0 036 Moreton. —-—. — 1150 00 0 Iookby............ 05 0 210 0 03 6 BJensington...... 1100 150 0 26 Though...... 110 0 1 0 0.....Henley —...2 50 2 00 O089 Fromington..- 15 0 115 0...... Midehead...... 2100 2100 0 50 Kiplin..........1 5 0 016 0 0 3 0 Rarmoniidswoiath.. 315 0 0 0 0 0 7 6 Swiuton...... 17 6 015 0 060 Kensington. 5 00. Craikill............ 150 10 0 0 0 North lims.... 3100 0 0 0 0 76 Sleingford........ 0 15 01 00 0 05 Danb.0176 0176 0122 Averaes.. 1821311 011 TABLE XIII.-Sholving the yearly value of servants' board, washing, and lodging at varioan places in England in, 1768. ~. d. Danby..-8........................................................ 8 13 4 Ormskirk...-9................... 0 0 Altringhban..-.................................-.......... 8 13 4 Stone -.................................. 6 10 0 Sl..enstone.......... 0. 0....... 1.... 9 011 01'"' FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III: 163 ~ s. d. IHagley................................................................ 10 0 0 Broomsgrove.-...0.0...................................... 6 0 0 Bendsworth............................................................. 12 0 0 Bensington- 0 0.................................. 10 0 0 Average9 0 0........................................ 9 0 0 TABLE XIV.-Showinq the prices of provisions in the hundreds of Colneis and Cariford, iu tihe county of Suffolk, England, fromnt 1792 to 1796. First quar- First quar- First quar- First quar- First quarter 1792. ter 1793. ter 1794. ter 1795. ter 1796. d s. d. ~ s. d. ~ s. d. ~ s. d. s. d. Second flour, the sack. —-----— 1 —--—. I 11 0 1 14 6 1 15 6 2 8 0 4 0 0 Third flour. the sack............-........ 1 9 0 1 13 0 1 13 6 2 6 0 318 0 Malt, bushel............................. I 120 1 3 0 1 2 6 I 36 flops, cwt..-...-................... 4 12 0 12 0 0 5 5 0 6 15 0 eef, cwt................................ I 11 0 113 6 1 15 6 1 170.26 0 Mutton, pound......................... 0 0 41 0 0 41 0 0 41 0 0 41 0 0 5k Suffolkcheese, cwt..................... I 0 0 0 17 0 0 190 0 17 6 1 20 Derbycheese, cwt......-............... 2 6 0 2 4 0 2 5 0 2,7 0 2 8 0 Soap pound..-....................... 2 16 0 2 12 0 2 16 0 3 8 0 4 00 Candles, dozen pounds..-............. 0 7 2 0 70 0 7 0 0 7 6 0 93 Coals, the chaldron.-.. —....... 1 3 0 1 9 6 1 96.......... Butter, thocfirkin-1 16 0 -.~.- 1-1.....[ 2~ 4. 0 Potatoes, the sack.................. TABLE XV.-Showing the expenses and earnings of two families of agricultural laborers in a manufacturing parish near Carlisle, Cumnberland. No. 1. —Four persons. No. 2.-Six persons. 1792. 1794. 1793. 1795. EXPENSES BY THE WEEK. Ld.. L 5i a. d. ~ s.ad. a. d. Bread, flour, or oatmeal..-....0................ 0 3 4 0.3 6 0 4 1 0 4 6 Yeastand salt........-............ —. —-------------- 0 0 1 0 0 11 0 0 2 0 0 2 3acon or pork. —---------------- - 0 010 0 0 10 0 0 2 0 0 2 Tea, sugar, andbutter-............... —-. —. —------ 0 10 0 1 0 0 0 6 0 0 6 Soap................................ o 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 -0021 0 021 0 02 0 0 & Candles -- —......................................... 0 0 1 0 1~ O0 0 0 Small beer — 0 —------ ----------- ---------. 0 31 0 0 4 Milk.-. —..-.. -. —---------------------------------- 0 o 6 0 0 7 0 0 101 - 0 k..i Potatoes... —..0 —--. — ------------— 0 —------------- 0 0 5 0 0 5 0 0 10 0010 Thread and worsted.-................................ 0 0 1 0 0 -0 11 0 0 2 0 2 Total perweek-0 -..-...-..-.................. - 0 6 91 0 7 2- 0 7 0 — 0 7 5, Total peryear....... —-. —---—. —-—. —----- - 1712 1 181410 18 5 1 19 710 EARNINGS PER WEEIK. Man, average -0 —---- -------- -------- - 0 7 6. 080 070 I 076 Woman —.. ——. —----------------------------------.0 4 0 I 4 0 2 0 0 2 Woman-014~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 01 02 02 Children. —..-.. —-—. —--- ------------------ ---------- ------------ ----- Total perweek. —.............- 0 8.10 0..... 9 4 0 9 0 0 9 6 Totalper year..................................'2 19 4 24 5 4 23 8 0 22 14 0 EXPENsEs PEE YEAR. Provisions, as above........... -....1712 1 1814 10 18 5 1 19 710 Rout t ---— ~ —. —--------- -------------------------- 2 [ 0 2 10 0 1 7 0 1 7 0 Fuel-coal, wood, and peat...-.... —---........ —.. —. 2 0 0 2 0 0 1 14 4 1 14 4 Clothing-2 0 0 2 10 0 1 16 0 2 0 0 Births, burials, sickness --- ----------- - - ---------- -------- 0 1 0- -. Total expenses per year........................ 24 2 1 25 14 10 23 3 5 24 9 2 Total earnings per year-.............. 2 19 4 24 5 4 23 8 0 24 14 0 Surplus, (+;) deficiency, ( —) -................- 2 9 -1 6 +0 4 0 410 NoTE. —No. I is a decent family, living well, and managfing economically; the man 35, woman 30, children under 7 years of ange. No. 2, the man 35 years, wife the same, and four small children; often in great distress. 164'LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. TABLE XVI.-Showing the expenses and earnings of two families of agricultural laborers at Buckden, in Huntingdonshire. No. 1.-Four persons. No. 2.-Six persons. 1792. 1795-'96. 1793. 1795-96. EXPENSES PER WEEK. ~ s.d. d ~. d. ~ s.d. c ~ s. d. Bread, flour, or oatmeal............................ 0 3 10 0 2 51 0 5 10 0 4 10 Bacon or other meat........................... 0 1 0 0 1 4........................ Tea, sugar, andbutter................. 0 0 9 0 1 0~ 0 0 9 0 1 0 Soap and blue................................ 0 0 16 0021 00 d 0 20 Candles.-0............................02........... 0 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 3 Yeast and salt................................................... 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 3 Cheese.............................0.............. 0 0 4 0 0 6........................ Beer............................................. 0 0 2 0 0 3.................. Potatoes................................................................. 0 0 6 Thread and worsted. 0.00.......................... 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 1~ 0 0 1 Totalper week................................ 0 6 5j 0 6 31 0 5 2~ 0 7 21 Total per year................................. 16 16 11 16 7 2 18 13 9 18 15 11 EARNINGS PER WEEK. Man, average.................... 0 7 4 0 7 4 0 7 3 0 7 3 Woman, average..................-.................. 0 0 5 0 0 5 0 1 2 0 12 Children, average —. —..0..... —.... —.... —-----—.- 0 10 0 0 10....................... Totalearnings per week................ 0 8 7 0 8 7 0 8 5 0 8 5 Total earnings perannum..................... 22 12 4 22 12 4 21 17 8 21 17 8 EXPENSES PER ANNUM. Provisions, as above................................ 16 16 11 16 7 2 18 13 9 18 15 11 Itent..2...................................... 2 2 0 2 2 0 2 7 0 2 70 Fuel..................................... 2 3 0 2 8 0....................... Shoes............................................... 1 5 0 1100 I 6 0 111 6 Other clothes and furniture...................... 2 18 0 3 5 0 3 0 0 3 t11 0 Births, burials, sickness...0....................... 0 9 0 0 9 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 Total expenses per year....................... 25 13 11 26 1 2 26 7 9 27 6 5 Total earnings per year........................2212 4 22 12 4 21 17 8 21 17 8 Surplus, (+;) deficiency, (-)............... -3 1 7 -3 8 8 -4 10 1 -5 8 9 NOTE. —The parish allows barley at 3s. the Winchester bushel. Even with this indulgence No. 2 live almost entirely on barley, water, and a few potatoes. No. 1.-Man and wife under 40, boy 16 years, and a baby. This man, as well as No. 2, is a shepherd, and their wages are lower than those of other laborers. They make up their deficiencies by keeping two pigs and cultivating a little garden. No. 2.-Man and wife under niddle age, girl 11, boy 9, girl 6, girl 21, a boy at service. During last vear the family received Is. a week from the parish. TABLE XVII.-Showing the expenses and earnings of three families of agricultural labore'si at Clopshill, in Bedfordshire, England, in 1795. NExpenses by the week. o. 1.-Four No. 2.-Six No. 3.-Six persons. persons. persons. Bread, flour, or oat-meal................................. 0 4 0 0 7 6 0 7 6 Baeon or other meat................................ 0 0 9 0 1 6 0 1 6 Yeast and salt................................. 0 0 3 0 0 21 0 0 3 Thread and worsted.................................... 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 2 Tea, sugar, and butter.................................... 0 0 10 0 1 0 0 0 10i Soap —.. —........ —-----------------------------—. —---- - 0 0 1 0 0 21 0 0 5 Candles......... —-... ---...... —-.. —----—.-. —---- - 0 0 4 0 0 5 0 0 5 Cheese.................................................... 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 Beer....................................................... 0 0 31 0 0 4 0 0 7 Potatoes................................................. 0 1 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 Total per week.....0..................... 0 7 11 0 12 4~1 0 It. 8 Total per year..................................... 20 11 8 32 2 5 30 8 10 FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III. 165 TABLE XVII.-Showing the expenses and earnings of three families of agricultural laborers at Cloplshill, in Bedfordshire, Engtland, in 1795.-Continued. No. 1.-Four No. 2.-Six No. 3.-Six persons. persons. persons. EARNINGS PER WEEK. ~ s. d. s. d. ~ s. d. Man, average............................................. 0 * 6 0 8 0 0 7 6 Woman, average.....0.................................... 0 1 6 0 0 0 0 1 6 Children, averarge...............0........................... 000 0 2 6 0 4 0 Totalperweek....................................... 0 9 0 0 10 6 013 0 Total per year........................................ 23 8 0 27 6 0 33 16 0 EXPENSES PER ANNUM. For provisions, as above............................ 20 11 8 32 2 5 30 8 10 Forrent.................-................................. — 1 15 0 1 l10 0 1 10 0 Forwood............................... 1 10 0 0 13 0 1 12 6 For clothing............................................ 11 6 1 11 6 2 2 0 For sickness..,....................................... 0 5 0 0 5 0 0 5 0 Total expenses per annum....................... 25 1:3 2 36 1 11 35 18 4 Total earnings per annum............................ 23 8 0 27 6 0. 3:3 16 0 Deficiency*.......................................... 2 5 2 8 15 11 2 2 4 * Harvest earnings not included; they go a great way toward making up deficiencies. No. 1.-Eldest child, 3 years; youngest a baby. No. 2.-One girl 10, second 8; two others under 5 years. This family has a large garden and keeps a pig. The parish allows is. a week. Nc. 3.-Eldest girl 13, other girl 10, two boys under 5 years. The laborer is allowed by his master barley at 3s. bushel. EXTRACTS FROiM THE HALLIWELL COLLECTION OF MANUSCRIPTS. Below are presented a few extracts from a large collection of bills, accounts, and inventories, illustrating the history of prices between the years 1650 and 1750, presented to the Smithsonian Institution in 1852, by James Orchard Halliwell, esq., of Brixton EHill, near London, and now embraced in the Library of Congress. The, collection comprises about seven thousand separate documents, bound in fifty-four volumnes. and intended as materials for a projected work on the history of prices, The design of preparing such a work having been abandoned, the collector of these valuable manuscripts presented them. "to the people of the United States, who, beyond all others," says he, " are most likely to produce a writer on the history of commerce willing to make use of materials which will strikingly illustrate the immense commercial progress the world has achieved during two centuries." The following entries, culled from the household account-book of the Archer family, illustrate the rates of wages in 1710. EXPENDITURES FOR LABOR. 1710. ~ s. d. Mar. 5th. Paid George Hill for 4 weekes worke.......................... 0 9 6 12th. Paid Goodman Mills for 2 days' work. —.. —. —-.... —-.. —--. 1 8 18th. Paid Wim. Judge 6 days....................................... 9 0 George Hill 6 days and -........................... 5 5 John Hearth 6 days and j............................ 2 2 John Fisher 6 days and........................................ 2 2 Mills, serving Whisler, 7 days.................... —-......... 6 8 26th. Paid ye tayler for makeing my coate-.......... — 1............ 1 6 May 5th. Paid my br. for 2 weeks to ye workmen........................ 3 17 1 8th. Given ye carpenter as drew ye draught of ye farm-house...... 1 1 6 July 11th. Paid Wm. Austin for half a yeare's washing... - -................. 20th. Paid Whisler and his man, one day............................ - -2 6 23d. Paid for makeing 34 qr. and 6 bushells of malt..-............. 9 7 0 166 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. 1710. ~ s. d. July 25. Paid Booth for fining the ale- -................................. 0 10 4 26th. Paid Tom Johnson's wife for makeing my shirts and mending my br's shirts.................................................. 8 o 27th. Paid ye washerwoman for 2 days.............................. 0 6 30th. Paid Mrs. How for doing my gown......7 0 Aug't 28th. Paid Horwood's bill 37 weeks' work.-..................... 10 12 0 29th. Paid Rose for 9 days' washing.................................. 2 6 Oct. 12. Paid the tayler for 4 dayes' work.............................. 4 0 2:3d. Paid Rose for 12 days' washing................................ 3 0 Nov. 3d. Paid John Dore 2 weekes' worke............................... 10 0 Dec'r 8th. Paid George Hill half a year's wages........................... 2 10 0 Paid Alice half a year's wages due to her 29th September. 2... 2 10 0 Paid Home for 5 weeks' work...................... 1 5 0 Paid Mr. Rawlins, for surveying the woods and measuring ye brewhouse................................................. 66 15 0 PRICES IN 1710 AND 1711. From the same source the following entries are selected as examples of the prices of a large number of commodities purchased between June 21, 1710, and August 21, 1711: 1710. ~ s.. June 21. Paid for six bottles of wine and white bread....... 0 12 6 22. Paid for 2 qr. and a half of oates...................... 2 10 0 25. Paid for 3 yards of ribon.................. 0 3 6 26. Paid for a tin sauce pan.... 0 0 6 28. Paid for six yards of lace..................................... 1 3 0 Paid for a salmon and bread-,............................... 0 6 6 29. Paid for a side of nmutton._ 0...........................,,,, 0 8 6 July 6. Paid for a looking-glase and 2 knives......................... 0 7 0 Given Robin to buy a whip.................................. 0 5 0 14. Paid for 4 groce of corks............................ 0 8 0 15. Given Greeve's maid for a pig............................... 0 5 0 17. Paid for.7 chickings................................. 0 2 4 Paid for crawfish and trouts and graylilngs..... 0 4 6 Paid for more crawfish........................... 0 1 4 19. Paid for anchoves, one pound -.. -............. 0 1 8 Given for a shoulder of vension............................... 0 5 0 Paid ye postman for letters................................... 0 1 6 21. Paid Daniell Heathcoate for a sheep.......................... 0 13 6 24. Given Wllite's man for a lamb................................ 0 5 0 25. Paid for 5 couple of rabitts.-...-.........-................. 0 5 0 27. Paid ye washer woman for 2 dayes........................... 0 0 6 Aug. 1st. Paid for 2 couple of rabbitts and a pd. of capers-............. 0 3 6 Paid for a sheep, weight 75 pound............ 0 18 6 3ld, Given Mr. Ward for 2 shoulders of vension..................... 0 5 0 5th. Paid for a watch-case, and paid for cleaning the 2 clocks....... 0 19 0 6th. Paid for 10 ducks............................................ 0 5 0 7th. Paid for Sue Eyre's gloves —.. 0 1 0 10ith. Paid for 6 pd. of butter............................ 0 2 3 Paid for two couple of rabitts................................ 0 2 0 Paid for a bushell of salt.................................... 0 2 8 Paid for 2 dozen and 9 orringes............................ 0 8 6 Paid for musheroomes -..-................................ 0 3 6 14th. Paid for a pair of shoes...................................... 0 2 6 Given ye Duke of Devonshire's keeper and his man for a buck. 0 2 6 15th. Given for two pair of stockings............................... 0 5 0 17th. Paid for 6 pd. of butter. —..................................... 0 2 3 Paid for 14 pd. bacon, at 5d. j peny........................ 0 6 5 Paid for a salmon.....,....................................... 0 5 18th. Paid Mary Vicars for carrying water.......................... 0 3 4] 20th. Paid Mr. Charles Bagshaw for 16 qr. of oates................. 11 4 0 Paid Robert Scholar for 6 bushells of wheat................... 1 18 0 Paid ye tayler for a busk................................... 0 0 6 Paid for a handkerchief. --.. 0 3 0 23rd. Paid for 2 pair of shoes....................................... 0 7 0 Paid Daniel Heathcott for a calf.............................. 0 13 6 Given to Ward and his man for a buck....................... 1 4 0 FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III. 167 1710. ~ 8. d. Sept. 1st. Given a maid for a pig....................................... 0 2 6 6th. Paid for this dayes bread-............. 0 1 2 11th. Paid ye miller for 5 bushells of barley......................... 0 15 0 Paid for a part in a mine..................................... 6 10 0 Given Sr. Philip Gell's boy for a side of vension............... 0 5 0 25th. Paid Mr. Awood for 2 qr. of oates --—. —-.-.................. 1 5 0 Paid for a coach glase........................................ 1 5 0 Given for a bare -............... —- —. —......... 0 2 0 Oct. 3rd. Paid for 2 geese ------------- - ------- - 0 3 0 Paid for 8 qr. of oates, at 13s. and 4d. per —..... —.-..-....... 5 6 8 4th. Paid foir 2 dayes bread..0................. 3 6 5th. Plaid for 2 quarts of white wine -..-..-....... — —.-..-...... 0 4 0 Paid ye brassier for a sauce pan and candlestk................ 0 5 6 Paid fir mending ye windows. —----------- --—. —. —.. —---- 0 1 6 6thb. Paid for 3 con ple of rabbits aind iuendingye warming-parn...... 0 4 0 Paid bfor a peck of potitoes. —.-..... —------.. —--- 0 0 6t 6th. Paid for an Apron for Jack-..0...6............. 9th. Paid for 6 pd. of butter. —. ——..-.... ——.. -... —... 0 2 3 Paid for 12 chickings........................................ 0 3 0 16th. Paid for setting 2 hares -.-.. —.........-......- -- - - - 0 2 0 23rd. Paid for 5 dozen of soape..................................... 0 5 0 Paid for 2 pd. of brisketts. —........................... 0 3 6 29th. Paid for 11 partridges. —..-. —-....-....-.. — —.-........... 0 3 8 Paid for a pair of shoes....................................... 0 4 0 31st. Paid ye Dnke of Devon quirt rent -.... —. -................... 1 10 0 Iaid for boyled wheat....................................... 0 1 0 Nov. 1st. Paid Mr. Bosley foibr cureing my eye-..1............. 12 3 Given Mr. Bosley for leting me blood -.-......... 0 5 0 4th. Paid Tho. Johnson, ye miller, for 15 loads of malt and 5 bushells and a half of barley.................................... 121 2 0 tn. Paid for 2 ounces of nuttmegs --... 0 1 0 Paid obr 3 couple of rsbbitts....-.-..-..... 0 2 0 Paid for 16 pd. ofbutter.. -0 6...... 0 7th. Paid Tom Eyre for 38 st. of bacon........... 17 0 9th Paidt my mother her first rent.................. g 9 Paid for 2 pecks of apples.................................... 0 2 8 10th. Paid John Dale for 5 pair of stockings 0 16 3 Paid for 4 pair of gloves-. -0 8 0 Paid for a wheelbarrow - —......... —-------------------—... 0 5 0 Paid for starch and indego-e -----------—.- -----—. 0 1 6 Paid for 3 ells of Holland —.....-...0 2 0 Paid Mrs. Buxton for 33 yds. of cloath.-1...................... 17 6 10th. Paid fbr half a dozen of brooms-... -.....0 10 06 Given Mr. Ward's man for 2 shours. of ven-.................... 0 5 00 16th. Paid for a bind qr. of mutton................................. 3 00 Given to the poor of Bakewell............................... 02 10 00 22d. Paid for a pair of leading-strings.6 C) 25th. Paid rmy sister Carter for my stays. —-—..- -.. —-..-. - - 10 00 30th. Paid for lace for 2 heads and rutffles. -........ 07 03 06 Deer.'2d. Paid for a hatt at Dunstable ------------—. ——..-. —-...... 8 00 Paid fbr a pair of bodice............ ——.-... -............. - 15 00 Paid the coachman as carried my dear down into Essex..... 08 00 5th. Paid Robin for a weekes hoard wages.-. —..... —-.. —------- 7 0O Paid for a gown and coat foir dear Willy.-........ —---------- 5 15 03 Paid bfor a buckle for little Will -- 4.. 406 Gth. Paid for a pair of earings ----—..- -..-...-.................03 00 00 Paid for playthings for ye child. —-..-..-................ 02 06 Paid Mr. Burchett for ye picture —..-.-.-.-................ 1`2 18 00 Paid for a vessell of beer - -... —----... —-------------,... 5 00 8th. Paid for my handkerchift and 2 girdles.-.. —......-........... 04 01 00 10th. Pai;d my aunt Gell's interest due at Michaelmas 1710 -. —----—. 20 15 00 Paid for a barrel of beer.-......-.....5 00 Paid for 3 pair of gloves for ye child. ——. —3................ 00 Paid for paper and wax and ink —----.-.....-.......... 01 00 17th. Paid for 2 lobsters-. —--—. —.......-.... -------- -... --- 03 0G 19th. Paid for a common-prayer book and St. Austine's Meditations... 01 05 00 Paid for wine and beer, and a cart and porter, and for musterd. and for bringing billetts-...... 17 06 22d. Paid for a set of wheels for ye chariot...................... 05 00 00 168 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. 1710. ~ s. d Decr. 23. Paid Martin for a coach glase-................................. 0 16 00 Paid for shoeing ye mare..................................... 02 00 Paid for a pair of patenings and clogs........................ 08 06 Paid for a tin baskett for plates.............................. 05 0O Paid for a dozen pair of gloves -.. —0 —-.........-.. —....... 01 04 00 26th. Paid for a dozen of sope plates............................... 17 00 Paid for 2 box irons and a candlestick -—. —----- -. —-------- 15 00 Paid for a pair of slipers ----------------- - 07 00 Paid for wash balls, and sweet water. —----------------------- 17 00 26. Paid for a dozen of mops... -....-..-.. 11 00 Paid Mr. Bright's bill for ye horses standing 25 night.......... 19 00 000 Paid foir making a gown and pettycoate, and scouring it....... 01 10 00 28th. Given Parson Sherley's man — 05..... 0 00 To Dr. Cook for my illness -... — - -.-................ 11 16 06 1711. Jan. ye 12th. Paid for 2 pair of stockings and 3 mettings-................... 18 00 15th. Paid all our men for a yeare's washing to this day twelvemonth 04 04 00 ye 25th. Given R. for going to Newbury when I was ill -—.- -......... 10 00 Paid for 6 pd. and ~ of eells.................................. 02 02 26th. Paid for 12 bottles of wine from Smith's -. —-.............. 01 10 00 27. Paid for 6 pair of mittings and patches -... —..- -............. 14 00 31st. Paid Robin for a pair of bootts 10 06 Paid Mary Hassell fior 9 pd. of butt. ——. —-— 0 —.5 ——... 056 Feb. 2d. Paid for 3 wild ducks —-.. —-- --------------- —....... 01 06 Paid Dr. Cook to return to London ---—. —-............. — 11 00 00 11th. Paid J. Wink work for 2 pair of shoes for myself, and a pair of boots for Johnathan ------------------ - 15 00 Paid Frank Flisher for 2 ducks and a drake.................. 01 06 11th. Patid for 2 large plumnb-cakes. —...-...................... 3 10 0 P(. for boxes to put ym. in-... 0 2 0 Pd. ye carryour for bringi ng ye watch up..................... 0 0 6 Pa id for bringing it from ye inn -0 —-------—. —---...- 0.... 0 3 Pd. for one glass for ye specticles-.0 0 6 16th. Paid for, letter ---- - 0 0 3 17th. Paid for mending ye gold watch. —............................ 3 0 0 25. Paid for a letter-..0 0 3 Paid for a pr. of white sattin shoes for little master..-....... 2 0 Paid for 2 pr. of stockins for little niaster.-. —--—.-......... 2 0 Paid for a pr. of clowded wosted -....................-... -. 10 6 3lar. 15th. Paid for an ounce and J of gold thred, at 6s. 8d -..-.......... 10 0 Paid for 3 qrs. of a yeard of plain muslin and starching... 6 3 20th. Paid for a pattorn for an apron-..1.................- 1 0 24th. For 6 pownd of tobaccoe and a box....................-. 12 6 Paid for a peice of diaper tape............................... 1 0 24th. Paid for 1 peice of narrower ditto ---—.- -................... 0 0 8 Paid for, a hundred of needles -......... 0 6 Paid for a hatt and a silver edging to it --------- - 9 0 29th. Paid for 2 bottles of Doctr. Bifield's drops —--------- 5 0 Paid for another hatt and silver edging....-9 0 31st. Paid for a baby ready dressed.-. 1 0 6 Apr. 1st. Paid for a peice of rich silke for a pr. of shoes and faceing.. 3 6 Paid for 2 brass knockers for a dore and a hatch............... 17 0 For 12 pd. of tobacco and a 16 pd. box........................ 1 4 9 6th. Paid for little master's white tammy coat...................... 10 0 9th. Paid for 2 hundred of sparraguse and a basket.. -............ 5 0 23. Paid for 4 yds. J of brocaded silke for mastr. coate............ 2 5 0 24. For ~ a pd. of pack thred... -..... 0 6 May 5th. Paid for a new lid for an old box to send ye coat in -. 2...... 0. 6th. Paid for a dozen of kid gloves. —-..........................2 10 0 ye 13). aid for ye loadstone......................................... 2 10 0 ye 22. Paid for 2 pd. of coffy........-.-.-....... 12 0 ye 26. Paid for a pair of white satting shoes of little master -.... 2 0 May ye 26th. Paid for a guilt correll....................................... 1 9 0 June ye 2d. Paid for 11 yds. of rosett, at 4s. 3d. ye yd.....................2 6 6 ye 5th. Paid Willett for druggett, and Durant for a sute of clothes.... 2 19 0 Paid ye niantoewoman's bill for making ye gown and coate, &c. 1 1 0 8th. Paid for a pr. of wosted stockins for Mr. Archer 6............. 66 24th. Paid for a new telliscope..................................... 1 4 0 July 7. Paid for ye oring flowers and ye bottle............;... 5 9 FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III. 169 1711. ~ 8. d. July 22. For makeing six shirts for Mr. Theo. Eyer, and buttons........ 0 10 2 Augt. 1st. Paid for a yd. and ~ of white damask for ye pettycoates....... 9 0 4th. Paid for a piece of tape.................... 0 9 Paid for a pair of bodys...................................... 18 0 5th. Paid for a now lid for ye box to send ye stays in-........... 0 2 Paid for a firkin of sope...................................... 1 6 0 6th. Paid for 3 qrs. and J of cherry and scarlett silk for robeings, &c., 5 6 12th. Paid for dying ye greene gowne and pettycoate.-. 6 0 18th. Paid Mrs. Cousin's bill for ye 2 gowns and pettycoats, &ec. 2 6 0 29th. Paid for 3 ells of Itollond, at 6s. ell............................ 18 0 Paid for 2 pr. of cherry collered silk stockins.................. 1 4 0 31st. Paid for j a doz. of marble wash balls......................... 2 6 Paid for a qr. of a pd. of pomatuin and pott................... 0 8 Sep. 10th. Paid for 2 glasses for ye bird cage.............................. 2 6 15th. Paid Mary Lincoln for bringing ye mantoe from Pickadily..... 0 6 21st. Paid for a strong box......................................... 3 0 Paid for cord and paper to pack ye Box up.................... 0 5 MISCELLANEOUS EXPENDITURES. The following entries, which, like those that precede, have been culled from the household account-book of the Archer family, are presented not so much on account of their statistical value as for the illustrations which many of them furnish of social and domestic life at the period to which they relate. The fact that Mr. Archer, a country gentleman of good estate, gives the cook an extra five shillings "for dressing two dinners" when his tenants "paid their rent at Coopersale," and varying sums for extra trouble on other occasions, indicates a due appreciation of that domestic's position in the household, and suggests that the state of her* temper may have had something to do with the quality of her dinners. That it was found expedient to treat her with consideration is further indicated by an entry which records the payment to her of 2s. 6d. "for saving the suet." As an incentive to economy, this method was, no doubt, found to be far more effective than verbal exhortations. Indeed, Mr. Archer appears to have found it an incentive to various other virtues, for we find him paying 5s. to Robin and Jack " for coming home sober," 9s. to Tom and Jonathan "for saying their catechism," Ss. to Jonathan and Will "for reading four Sunday Lights," 2s. 6d. " to the scolers at Wickham," to encourage them in their studies, no doubt, and 5s. "to Katty for teaching Willy his prayers." One feels a shade of disappointment, however, in finding that on the same day that he makes this last payment he gives ils. to his brother John "to play at cards." On the 21st of January, 1711, he pays "Betty" ~1 is. 6d. for looking after him "in the small-pox;" on the 27th of the same month he pays 7s. Gd. to a barber for shaving his head; and on the 29th of March he buys a periwig for 19s. Perhaps his illness had led him to serious meditations, for about this time he expends 8s. 6d. "for 3 Whole Dutys of Man," and at sacrament he contributes as much as 10s. for himself and 10s. for his wife, to whom he always refers as " my dear." The following are but a few out of many hundreds of similar entries: 1710. ~ s. d. June 18. Given to lame soldiers........................................ 0 2 0 Given to our tenant's servants-.................... 0 9 0 21. To my dear and myself........................................ 2 3 6 July 6. Given a poor woman -......................................... 0 0 6 12. Given Mr. Winterton's maid for ye use of ye cradle.......... 0 5 0 Given old Elston's maid and 2 men............................. 0 10 0 Given Goody Top...........0................................ 0 2 6 13. Given her mother............................................. 0 2 6 Given ye poor people............... 0 2 6 It is not unlikely that the cook was a male, since the record affords no positive evidence to the contrary. 170 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. 1710. ~ s. d. Given ye ringers at Blakewell.............................,,. I 1 6 July 17. Given Mrs. Buxton's maid............................. 0 5 0 19. Given at Chatsworth, for seeing ye house,-.................... 0 6 0 21. Given to see ye gardens at Chats,,,.. -,,,,-,......... 0 7 6 26. Given Robert Stayley, the fidler............................... 0 2 6 Aug. 6th. Given at ye sacrement....................................... 0 5 0 7th. Given a woman as brought apig-....... 0 2 6 13th. Given nurse and James for being blooded.,,..,,,..,,..,.... 0 2 0 15th. Given Betry for dressing ye dinner.. -....,... 0 2 6 Given Robin for breaking ye horse.,.......................... 0 2 6 23rd. Given Shepard, ye fidler, and a poor man....................... 0 3 0 25th. Given Jonathan for reading-,,,,.... 0 0 6 29th. Given to Parson Firn,,,........, 10 0 Sept. 8th. Given to 10 girls as brought a cheese.-,.................... 0 4 0 22nd. Given ye ringers at Wirksworth............................... 0 10 0 25th. Given to ye servants at Hopton.-..-....... — -. 3 8 3 Given more to ye servants-,,,...............,,.,.-. 0 2 6 Oct. 11th. Given to a maid as brought a pr. of stockings.-...,,,, -.., 0 2 0 14th. Given Annie Twigg for dear little Winm.........,.. 0 5 0 30th. Lost at shuffellboard, and given Jack and Tom,....,,, 0 4 0 Nov. 10th. Given Win. Bassford for going to Derby, and Jn. Cope for putting out his shoulder,....................................... O 10 0 1711. Jan'y 21st. Given to Betty for looking after me in the small-pox........... 01 01 06 Brother Frank's allowance for Oct. last, and Dr. and apothicary monley-.......,.,,....__............... ____._. 17 04 06 27th. Paid ye barber for shaving my head.07 06 Feb. 6th. Paid James, for to buy mourning and liverys and hatts and breeches.........,,,,,,,...,.,.,..... 40 00 00 8th. Paid Mrs. Cheveley for to buy mourning for me................ 2 00 00 12th. Paid fbr 2 blunder busses...................................... 2 00 00 Paid Frank Fisher for 2 woodco-............................... 02 00 21st. Paid for a suit of cloathes for my dear -,...... 3 15 00 Paid for a hatt and lace....................................... 1 00 00 25th. Paid Lovelock, for makeing my dear's cloaths.................. 1 09 00 Mar. 3d. Paid for 2 turkeys of T. Butcher.,,.............................. 05 00 8th. To Dr. Cook for dear little Will'm.,,-.-.....,,,. 2 03 00 12th. Paid for 2 wigs.............................................. 1 12 00 15th. Given nurse for looking after d'r Willy when he had ye small-pox 1 1 6 18th. Given James for buying my horse..............................1 1 6 Paid for ye horse.,..............,.,.....-.-... 10 0 0 Given ye cook for saving ye suet.....................,,,.,. 2 6 Paid Wm. Whitehorn for a s'rloyn of beef..................... 5 0 26th. Paid my sister Carter part of her money, so yt ye interest must notrgo on................................................... 0 0 27th. Paid for ye Queen's tax for Benham............................ 13 4 Paid for 3 Whole Duty's of Man............................... 8 6 Given Robin for selling ye horse.............................,,,,,,. 2 6 29th. Paid for a perrywig........................................... 19 0 Apr. 1st. Paid for a hatt for little Willy, and for letters. —.. —.,,,,,.... 8 00 Given Mr. Packer's man for a dog...- - - -..., 5 00 2d. Paid John Newton for ye poor's rate to Easter.. -...... 3 4 00 10th. Given Johnathan for coming home sober....................... 0 1 00 12th. Paid for Camnbdon's Brittaine —----.-.,....... —-- --—. 2 10 00 16. Paid Edward Young for ye window tax........................ 1 5 00 Given to ye scolars at Wickham - -—.. —--------.,, —-----—. 2 06 Paid Jn. Webb ye Queen's tax and gaol money..... 8 9 03 Paid Mr. White for measuring land,,,............................ 1 0 03 22d. Given Robin for bringing the writtings safe.......... —.......... —----- 5 00 Mazy 19th. Given Jn. Cox for cowcumbers.-,.....,,-,.,,..... —-,,,.- 2 06 20th. Paid Mr. Web for 16 gosslens 1.,................ 1 4 00 Paid Mr. Lyte for ye 2 guns.................................. 6 6 08 23d. Paid ye women for picking stones,,, —....-........................ —------ 1 06 31st. Paid Robin for letters and bath waters --—.. ——. ——. -. —--- 4 00 June 8th. Given ye cooper's wife for sitting up with Tom,,................. 5 00 11th. Given Robin and Jack for coming home sober from my cousin Packer's......-...............,-..............,,,,,,,,,,,, 5 00 * The superfluous cyphers, which appear in the original, are omitted in subsequent, as some have been in preceding, entries. FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III, 171 1711. ~ s. d. June 11th Given James for disapointing him when Jack was to go aw,ay.-.. 10 0 13. Paid for 2 barrells of gunpowder1 1 6 24. Given Frank Adams for strawberries........................... 2 0 Given Tom and Jonathan for saying their catichism. —--—. —- 9 0 July 11th. Paid for makeing my br. John's shirts....-........ 6 0 12. Paid Robin for Lgoing down with Strowd to be cured of ye farcy. 4 0 Paid bfor collyfiower -.-..-...6 0 18th. Given where wee dined....................................... 10 0 Given at Queen's Colledge..................................... 2 0 Paid for lacing ye men's hatts-................................. 5 6 Paid for ye lace and bui;tons-....... -..... 19 6 Given my br. John what he lost at cards....................... 11 0 23. Paid Mrs. Webb for 6 ducks................................... 2 6 30. To the surgeon for letting me blood............................ 10 9 Paid for a chaire for little Willy. 6 6 Aug. 9th. Paid for a sissers case and penknife.1............ I 7 0 Paid for a purse and a pair of buckles.........-1 16 0 16. Paid for silver buttons for my dear's frock.1......... 12 0 28. Paid for 2pairof stays17 12 0 Paid for 3 seals............................................... 10 0 Sept. 6. Lost at cards and given Jack.................................. 7 6 Given Mr, Dimsdale's man for 2 hares ----------- -------—. --- 4 0 23. Given James for an apron, and to learn to do up napkins...-.-. 15 0 25. Paid Mary Young for four geese. —-. —.. -................. 10 0 Oct. 12. Given Jonathan and Will for reading four Sunday nights. —-. - 8 0 28. Given ye cook for the parson's supping here twice.... ---------- 5 0 Nov. 5. Given Humphrey Fisher, now he is ill of the small-pox.......... 10 0 GivLn Jonathan and Will for reading.......................... 2 0 1711. 8th. Paid Dr. Cook to return up to London... -.....100 0 0 23. Paid Robin for the cloaths yt were Jack's.......... 5 0 0 Paid for 4 aprons for Betty Mills --..... 9 0 Paid Robin for a razor........................................ 3 0 26. Paid a plumber for a pump to our house.-...................... 2 4 0 Paid James for his old leather breeches for Jonathan ---------- 10 0 28. Paid for a bottle of cinnamon water.................. -..... -. 14 6 Dec. 4. Given Tom to buy him spurs and a whip...2................. 2'6 8th. Paid Richard Kimber for mending odd things.................. 2 0 15th. Given Katty for teaching Willy his prayers.................... 5 0 Given my br. Jn. to play at cards- -..........11 0 18th. Paid the man as brought ye child's stayes from London-........-. 1 0 19. Paid for bricks to do the w/tshing with............ 10 0 20th. Given the carrier's man for his Xmas-box. — -.........5 0 Given the cook for dressing 2 diners when the tenants paid their rent at Coopersale.......................................... 5 0 23d. Paid fOr 4 bottles of wine -.-..-...... 10 0 Paid for pipes and tobacco.................................... -1 6 Given at ye sacrament, my dear and myself.................... 1 0 26. Paid Mr. Pool two small bills he has brought in twice-the carrier of Eping is one, and I'don't know ye other. —-----—... —---- 18 0 Given old Sole's prentice for his Christmas-box -.......... 5 0 Below are given a number of miscellaneous accounts forming a part of the fHalliwell collection: A tavern bill, 1675. ~ 8. d. Bread and beere.......................................................... 16 4 Wine and orranges —..........-.-.-... 15 4 A neck and breast of mutton and broath-.................................... 5 0 A breast of veale.......................................................... 4 0 A shoulder of mutton and sallet. -—................... 3 6 Six chickens............................................................. 7 6 Sparrow grasse-.......................................................... 2 0 Pocht eggs.-.............................................................. I 0 Ffyre --.................................................................... 0 ~2 16 8 To servts................................................................. 5 0 BLACK Boy, CHELMSFORD, May 15th, 1675. 172 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Mr. John Moore's bill-1676. Ye 26th of December. ~ s. d. Owinge for lodginge...................................................... 16 0 For a sroude............................................................. 10 0 Ffor a necke of mutton and all other things............................... 7 8 Ffor ffaggetts............................................... 1 0 For a, barrall of eall....................................................... 1 4 0 For a pound of tobackoe and pipes........................................ 2 6 For moer drink............................................................ 2 6 For ye woman searchers.................................................. 1 6 For links................................................................. 3 0 Ye porter................................................................ I 0 For eall and beer and bred and posset drink in ye tiem of his siknes........ 8 0 For ye man that lookt after him in his siknes.............................. 5 0 Ye wosherwoman......................................................... 1 2 Ye sum tis......................................................... 4 3 4 The clark's flees............................................................19 0 Totall.........................................5 2 4 Disbursements-1675. ~ s. d. Aug. 10th. Paid unto John Swallow for mending 2 sutes of clothes of my master's........................................................ 2 8 17. Given unto Thomas Jackson by my master's order ffor tobaccos pipes....................................................... 1 2 2]st. Paid unto Mr. Boniface, the barber, for trimming my mr... 1 6 25th. Paid for a quarter of a pound of tobaccoe...................... 9 27th. Paid for mending my master's golesshooe......................2 Sept. 14. For a letter by the post unto Valentine Broughton.............. 3 Ffor clenne tobacco-pipes...................................... 2 Oct. 11th. Paid John Swallow for mending my master's wastecoate and doublett.................................................... 6 14. Ffor a Gazette................................................. 1 Ffor 2 pounds of candles....................................... 11 Paid for a bottle of scurvy grasse............................... 3 Disburs'd in the whole.............................................. 0 17 10 Bps. Storford-Feb. ye 1st, 1675. ~ 8. d. 1 horse 6 nights' hay...................................................... 4 0 15 bushell of oats.................................................... 2 0 0 One bushell 3 pecks of beens......................... 7 0 Half a bushell of mault................................................... 1 4 Bott off Judith Gresham —No. ye 9, 1706. ~ s. d. 1 pair of shamey gloves........ 3 6 5 yds. half off ffine plain muslin, at 9sh..... 2 9 6 1 white gause handkercheiff............................................... 3 6 1 black fiaDn with India sticks............................................ 4 6 2 yds. and halff off lustring ffor a hood, 7sh...... 17 6 1 broad crape hood...................................................... 11 6 1 black girdle............................................................ 1 4 1 black fferbelo apron........................................... 15 6 2 white koles and 3 wiers................................................. 2 6 Making 5 sut's of night cloths.. 7 6 Making 3 pair of double ruffles.... 3 0 Making 3 long tuckers.................................................... 2 6 1 white sarsnet hood...................................................... 10 6 2 yds. of ribin ffor ye apron............................................... 6 5 yds. and quarter off muslin ffor 2 heads, and 7 pr. of ruffles............... 1 14 0 Starching the 5 yds. off muslin..................... 2 6 2 yds. 3 quarters off ffine lawn............................................ 1 19 0 4 yds. and half off ffine cambrick for a cornet sute......................... 3 3 0 4 yds. off muslin ffor 2 aprons............................................. I 14 0 Starching ye muslin...................................................... 2 0 FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III. 173 ~ 8. d. Makingye aprons........................................................ 0 8 6 3 yds. halff ell off white Spanish........................................... 4 9 1 white silk girdle........................................................ 1 4 1 fine stick ffan wth gause................................................ 16 0 6 yds. off white and silver ribin........................................... 1 13 0 6 yds. off fine plain ground lace, att 44sh.................................. 13 4 0 6 yds. off plain ground for night cloths, at 28sh............................ 8 8 0 4 yds. off lace ffor-ruffles, at 15sh...............A........................... 3 7 6 1 yd. and quarter off ifine lace flor ye bosorne............................... 17 6 Laid out for Madam Archer-1711. ~s. d. March 6th. Paid for six bottles of Hungary water........................ 0 7 6 19th. Paid for 2 yds. 3 qrs. of plain nlmuslin, at 8s. ye yd............. 1 2 0 27th. Pd. for 3 qrs. and j of one striped muslin..................... 5 3 28th. Virginia tobaccoe, 12 pd. and a box.......................... 1 10 4 25th. For making 2 henmed night heads............................ 4 0 For makeing 2 day heads, single laps........................ 3 4 For makeing 6 hemed tuckers............................... 1 6 April 4th. Paid for a past bord box..................................... -j 14th. Paid for 8 o. and qr. of clowded wosted, at 8d. ye ounce...... 5 6 19th. Paid for a cheese of 12 pd. lack 6 oz.......................... 3 8 23d. Paid for a pr. of pumps...................-. --. 16 0 24th. Paid for 2 yds. of white sarcnett for a hood................... 6 0 25th. Paid for 2 pr. of shammy gloves............................ 7 0 Paid for 5 pr. of black lether gloves......................... 6 8 May 13th. For 1,000 of ye best stiff pins................................ 1 0 24th. Paid for a duzen of oriuges.................................. 3 0 Paid for a doz. of leamons................................... 2 6 June 2d. Paid for a pr. of ereings.............................. 3 6 July 5th. Paid for a pd. of Bohe tea.................................. — 1 4 0 Paid for a yd. of best black lute string....................... 6 6 12th. Paid for 2 new glasses for ye spectacles...................... 1 0 15. Paid for 300 of wallnuts to pickell........................... 1 0 Paid ye basket woman for bringing ym home................. -. Paid for ye Christian Hero.................................. 1 6 15. Paid for boyling ye silver buttons........................... 6 Paid for dying ye night gowne lying......................... 2 0 Sir John Newton's bill-1701. Bought of James Lund and Lluellin Aspley, at the Crane in the Poultry, March 29~, 1701. ~ s. d. I pair of fine Chinajarrs, painted with gold......................1........ 1 6 0 1 pair of blew China Roulwaggons........................... 1 8 0 4 China chocolet cups and 4 saucers, in colers.............................. 13 4 2 ditto chocolet cups and 2 two saucers..................................... 8 0 4 small china bottles...................................................... 3 0 i chinateapot.......................... 3 0 3 pair bottles and 3 faulty cups............................................ 2 6 12 delf saucers........................................................... 4 0 4 7 10 I pair small bottles with gold............................................. 2 6 9 faulty chocolet and tea cups, in colers....-. 3 0 4 13 4 Agreed to a bolt [abate] for the upper percell. 2 10 4 10 6 A poulterer's bill. ~ s.d. Due to me upon the ballance..................... its 10 Deer. 31st. For a lamb and pluck 8 0 For side of veal and head, at 2jd. p. pound...................... 8 9 For 3 shell ducks and 2 widgious.........................2...... 10 For dish fish.. 5 0 For2 turkeys...................................... 4 6 174 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. For 8 geese....1..6 0............... For 200 hundr. oysters............ 0 For a curlow...................... Jan. 1st. For a turkey2 6 For 6 pell. buter 2 6 For eggs 2.... 6 Paid for hire of a large tray........ Paid for looking after ye bacon.....2 0 4th. For 2 ducks and a teal......... 6th. For a dish fish....................6 3 For mustard seed..................2 0 For 4 pullets...................8... 8th. For2 teal..................0 ~X4 16 0 Christmas boxes, 1711. Reed. 16 06. 8.d. December 26th. Watchman, waits, turncock, and brewer's men, each.2 6 Dustaman.-................... 3 baker's men, coachmaker's man, neweswoman, corchandler's man, the post, gardner's man, and clerk, each.10 Chimney-sweeper.........6 Butcher's man, sadler's man, tayler's boys, locksmith's men, farrier's man, foreign postman, and Mr. Govers, each1 0 14 0 Work dun for Mrs. Ann Pegg Oct. ye 10th, 1706. ~C 8. d. Washing a suite of night-cloas and ruffles..0... 0 5 Washing two heads, 6d.; one sheet of pines, 4d.0 0 10 Quarter and J of holand for 2 pr. of mittins.0 l 8 3 yards j of riben, 2d., to bind ym,..................... 0 0 10 Washing a suite of night dlons....................... 3 2 yds. A ell of scarlet edgling, 6 yd. for her workt.. -.1 3j A black silk apron 4/6; sawing silk, 2d................... 4 8 % of an ounce of thred, 2j needles, 2d..................... 4 Washing and dresing her best lacet head and ruffles.............. 10 2 yds. I of white riben, 13d. yd....................... 4 31 A black and white faun, 14d.; a paper of patches......-...._ 1 8 J ell of black riben, 3 powder....................... 5 4 yds. of yelow Viben, 2d. yd.; 3 nailes of broad.10 3 halfe sheets of pines..,1 0 Washing and dresing a plane head and ruffles............... 8 5 nailes of stript cambrick 10d. yd.3 11 Making, starchiug, and dresg. her night cloas................ 1 4 Making and starchiung her rufles, Gd.; tape, id..7 2 yds. of black and white riben, 17d. yd.................. 2 10 Making one shift, one apron, and 3 tuckers................. 10 yd. J. of muslin in an apron 4/6 yd..................... 5 01 J and 4 of spotted cambrick for single ruifles................ 1 10j 5 nailes of plane muslin for tuckers, and one pr. of rufies.......... 1 Si Holand tape for shif ts, tnckers, and apron................. 4 Washing and dresing 2 heads, 12d.; washing a suite of nitcloas, 3d... 1 3 Washing, and dresing a bead and 4 pr. of rufles............... 1 2 Washing 2 suites of "night-cloas....................... 6 ja sheet of pines 3d.; washing and dresing a head, 6d........... 9 Washing a suite of night-dlons, 3d.; and J pd. of powder.......... Washing and dresing yr. best head and rufles,................ 10 Washing and dresing a plane head, Gd.; one sheet of pines, Gd. 0 Washing her 2-stript night-cloas and rfls6 Washingr 2 suites Gf plane night-dlons, Gd.; thred......8 2 4 11 FROM ELIZABETH TO GEORGE III. 175 The following memm may interest the merchants of Boston, showing as it does the kinds of goods most in demand 168 years ago. The statement that "goods well bt. in London will fetch 140 to 150 p. c. advance" will cause regret that "ye good old times" have passed away: Me o the most staple goods in general at Boston, in New Engl'd, ye 4th 8ber, 1706. Double damass, mock, do., but few, if any, toyes, and all other fashionable stuffs for women's wear. Russel damasks, sort'd, viz, a few with red and white flowers, most of blue and white, andl a few grave, modest conlers. ~~~~Black cra~pes, we. cost abt. 40 o 45 ape.; most of the former. Shalloones, sorted, viz, blue, red, and lemo. colr., Iretty fine, and other graver, fashional coulors, and some black. Cressed serges, we. cost abt. 35/ape., first cost. Dlils of a good steel blue, and o other coulors. lFlannels sorted, viz, some yellow, soe blue and red, most white, and some of them st be fine, from 13 to per yard, rst cost. Welch and Kdal cottons, blue, red, and a few white.'Some drnggrets of grave conlors. Some sad could. serges, mixt. wt. blue and white, of l1 yd. wide. Low-prised cloths, of a drab cor., from 5/to 8/cost; most of the former. Wide britches- g, with fe, narrow, bright-blue stripes,; narrow, ditto. English and Dutch checks, few of them high prised. Stroud waters, blue and red; most of the former; costs 2/6 or 3/pr. yd. A course sort of calicoes, abt. el wie, flowd. with red and white flowers, and some with the same flowers of lj or yard wide. Ozeubrigg's white and browne. le. Plain slins of different fuenesses, shaded, of 1 yard wide. Shear uslis, it for headdresses and neckeloths. Striped mbslins, a few. Low lprisedl hollands to sell here for abt. 3 to 5 an ell. H~ambro dowlass of different finenesses. A sortable parcel of pinus packt. up by themselves in harris. or trunks. Gold and silver thread and twist. Silke gloves, bin,. and could. Bla. silke gauze. Silke and thread laces. Mohair coate and breast buttons; halfe of the latter, and of each some black. Broad andl narrow gartering. Broad and narrow alamnode is still much wanted; ye last sold was at 12/per eli. Ordinary wvriteing-paper costs aIbout 5/ or 6/ a reame. A sortmt. of fashonable flowd. silkes, fromn 4/ to 6/6i, or 2/a yard cost, will sell well all ye summer, wtb. some good bla. flowd. silke umongs it. A parcel of the best and largt. wool-cards, lialfe thicks, blue, red, and sad couflors; 2/3 of the former., Hollands duck is worth here ~7 to ~C7 10/, more or less, as in goodness. Cordage sorted as pr. memo. 70/ per c. here. Powder is worth here ~14 a barrl. Ambros Crowley's nailes sorted as hereafter mentioned. Scythes and sickles, of the best makers', good goods. Spanish iron, worth here ~40 per pr. tunn. Swedes, ditto, ~34 to ~35 per tunin. Lead, in piggs, ~25 pr. tunn. Lead, in barrs, worth ~,26 to 27 pr. c. Shott, sorted, vizt, goose, one-halfe; ye other j, duck, pigeon, and bird, is now scarce worth upwards of ~i0)' pr. taunn. Grocery-ware, vizt, raisins, solis, new, and in half barrils, ~5 10 pr. c. here. Currant and~ figgs in ye cashes are imported in if -possible. Spice, sorted, vizt, 100 lb. of nutmegs, 25 lb. of cloves, 6 lb. of mace, 5 cwt. of pepper in small casks, worth here now 3/fper lb. A parcel of hdtts, sorted, vizt, elts and casters, cloth of Carolina hintts. NoTrE-What goods have no price affixt to them will fetch here t oeir'g well bt. in Londo.) 140 to 150 p. advance, and more, if any perticulars happetr to tia e;traordirinaly wanted when they arryve. 176 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. THE ERA OF MACINERY. The inventions which distinguished the latter part of the eighteenth century inaugurated a new era in productive industry. The new devices for spinning, already referred to, were used at first in connection with water-power; but it was not long before the steam-engine was brought into requisition to give them increased efficiency an a wider sphere of operation, Once successfully applied to the moving of machinery, this great motor seemed to stimulate the inentive faculties of man to preternatural activity; and one labor-saving device was quickly followed by another, until a great proportion of al manufacturing industry, was largely performned by the aid of machinery. This great change in the methods of production-a cage which has progressed steadily from the latter part of the last century to the present time-was inaugurated in Great Britain, and it was there that te e system received its earliest and most signal development. Agmenting to a prodigious extent the aggregate product of labor,* it necessarily gave rise to a vast increase in the aggregate wealth of the community; and in this increase the working-classes have undoubtedly shared to a considerable extent, though in a degree not at all comparable to that in which the wealthier classes have been benefited. Indeed, each new application of machinery was a source of temporary inconvenience, or even of severe distress to the particular class of workmen whose manual labor it superseded. But the most important bearing of the new methods of production upon the relations between labor and capital and the condition of the working-classes grew out of the necessity which they created for associated industry, and for large, establishments, carried on by accumulated capital. Nowhere is this more forcibly illustrated than in the manufaceture of textile ftabrics, which fromt time immemorial had been in an emine-nt degree a household industry. The language of Wordsworth"Maids at the wheel, the weaver at his loom, Sat blitLbe and happy"would doubtless have answered almost equally well to describe, an, an~cient Egyptian household in the era of the pyramids, or the occupations of an ordinary Lancashire family in the middle of the eighteenth century. Almost every farm-house and cottage in the manufacturing districts 6f England had its spinn~ilg-wheel,t which furnished in-door occupation for women and children, while the men were engaged in the labors of the field. The invention of the fly-shuttle in 17,38 had very much increased the rapidity with which weaving could be done, and the busiiiess of spinning was thus stimulated to great activity, the earnings of spinners, being unprecedentedly large. While the textile industries were in this condition Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny4t and Arkwright the spinning-framne, sometimes called the water-frame or throstle;~ and a few years later these were followed by a still more elaborate machine,j,1 in which the operations of both of them were combined. So great was the superiority of the new machines that the old-fashioned * It is calculated in Kennedy's "1Rise and Progress of the Cotton Trade" that, as early as 1815, one person, aided by machinery, could produce as much as two hundred cottage spinners could have produced in 1760. In many cases several. t About 1764. Patented in 1769. The "1mule," invented by Samuel Crompton in 1775. THE ERA OF MACHINERY. 177 wheel was quickly banished from the field of competition, and spinning, as a hosehold industr, was practically at an end. Weaving, however, still held its place, and was even stimulated to extraordinary activity by the rapid increase in the product of yarn which followed the inventions just referred to. In the manufacturing districts of Lancashire, barns and other out-buildings were quickly converted into loom-shops; and when these no longer sufficed to meet the new demand, weavers' cottages, with loom-shops attached, arose on every side. The era, however, was one of pid change, and ere long the power-loom, worked by water or steam, began to compete with the hand-loom. The wages of weavers which under the first impulse communicated by the new spinning-machinery had risen to an unusual height and attracted large numbers to the business, gradually sank to a pittance, scarcely sufficient to afford the workpeople the most wretched subsistence. The triumph of machinery, however, had been only a question of time. In weaving, as in spinning, separate domestic industry was compelled to give place to collective industry in large establishments. The workman who had pursued the even tenor of his way at his own loom, and the housewife who had plied her busy task over the wheel at her own fireside, were compelled by the force of irresistible circumstances to take their places along with hundreds of others in "the mill," and to regulate their hours of labor, as well as their meals and their hours of rest, by the sound of its peremptory bell. The cocentration of capital, which was necessary to the prosecution of manufacturing industry under the new system, was greatly facilitated by the high prices which manufacturers at first obtained for their products. Yarn of a quality which in 1815 was sold for three shillings a pound brought in the infany of the manufacture as high as thirty shillings. The British mulled muslins which, when first manufactured, were eagerly bought up by the rich at $2.50 a yard, are, now offered to the poor-of less durable quality, however-for six cents a yard."~ So it must have been in. many other industries, for the public were accustomed to the prices they had paid for the products of manual la bor, and these the manufacturers could readily undersell, while retaining an enormous profit for themselves. It Tvas not till machine-made goods had taken possession of the market that the c ompetition between rival manufacturers brought prices down to a proper level and gave the consumer a reasonable share in the reduced cost of production. In the mean time vast fortunes had been rapidly accumulated, and to the new capital thus made available for manufacturing purposes was added that which enterprises yielding such magnificent pecuniary'results attracted from every side. Thus the industrial revolution inaugurated by Watt, in conjunction with llargreaves, Arkwright, and Crompton, gaied added impetus with each year's progress, and with marvelou raidity produced its transforming effects upon economic and social conditions. The comprehension of the nature and effects of that revolution will greatly facilitate a correct understanding of the labor question of the present day. Indeed, it is out of that revolution mainly that the labor question in its present farm has grown. It has already been remarked that the new methods of production created a necessity "1for associated industry and for large establishments carried on by accumulated capital."7 The full significance of this fact may not at once be apparent, but a little reflection will make it so. By "accumulated capital,"1 as just used, is meant masses of capital vastly in excess of the average posses-' Autobiography of R. D. -Owen, p. 13. 12 L ~178 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. sions of individuals, even in the most prosperous communities-masses so large that the possession of one such mass by any individual implies, as its necessary counterpart, the comparative poverty of scores or even hundreds of others, and their dependence upon the one for employment. When industry was carried on in small separate establishments, a steady and industrious workman might reasonably hope to accumulate the means of setting up in business for himself, and thus the workman of this year might next year be numbered among the employers. Theo retically this is so still, for it is a common boast in our own country, at least, that the avenues to wealth and the honors of official life are open to all. Circumstances, however, are sometimes stronger than the laws, and inexorably deny what the laws very freely permit. It is quite evident that the number of industries which may be prosecuted by separate individuals on a small scale, and which may be started with such an amount of capital as a working-man can save out of his wages, is now comparatively small, and that it is steadily diminishing as the sphere of machinery extends. One may still see the shoemaker's shop, with its modest array of tools and its little stock of leather, representing a total capital of a few hundred dollars, or even less; but the sphere of such shops is now comparatively limited, and the proportion of boots and shoes made by machinery in large factories is increasing year by year. In like manner one may still see the shop of the blacksmith, the wheelwright, the carpenter, and the cabinet-maker; but in alj of these an in other trades, the amount of work executed in large establishments by the aid of machinery is immense, and is constantly augmenting. It is hardly necessary to say that this is not referred to as a thing to be regretted. The vast increase in man's productive powers which machinery has brought with it is an incalculable blessing; it would not be wise, however, to close our eyes to the incidental evils- temporary in their character, it is to be hoped-by which this blessing is accompanied. The'alarmists who imagined that machinery, by doing the work which had been done by human hands, would leave the hands without employment were not long in learning from experience and observation how groundless were their fears. What machinery has done is not, if we except occasional temporary consequences of its introduction, to. deprive men of employment, but to change the conditions under which they work. Except in the co-operative enterprises, which within a few years past have been successfully carried out, its effect has been to divide all that large portion of society employed in connection with it into two distinct and, in respect to their circumstances, widely separated classes, the one consisting mainly of a few very rich employers, the other embracing a multitude of employes, who, if not absolutely very poor, are at least extremely poor in comparison with the members of the other class. This wide contrast of conditions is probably one of the causes of the discontent of the working-classes; but the principal cause, both of this discontent and of their aggressive attitude toward capital, is to be found in the fact that to the great mass these conditions appear to be practically permanent. The journeyman mechanic who could see, a prospect that within ten years he might himself become the owner of a shop was not disposed to feel or act unk-indly toward a class of which he hoped so soon to become a member, viz, toward the employers; but to the operative the possession of a factory is a thing so remote from probability that it scarcely enters into his wildest dreams of future success. So it is in all the industries carried on in those great establish THE ERA F MACHINERY. 179 ments, against which the competition of little shops, in any extended sphere, is each year becoming more difficult. It is thus that machinelabor has imparted to the great body of the working-people the cohesion and the common sentiments of a permanent class apart from the class of employers. But while it has thus furnished the occasion for their combination in defense of their common interests it has at the same time contributed in another way to render that combination powerful and efficient. By creating gregarious industry and greatly extending the sphere of urban life, it afforded to the working-classes enlarged opportunities for mutual intercourse, and thus gave rise to an unwonted degree of intellectual activity. The result has been a marked increase in popular intelligence and a corresponding improvement in the methods and purposes of combination among workingmen. The breaking of machinery and the "ratting" of workmen not connected with trades-uions are now happily becoming comparatively rare, and mutual benefit, such as relief out of society funds in sickness or old ae, together with co-operation, is attracting an increasing share of the attention of the working-class. There is reason to hope that the last-mentioned form of combination may yet afford the means of reconciling machinery and associated labor with that personal independence which they at first seemed likely to place quite beyond the reach of the mass of workingmen. By the union of many small sums, associations of workmen may succeed in forming out of their own earnings those aggregations of capital which are necessary to the prosecution of industry with the aid of the best modern appliances. If they can do this and also supply out of their own ranks efficient oversight and business management, the great capitalist, towering among his operatives like a mountain among hillocks, will cease to be an industrial necessity. But the consideration of this subject, co-operation, as well as of tradesunions and strikes, must be postponed until something has been said of the more immediate effects of the factory system during the earlier period of its development, and of the public questions and legislative measures to which those effects gave rise. Upon these points the Duke of Argyle, in Chapter VII of his "1Reign of Law,"7 presents some highlyinteresting facts and reflections. After observing that the factory system began under the old imotive-power of water before the steam-engine was made available, he continues as follows: Very soon the course of every mountain stream in Lancashire and Yorkshire was marked by factories-. This again had another consequence. It was a necessity of the case that such factories must, generally, be situated at a distance from pre-existing populations, and, therefore, from a full supply of labor. Consequently they had to create communities for themselves. From this necessity, again, it arose that the earlier mills were worked under a system of apprenticeship. Thie due attendance of the requisite number of "1hands" was secured by engagements which bound the laborer to his work for a definite period. And now, for the first time, appeared some of the consequences of gregarious labor under the working of natural laws, and under no restrictions from positive institutions. The mill-owners collected, as apprentices, boys and girls, youths and men, and women, of all ages. in very many cases no provision adequate, or even decent, was provided for their accommodation. The hours of labor w ere excessive. The ceaseless and untiring agency of machines kept no reckoning of the exhaustion of hum-an nerves. The factory system had not been many years in operation when its effects were seen. A -whole generation were growing up under conditions of physical degeneracy, of mental imnorance, and of moral corruption. The fitst public man to bring( it under the notice of Psarliament with a view to remedy, was, to his immortal honor, a master-manufacturer, to whom the new industry had brought wealth, and power, and station.' In 1802 the elder Sir Robert Peel was the first to introduce a bill to interfere by law with the niatural effects of the unrestricted competition in human labor. It is characteristic of the slow progfress of new ideas in the English. mind, and of its strong instinct to adopt 180 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. no measure which does not stand in some clear relation to pre-existig laws, that Sir Robert Peel's bill was limited strictly to the regulation of the labor of apprentices. Children and young persons who were not apprentices, might be subject to the same evils, but for them no remedy was asked or provided. The notion was, that as apprentices were already under statutory provisions, and were subjects of a legal contract, it was permissible that their hours of labor should be regulated by positive enactment. But the Parliament which was familiar with restrictions on the products of labor, and with restrictions of monopoly on labor itself-which restrictions were for the purpose of securing supposed economic benefits-would not listen to any proposal to regulate "free" labor for the purpose of avoiding even the most frightful moral evils. These evils, however great they might be, were the result of natural laws," and were incident to the personal freedom of employers and employed. In the case of apprentices, however, it was conceded that restrictions might be tolerated. And so, through this narrow door the first of the factory acts was passed. It is a history which illustrates, in the clearest light, the sense in which human conduct, both individually and collectively is determined by natural law. If Watt's steam-engine had been invented earlier-if mills had not been at first erected away from the centers of population, in order to follow the course of streams-if, consequently, the evils of the factory system had not begun to be observable in the labor of apprentices, there is no saying how much longer those evils might have been allowed to fester without even an assertion of the right to check them. The act of 1802, though useless in every other sense, was invaluable at least in making this assertion. Meanwhile Watt's great invention had been completed. And now a new ccle of events began. When the perfected steam-engine became applicable to mills, it was no longer always cheaper to erect them in rural districts; on the contrary, it was often cheaper to have them in the towns, near a full supply of labor and a cheap supply of fuel. With this change came the abandonment of the system of apprenticeship. It was now "free" labor which more and more supplied the mills. But this only led to the same evils in an aggravated form. Childrenandwomenwereespeciallyvaluablei the work of mills. There were parts of the machinery which might be fed by almost infant " hands." The earnings of children became an irresistible temptation to the parents. They were sent to the factory at the earliest age, d they worked during the whole hours that the machinery was kept at work. The result of this system was soon apparent. In 1815, thirteen years after he had obtained the act of 1802, Sir Robert Peel came back to Parliament and told them that the former act had become useless; that mills were now generally worked not by water, but by steam; that apprentices had been given up, but that the same exhausting and denioralizing labor from which Parliament had intended to relieve apprentices was the lot of thousands and thousands of the children of the free poor. In the following year, 1816, pressing upon the House of Commons a new measure, of restriction, he added that unless the legislature extended to these children the same protection which it had intended to afford to the apprentice class, it had comne to this, that the great mechanical inventions which -were the glory of the agre would be a curse rather than a blessing to the country. These were strong words from a master-manutfacturer, bu hyweentmoesrn than true.t *42 and 43 George III, cap. 73. t Prominent amnongr those who labored to bring these evils to the attention of Parliament and -the country was Robert Owen, himself a wealthy and successful manufacturer, though more widely known at a later period for his extreme opinions on social questions. 0His son, in his recently published volume entitled "1Threading My Way," gives the following account of his observations during a journey which he made with his father through England and Scotland in 1815 for the purpose of collecting evidence touching the condition of children employed in the cotton, woolen, linen, and silk factories of the kingfdom: "The facts we collected seemed to me terrible almost beyond belief. Not in exceptional cases, but as a rule, we found children of ten years old worked regularly fourteen hours a day, with but half an hour's interval for the mid-day meal, which was eaten in~ the factory. In the fine-yarnl cotton-mills, (producing from 120 to 300 hanks to the pound,) they were subjected to this labor in a temperature usually exceeding 750; and in all the cotton-factories they breathed an atmosphere more or less injurious to the lungs because of the dust and minute cotton fibers that pervaded it. "1In some cases we found that greed of gain had impelled the mill-owners to still greater extremes of inhumanity, utterly disgraceful, indeed, to a civilized nation. Their mills were run fif teen, and, in exceptional cases, sixteen hours a day, with a single set of hands; and they did -not scruple to employ children of both sexes from the age of eight. We actually found a considerable number under that age. itIt need not be said that such a system could not be maintained without corporal punishment. Most of the overseers openly carried stout leather thongs, and we frequently saw even the youngest children severely beaten. THE ERA OF MACHINERY. 181 Thus bean that reatdebate which in principle may be said to be not ended yetthe debate how far it is legitimate or wise in positive institutions to interfere for moral ends with the freedom of the individal will. Cobbett denounced the opposition to restrictiv measures as a contest of mammon against mercy." No doubt personal interests were strong in the forming of opinion, and some indignation was natural against those who seemed to regard the absolute neglect of a whole generation, and the total abandonment of them to the debasing effects of excessive toil, as nothing compared with the slightest check in the accumulations of the warehouse. But the opposition was not in the main due either to selfishness or indifference. False intellectual conceptions, false views, both of principle and of fact, were its real foundation. Some of the ablest men in Parliament, who were wholly unaffected by any bias of personal interest, declared that nothing would induce them to interfere with the labor which they called free." Had not the working-classes a right to employ their children as tey pleased Who were better able to judge than fathers and mothers of the capacities of their children? Why interfere for the protection of those who already had the best and most natural of all protections? Such were some of the arguments ag~ainst interfering with free labor. Now, in what sense was this labor free? It was free from legal compulsion; that is to say, it was free from that kind of compulsion which arises out of the public will of the whole community, imposed by authority upon the conduct of individuals. But there was another kind of force from which this labor was not free-the force of overpowering motive operating on the will of the laborers themselves. If one parent, more careful than others of the welfare of his children, and moved less exclusively by the desire of gain, withdrew his children at an earlier hour than others from factory-work, his children were liable to be dismissed and not employed at all.' On the other hand, motives hardly less powerful were in constant operation on the masters. The ceaseless, and increasing, and unrestricted competition among themselves, the eagerness with which human energies rash into new openings for capital, ~~for enterprise~, and for sill, made them, as a class, insensible to the frightful evils which we arising from that competition for the means of subsistence, which is the impelling motive of labor. Nor were there wanting aruents, founded on the constancy of natural laws, against any attempt on the part of legislative authority to interfere with the " freedom of individual will. The competition between the possessors of capital was a competition not confined to our own country. It was also an international competition. In Belgium, especially, and in other countries, there was the same rush alongc the new paths of industry. If the children's hours of labor were curtailed, it -would inivolve of necessity a curtailment also of the adult labor, which would not be available when left alon~e. This would be a curtailment of the working-time, of the whole mill; and this would involve a corresponding( reduction of the produce. Outside of certain limits this is not by any means a, necessary inference. No similar reduction of produce would arise, in foreign mills. In competition with thenm the margin of profit was alrea dy small. The (diminution of produce, from restricted labor, wvould destroy that margin. Capital would be driven to countries where labor was still free from such restrictions, and the result would be more fatal to the interests of the, working-classes of the Engl-Iish towns than any of the results arising from the existingr hours of work. All these consequences were represented as inevitable. They must arise out of the operation of invariable laws. ",6We soughit out the surgeons who were in the habit of attending these children, notingy their names and the facts to which. they testified. Their stories haunted my dreams. In some largre factories from one-fourth. to one-fifth. of the children were either cripples or otherwise deformed, or permanently injured. by excessive toil, sometimes by brutal abuse. The yoanger children seldom heid out more, than three or four years W~ithont severe illness, often ending in death. "When we expressed surprise that parents should voluntarily condemn their sons and daughters to slavery so intolerable,, the explanation seemed to be, that mnany of the fathers were out of work theniselves, and so were, in a measure, driven to the sacrifice for lack of bread; while others3, imbrated by intemperance, saw with indifference an abuse of the infant faculties compared to which the infanticide of China may almost be termed humane. "1In London my father laid before several members of Parliament the mass of evidence he had collected, and a bill which he had prepared forbidding the employment in factories of child workers under twelve years of age, and fixing thle hours they might be employed at ten a day. Finally he obtained from the elder Sir Robert Peel a promise to introduce this humane measure in the House of Commons. * 1 * The bill dragged through the house for four sessions, and when passed at last it was in a mutilated and comparatively valueless form." * This was very forcibly explained, both by Sir Robert and by his son, Mr. Peel, in the debate of February 23, illS. 182 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Such were the arguments, urged in every variety of form and supported by every lkind of statistical detail, by which the first factory acts were vehemently opposed. And, indeed, in looking back at the debates of that time we cannot fail o see that the reasoning of those who opposed restriction on free labor met with no adequate reply. Not only were the supporters of restriction hampered by a desire to keep thei conclusions within the scope of a very limited measure; not only were they anxious to repudiate consequences which did legitimately follow from their own premises, but they were themselves really ignorant of the fundamental principles which were at issue in the strife. Their conclusions were arrived at through instincts of the heart. The pale faces of little children, stunted and outworn, carried them to their result across every difficulty of argument and in defiance of the alleged opposition of inevitable laws. And yet, if the supporters of the factory acts had only known it, all true abstract argument on the subject was their own. Theconclusionstowhichtheypointed were as true in the light of reason as they felt them to be tre in the light of conscience. The debate resulted in the p)assage of the act of 1819, (59 Geo. I, c. 636,) which, being the first measure restricting the labor of unapprenticed children, was, properly speaking, the first of the factory acts. This act, however, as well as one passed in 1825, remained practically a dead letter for want of adequate enforcing clauses, and it was not until the passage of Lord Ashley's bill in 1833, establishing a stringent system of government inspection, that any progress was made in mitigating the evils which the factory system had developed. Speaking of anchester in 1832, Sir J. P. K. Shuttleworth says: The population employed in the cotton factories rises at 5 o'clock in the mornin works in the mills from 6 till 8, and returns home for half an hour or forty tinutes to breakfast. This meal generally consists of tea or coffee, with a little bread. The tea is almost always of a bad, and sometimes of a deleterious quality. The operatives return to the mills and workshops until 12 o'clock, when an hour is allowed for dinner. Among those who obtain the lower rate of wages this meal generally consists of boiled potatoes. The mess of potatoes is put into one large dish, melted lard and butter are poured upon them, and a few pieces of fried fat bacon are sometimes mingled with them, and, but seldom, a little meat. Those who obtain better wages add a greater proportion of animal food to this meal at least three times in the week, but the quantity consumed by the laboring population is -not great. The family sits around the table, and each rapidly appropriates his portion in a plate, or they will plunge their spoons into the dish, and with an animal eagerness satisfy the cravings of their appetites. The population nourished on this aliment is crowded into one dense mass in cottages separated by narrow, unpaved and almost pestilential streets, in an atmosphere loaded with smoke, and the exhalations of a large manufacturing city. The operatives are congregated into mills and workshops during twelve hours in the day, in an enervating,. heated atmosphere, which is frequently loaded with dust or the filaments of' cotton, or impure from constant respiration, or from other causes. They are drudges who watch the movements and assist the operations of a mighty material force, which toils with du energy ever unconscious of fatigue.. The state, of the streets powerfully affects the health of their inhabitants; sporadic cases of typhus chiefly appear in those which are narrow, ill-ventilated, unpaved, or -which contain heaps, of refuse of stagnant poois.'The following passages, referring to the same subject, are takien from. asmall volume, on the Progyress of the Workingr-Class, the joint prodnction of Messrs. J. M1. Ludlow and Lloyd Jones: Let it be recollected that the evils of such a state of things pressed no less on the weak womDn, the helpless child, than on the man. "1From the whole of the evidence laid before us," say the, co missioners of 183&2, "1we find first, that the children employed in all the principal branchses of manufacture, throughout the kingdom, work during( the sameo number of hours as the adults." "1In some rare instances," they say elsewhere, "9chlidren begin to work in factories at -five yea rs old. It is not uncommon to find them there at six. Many are under seven, still more under eight; but the greatest number are under nine. Form sheer fatigue, the poor creatures would go supperless to bed, be uenable to take off their clothes at night, or to put them on in the, morning. Pains in the limbs, back, loins, and side," say the commissioners, "1are frequent. The frequency and severity of the pain uniformly bear a strict relation to the tender age of the child and the severity of the labor. Girls suiffer from. pain more comumonly than boys, and. THE ERA OF MACHINERY. 183 up to a more advanced ae. Again, "The effects of labor during such hours are in a great number of cases permanent deterioration of the physical constitution, the production of disease wholly irremovable, and the partial or entire exclusion (by reason of excessive fatigue) from the means of obtaining adequate education and acquiring useful habits, or of profiting by those means when afforded." The deformities produced," says Mr. Robert Baker, one of the inspectors of factories, who, from 28 to 1832, was, as a medical practitioner in Leeds, professionally engaged in the daily and nightly visitation of several factories, "consisted of in-knee, at-foot, and curvature of the spine. The first of these deformities was familiarly known in the manufacturing districts as the'factory leg.' There was scarcelya thorouhfare in any of the where they were not to be seen." Another gentleman whom he quotes, Mr. S. Smith, senior surgeon of the Leeds Infirmary, says: "In 1832 had frequent occasion to pass through a district at noon, when the hands were leaving work for dinner. A lare majority of them were pale, thin, emaciated, down-hearted looking creatures, swin no disposition to mirth and cheerfulness. At the proper age the hips were wide but sharp and angular, the shoulders pointed, the head not held up, but a considerable stoop." That an education worthy of the name was impossible for a population under such conditions, results avowed from the staterments of the commissioners of 1832. Factory-workers were in those early days, for the most part, grossly ignorant. Even the ine spinners, who were the best paid, were only distinguished from the rest by their extravagant riotousness. Inorant themselves, what wonder if they eared little to educate their children, saw in them too often only instruments for money-making-means of self-indulgence. Hideous instances might be quoted from the blue-books of the driving of mere infants to the mill by thei parents, simply that they might live in riotous idleness out of the fruit of their children's earnins. But the first great struggle of the factory-reformers was less for education than forits necessary condition-the relaxation of overtoil for the child-and hence the former subject appears only in a subordinate rank among the grievances detailed in the earlier reports. What, in fact, education must have been in 1832, appears thus best from such documents as the reports of the inspectors of factories from 1839 to 1843, when overwork was to some extent stopped, and the educational machinery of the factories acts was alreadyv in operation. Thus, in 1843, Mr. Leonard Hoer was able to report that in an area of eight miles by four, comprising the large borougrh of Oldham and that of Ashton., for a population of 105,000, there W,'as not, at the date of his then last quarterly report, one public day-school for the children of the humbler ranks. What were the amusements of the masses thus overworked, ill-fed, ill-housed, left for the most part unedncated? Large iiumbers of working-people attended fairs and wakes, at the latter of which jumping in sacks, climbing greased poles, grinningthroug~h horse-collars for tobacco, hunting, pigs with soaped tails, were the choicest diversions. An almost general unchastity-the proofs of which are as abundant as they would be painful to adduce-prevailed among the women employed in factories, anidgenerally throughout the lowest ranks of the working population. Bat drink was the main spring of enjoyment. When Saturday evening came, indulgences beggan, which continued till Sunday eveningr. Fiddles were to be heard on. all sides, and limplooking men and pale-faced women throngced the public houses, and reeled and jigged till they were turned, drunk, and riotous, in-to the streets at most unseasonable hours. On the Sunday morning the public houses were a~gain thronged, that the thirst following the indulgence of the night might be quenched. When church hour approached, however, the qhurch-wardens, with long staves tipped with silver, sallied forth, and, -when possible, seized all the drunken and unkempt upon whom they could lay their hands, and these, bein o carefully lodged ina a pew provided for themn, were left there to enjoy the sermon, while their captors usually adjourned to some tavern near at hand for the purpose of rewarding themselves with a glass or two for the important services they had rendered to morality and religion. In fiaet, sullen, silent work, alternated with noisy, (drunken riot, and Easter and Whitsuntide debuces, with an occasional outbreak during somen favorite "1wakes," roun~ded the whole life of the factory worker. The ordinary artisan of the workshop at the same perio,,l is describel as a far different mian, having, had more e(lacation in. childlhood], and More time for studly after commencing a tradle. Still, hie was apt to be intemperate, and in the highest-priced trades many m-en. only began their week on a Thuirsday. Nevertheless, there were imany good influences to be found in the workshop. "There were grave men,7 who employed their leisure hours in reading or study; entomolog-ist's, florists, 184 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. botanists, students in chemistry and astronomy men there were-poli. ticians, dabblers in theology-who, when work as not actively on foot, kept the conversation among their fellows from sinking into inanity or vice, or who discouraged such practical joking as was mischievous or painful. But these men were exceptional, and sometimes, notwithstanding their studies, they were as fond of a glass as their most graceless neighbors." * * "Moreover, as invention after invention brogt new trades into the factory system, as the war of competition raged fiercer and fiercer, the numbers of these outlying trades were becoming always fewer and weaker in the midst of the swelling mass of factory workers; and if the strenuous efforts of many of them tended to pull that mass up, its weight was, in turn, always tending to drag them down. But with the reform acts of 1832, and Lord Asle regard to factories in 1833, there commenced an era of imrovement. t would be interesting to trace the history of British legislatin in regard to labor and the laboring class, from tlo the present, but this would be too long a task. The following passage, however, from the work of Messrs Ludlow & Jones, already cited, wil serve, without specifying particular laws or the dates of their passage to give a good idea of the aggregate of legislative work in the interest of the class under consideration which was accomplished by the British Parliament between the years 1832 and 1867: The reform acts of 1832 found the factory workers, under twenty-one, in the cotton trade only protected from night-work between 8.30 p.. and 5.30 a..; those under eighteen restricted to twelve hours' labor, or nine on Saturdays; children under nine forbidden to be employed. Eighteen hundred and sixty-seven sees theworkers in all the leading branches of our textile industry, cotton, woolen, worsted, hemp, flax, tow, linen, silk, when worked under steam power, ejoyig the reduced hours of ten and half a day, with a Sat-urday half-holiday after 2 p. m. If children are allowed to work at eight years of age, provision is made for their education. Various other branches of industry, such as print-works, bleach and dye works, and lace factories, and processes connected with the protected manufactures, have been brought, with slight -variations of detail, into the system; and tinDally, though by a measure which has not yet had time to produce any effects on a large scale, a number of other mauunfactures and employments; whilst an efficient system Of inspection has been instituted to see the system carried out. The reform acts of 1832 found our mines and collieries worked, in great measure, by -omen and children-those degraded, those crushed by the labor. Eighteen hundred1 and sixty-seven sees female underground labor absolutely prohibited, as well as boy labor unless educated, in coal or connected iron-stone mines, under ten; otherwise, both in these and in all other mines, nuder twelve; whilst here also a system of inspection is at work, powerfully aided by the independent action of the workers themselves. To say nothing of chimney-sweeps and. bakers, the reform acts of 1832. found our sailors almost -without protection in purse, health, or safety. Eighteen hundred and sixty-seven finds a vast code in existence which endeavors to secure all three; and although palpably insufficient in miany respects, (especially through the exclusion of the, coastling trade fromi various of its pirovisions,) shows at least a va st advance in public consideration for the merchant seamen. The legislation in force in 183-2, allowed the workicing, classes no banking facilities except througrh the pawnbroker or the p~rivate savings-bank, no leg alized field of associative self-help but the friendly society; to which all federative expansion was denied. EigThteenlhundred and csixty-sevenifind-s the savin~s-banks sstem more efficient in itselfg yet largely supplemented. by thre post-office, savings-bank, which stakes the credit of the state on the safety of the poor man's deposit; finds the loan society, the benefit building society, theoindiustrial or provident society, recognlizedI and regulated bylaw, the large friendl.y societies with branches or harmless oaths or tests brought within it's pale, the trade society struggling for recognition, and last, not least, the association of the worker to profits allowed without the risks of partnership. In 18:32, sanitary science, as distinct from curative medicine, may be said to have been unknown, and the only protection to life against other than personally injurious action, to have lain in the common law of nuisance, and the building acts of the metropolis, and of a few large towns; 1867 sees abroad a very flood of sanitary legislation. lanevery plaecelarg-e enough toinaintain alocal board, the right topure air, pure THE ERA OF MACHINERY. 185 water, safe and wholesome dwellings, sweet and well-ordered streets, and public spaces, is, in fact, recognized by law. Many special facilities and provisions have been enacted for the construction of dwellings for the poor classes, and providing them with open spaces for recreation. In 1832 the right of the English citizen, as such, to education, was wholly ignored, By 1867, nearly ~700,000 a year is spent by the state in furthering the education of the classes able to contribute somewhat themselves for the purpose, who frequent our National British, and other assisted schools; whilst district schools for the pauper child, certified industrial schools for the vagrant and disorderly, reformatory schools for the criminal, tend alike to convert the useless or the burdensome into useful membersofsociety. The Mechanics' Institute of the earlier periodhasbeabletodevelop itself and to obtain some legal protection. Legal facilities have been given for the establishment of free libraries, museumns, and schools of art. The inventive powers of the working-class have been stimulated by the copyright of designs acts, by an amended patent-act, by the protection given to articles exhibited at industrial exhibitions. Eighteen hundred and thirty-two knew only a newspaper-press shackled in a hundred ways, operating under the constant terror of the common informer, weighed down by stamp-duties, advertisement-duties, and paper-duties. Eighteen hundred and sixtyseven sees that press absolutely free from all imports, the stamp only remaining as the price of an optional privilege. Notwithstanding the initiation of commercial reform by Huskisson, the reform acts of 1832 left the whole trade of the country and the industry of the workingman doubly fettered by a mischievous fiscal system whih enhanced at once the cost of consumption and of production, taxed safety, cleanliness, providence, ligt; whilst leaving the income of the rich untouched. Eighteen hundred and sixty-seven sees every necessary of life, every element of production, either free or subject to moderate duties; the window-tax gone, with the soap, brick, and timber duties; the duty on fire insurance greatly reduced; property and incomes directly c the state. In 1832, the post-offi~ce was a burden on communication; it is now the most beneficent civil institution in the country. In 1832 the association of capital, except by special privilege, did not, so to speak, exist. n 1867 almost every form of commercial association is practicable, under the joint-stock companies acts. Limited liability has enabled the working-class to contribute their small capital to the increase of the productive power of the country, and, by a late act, has practically been extended from the company to private establishments. In 1832 the stamp duties threw the ordinary legal transactions of the workingmian, the expenses of justice, the enforcement of his legal claims, practically out of the pale of the law. The reduction of the former on the one hand, the establishment (or rather revival) of the counlty court on the other, have, by 1867, brought both within it. The compensation for accidents act has created a new civil right of especial importance to his class. In 1832 the poor laws were pauperizing and degrading the -whole country. In 1867, although the right to live is more fully than ever recognized, the growth of pauperism has at least been stopped, if the evil plant remains far still from being uprooted. The above extract contains a general outline of British legislation in the interest of the working classes from 1832 to the beginning of 1867. The laws affebting -workingmen andi their relations to their employers, wxhich have been enacted since the latter date, may be noticed in some-what greater detail. That which first claims attention is the measure, known as the "1factory ales extension act of 1867, which bears date Augnst 15 of that year. This act extends the operation of the factory acts to several laige and important industries not previously included within their scope. It provides that, in addition to the establishments defined as factories in previous acts, tile meaning of that word shall be so extended as to include, blast -turnaces, copper- mills, iron-mills, founde'ries, aind also the following: 1. Any premises in which steam, water, or other mechanical power is used for moving machinery employeda. In the manufacture or machinery; b. In the manufacture of any article, of metal, not being machinery; c. In the manufacture of India rubber or gutta-percha, or of articles made wholly or in part of either of these substances; 2. Any premises in which is carried on the manufacture of glass, paper, o-r tobacco, book or letter-press printing; and, 186 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. 3. Any premises, whether adjoining or separate, in the same occupation, situate in the same city, town, parish, or place, and constituting one trade-establishment, i which fifty or more persons are employed in any manufacturing process. Under the provisions of this act no child, young person, or woman may be employed in or about any factory on Sunday, suect to modif cations as regards blast-furnaces. No boy under twelve years of age and no female may be employed in any part of a glass-factory in which the process of melting or annealing glass is carried on. No child nder eleven years of age may be employed ingridiginthemetaltrades. In the manufacture of glass no child, young person or woman may be allowed to take his or her meals in any part of the factory where the materials are mixed, or (in the manufacture of flint glass) where the work of grinding, cutting, or polishing is carried on. The owner of an establishment may be required to provide a an or other apparats to ventilate his building and free it from dust, the inhalation of which would be injurious to the work-people. He is also required to put in proper condition any grindstone worked by steam or other mechanical power, which is so faultily fixed as to be likely to cause bodily injury to the grinder using the same, and a failure to comply with this requirement subjects him to the same penalties incurred by a failure to properly fence machinery under the factory act of 1844. Her Majesty's principal secretaries of state are empowered to modify certain of the provisions of this act with regard to the necessities of particular trades. Another act of the same date (August 15, 1867) authorizes Her Majesty, or one of her principal secretaries of state, to grant licenses for councils of conciliation or arbitration for the adjustment of differences between masters and workmen, when petitioned so to do by a certain number of the masters and workmen in any particular trade in any borough or place. Such councils must consist of a chairman and not less than two -nor more than ten masters and workmen, to be elected by the masters and workmen respectively of the trade for which the council may be, constituted. Such councils are empowered to settle disputes which otherwise would involve, prosecutions and proceedings in. court or before the magistrates, but -not to fix rates of wages or hours of work. The "4agricultural gaingo's act" of August 20, 1867, was designed to remedy or mitigate certain well-known abuses connected with the hiring of women, young persons, and children, by contractors called "1gangmasters,"7 to be employed in agricultural work on lands not owned or occupied by the employer. It came iuto force on January 1, 1868, and applies to England only. Under its provisions no child under eight years of agre may be employed in an agricultural gang, females may not be employed in the same gang with males; -nor may any female be, employed under a male gangmaster, unless a female licensed to act as "1gang-master" is present with the gang. No person is allowed to act as a gang-master unless hie has obtained a license grantedl by two or more justices in divisional petty sessions on due proof that he is a person of good character and fit to be intrusted with the mhanagement of an agricultural gang. No license may be granted to any person Who is licensed to sell beer, spirits, or any other excisable liquor. The penalties undei this -act consist of fines and withdrawal of license,, and( all such penalties may be recovered summarily. The "1workshop regulation act" of August 21, 1867, came into opera THE ERA OF MACHINERY. 187 tion on January 1, 1868, and applies to the whole of the United Kingdom. It forbids the employment of any child under eight years old "in any handicraft" which word it defines as meaning " any manual labor, exercised by way of trade, or for purposes of gain, in or incidental to ~the making~f anyll article or part * * *the altering, repairing, oramentig, finishing, or otherwise adapting for sale, any article." It does not permit the employment of any child (person under thirteen years of age) in any handicraft more than six and a half hours in any one day, which hours must be between 6 a. m. and 8 p. m. No young person (person between thirteen and eighteen years of age) or woman (female of eighteen years or upward*) may be employed in any handiraftduring anyperiodof twenty-four hours more than twelvehours, out of which not less than one and a half hours must be allowed for meals, and the employment must take place between 5 a. m. and 9 p. m. No child young person, or woman may be employed in any handicraft on Sunday, or after 2 p.. on Saturday, except in establishments where not more than five persons are employed in making articles to be sold by retail on the premises, or in repairing articles of a like nature to those so sold. No child under eleven years of age may be employed in grinding in the metal trades or in fustian cutting. The willful infraction of the above provisions subljects an employer to a penalty not to exceed three pounds, and the parent or person deriving any direct benefit from the labor of the person employed to a penalty not to exceed twenty shillings. In every workshop where grinding or other process is carried on, whereby dust is generated a nhaled by the workmen to an injurious extent, the local authority or the inspector of factories may require the owner of the workshop to provide, within a reasonable time, a fan or such other mechanical appliance as may, from time to time, be approved by one of Her MaL-jesty's principal secretaries of state, for the purpose of mitigating the evil mentioned. The enforcement of the above provisions is intrusted mainly to the local authorities, it b~eing- left to the, option of the inspectors of factories whether or not to visit and inspect, any workshop. Every child employed in a workshop must attend a school, having a properly-qualified teacher, at least ten hours in each week that hie is so emloyed, and no time spent at school on Sundays orbefore S a. in., or -after 6 p. in., or in excess of three hours at any one time or of five hours in. any o-ne day, may be counted as a part of the ten hours demanided by the act. In. connection with the legislation of 1867, "the masters andi servants' act" of lthat ylea-r, requires niotice, as ones which hafs caused muntch dlissatsfietin iongworiagenwhiose principail objection to itis founded ou the fourteemith section ot the law, which makes breach of contract on- the part of" the worlumin- ai crhnin ii act, whereas on the lpart of the ewp'oycr it is oub,'mam offense aqg: inst civil law. in presen tin this mnatter to the consi4tiermation of the he'ne secretary in Novemiber, 1873, I~r. GeorgeV Ilow1 se re'r 0 Tr — Ides-Ummiomi Pariliamnentary Commnittee,) re4Lerred to the proisxisomn in qlnest.iou as follows: Thiis is quite an excec tion in the, Iaw of contract, and does not apply to contracts of any~~~~~~~~~~ ot e l~IjtOlVii e 1tiau eivle nayoher breach of con - tract, it is not dealt wxith cri nm iia but unuder this law, if a man connuits a breach of contraet, and1 the nm1aoistrate thinks there atre sonic a-ggravatin- circumstances conThe definitions of" child," -ytn esn"ad1 wom an," are- toe adopted in this particular act. 188 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. iected with it, this man is liable at any moment to be dragged off to prison as a common felon for absenting himself from work. * * The impossibility of applying the master and servants' act to breaches of contract committed by employers leads me to say, that, although this act was designed to be perfectly fair to both sides in its operation, it is not so, because it is impossible to prosecute employers. We admit that the act has had most beneficial results, and that the number of cases has diminished enormously since its enactment, for which we feel sincerely thakful; but we still think that the provision to which we object is not in accordance with the spirit of modern legislation, and that, if such a provision was ever necessary, it was only necessary when the people were less educated than they are now. If the law of contract be allowed to rest on its own basis, as a matter of equity between man and man, it may be trusted to accomplish all the purposes which justice requires. An act "to provide better dwellings for artisans and laborers which bears date July 31, 1868, was designed to make provision for taking down or improving dwellings occupied by workigmen and their families which are unfit for human habitation, and for the buildingand maintenance of better dwellings for such persons." It provides for the official inspection of such dwellings, and contains provisions to compel the owners of buildings so occupied to comply with its reqirements. The " wages attachment abolition act" of 1870 (July 14) provides that after its passage no order for the attachment of the wages of any servant, laborer, or workman shall be made by the judge of any court of record or inferior court. A similar act "to limit wages arrestment in Scotland is dated August 9, 1870. It provides that from and after January 1, 1871 the wages of all laborers, farm-servants, manufacturers, artificers, and work-people shall cease to be liable to arrestment for debts contracted subsequent to the passage of the act, unless sch wages exceed twenty shillings per week, when the surplus over that amount may be arrested, but if the costs of such arrestment exceed the amount recovered they are not to be lharged against the debtor. The "1factory and workshop act" of August 9, 1870, extends the definition of "1factory"1 as enacted in the act of August 15,7 1867, so as to make it include print-works, i. e., works in which figures, patterns, or design s are printed upon any woven or felted fabric, (not being paper,) and bleaching and dyeing works, or "1any premises, whether in the open air or not, in which the processes of bleaching, beetling, dyeing, calendering, finishing, hooking, lapping, and making up and packing any yarn or cloth of any material, or the dressing or finishing of lace, or any one or more of such processes, or any process incidental thereto,7 is carried on."7 To all such establishments the regulations of the act of August 15, 1867, in respect to factories as there defined, with certain modifications appended in a schedule, are extended. An act dated Mlay 25, 1871, exempts persons professing the Jewishi religion from. penalties incurred in respect of young pe~rsons and females professing the said religion working on Sundays, provided that the establishments in which such employment takes place are closed onl Saturday up to sunset. The trades-union acet of June 29, 1871, provides that the purposes of.any trades-union shall not, merely because they are in restraint of trade, be deemed to be unlawful, so as to render any member of such tradesunion liable to criminal prosecution for conspiracy or otherwise, or to render void or voidable any agreement or trust. But nothing in this act shall enable any court to entertain any legal proceeding instituted with the object of directly enforcing or recovering damages for the breach of any of the following agreements: 1. Any agreement between the members of such union as to the conditions on which -any members of such union shall or shall not sell their goo'ds, transact business, employ, or be employed; THE ERA OF MACHINERY. 189 2. Any agreement for the payment by any person of any subscription or penalty to ~of the funds of a trade-union-; 3. Any agreement for the application of the funds of a trade-uniona. To provide benefits to members, or or b. To furnish contributions to any employ6 or workman not a member of such trades-union, in consideration of such employ6 or workman acting in conformity with the rules or resolutions of such trades-union, or c. To discharge any fine imposed upon any person by sentence of a court of justice; or 4. Any agreement made between one trades-union and another; or 5. Any bond to secure the performance of any of the above agreements. But none of the above agreements are to be deemed unlawful. The act further makes provision for the registry of trades-unions, authorizes such unions to purchase or lease buildings and land, not to exceed one acre, (and for the purposes of this section makes every branch of a trades-union a distinct union;) vests the property of each lunion in its trustees, whom it makes responsible for moneys actually received on account of such union, and no further; prescribes the responsibility of the treasurer, and his punishment for withholding from the union money which he holds in trust for it; provides regulations for registry, and requires each union to place a copy of'its rules and of any alterations in or amendments to the same in the hands of the registrar; requires each union to submit to the registrar an annual statement of its accounts, including the several objects of expenditure and the amount for eachL applies the summary jurisdiction acts to all offenses committed under it but under certain prescribed regulations allows an appeal to quarter sessions; provides that no interested person shall act as a member of a court of appeal, and defines the term " trades-union" as meaning such combination, whether temporary or permanent, for regulating the relations between workmen and masters, or between workmen and workmen, or between masters and masters, or for imposing restrictive conditions on the conduct of any trade or business, as would, if this act had not been passed, have been deemed an unlawful combination by reason of some one or more of its purposes being in restraint of trade. The act in question also repeals the trades-unions' funds acts of 1869. Another act, bearing the same, date as the last, (June 29, 1871,) and known as "1the criminal law amendment act," has been, and still is, a source of much dissatisfaction and bitter complaint on the part of the working-classes of the United Kingdom. This act makes it an offense, punishable with imprisonment, with or without hard labor, for not exceeding three months, to do any one of the following acts: (1) To use violence to any person or any property. (2) To threaten or intimidate any person in such a manner as would justify a jus-. tice of the peace in binding over the person so threatening or intimidating to keep the peace. (3) To molest or obstruct any person in the manner defined by this section, with a view to coerce -such person(1) Being a master, to dismiss or cease to employ any workman; or, being a workman, to quit any employment, or to return work before it is finished; (2) Being a master, not to offer, or, being, a workman, not to acceptr. any employment or work; (3) Being a master or workman, to belong to any temporary or permanent association. or combination; (4) Being a master or workman, to pay any fine or penalty imposed by any temporary or permanent association or combination; (5) Being a master, to alter the mode of carrying on his business, or the number or description of any persons employed by him. For the purposes of this act a person is deemed to molest or obstruct another person in any of the following cases: (1) If he persistently follow such person about from place to place. (2) If he hide any tools, clothes, or other property owned or used by such person, or deprive him of, or hinder him in, the use thereof. 190 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. (3) If he watch or beset the house or other placewhere such person resides, or works, or carries on business, or happens to be, or the approach to such house or place; or if, with two or more persons, he follow such person in a disrderly manner in or through any street or road. It is provided that no one shall be punished for doing or conspiring to do any act merely on the ground that such act restrains or tends to restrain the free course of trade. Offenses' committed under this act are to be prosecuted under the summary-jurisdiction acts, appeals being allowed under certain defined conditions. In an interview with the home secretary, in ovember, 1873, Mr. Howell referred to the criminal law amendment act, as follows: We ask that the entire act may be repealed. It has caused heart-burnings on the part of theworkmen such as no other law has. We feel moreover that none of the prosecutions under that act can justify its continuance. Most of the have been unjust and the punishments have been much more severe than the act itself warranted. We feel that if it be necessary treally to provide some remedy against particular offenses, for instance, "rattening," this can be provided for in aotr act dealing with "malicious injury to property," and applying to the whole country; and violence to the person can alsobe provided agaistin another act dealing with offenses against the person." The criminal law amendment act being a special act directed against workingmen in unions, we feel that we have a right to ask the government to remove it. Even if it were just in its principlesitissointricateandinvolvedand has been so variously interpreted, that none of us are safe. An act dated August 16, 1871, and entitled The industrial and provident societies act amendment," is designed to facilitate the erection of houses, cottages, or other buildings on land held by such societies, and gives them certain new powers to build, sell, lease, mortgage, &c. The "factory and workshop act" of August 21,1871, takes the dutyof enforcing the workshop acts of 1867 to 1871 from the local authorities, and imposes it upon the inspectors and subinspectors of factories. It forbids the employment after January 1, 1872, of any female under sixteen years of age, or any child under ten years, in the manufacture of bricks and tiles, (other than ornamental tiles.) It requires that any accident causing loss of life to any one employed in a factory, and any accident produced by machinery, or by explosion, or escape of gas, or steam, or metal, if of such a nature as to prevent th e persson or persons injured by it from returning to their work in the factory within forty-eight hours after its occurrence, shall be made known to the proper authority. It provides that all offenses under the factory acts of 1833 to 1871, inclusive, may be prosecuted and the penalties therefor recovered summarily. In certain cases, where the nature of the business carried on in any class of factories or workshops is shown to depend on the weather or the season of the year, and where it is consequently necessary to employ young persons of fourteen years of age and upward and women at certain times of the year for a longer period than is allowed by the factory act's extension acts of 1.864 and 1-867, or the workshop-regulations act of 1867, one of Her Majesty's principal secretaries of state is authorized to make and publish certain defined exceptions to the provisions of the laws in question. The act of August 6, 1872, "1to make further provision for arbitration between masters and workmen," authorizes the, appointment, by mutual agreement between masters and workmen, of an arbitrator or of arbitrators, and of an umpire to'act in cases of disagreement between the arbitrators, for the settlement of disputes between masters and workmen. An agreement uinder this act is made mutually binding u~pon the master and the workman, upon the master or his agent giving a printed copy of the agreement to the work-man, and the workman accepting the THE ERA OF MACHINERY. 19 same; provided that the workman may give notice to the master within forty-eight hours after receiving a copy of the agreement, that he will not be bound by it; in which case the agreement, as between such master and such workman, is to be of no effect. An agreement entered into between a master and a workman is to be binding upon each of them during the continuance of the contract or service in view of which it was made, and so long thereafter as they mutually consent to employ and serve without having rescinded it, or until the expiration of any notice (not to exceed six d-ays) of an intention to cease employing or serving, where such notice has been made a art of the agreement. The agreement may provide that the parties to it shall, during its continuance, be bound by any rules therein contained, or to be made by the arbitrators, arbitrator, or umpire, as to the rate of wages to be paid, e hours or quantities of work to be performed, or the conditions or regulations under which work is to be done, and may specify penalties to be enforced by the arbitrators, arbitrator, or umpire, for the breach of any such rule. The agreement may also provide for referring to the arbitrator, arbitrators, or umpire certain disputes arising out of infractions of law, and tpon his or their hearing and determining the same, no other proceeding can be taken before any other court or person for the same matter; but, if the disagreement or dispute is not so heard and determined within twenty-one days-from the time when it arose, the jurisdiction of the arbitrators, arbitrator, or umpire ceasesf unless the parties have consented in writing, since the disagreement or dispute arose, that it shall be exclusively determined by the arbitrators, &c. Further provisions of the act relate to the lprocedulre of the arbitrators, the taking of evidence, and the power to compel the attendance of witnesses, &c.The "coal-mines regulation act" of August 10, 1872, applies to mines of stratified iron-stone, mines of shale, and mines of fire-clay, as well as to coal-mines. It prohibits the employment of any boy under ten years of age, or any woman or girl of any age, underground in such mines. It permits the employment of boys between ten and twelve years of age, when specially allowed by one of Her Majesty's secretaries of state in view of a necessity due, to the thinness of the seams, but not for more than six days in a week, and not for more than six hours in a, day, if employed more than three days per week; and in any case not more than ten hours in a day. A boy of twelve years of age, or a "Imale young person"~ under the age of sixteen, may not be employed below ground, in any mine to which the act applies, for more than fifty-four hours in any one week, or more than ten hours in any one day. Every boy of from ten to twelve, years of age, allowed to be employed in mines as mentioned above, is required to attend school for at least twenty hours in every two weeks. Elaborate and stringent provisions are enacted to prevent the violation of this section or any evasion of either the letter or the spirit of the requirement. Thus the school-attendance, must not be in the evening, or on Sunday, nor must it exceed three hours at any one time, or five hours in any one day, or twelve in any one week; that is, any time in excess of lthese periods will not be counted as a part of the twenty hours every two weeks required by the laws. The forging or counterfeiting of a certificate of school-attendance, or the use of a forged or counterfeit certificate, is made punishable with three months' imprisonmient, with or without hard labor, and the neglect of 192 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. a parent to send his boy to school incurs a penalty not to exceed twenty shillings for each offense. There are other provisions intended to prevent the sending of a boy to an incompetent teacher, one of which is that the government inspector of mines for the district in which the boy is employed may declare a teacher disqualified to issue certificates, subject, however, to an appeal on the part of the teacher to the education department. With respect to the employment of women, young persons, and children above ground in connection with such mines, it is provided that (1) no child under ten years of age shall be so employed and every child so employed is subject to the regulations (as to hours of labor and school-attendance) mentioned above as applying to boys of from ten to twelve years of age. The regulations with respect to male young persons" under sixteen years of age are applied to every woman and child employed above ground at the mines, and no woman, young person, or child may be so employed between the hours of 9 at night and 5 the following morning, or on Sunday, or after 2 p. on Saturday. The intervals for meals allowed to such persons must not be less than half an hour to each period of employment exceeding five hours, or less than one and one-half hours to every period of employment exceeding eight hours. As a safeguard against accident, it is provided that the person in charge of any engine or apparatus used in going into or coming out of the mine shall be a male of at least eighteen yars of age. Wages must not in any case be paid to persons employed in or about a mine at any public house or other place where spirituous or fermented liquors are kept for sale. The act requires that in communication with every seam, with certain defined exceptions, in which persons are employed in mining, there shall be at least two shafts or outlets, separated by natural strata of not less than ten feet in breadth, communicating with each other by a passage at least four feet wide, and three, feet high, and each provided with proper apparatus for raising or lowering the persons employed in the mine. Every mine, comning under the provisions of this act, with certain specified exceptions, is required to be under the control and daily supervision of a properly qualified manager, (who may be the owner or agent of such mine, but must not be a contracter for getting the mineral in such mine, or a person in the employ of such contractor,) and such manager, though nominated by the owner or agent, must also be provided with a certificate of competency granted by a board of official examiners, and must be registered as having such certificate. A certificate of service, however, showing the requisite past experience in the management of a mine or mines is allowed as an equivalent for a certificate of competency granted under this act. A certificate of either class may be canceled if its holder, upon a proper inquiry, be convicted of incompetence or gross negligence. 1 Provision is made for the appointment of inspectors of mines, who must be free from certain specified disqualifications calculated to interfere with their disinterestedness, and who shall have the right to enter and inspect any mine to which the act applies, and to see, that the act is complied with; and they must also notify the owner, agent, or manager of the mine of any cause of danger not provided against in the rules, but which they may discover in the course of their inspections. Where the owner, agent, or manager of a mine, is unwilling to comply with the requirements of the inspector in regard to a matter'not pre THE ERA OF MACHINERY. 193 scribed in the act, the case.is to be referred to two arbitrators, one to be selected by the inspector and the other by the owner, agent, or manager of the mine, and neither of them to be interested in the mine to which the arbitration relates. To settle any points of difiference that may arise between them, the arbitrators are to select an umpire, whose decision on matters referred to him is to be final, as also is that of the arbitrators on the general case. Every arbitrator must either be a practical mining engineer or a person accustomed to the working of mines. The act embodies a series of rules in relation to ventilation, the fencing of places (shafts, &c.) not in use, the withdrawal of workmen from the mine in case of danger, the use of safety-lamps and other lights, the employment of gunpowder in blasting, the securing of the shafts, roofs, and sides of a mine, the daily inspection of mines, and various other points touching upon the safety of the persons employed therein. Willful neglect of precautions necessary to safety incurs the penalty of imprisonment. A large part of the act consists of careful provisions, intended to secure its own enforcement and to prevent evasion of its, requirements. The metalliferous mines regulation act," bearing the same date as the, above, applies to all mines excluded from the operation of that law.. Under the provisions of this act no boy under twelve years of age, and.:. no girl or woman of any age, may be employed in any mine below ground. No boy of twelve years of age and under thirteen years, and no young person of from thiteen to sixteen years of age may be employed in a mine below ground for more than fifty-four hours in any one week, or more than ten hours in any one day. An interval of not less than eight hours must be allowed for rest between the period of employment on Friday and the period of employment on th following Saturday, and in other cases the interval between periods of employment must not be. less than twelve hours, except in the case of boys and young male persons whose employment is at such a distance from their ordinary place of residence that they do not return there during the intervals of labor, and who are -not employed more than forty hours in any week. In such cases an interval of eight hours must be allowed between each period of employment. The period of each employment is deemed to begin at the time of leaving the snrface and to end at the time of returning tothe surface. The regulations in regard. to the payment of wages and precautions'against accidents have a general similarity to those provided in the "1coal-mines regulation act." The -last important act of the series known as "1the factory acts" is that of July 30,1874, entitled "An act to make better provision for improving the health of women, young persons, and children employed in manufiactures, and the education of such children, and otherwise to amend the factory acts."7 This act, which came into operation on the 1st of January, 1875, provides that in every factory to which it applies, the period during which children, young persons, or women may be employed shall be either the period between 6 a. mn. and 6 p. m. or the period between 7 a. m. and 7 p. m. WVhere the period between 6 a. mn. and 6 p. m. is adopted, a child, yon-ng person, or woman shall not be employed except between those hours, and shall not be employed continuously for more than four and a half hours without an interval of at least half an hour for a meal. Between1 the hours of 6 a. mn. and 6 p. in. on every day except Saturday, two hours shall be allowed -for meals, of which. time at least one hour s,,hall be before 3 p. nm. On Saturday, a child, young p~erson,7 or woman 13 L 194 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. shall not be employed in any manufactringprocess after 1 p.., or for any purpose whatever after 1, p. m.; and if, on that day, the time allowed for meals be less than one hour, the time for quitting work shall be half an hour earlier than the hours just named. The provisions in regard to factories in which the period of employment is from 7 a. m. to 7 p. m. are similar to those above, with such changes of time as are necessary in consequence of the difference in the hours for commencing and quitting work. In factories to which this act applies, the children may be employed either in morning and afternoon sets, or, on alternate days, for the whole day. When the former plan is adopted, a child who, on any day except Saturday, is employed in the forenoon, sa not be eployed after dinner on the same day; nor shall any child be employed on Sat urday for two successive weeks, or in any week in which, on any other day, he has been employed more than five hours. Children so employed in factories must attend school, as directed by section 38 of the factory act of 1844. When children are employed on alternate days, they may be employed during the same hours and with the same hours for meals as young persons and women, but must not be employed on two successive days, and must attend school as provided in section 31 of the factory act of 1844. After Janfiary 1, 1876, in the case of factories to which this act applies, a person of the age of thirteen years and under fourteen years shall be deemed to be a child and not a "young person, unless he has obtained from the proper authorities a certificate of having attained such standard of efficiency in reading, writing, and arithmetic as may from time to time lbe prescribed. During the year 1875 a child may not be employed in a factory.if he is under the age of nine years, and after the, expiration of that year he may not be. employed if he is under ten years of age. The three last provisions do not apply to persons who may be lawfully employed in factories before the time when they go iuto effect. The enactment of the factory act of 185-0, or any previous act, which authorized the employment of any child in the silk. manufacture during longer hours than those authorized in the case of a child in any other factory to which this act applies, with certain exceptions during the first two years of its operation, are repealed. Various provisions of a minor character, as well ais those details which are intended to secuLre the enforcement of the act and to guard against the evasion of its requirements, are omitted. Another act of the same date as the last, entitled the, "1hosiery manufacture and wages act," was directed against a custom which had prevailed among employers in the hosiery manufacture of letting out knitting-frames and machinery to the artificers employed by them and the deducting of rents for these frames from. the wages of such artificers. The act provides, among other things, that all wages in the hosiery manufacture shall be made payable in net amounts, without any stoppages or deductions whatever, except for bad and disputed workmanship. Another measure adopted during the same session df Parliament was the ",workingmen's dwellings act" of August 7, 1874, which is intended to enable municipal corporations to grant or lease land belonging to them to lparties binding themselves to erect the-reon dwellings of the class to which the act applies. This act relates only to England and Wales. Among the measures for which the British workingmuen are now ask TRADES-UNIONS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 195 ing, in addition to the repeal or modification of the two obnoxious laws above named, may be mentioned the amendment of the trades-union and conspiracy acts; the reconstruction of the small-penalties act on the principle that imprisonment should only be used as a means of enforcing payment after aother means have failed; the modification of the law in relation to summary jurisdiction and the qualification of magistrates and jurors respectively, including a reduction in the qualifications of the latter and payment for jury service; an alteration in the law so that workmen or their families may be able to sue employers in event of injury or death from accidents due to negligence; a further extension of the factory and workshop acts, an act to prevent etruck, and an act for th'protection of seamen's lives by preventing the sending of ill-found and unseaworthy vessels to sea. TIADES-UNONS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. The legislation of Great Britain for the regulation of factories, mines, and workshops, so far at least as it authorizes or forbids the employment of any person or prescribes the hours during which any person fshall labor, has been cofined, as has been seen in the foregoing sumary, tothe protection of "children, young persons, and women." The theory of the legislature has been that adult men were capable of making their own terms with their employers, and that there was, consequently, no occasion for the law to interfere with their agreements, further than to enforce such contracts as workman and employer might voluntarily enter into. Entering, upon these conditions, into the contest with capital, the workmen, in steadily increasing numbers, have sought to gain additional strength by combinations formed among the members of particular trades, and sometimes even by mutual support and assistance among the members of different trades. Such combinations, have sometimes been temporary, having been formed for the accomplishment of special purposes, after the attainment of which, or the-failure to~ attain them, they have ceased to exist as associations. But the most common form of combination in recent -times, for trade purposes, has been the organization of those permanent societies generally known as trades-unions. Combinations for trade, purposes have, indeed, existed in Great Britain and elsewhere in Europe for many centuries; such, for example, a's the medieval guilds and trades-companies. Thiese, however, differed very widely frotn the modern trades-unions, the medieval trades-companies consisting both of employers and workmen, while the guilds were originally formned for the protection of life and property in an age when the state was less successful than at present in the performance of that duty. One of their purposes undoubtedly was to strengthen the urban populations at a time when feudal nobles were accustomed to levy tolls npon commerce and exact heavy contributions from the cities and towns. In the times of the Plantagenets the two great mercantile guilds of London and Bordeaux were co-exteinsive witli'their municipal corporations, and were sufficiently powerful to show considerable spirit and independence, even in their dealings with royalty itself. As the guilds increased in power, they became, exclusive9 and in some, cases various classes of workmen were, debarred from membership. One regulation required that a workingman should "4purge himself by abstinence from work for at least a year and a day 71 before he could enter the sacred chamber of the guild. This sometimes led to the formation of separate, associations of tradesmen in one town, which, however, was in some, cases followed by a re-union into one guild, such as took place in 128-1 at Berwick-on-Tweed. 196 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The medieval trades-companies were composed of small capitalists and workmen, but they had some regulations similar to those of the modern trades-unions. They fixed the relative number of apprentices and journeymen to be employed by a master, and had rules against working with men who had not regularly learned their trade, as well as against systematic over-time. In some instances they appear to have taken away the tools of members who failed to pay their dues, as a means, perhaps, of coercing them intopayment rather than as a punishment. Disputes between masters and workmen were settled by the president of the company and its court of assistants. It was one of their rules that any man entering a town and seeking employment in a particular trade, must join the company representing that trade and pay his dues to its funds as a condition of being permitted to work. The fees at first were small, but were raised as the companies increased in power, until admission became very difficult and the companies themselves became oppressive monopolies. The charge for apprentice ship was also raised to a very exorbitant figure. In the twelve great companies of London, (the mercers, grocers, fishmongers, goldsmiths, skinners, merchant-tailors, haberdashers, salters, ironmongers, vintners and cloth-workers,) the fee for apprenticeship was successively raised from 10 to 40 and ultimately to 100 pounds, whereas in the early times it was only half a crown. Illegitimate children, ad even the sons of peasants, were refused admission as apprentices. As early as the reign of Edward II, no person c6uld be made a freeman of the city of London unless he belonged to one of the trades companies, and in the following reign the court of common council was chosen from the trades and not from the wards of the city, while the Lord Mayor was required to be a member of one of the twelve great companies. To these was transferred the power, which the old guild had formerly possessed., of making or changing trade regulations, and their privileges were confirmed by Edward III, who was himself a member of the company of cloth-workers. In the sixteenth century the members of the trades-companies were divided into three classes: The livery, which included the richer members, the masters, and the free workmen. Their form of government had, by this time, become more aristocratic, the officers being appointed by a committee or court of assistants, instead of being elected in a general assembly of the, members. In short, the trades-companies ceased to be friendly associations between capitalists and workmen, and in the end were controlled by men of considerable wealth, even if they were not composed entirely of that class. By their exorbitant fees for apprenticeship, and their arbitrary restrictions they rendered it difficult, if not impossible for a poor man's son to learn a trade, while by preventing competition they taxed the public in general for their own benefit. In English history there are records of a number of coalitions among,workingmen for particular purposes, and in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries there Were in Germany associations of journeymen formed, apparently for mutual assistance dnring those years, of travel (wanderjiihre) which the regulations of the trades-companies required of the young workman on the completion of his apprenticeship; but it was not until the latter part of the eighteenth century that those permanent organizations, now so well known under the name of tradesunions, began to make their appearance. These organizations are, indeed,. one of the natural'outgrowths of that great revolution in industry which has already been dwelt upon at some length. In an industrial system which was carried on by means of great accumulations of capital on the one hand, and great numbers of la-borers without capital on TRADES-UNIONS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 197 the other, and which at the same time collected these laborers into large groups and brought them into constant association with each other it was almost inevitable that such organizations should spring into existence. To the circumstances just mentioned must be added another which strongly contributed to the progress of association among working people. The new industrial methods had gathered them in vast numbers into the towns where manufactures were established, and where, being unable to cultivate a garden or to keep a cow, a pig, or a few chickens or geese, they were wholly dependent upon employment in their own particular industry; and when, through a collapse of trade, this industry failed to furnish them with work, they were liable to be reduced to a condition of pitiable helplessness and of deep distress. Accordingly many societies were organized for the purpose of mutual assistance and relief, and it was in such friendly purposes that many of the trades-unions had their origin. Indeed, mutual relief in sickness, accident or lack of work. still forms an important feature among the objects to which a majority of the trades-unions are devoted. Up to 1824, when the coalition act of 1800 was repealed, these associations were illegal, and such as existed were obliged to conduct their proceedings in secrecy. Since that time they have grown very rapidly, although even as late as 1871 the law prohibited them from taking any action calculated to interfere with the free course of trade-such, for instance as interfering between their members and the employers in regard to rates of wages or hours of labor. ~or. The following list comprises the names of the associations represented in the National Trades-Union Congress held at Liverpool in the latter part of January, (January 18 to 23, inclusive,) 1875, with the number of members in each: Alliance Cabinet-Makers' Association —.................... 1,900 Altrincham. Trades Council —........................ 450 Amalgamated Beamers, Twisters, Drawers' Society, Blackburn -- 900 Amalgamated Tailors —..........................14, 000 Amalgamated Boot and Shoe Makers —5,511 Amalgamated Wood-Turners, Sawyers, and Shiqttle-Makers ---------- - 1,100. Amalgamated Society of Engineers-..44, 000 Amalgamated Council of Woolen Operatives, Yorkshire -..4310 Amalgamated Association of Cotton-Spinners-................14, 200 Amalgamated Association of Miners-.....................45, 000 Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants-.................20, 000 Amalgamated Iron and Steel Workers-20, 000 Amalgamated Operatv Baes iepo itit400 Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and Joiners-................. 13, 090 Amalgamated Trades Council of Bury-..1,250 Birmingham Trades Council-........................ 9, 000 Blackburn Card-Room Operatives' Association-................ 1,200 Bolton Trades Council-2, 000 l3oiler-Makers and Iron-Shipbuilders-....................15, 000 Brick and Tile Makers, North Stafford-.................... 150 British Pl ate-Spoon and Fork-Filers' Society-.100 Bury Trades Council-1,250 Chester Trades Council-..500 Crewe Trades Council-............................ 1,000 Dressers, Dyers, and Finishers-1, 764 Dundee United Trades Council- 8,000 Durham. Colliery Mechanics- 2,300 Durham County Colliery Engineers' Association-1, 573 East Lancashire Power-Looni Weavers' Amalgamated Association -......16,000 East London Operative Society of French Polishers-.............. 200 Edge-Tool and Wool-Shear Grinders' Scey250 Edinburgrh United Trades Council-10,000 Executive Council Millers' Association-................... 400 Federal Union of Agrricultural Laborers-..................30,000 Filesmithfs' Union of Sheffield.-....................... 3, 000 198 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Fire-Iron Workers, Birmingham and District..250 Friendly Society of Operative Cabinet-Makers, &c., of Great Britain1,950 General Alliance of Operative House Painters5,000 General Union of Carpenters andi Joiners.... 701 General Union of Basket, Skip, and Ham-per Makers-700 Geueral Union of Tin-Plate Workers.....1,50 Glass-Bottle Makers, Yorkshire..............000 Glasgow United Trades Council 140, 000 Gravesend and Vicinity Trades Council 200 fIollow-ware Pressers, Potteries..............00 Iron-Founders' Society of England, Ireland, and Wales.12,075 Kent Agricultural and General Laborers' Unio.9,500 Leeds and District Trades Council 4....000 Leicester Section of National Amalgamated Union of Operative Riveters and Finishers.................................. 200 Leicester Trades Council......................... 3,170 Lincoln Trades Council.-....... 500 Liverpool Brick-Makers' Society.............40... Liverpool Operative Ship-Painters' Benefit Association800 Liverpool No. 2 Branch Operative House-Painters. 300 Liverpool and Vicinity United Trades Council.5,760 Liverpool Sail-Makers' Association............40 Liverpool Amalgamated Boot-Makers' Center Men's Men180 Liverpool United Shipping Trades Council.2,610 Liverpool Coopers' Friendly Trade and Burial Society-400 Liverpool Shop Assistants' Union............620 Liverpool Rope-Makers.......................1 Liverpool Mast and Block Makers.......152 Liverpool Tin-Plate Workers' Society -..210 London Amalgamated Society of Tin-Plate Workers500 London Consolidated Bookbinders.....30 London Trades Council......................13,734 Manchester and Salford Trades Council.......10000 Mersey Ship-Joiners' Association.........500 MIersey Shipwrights' Association.......-1, 020......... Mliners' National Association-........................140 000 National Agricultural. Laborers' Union-....................60,000 -National Amalgamated Union of Operative Boot and Shoe Riveters, and Finishers-.................................. 4,000 National Association of Nut and Bolt Makers-................ 2,000 N ational Associ ation of O perat ive Pl asterers -3, 300 National Flint-Glass Makers of Great Britain and Ireland-.......... 2, 000 Nationa1 Union of Working, Women --------------------- 300 National. United Association of Rope and Twine Spinners of Great Britain and. Ireland-............................... 1,600 Nottingham and Neighborhood Association of Organized Trades —------ 3,000 Notl inghiam Amalgamated Society of Lace-Makers-...... 2,500 N orth Stafford Eng(ineers' Association-500 Oldharu Amalgamated Trades Council...................... 3,500 Oidham Operative Cotton-Spinners' Provincial Association-.......... 2,902 Operative Bricklayers' Society..3,750 Operat ive Bricklayers, Sheffield, Manchester Order -------------- 6,2 0 0 Operative Stone-Masons' Society 24, 000 Provincial Typographical Association-................... 3,800 Rlazor-Blade Grinders, Sheffield-...................... 200 Rotary Power F ramework Knitters....................... 650 Scissors-Grinders, Sheffield - -200 Seamens' Protective Society, Liverpool —2,800 Sheffield File-Grinders. - — ~~~~~~300 Sheffield Trades Council —.......................... 4,000 Sheffield United Steel-Melters' Association.. -— 600 South Yorkshire Colliery Operatives' Associationi —.3, 200 Stalyhridge Trades Council —1,200 Steami-Engine Makers' Society-.... 3,850 Stockport Po-wer-Loom Weavers..-2, 500 United Kingdom Society of Coach-Makers..................... 7,040 U~hited. Kingdom General Post-Office and Telegraph-Service Benefit Society - United Journeymen Brass-Founders' Association of Great Britain and Ireland. 1, 750 U-nited Operative Masons' Association of Scotland-.............10, 652 IValsall and District Trades Council-800................... o TRADES-UNIONS IN THE UNITED KINGDOm. 199~ Warrington Filesmiths' Union................. 390 West End London Cabinet-Makers............. 400 West Surrey District of the Federal Union of Agricultural Laborers......... Wolverhampton Trades Council-............................................ 1,300 It will be seen that this gives a total of 919,842 members, from which some deductions must be made for duplicate representation.* After making these allowances it will be quite safe to say that the aggregate membership of the trades-unions represented in the congress t did not fall short of 800,000. AMALGAMATED SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS. The growth of trades-unionism will, however, be best illustrated and its present position most clearly indicated by presenting statistics of a few of the larger associations. One of the most important and compactly organized of these bodies, though not now the largest in point of numbers, is the "Amalgamated Society of Engineers, Machinists, Millwrights, Smiths, and Pattern-makers," more commonly known, however, as the "Amalgamated Engineers." This great association, numbering at the close of 1874 about 45,000 members, grew out of a "' friendly union of mechanics," which was formed in Manchester about the year 1826, or within a short time after the repeal of the coalition act. In its present form, however, it has existed only twenty-four years, or since 1851. Its growth during that period is exhibited by the following table, showing the number of its members, the amount of its accumulated fund, and the average amount per member, at the close of each year, from 1851 to 1873, inclusive: TABLE I. Number of Balance on hand at Amount to members. close of year. each member. ~ S. d. ~ s. d. 1851............................... 11,829 21,705 4 ill 1 16 8 t 1852, (June)....................... 11,617 1,721 2 11 -------------- 1852, (December)................... 9,737 5,382 1 31 11 0{ 1853 - 10, 757 17,812 16 7 1 13 11 1854............................... 11,617 20,202 11 9 1 14 91 1855............................... 12,553 3.~,695 1 11 2 16 101 1856............................... 13,405 43,207 18 31 3 4 51 1857............................... 14,299 47,947 4 101 3 7 01 1$8............................... 15,194 30,353 12 11 1 19 10{ 1859............................... 17,790 36,831 19 8 2 1 41 1860 —. 20,935 60,198 1 6 2 17 6 1861.-..... 22,862 73,398 1 01 3 4 2 1862............................... 24,234 67,615 16 6 2 15 91 1863..............- 26, 058 67,410 3 8 2 11 81 1864.. 28,815 86,947 15 0 3 0 41 1865............................... 30,984 115,357 13 10i 3 14 5-.4 1866.............................. 33,007 138,113 8 3 4 3 81 1867 33,325 125,263 2 7 3 15 2 1868............................... 33,474 98,699 2 11. 2 18 111 1869 -33,539 76,176 7 10 2 5 11 1870....... 34,711 82,467 6 111 2 7 61 1871. 37,790 116,3-26 6 71 3 1 61 1872................................ 41,075 158,313 15 101 3 17 1 18739 42,382 200,923 1 61 4 14 91 1874...44,000.................................. * Some of the city "trades councils" above mentioned comprise branches of tradeorganizations separately represented. f Some of these unions have branches in the colonies and in foreign countries. t 1852 was the year of the great lock-out. The effect of the panic of 1866 and the industrial prostration of the succeeding years is visible in a falling off in the society's funds. 200 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The following table shows the amounts expended for beneficial purposes by the Amalgamated Society of Engineers during the twentythree years from 1851 to 1873, inclusive, with the amount expended for each purpose, and the average amount of expenditure per member: TABLE II. Class of benefit. Amount expended. Average per member. ~ 8. d. ~ s. d. Donations to members *........................... 561,827 0 0 24 11 8H Relief in sickness......-...............-. 252,441 0 0 9 18 91 Superannuation.................................. 89,856 0 0 2 19 11+ Accidents....................... 22,800 0 0 18 8j Funerals............................. 80, 687 0 0 3 3 7J 1,007,611 0 0 41 12 9 Benevolent grants, (nineteen years)............... 20,553 0 0 13 8J Assistance to other trades, (twenty years)........... 11,830 0 0 11 7 Total...................................... 1,039,994 0 0 42 18 0j * By donations" is meant the stated pecuniary assistance rendered to members when out of work. The following table shows the expenditures of the same association for the year 1873, with the different objects of expenditure and the average amount per member: TABLE III. Objects of expenditure. Aggregate Amount per member. ~ 8. d. ~ s. d. Donations, fares to situations, and beds to non-free 13,645 11 5~ 6 5j members. Contingent benefit............................. 1,916 18 0 101 Sick benefits, stewards and medical certificates... 18,022 5 9 8 6 Superannuation benefit.-.......................... 9,477 18 11 4 5} Accidents, &c., per twenty-third rule*....-.. 1,800 0 0 10+ Funerals....-...................... —-.. —. 6,567 10 2 3 1~ Grants from benevolent fund...-.......... 1,436 16 8 8A Printing, stationery, emblems, postage, and parcels. 3,950 0 8$,- 1 10I Branch-officers, executive council, secretaries, treas- 6,276 12 11 2 11I urers, auditors, banking expenses, delegations, and bonds of security. Rents, rates, coal, and gas................... 1,343 16 2. 71 Purchasing new property, including club-boxes, 118 13 2J 0 locks for ditto, &c. Telegrams, bad coin, &c. —--—. 567 6 9~ 3Grants to other trades.......................-.... 694 0.0 4 Grants to London trades council, trades parliamen- 58 6 8 tary committee, gas-stokers' defense fund. 65,875 17 - 65, 875 17 5~ 1 11 1 Unacknowledged remittances...................... 1,324 0 0....... 67,199 17 5......... * The twenty-third rule relates to assistance to members in emigration, and will be noticed hereafter. TRADES-UNIONS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 201 At the end of 1873 this society had 358 branches, of which 259 were in England and Wales, 39 in Scotland, 11 in Ireland, 7 in Australia, 1 each in Nw Zealand, Queensland, and the East Indies, 5 in Canada, 1 in Malta, 2 in Turkey, 1 in France, and 30 in the United States. The average number of members to each branch at the date mentioned was a fraction over 118; the largest branch (located at Crewe, in Cheshire,) having 58, and the smallest only 6. Under the revised rules of the association, adopted May 25, 1874, a branch cannot be organized with less than twelve members, and the local councils have the power to discontinue all existing branches having not more than ten members. The American branches (i. e., those in the United States) comprise an aggregate membership of 1,405, or an average of 47, less a small fraction, to each branch. They are located at the following places: Allegheny City, Altoona, Atlanta, Bloomington, (Ill.,) Boston, Brooklyn, Buffalo, Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Dunkirk, Elizabethport, (N. J.,) Fall River, (Mass.,) Louisville, Nashville, Newark and New Brunswick, (N. J.7) New York City, (two branches,) Omaha, Paterson, (N. J.,) Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Port Huro, (Mich.,) Providence, Rochester, San Francisco, Schenectady, Saint Louis, and a town in New Jerqey, the name of which is omitted. The income of the society during the year 1873 from the regular payents of members and other sources (including ~3,851 14s. Gd. as interest on money deposited in bank) was ~109,809 3s. 2d. Its expenditures fr the year, as already shown, were ~67,199 17s. 5~d., leaving ~42,609 5s. 8td. to add to the surplus fund, which was thus swelled to the figure already given, namely, 200923 s. 63d., or an average of ~4 14s. 9ild. (about $26 in United States paper currency) per member. An applicant for admissio into this society must not be under 21, (with a few specified exceptions,) or over 40 years of age. He must have worked -five years at his trade, and must be earning the ordinary rate of wages in the district in which he is employed. lHe must also be a personi of "steady habits and good moral character," and must be free from certain specified physical disabilities, such as being deaf or dumb, having lost a limb, or two entire fingers off one hand, being ruptured, subject to fits, or obliged to use glasses at his work in consequence of imperfect vision. A member who wittingly proposes an ineligible candidate for membership is liable to a fine of ~1t. The fee for admission to membership varies according to the age of the member, rtisfing gradually from 15s., the fee at 25' years of age, to ~,3, the fee at 40 years of age. The regular contribution is is. per week from each member; but when the accumulated fund falls below ~3 per member, the contributioas is increased by such sum as will sustain the fund at the amount named. Every "free member" in good standing, who is out of work under circumstances satisthctory to the branch to which he belongs, receives a donation of l0s. per week for fourteen weeks, 7s. per week for the next thirty weeks, and a further sum of 6s. per week until employment is obtained, making a total of ~19 i8s. in any period of fifty-two weeks, provided the member should be out of employment so long. A member receiVingC "short donation " of either 7s. or Os. per week cannot again draw "full doain7 without having worked four successive weeks at the trade, and at the ordinary wages of the shop in which he is em-., ployed; nor can' any member receive the "full doain1 for more than fourteen weeks in any period of fifty-two weeks. A member losing his employment through drunkenness or disorderly conduct is not entitled to donation until he, has been again employed eight weeks at his own branch of the trade, and at full wages. 202 LABOR IN EUROPE AD AMERICA. A "free member" on donation may obtain a traveling card from the secretary of his own branch of the society, and on omplying with certain prescribed regulations, may receive his donation from the secretaries of branches situated in the different towns or cities to which he may go in search of work. A "non-free member, who has paid the whole of his entrance money, and is not more than Os. in arrears, is allowed 8d. fora bed in each town or cityto which he may travel; and where there are three or more branches, he may be furnished with a bed for three nights. The secretary of a branch in any town to which the traveler goes must direct him to any place where he thinks it likely he may find employment; and the officers of a branch have discretionary power to detain a member a few days, if they see a prospect of obtaining employment for him. A member, being a pattern-maker, a millwright, or a machinejoier, registered for " tool-benefit" and losing tools by fire, upon satisfactory proof of his loss, receives compensation therefor, though not to exceed ~10. The amount is raised by an equal levy o the registered members of the above-mentioned departments of the trade. Any free member,, when visited by mental disease, bodily sickness, or lameness, (not occasioned by drunkenness or disorderly conduct, or any disease improperly contracted,) receives s. per week for twenty-six weeks, and 5s. per week so long as he continues ill, making a total of 19 10s. in fifty-two weeks. When the funds of the society are 3, and upward, per member, exelusive of permanent investments, if 7 per cent. of the members are out of employment, a limited number of the unemployed members may be assisted to emigrate fo the amount of 6; but no member shall be allowed the benefit of this rule unless the number of unemployed members of the society in the place to which he wishes to emigrate is below 71 per cent. Any "free member," not more than 16s. in arrears, who, through losing a limb or having one disabled by accident or otherwise, or through blindness, imlperfect vision, apoplexy, epilepsy, or paralysis, may be rendered permanently unable to follow any of the departments of the trade, pro-* vided his disability is not the result of intemperance or other improper conduct, will receive the sum of ~100; subject to the condition that the amount must be refunded if at any future time the member is able to resume work. A member in good standing who is -not less than fifty years old, and who through the infirmities of age is unable to obtain the ordinary rate of wages, is entitled to a superannuation benefit, varying according to the length of time he has been in the society, as follows: To members of less than twenty-five years' standing, 7s. per week. To members of twenty-five years' and less than thirty-years' standing, 8s. per week. To members of thirty years' and less than forty years' standing, Os. per week. To members of forty years' standing and upward, l0s. per week. These payments are continued'during the life of the member. A member of not less than eighteen years' standing in the society and not, less than fifty years old, if disabled by any of the causes above mentioned as giving a title to the "1accident benefit" of ~100, may take his choice between that and the superannuation benefit. *This regrulat ion is not applicable to a class of members who, on account of defective health on entering the society, have not been admitted to the "1sick benefit," and hav~e paid 2d. a week less than other members. TRADES-UNIONS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 203 On the death of a free member who is not more than 16s. in arrears, 12 is paid to his widow, next of kin, or legal representative, for his fuera expenses. On the death of a member's wife., he receives ~5 for her neral expenses, leaving 7 for his own. If a member die while traveling in search of work and his remains cannot be removed to his ow oe, the branch of th society nearest the place of his death is to take charge of the funeral, the expense of which must not exceed ~6; an if his widow, nominee, or next of kin, apply for the surplus, (the re.maining 6 of this funeral benefit,") it is to be paid. The salaries of officers (i. e., of those to whom salaries are allowed) vary according to the number of members in the branch to which they belog, or to the natre and extent of their duties. Thus the salary of branch secretary varies from 1 10s. per annum-the sum allowed for branch comprising ten mebers-to ~12 15s. in the case of branches having 360 members, the rules providing minutely for all intermediate numbers as well as for all in excess of 360. It may be noted here, en assat, that no member who keeps a public-house, or beer-house, is leligible to the position of branch secretary. One of the most useful regulations of the society is that which relates to the finding of employment for members. A member out of employment and drawing "donatio nefit," is required at stated times (usually every day) to sign a book known as " the vacant-book," which is either kept at the branch office, or, in the case of large towns where there are several branches, at some central office. In Manchester the "vacant-book" is an institution of such importance that the officer in charge of it receives a stated salary of ~2 2s. per week, with an allowance of 7s. 6d. per week for a messenger, and has rent-free quarters,..with coal and gas, at the society's office, where e is required to reside. Any member who knows of avacancy, either present or prospective, is required to give information of it within twenty-four hours to the secretary of the branch to which he belongs, and failing to do so is liable to a fine of 5s. A member onl donation benefit refusing to accept employ. ment, or neglecting toapply whene informed of a vacancy, is. suspended from donation unutil he obtains employment, unless he can show a satisfactory reason for his conduct. Any secretary on receiving notice that men are wanted in a particular district,, must send to that district any members of his branch who are out of employment and in receipt of donation or contingent benefit, if he considers them, qualified for the vacant positions. The fare of members so sent is paid, and if they fail to obtain situations, their return fare is also paid to their own place of residence. The amount allowed, however, is not to exceed ~U10s. Any member on benefit refusing to remove to another lplace in order to obtain employment is suspended from donation, and, in some cases, may also be subjected to some further penalty. The regulations'in regard to the 11vcn-ok and the transmission of information in regard to vacant situations from one locality to another constitute the society a most effective intelligenceagency, both for particular localities and for the entire field over which its branches extend. Some other societies have similar regulations. One of the society's rules is directed against piece-work, the accept-4 ance of which, iu shops -where it has not already been introduced, incurs a fine of l0s, for the first offense, of 20s. for the second, and the penalty of expulsion for the third. Any member taking work -by the piece is, moreover, required to share in equal proportions with his fellow-workmen (they being members) all that he earns over the regular weekly 204 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. wages; and any member working for or under any piece master, and not receiving an equal share in any such surplus, is required to leave his employment. Any member boasting of his independence toward his employer or employers in consequence of his membership in this society is subject to a fine of 2s. Gd. for the first offense, 5s. for the second, and lOs. for-the third or any subsequent repetition of the offense. The above is only a brief statement of some of the leading provisions of the constitution or rules of the Engineers' Association. Many minor regulations for special cases, as well as the provisions in regard to the care and investment of funds, the equalization of funds among the branches, or, more properly, the annual settlement between debtor and creditor branches, the election, qualification, and duties of officers and committeemen, along with various other matters of minor importance, are omitted. The governmental organization of societies of this class is, however, illustrated to some extent in the abstract of the rules of the Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and Joiners, to be presented below. AMALGAMATED SOCIETY OF CARPENTERS AND JOINERS. The following table shows the number of branches, number of members, and cash balance of the Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and Joiners of Great Britain, Ireland, and America,* at the end of each year from 1860 to 1874, inclusive: TABLE I. Number of Number of Cash balance on Years ended December 31. branches. members. hand. branches..mmes hand. ~ 8. d. 1860................................... 20 618 321 3 21 1861................ 32 650 593 12 0O 1862..................................... 38 949 849 8 10 1863 53 1,718 2,042 11 3 1864......................... - _,,-, 81 3,279 4,566 10 0j 1865..................................... 134 5,670 8, 320 13 7 1866...................,............ 187 8,002 13,052 4 3+ 1867............ 203 8,022 15,153 11 2+ 1868............. 218 8,736 17,179 16 1 1869......-................ 224 9,305 17,626 14 6 1870..................................... 236 10,178 17,568 19 4 1871......................,.....,' 242 9, 764 16,829 7 1+ 1872.................................. 226 11,236 19,849 8 6} 1873..................................... 249 12,789 30, 450 11 3+ 1874..................................... 265 13, 890 t38,125 0 0 The following table.shows the expenditures for benefits of the Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and Joiners for the year ended December 31, 1873, and for the thirteen and one-half years from the organiza* This association has 265 branches, of which 231 are in England and Wales, 11 in Ireland, 5 in Scotland, 14 in the United States, and 4 in Canada. The branches in the United States comprise 447 members. Of the 14 branches, 2 are in New York, and 1 each in Albany, Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Cleveland, Fall River, Newark, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Saint Louis, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C. The returns from the United States in the monthly report for January, 1875, represent the state of trade as "bad," "dull," or "slack," with the exception of San Francisco, where it is reported " good," and Newark, as "improving." The returns from the English and Welsh branches generally report trade as "moderate," while those from the Irish are chiefly unfavorable. t The cash balance for 1874 may be subject to a slight correction. TRADES-UNIONS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 205 tion of the society in June, 1860, to the same date, with the average cost per member on each account: TABLE II. Expenditures for year ended December 31, 1873. Items of expenditure. Aggregate for the Average per society. mnember. ~ 8. d. s.d. Donations.. ——......... —- -... 3,085 0 0 4 10 Tools-... -............................. — 566 0 0 101 On account of sickness.......... 5,865 0 0 9 2 On account of funimerals........ 1,248 0 0 1 11. On account of accidents....... 300 0 0 5tTo superannuated members....................... 97 0 0 11 On account of trade privileges.................... 2, 964 0 0 4 7. Benevolent grants............... 466 0 0 8S Grants and loans to other trades........... 155 0 0 3 Total...................................... 14,746 0 0 Expenditures for 131 years ended December 31, 1873. Items of expenditure. Aggfregrate for the Average per society. member. ~ 8. d. ~ 8. d. Donations............................. 45, 9417 0 0 7 00 91 Tools............................ 4,286 0 0 13 1l On account of sickness.... 40,593 0 0 6 4 41 On account of funerals........................... 7,834 0 0 1 4 0 On account of accidents....... 3,790 0 0 11 71 To superannuated members............... 617 0 0 1 10ot On account of trade privileges.................... 17,436 0 0 2 13 51 Benevolent grants................................ 3,254 0 0 9 11i Grants and loans to other trades.................. 720 0 0 2'2t Total...................................... 124, 477 0 0 The objects of this society, as defined in its own rules, are to raise funds for the advancement and protection of the trade; for the mutual support of its members in case of sickness, accident, or superannuation; for the burial of members and their wives; assisting emigration; replacing tools lost by fire, water, or theft; and for assistance to members out of work; also to form a contingent and benevolent fund for the purpose ot granting assistance in cases of extreme distress not otherwise provided for in the rules. Each branch of the society is to appoint its own officers and conduct its own affairs, and no branch is to have more than three hundred members. On the first meeting-night in April, July, and October, the income and expenditure of the past quarter, and at the first meeting in January the income and expenditure for the past year, must be read over by the auditors and submitted to the meeting in presence of both the old and new officers; and in no case may the old officers leave before the report has been read over. 206 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. In any large town or district where there are two or more branches, they may hold conjointly a special summoned meeting of their branches whenever occasion requires; and all resolutions passed at such meetings must be entered on the minutes of each branch. Tey are also made binding upon the several branches in the district, and cannot be altered, rescinded, or set aside except by consent of a majority of the members present at another summoned meeting of the district branes. Upon any question which under the rules of the society is required to be decided by the votes of a majority of its members, these votes must be taken at summoned meetings of all the branches and the numbers voting on each side must be transmitted to the general secretary, who must add them up and publish the results to the branches, the question being determined by a majority of all the votes cast and not by a majority of the branches. The entrance-fees vary from 7s. 6d. (when the candidate is nder twenty-five years of age) to ~1 15s., (when e is forty-four years of age and under forty-five.) Candidates for membership must be in good health, must be good workmen and have worked five years at the trade, must be persons of steady habits and good moral character, and not less than twenty-one nor more than forty-five years of age. They must not belong to any other trade society or enter one after their admission into this. No person -may be admitted who has acted contrary to the interests of the trade or has been excluded from any other society for misconduct, unless such restitution be made or such satisfaction given to ijured parties as may be ordered by the executive council of the society or by the branch to which the candidate seeks admission. To be entitled to all the benefits of the society a member must pay a contribution of Is. per week and 3d. per quarter to the contingent and benevolent fund. A contribution of 9d. per week and 3d. per quarter to the contingent and benevolent fund entitles a member to all the benefits except that for the sick. All moneys subscribed by the members of the society become the property of the society generally, and not of the branches to which the members respectively belong; * and any brancha leaving the society forfeits its share in the general fund. Whenever it is found that the funds of the society have, sunk below an average of ~1 per member, the executive council has the power to assess upon each member such sum as is necessary to raise the funds to the amount just mentioned.' Special levies may also be made for other purposes, in cases of emergency; but such a levy on the society at large requires the consent of two-thirds of the members present at special meetings of the branches held to determine the question; and local levies require, the consent of a majority of the members present at a special meeting of the. local branch or branohes, as well as the approval of the executiv-e council of the society. Special committees are elected by the separate branches, (or by the combined branches of a district in which there are two or more,) for the management of trade movements in connection with strikes, lock-outs, &c;and special auditors are elected for the management of the accounts in such movements, which are kept entirely distinct from the ordinary accounts of the society. The principal authority in the association is vested ina general council, consisting of sixteen members, each representing one of sixteen dis*This is also a rule of the Operative Stone-mason's Society, and of somne other associations. TRADES-UNIONS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 207 tricts into which the territory over which the society extends is divided, and each being elected at an appointed time by a majority of the votes cast in meetings of the several branches within the district which he represents. Each branch may send to the general secretary the name of some eligible member within the district in which it is situated, to be submitted to the various branches within the district as a candidate for the general council. The nominations are to be made about three months before the election, and a list of the candidates proposed is sent to all the branches by the general secretary. The election for members of the general council takes place once in three years, and if a vacancy occurs during the term for which the council holds office, it is filled by the candidate who, at the preceding election, received the next to the highest' vote. The general secretary is elected by a majority of the votes cast in all the branches within the association. He is paid the expense attendant nupon moving himself and his family from the place where he resides to the general office, where he is frnished with a rent-tree residence, and receives a salar of not less n ~3 per week, with certain other allowances for special services and for assistance. ~~An execu~tive council, conitig of six members, elected by the branches situated within a radius of twelve miles from the general office is invested with a degree of supervision over that office and over the business of the secretary, as well as with the power of determining various questions affecting the society at large. The general council, whose members are from all parts of the kingdom and from foreign countries, meets only once in three years, except in special emergencies; and alterations in the rules of the association can only be adopted at alternate triennial meetings. All such alterations must be submitted to the votes of the members in the branch meetings, and any change in the objects of the society, as set forth in its first rule, requires the consent of three-fourths of the members. On minor matters, the general secretary is authorized to obtain the views of the general council, by letters addressed to its several members. In cases of emergency the general council is authorized to hold meetings withopt awaiting the attendance of the member representing the American district. The benefits offered by the society may be summarized as follows: Unemployed (or donation) benefit, l0s. per week for twelve weeks, and 6s. per week for twelve weeks more; for leaving employment under circuimstances satisfactory to the branch or to the executive council, iS. per week; tool benefit to a member of not less than six months' stand. ing, not to exceed ~5; sick benefit, for twenty-six weeks, 12s. per week, and 6s. per week thereafter as long as illness continues; funeral benefit, ~12, or to a member of only six months' standing, ~3 108.; accident benefit, to a member totally disabled, ~100, and to a member partially disabled, ~,50; superannuation benefit to a member of twenty-five years' standing, Ss. per week for life, and 7s. per week for life to a member of eighteen years' standing; emigration benefit, ~6; other benefits in the nature of benevolent krants, according to circumstances in cases of distress. It may be remarked here that the rules and the governmental organization of this society are regarded as beingo among the best possessed by any of the trades-unions. The regulations in regard to vacant-book are similar to those of the engineers. ASSOCIATED CARPENTERS AND JOINERS OF SCOTLAND. In the report of this society for the twelve months ended October 31, 18,74, the number of its members is stated at 5,781, of whom 5,221 were 208 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. subscribers to all its benefits, the remaining 557 not being subscribers to the fund provided for sickness, superannuation, and funeral benefits. Its expenditures for the several objects for which it is constituted, as well as for rents, taxes, salaries, &c., during the twelve months just named, were as follows: ~ 8. d Sick-allowances.-........................-............ 1,843 0 0, Bonuses to three disabled members................ 150 0 0 Funeral-allowances................................................ 518 0 0 Tools compensation........................................ 372 11 113 Strike-allowance................................................... 409 5 6 Grant to agricultural laborers' union................................ 50 0 0 Victimized allowance *............................................. 15 3j Hall rents.............. 399 18 9f Taxes and hall expenses................. 8............ 4 4 6 Stationery and postage.......................... 126 14 11 Printing and advertising...... 415 4 0O Carriage of parcels................................... 6 9 3 Doctors' accounts. 1 19 6 Lost time.... 11 10 8 Branch boxes, &c............................ 12 3 11 Delegations.......2......... 6 18 7 Law expenses........................................ 6 3 9 Expenses ofjoint meetings......................... 51 8 8, Salaries and commissions........................................... 827 15 7j Total.................................. 5, 314 3 03 The income of the society for the year ended as above. exceeded the expenditure by ~1,441 5s. 3-ad. This increases the accumulated fund to 4. ~9,071 8s. 8A.d., of which ~7,554 5s. 6d. belong to the trade account, and ~1,517 3s. 2bd. to the benefit account. The number of members added to the society during the past year was 774, and, according to a statement presented by the secretary, it now comprises nearly one-half of the members of the trade in the districts in which it has branches, the total number of journeymen in those districts being 11,836, while the membership of the society is 5,781.t The secretary calls attention to the fact that during the year several trades have had protracted strikes, while the members of some societies, notably the agricultural laborers, have been compelled to fight for the right of determining whether they should be union men or not. In some of the trades wages have been reduced, but among the joiners the changes that occurred during the year were usually favorable to the workmen. The secretary estimates that there has been an average rise of 2s. a week in journeymen's wages, while several of the society's branches have obtained a reduction of hours. The only disputes with employers during the year were those of Dumfries, Dunfermline, Perth, and the Clyde. The latter was short and d(lecisive, lasting but a few days; but the one at Dumfries was protracted Iand bitter, continuing for a month. This society was organized and a code of rules for its government adopted at a conference of delegates from the carpenters and joiners of the principal places in Scotland, which was held at Edinburgh in September, 1861. The rules have since undergone three revisions, the last having been completed in August, 1873. The society is divided into two sections, which may be called respectively the " trade section" and the " benefit section," although some of the allowances made to members of the trade section might very properly be classed as benefiThe "victimized allowance" is one which the rules provide for the benefit of members discharged from their situations for acting as delegates, or otherwise serving the association. - It is a regular payment, equal to the wages lost. The "victimized allowance" in 1873, exceeded ~100. t The number of apprentices in the same districts is 3,310. TRADES-UNIONS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 209 cial allowances. The fee for admission into the trade section alone, is 5s., a the dues 3d. er week. For admission into the benefit section the fee. according to age of applicant, and the dues 4d. er week. Besides these payments, members are liable to special lCvies for emergencies or to make p deficiencies in the funds; but such levies must be authorized by the vote of the society. On the oasion of a cessation of work in consequence of a strike, lockout, or any cause regared by the society as adequate, each " free member so thrown out of work, upon conforming to certain requireets, receives an allowance Of 12s. a week as long as the stoppage of ~~~worketer" losinues. Afreemeber osig his tools by fire, water, or the, is entitled to an allowance equal to the value of the tools lost, rovied it does ot exceed 20; and he is also entitled to the value of a tool-chest, not, however in excess of ~2. Every member who has paid i full entrance-fee is entitled to a bonus of ~50 in case of any accident isablig im from ever again resuming his regular employment. It is an essetial condition however, to the allowance of this benefit, that the accident shall not have been caused by intemperance or improper conduct. The allowance in sickness is 12s. per week for thirteen weeks, 9s. per wee for thirteen weeks more, 7s. per w eek'I for twenty-six weeks, andthen5.perweekwilsillnes continues. The funeral allowance on the death of a member is 12, to be paid to his wife, nomi ee, trustee, or ext of kin. The allowance on the death of a wife (if sae be registered) is 5, whic, however, is not allowed on the death of a second wife, if it has been drawn on the death of the first. The supl)erannuation benefit is 3 d. per week to a memboer over fifty years of age and of ten years standing i the society, and 5s. per week to one who has been fifteen years in the society. The claim to superannuation, however, is not allowed as long as the member can earn more than half thle usual wages of the locality in which he is employed, in any business or callingin which he can obtain employment. The various branches of the association are required to forwvard to the executive committee as often, at least, as on~ce a quarter, all moneys in their possession not needed for their immediate local expenditure; andt branches not having sufficient funds for the latter purpose may, according to prescribed forms, call upon the same committee for what they require, provided, of course, that it be money to which they are entitled in accordaiice wvith the. rules of the soeiety. All moneys sent to the executive cothnilttee and not inninediately' Wanted are to be deposited in such h~ankl or banks as may be -agreed upon, a portion. (not to be less. than ~500 nor more than ~,1,000) to be deposited as a workin fuind in the namue of the association, three trustees, and the central corr~esjpondiDo secretary, and the eaidrto be dpstdas "1a snii ud" in the niame of the association, eight trustees, and the centI&ral corresponding, secretary. The three trustees of the "1working fund" are to be elected by the central branch * and their names submitted to the' society at lam-ge. If -no objection be lodged against thein within fourteen days after such submission, their election, is to be valid. The eight trustees of the "1sinking fund" are to be elected. respectively by the eig-ht branches, having the largest number of members, and their namessbmitted to the society, as int the other case. No moneycnbdrw from the, working fund except by the central corresponding secretarky and two trustees, and none cant be drawn. from the sinking fund withouit. *At iinte(rvals of three years elections are held to determine what branch (if thesociety shalfl bh — the " seat of governilnent;" anol the braniches situated within a fw~ius of three mitns troni the. bjracici electedl l]4iv thje prerogative of electing- 0he executive colnimitte~e, which consists ot nine me'subers, whio hiold offi~co for one year. 210 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. the signature of the same officer and six trustees; and the trustees are to sign no order for drawing money without a letter from the executive committee, signed by the chairman, authorizing them to do so. The society each year elects an auditor who serves for three years, so that there are three auditors, whose respective terms of office terminate at yearly intervals. Besides auditing the accounts of th society at the end of each year, these officers are required to assist the centrl corresponding secretary in making up "an abstn act of whatever ay be c - sidered of interest to the society, either as a rum of the past year or as a guide to future proceedings." No part of the funds of the association can be applied to ayprp e other than those set forth in the rules, except by a three-fourths majority of all members voting in mnetings of the branches specially called after due notice for the determination of the question. No alteration can be made in the rules (or laws) of the society without the assent of two-thirds of the members; and in years when a delegate meeting is held all propose(l alterations must be first submitted to such meeting, and by it (it at all) submitted to the society. No delegate meeting may " abrogate any of the principles of the society," (i. e., the allowance on cessation of work, the insurance of tools, or the accident, sickness, superannuation, or funeral beefit,) except by the consent of three-fourths of the members, which votes must be registered accordingly. THE AIAALGAMATED TAILORS SOCIETY. The following table shows the principal items in the expenditures of the Amalgamated Tailors' Society from lay to December 1869, and each year from 1870 to 1873 inclusive, together with the number of members, the average expenditures per member, the number of members in receip~t of sick and traveling benefits respectively, and the nuuiber of deaths of members and members' wives: 1869. 1S70. 1871. 1872. 1873. Total for entire period. Las.d. ~ s. d. ~ s. d. ~ s. d. ~ s. d ~ s. d..Expenditures on account of sick benefit -----------— 901 67 1, 847 12. 7 1,931 12 10 2, 477 7 8 -2937. 7 10 10, 095 7 6 Average per metmber on account ofsckene.......t - 4 8 f~21 7 8 5 6 49 Expeniditurts on account of funerals-...............261 00 17i6 8 2 767 9 9 998 7 8 1, 420 18 61 4, 0244. Average per member on account of funierals. - *. - 1 31 2 101 3 4 2 21 2 5-1....... Expenditures on travelers' account*..............202 56 262 18 6 226 2 8 426 16 0 641 4 5n 1,759 71l Average per member on travel-Il ers' vccount4 - 1........ 0-2 1 35, I1 1 1 o Expendlituries on acCOuntof trade 2 benefits, strikes, and lock-outs. 45 8 4 200 16 7 55 1 6 283 1 7 6 622 5 9 1, 207 9 8 Average per member on same account-............ 21 1 0 21 ~ 1 1 01 f Number of members at end of.1year-3, 994 4, 006 4, 914 9, 061 112, 385 -...... Number o members receivinr sick benefit ---------.550 658 736 1, 122 3, 086 {umnber ot members receiving travelers' benefit —------ 298 167 252 383 661 1, 768 Numlber of deaths of members and members' wives-...... 36 91 -102 140 189 558 *Members traveling in quest of employment. fTo these expenditures may be added an item of ~235, granted to other associations in 1873, the first year that the society badl set apart a continigent fund for that purpose. +The -number of memubers at the close of 1874. as slhownu in the'list of associations represented at the ainnual trades congress, was, in round numbers, 14,000. KNot furnished. TADES-UNIONS IN TIlE UNITED KINGDOM. 211 Theaggregateicome of this association for the year 1873 was ~13,543 12s., and the aggregate exl)enitures for the same year, ~11,148 14s. 9d., leaving a balance of 94 17s. 2.d. on the yeair's account; which, added to a balance of 4,609 14s. on hand at the close of the previous year m es the total accumulated ~7,004 11s. 29j. The terms of admission into the Amalgamated Tailors' Association are as follows: Young men, in the last N ear of their apprenticeship pay an entrae-fee of Is. tailors, under 25 years old, 2s. 6d.; under 30 de..; under 40 years, 10s.; under 45 yeas, s. From 45 ars old ip to 50 the increase in the entrance-fee is at the rate of 2s. d. per year. Tailors over 50 years of age may nenter the society, but not as members entitled to all its benefits. The, a regular contribution of 34d. per week, ad the usual quarterly subscription to the management and contingent unds entites thc to trae and traveling benefits, and on thleir death a funeral of 4 is paid to their next of kin or nominee lawfully appointed. The entrance-fee for persons not desiring to participate in the " sickbenefit" is as follows: For tailos nder years of age, 2s. Gd.; not under 30 but under 40 years.; not ner 40 but uder 45 years, 7s. Gd.; not under 45 but under 30 years, l0S. ~~~~~tering the case ofnew branceseterigte association the members are required to pay the rent quarterly subscription and an entrance-fee accordling to age as follows: e ers under 25 years of age, 2s. 6d.; not under 25 years of age but under 30 s.; not under 30 years of age but under 50, 7s. 6d. To entitle a member to full participation in all benefits the regular payments are, 6d. a week, 4d. a quarter to management, and Is. per annuin (paN able ini the month of June) to "1a con1tingent, fund,"1 which is devotedI to th lurtheran]Ce Of the, princilples of associa~'tion. TMembers riot wishing to part~icilpate in the sick-benefit pay 334d. per week, andl to the man-agement and contingent funds the saine as, other members. On quitting employment, unuder circutnstance~s satisfactory to the branch or to the executive council, a mem~ber -receives 12s3. per week. The "sick-beneflt" for the first thirteen weeks is l0s. per week; for the second,7 8s.; for the third, 6s.; for, the fourth, 4s.;,afterward (while inlless continues,) 2s. 6d. per week. The sul)erannunation-benefit, to members of twelv-e years' start (hg, is 2s. 6d. per week for life, and 5s. l)er week for life to inemberA of twenty ~ears' standing. The traveling benefit is is. 44. per day in each branch for not exceeding sixty days in the year, or to Is. per day andl a bed. The general management of the affairs of the association is vested in an executive council consisting of nine mnembers,7 among whomD atr-c included the president and secretary. The ordinary executive functions devolve chiefly on the last two officers, but the executive council meets once a quarter, and mnay be convened more frequently if circumstances require it. The members of this counil6, including the president and secretary, are elected biennially at conferences comlposed of delegates from the branches, the number of delegates being lprop,,rtionled with more or less exactness to the number of members to be represenited. The ob~jects of the association are tihus stated in a recent address of the executive council to the operative -tailors of the kingdom: 1. To im~prove morally, socially, and pecuniarily the -means and position of our members allil the trade genetcally, tby forrting,, a fund by contributions of our members on well-considered bases, and froim statistics of those associations who have prospered[ by Experience. 212 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. ~~ins2. To provide a safe and profitable investment ofor the expcontributions and subserip~~~~~~ative Stoe-Masons from Septembers aainst sickness, disease, and death, as well as economizing the strengfying the diff power of unity for the welfarems of our tradexpenditure, always seeki a amicable se~t~tlem~expenitres for trade-disputroses rather than resorting to the two-edged weapon of settlemient by strikes. This is accomplished by raising capital or funds that may be available in case just and conciliatory measures fiail, and then, and then only, resorting to those measures which our nnity and strength, combined with accumulated funds, can accomplish, our system combining all the Iheilities of exchange in investing our labor to profitable advantage, and insurance and friendly societies lor benevolent purposes. 3. To promote the intellectual and material'benefit of our members and the trade generally, by providing -means of social intercourse and. discussion of topics for the elevation of the trade generally. 4. To afford means of ca~rrying out the repeal of all laws that have so hurtfully affected the position of workmen, hitherto, and to free labor fromt restrictive influence, at the same time fostering habits of prudence and forethought. 5. By means of our rules, encouraging those who may heave the welfare of the trade at heart, to become ornaments to our calliag, and leaders to a better and more elevated position of our class. ects: In the same address it is claimed that during the year 1873 11 7wages were advanced and trade privileges obtained in no. less than fifty-fonr cities and towns in En~gland and Wales, and that in 1874 (up to No-................................ 3, 206i 8 8 vember,) "n O less than fifty-six more cities an~l towns,"2 where the society has branches, "obtained advantages in tl*e same direction."1 SOCIETY OF OPERATIVE MASONS. The following table contains a condensed statement of the expenditures of the Society of O perative. Stone-Masons from September 24, 1840,............................. 400 0 0................................... 10, 256.. 3 11 toNovember 23, 1873, specifying the different items of expenditure,4 and also distinguishing between. expenditures for trade purposes anld expenditures lbor beneficial objects: 1. Expenditures for trade purposes: To strike pay-............................... -~54, 86728 0 97 Gifts to, other trades..- 3,2~06 8 8 L oan us... —-— 400 0 0 Delegations in general................................ 40, 253 14 41 Total for trade purpose................................ 470,730 4 9 2. Expenditures for benevolent purposes: Sick-allowance................................ 254, 82789 15 10 0 9 Funerals — 40,253 14 4J Tra-velers*.. -- 445.............................. 51 53 14 3 Sureos' fees................................ 2,78 9415 10 Gifts for charitable purposes................... 515 14 3 Hospital subscriptions...................... 2,941 1 0 Disabled members (197.................................... 17,941 0 0 Friends of 10.............................. 5,100 0 0 Orpan children............................................ 292 9 6 Master and workmen's actst................................ 32 16 0 Superannuation of members................................ 8,636 13 11 Legal expenses in defendi prosecuted mcmberst............ 3,483 6 13 Total for benevolent purposes.......................... 191,268 2 9 Grandttl................................... 261,998 6 11 From this statement it appears, therefore, that during the thirty-three years which it covers the expenditures for benevolent purposes exceeded the expenditures for strikesand other trade purposes by ~120,537 18Ss. 7d. I.Members traveling ( in search of' work. tThese two items might perhaps have been- classified with the expenditures for trade purposes. TRADES-UNIONS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 213 This society is formally known as "The Friendly Socieqty of Operative lasons of EnglandrelandandWales." Its mnembers have tbe option of contributing tothe trade-fund alone, or to that and to any one or more of the benefit-funds in the advantages of which they may wish to participate. The etrance-fee to the trade department is 2s. Gd.,* and the contributions 6. per week. For admission to the trade and sick fund the fee to a persounder 24 years of age is 2s. 6d.; over 24 and under 28, 5s.; over 28 and under 32, 7s. d.; over 32 and under 35, 10s. Persons lover 35 years of age are not admitted to this section of the society. The contributions to the sick-fund are 4d. per week. On the death of a member in good standing his widow, nominee, or next of kin receives )12 for his funeral expenses. On the death of a member's wife (provided he has aid s. or her registration and Gd. per quarter in addition) he receives 10; ut a wife over forty years of age cannot be registered for this benefit. The payment of 4s. d. a week to a children's fund entitles a member to 2 o the death of a child; but still-boru children, or children born out of wedlock are not included in this allowance. The superannuation-benefit is as follows: To members of ten years' standing......... 5s. per week. To members of fifteen years' standing................ 7s. per week. To members of twenty years' standing....... 9s. per week. To members of twenty-five years' standing............ 10s. per week. The sick-benefit i 12s. per week for twenty-six weeks, and 6s. per week until recovered; but disease incurred by fighting, drunkenness, or other immoral conduct, is excluded from this benefit. The accident-beefit is 100 to a member permanently disabled in connection with the prosecution of his trade, or while transacting so. ciety-business. unless the accident disabling him was incurred by his own miscondnct, drunkenness, or willful neglect. In case of accidental death occurring to a member under similar circumstances, his widow, nominee, or next of kin is entitled to ~50 fromt the society's funds. An allowance of ~50 is also provided for cases of paralysis or permanent loss of vision. The benefit to members traveling in search of work varies from the provision of a bed alone up to a bed and Is. 3d. a day, according to the standing of the member and the circumstantes of the case; each. case, however, beinig distinctly lprovided for in the rules. In cases of "1legal disputes" with employers, (i. e., disputes entered into in accordance with the rules of the society,) members suspending work are allowed 12s. per- week fromt the society's funds, and any delegate or officer of the society who is dh~ctharged in consequence of his holding such a position is allowed 18s. per week, provided that hie have niot used abusive language towardl the employer or foreman. When the members of the society in auny town or locality desire, to obtain better terms from their employers, the rules, require that they shall use "1their utmost endeavors, by correspondence, interviews, or a Conference, consisting of an equal inumber of employers and employed,"~ to arrive at "1an amicable -agreement;" and "1only alter all such means have failed to secure, the-,~ desired alteration shall they be justified in suLspending work." When a desire for an advance of wages, a reduction of working-hours, I The fees for re-admission of persons who have gone out of the society or lost their membership throngh falling in arrears, increase with the number of admissions, the fee for the fifth admission being WO shillns. 214 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. or other improvement in the conditions of employment is manifested in any lodge, the secretary is required to report the t to the central committee of the association, stating the numberof emberswhowould be thrown out of work in case of a strie, the number entitled to benefit, the state of trade an(l p)osition of the society in the neighborhood, and the number of members of the lodge wo voted respectively for and against an application to be sustained by the society in a strie; and no such application is to be entertained ess it has had the support of a two-thirds majority in a summoned meeting of te lode the having been formally taken by ballot. hen such an application is received the cential committee is to apoint a deputation fom three different lodges (including the one from which the plication eanates) to lprocee(d to the locality, examine as to the state of trade, the number of members entitled to benefit, and other matters, ald to make a report which is to be submitted to the various lodges in connection with the nappli(cation. A vote of the society is to be taken within twenty-eight days, tlhe question to be decided for or against the application in acordance with the majority of the votes cast. In cases whereemploers attenmpt to reduce the curVent rate of wages, to introduce piecework where it, has been abolished, to inerease the hours of labor, to infringe upon the established meal-hours, or to eploy as masons persons who have not learned the trade, a two-thirds majority in a surniion meeting of the lodge to which the members affected by such an infringeent belong, slhall be sufficient to justify the in resisting it by a susension of work; almd in case the empjloyer'attepts to enforce the inringeent before a lodge meeting can be hei(lt twothirds majomity of the members working for sh emloyer is to be binding; buht theyv rmust wait upon the em)loyer or forelan before suspending work; and in all cases the central cotumittee must be informed as to the particulars of the dispnte. T he members of this society bind themselves (by voluntary offer) to give mm-al and material aid to other trades-associations. Any lodge aplplied to for this purpose is to investigate the case, and, if the ca-use be thought worthy of support, the amount of assistance required is to be made known to the central committee, and by them to be submitted to the society, a vote of wliich, in lodge meetings assembled, is to be taken -within twenty-eight days.. All lodges are reonired to transmit weekly to the central committee. anDy money, in. their possession in excess of ~10 not required for- their im ninediate local expenditures. A pr1inted list is to be published annually by the central committee, showiing the names of members who have woinked in o1)position to the society, of the members (or officers:) who ha~ve committed frauds or defalcations, and of members who are in arrears under local levies. Members are prohibited from working overtime, which is condemned as a piractice tending to keep other niembers out of employnient, anId mnembers who persist in viola'ting this rule, in Opposition to their own lodge, are liable to a flue not to exceed ~2. There are certain exceptions to this rule, how ever, in. cases of accident or necessity. Where subcontracting or piecewoink is abolished, miembers are bound by these arrangements. Where wom-king by artificial light has not been. the rule, lodges are authorized to resist its introduction. Should the funds of the society fall below ~3, 000, the central comiimittee may recommend a special levy upon the riembers of the society, but such levy mutst be submitted to a vote of the society and approved by a majority before it can be carried out. TRADES-UNIONS IN TIHE UNITED KINGDOM. 215 The opinion of the society, as to a revision and reprint of existing rules, is to be taken once in three years; and when such revision is decided upon, the revisigommittee is to be elected by the society, the vote being taken in meetings of the lodges specially held for the purpose. This societyMaintains intimate reciprocal relations with the one to be noticed next below. UNITED OPERATIVE MASONS' ASSOCIATION OF SCOTLAND. The total membership of this association in December, 1874, was 10,652, showing an increase of 1,208 members since December, 1873. The number of members belonging to the trade section alone was 9,990. The number belonging to both the trade and sick fund sections was (662. The expenditures for 1874 may be summarized as follows: For trade purposes. 8. d. Strike pay............................. 408 0 0..............Assisting men to leave strikes*.. 92 18 0 Wages of pickets, strike committees, and cross commit~~~~tees....................... 45 12 64 General delega....................... 102 11 1 Voted to Edinburgh and Leith millers.............. 15 0 0 Vote to English agricultural laborers...100 0 0 Voted to Edinburgh Trades' il u................... 5 0 0 Voted to Trades-Union Parliamentary Committee...... 15 0 0 Total.784 1 74 For benevolent purposes. Sick allowance.~~~~~~~~~~480 0 0 Accident provisions.................. 400 0 0 Surgeons' fees..................... 15 14 0 Funeral allowance.1,670 0 0 Total for benevolent objects.....-2,566 4 0 Total for trade purposes.784 1 74 Grand total....................3,350 5 7J Excess for benevolent objects..............1,782 2 41 The financial condition of the society on the 3d of December, 1874, is, stated as follows: ~ s. d.. in bank, December 4, 1837,800 18 10 Depositedsince that date...............1, 990 00 00 Interest accrued up to 3d December, 1874....2054 12 7 10,045 11 5 Drawn out of bank during year.............. 445 18 10 Amount in bank December 3, 1874.......9,599 12 7'~This probably means assisting men to leave localities where strikes were hi progress, and go elsewhere in search of w-ork. 216 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. In hands of lodge treasurers.........330 15 9 In hands of treasurer of central committee.9 10 2 Yalue of hall in Edinburgh.........0 Total worth of the association December 3, 187410,139 18 6 Total worth of the association December 4, 873. 8248 13 8 Net gain d(luring the year...1 891 4...........10 The number of lodges in the association is about 100, with an averae of over 100 members per lodge. The returns made to the central comittee, by the lodge secretaries, indicate that a large mjority of the men belonging to the trade in the places where the society has branches are included in its membership. The auditing committee, in submitting their financial statement, take occasion to congratulate the society on the steady increase of wages in the various districts, and the obtaining of such without any great sacrifice, either as regards time or money. The past year," they say " has also been free from strikes of any great magnitude." The further observe, " that a number of lodges have taken up the apprentice question, with the apparent determination of having all who may desire to learn the trade compelled to serve a regular apprenticeship, a result which they think, " would prove an inestimable boon to the trade in future years." Referring to the combiation of employers in a national federat:on, they say, " we must meet tiederation with fderation; and, although that plan has not hitherto succeeded "from the fact that the largest and strongest unions stood passively a from the movement, they express the hope that a federation of trades-unions will ere long be torined, " wielding a power greater than the national federation of cap. italists and employers."~ Referring to the niovenients on fo~ot among the tr~ades organizations to secure the repeal of the "1criminal law amendmnent act, they ask, "1Why not a movement to raise from our trades-organizations a great political federation? for then, and then only, with the ballot and working as one, will class criminal legislation be swep~t away, and our interests receive more attention at the hands of our legislators." In its plan of organization, benefits, and rules of actioni there is considerable resemblance between this society and the one last noticed, although tbere are many minor differences, and the contribultions, fees, and allowances are not in all cases the same. The rules of the English, society lprovide that members of the Scotch society coming to England shall be admitted free, and that members of the English society going to Scotland shall be admitted into the Scotch society on the same terms; but by a curious discrepancy the Scotch rules provide for the payment of ha~f a crown for admission in either case. It is probable, however, that the provision in. the English rules is the one finally agreed upon, these rules having been revisedl as late as December 2)4, 1874, while the Scotch rules were, revised about a year earlier. In both cases conformity to the rules of the society entered is of course a condition of, admission..The two-societies agree that in order to effect a mutual understanding between them, a fortnightly return of correspondence shall be established, the more especilally to avert the, evil tendency caused by an iutlux of hands from. either country ine case of strikes; and that a printedecopy of the fortnightly returns of each society (divested of their TRADES-UNIONS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 217 financial reports) shall be regularly transmitted to the other. These two societies comprise within their ranks nearly 35,000 of the operative stone-masons of the United Kingdom. UNITED SOCIETY OF BOILER-MAKERS AND IRON-SHIP BUILDERS. The following table shows the expenditures of the United Society of Boiler-Makers and Iron-Ship Builders of Great Britain for the year ended December 31, 1873, and for the seven years ended at the same d(late, with the average cost per member on each account: Expenditures for year Expenditures for seven end(led December 31, years ended December 1873. 3l, 1873. Aggregate for Am't per Aggregate for Ain't per the society. member. the society. member. ~ s.d. s. d. ~ s.d. ~ s. d. On account of sickness.......................... 4,622 4 0 7 5 30, 314 0 0 3 10 8S Relief to members traveling....................... 1, 091 4 3 1 9 19, 031 0 0 2 4 4j On account of funerals........................... 1,418 0 0 2 31 7,873 0 0 0 18 3 On account of trade disputes..................... 281 0 0 0 5* 3, 484 0 0 0 8 1l Surgeons' sal ies................................ 1, 969 10 5 3 2 9, 227 0 0 1 1 6 To superannuated members...................... 1,11'2 13 2 1 93 6,817 0 0 0 15 9* Salaries.......................................... 1,153 11 2 1 10~ (*).. Fares of memrnbers to situations................... 141 9 7 0 2a 400 0 0 0 0 11 Home donations.................................. 97 10 0 0 1~ 1,457 0 0 0 3 4j Bonuses.......................................... — 180 0 0 0 31 1,285 0 0 0 3 0 Total............................................................. The expenditures for officers' salaries during the seven years are not included in the return. The number of members at the end of 1873 was 13,137; the average number of members for the seven years ended at the same date was 8,573. The number of memb)ers on the 30th of September, 1874, was 14,487; the number of lodges 143; and the cash balance in the hands of the association, ~19,208 2s. 6d. The benefits paid by this society, apart from relief in trade disputes, are in thee form of allowances to the sick, unemployed, and superannuated, and to those laid up through accidental in juries, besides doctors' bills, funeral expenses, bonuses, and fares in going to situations. 218 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. AMALGAMATED SOCIETY OF RAILWAY SERVANTS. This society was formed in the beginning of the year 1872, and consists of an executive council and 155 branches. In the report of the general secretary for that year, the number of members constituting said society is represented as being 17,247, with funds on hand to the amount of ~2,569. This he regards asbeing highlyeencouraging. He sayvs that after the heavy expenses which must naturally fall upon a gigantic society at its commencement, and considering the short time that many of the branches had been opened, and the number of men who, after having joined the society and obtained through its influence that which they sought, immediately abandoned it, such an accumulation of funds speaks well for the future. The improvement in the condition of many of the railwaymen which the society had been able to effect in this short time speaks well for the future power of the society when its members will be increased, its funds augmented, its influence extended, and its organization completed. The executive council, he states, is decidedly opposed to strikes, being of the opinion that if railway men will only be firmly unite(l, they will gain that to which they are entitled without having recourse to any stoppage of work. The funds of the society are arranged under the following heads, namely: Delegate fund. Emigration fund. In vestment fund. Strike hfund. Superannuation fund. Amount received by the society during the six months ended June 3(,0. 1874: For dues........ 2.......... ~45 4 2 For entrance-fees............ 193 3 11 The table on the opposite page affords interesting information in regard to the condition and operation at different periods of the associations therein named. Table showing the number of members, the income, expenditures, and funds in hand, of five important associations, with the number, character, and objects of the strikes. ~es of socities. ate. Totalincome Paid for Paid for Total ex- Funds in Character of Names of societies. Date. z Total income. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Object of strikes. benefits, strikers. penditure. hand. 8: strikes. ~ s. d. ~s., d. ~ s. d. ~ s. d. ~ s.d. f 1860 2,20.00 2,443 17 4J 875 15.2,0610 8 3,0611............ (2) on 1870 3 300 8, 072 9 9 4, 5;20 2 2 1, 808 1 0 7,497 3 6Q 3,275 6 2) 1 Partial......... To maintain existing scale of wages. (3) 22c London Society'ofompos- 1871 3, 500 5, 687 11 22I 9., 985 1 8........ 5,104 10 1 4,483 1 1 - itors.* I (4). 1872 3, 700 8,158 7 1 2, 279 9 7:,884 9.10 7, 757 4 3 4, 426 2 10 I General......... To raise wages and reduce hours from (.5) 60 to 54 per week. 1873 3,800 6,11012 1 2,553 52.4,8015 0 6,62617 3 —... N~orthumberland Miners' 1870 5,300.7,00 0 0 Muua Cnfdet ss- 1871 4...O ------- ------ ------ -----— 9, 910 Z........... ciation.t 187 17,00............. 9,00 0...................... Mutual Confident Asso. 821,00.1,7000- -. 18 3 17, 000......................................... 19,0007 0 0.................... - 18 0 4, 073 12,265 0 0 9, 537 8 0) 4340 0.11,346 0 0 408 0 0 A-numberofun- important ones. Iron-Founders' Society of 1860 7, 973 20, 458 0 0 8, 402 15 2 95 0 0 11, 146 0 0 8, 9.52 0 0 11Unimportant... IVarious, the strikes being engaged in England, Ireland,'and< 1870 8, 994 31, 5:14 0 0 21, 109 2 0 45 0 0. 23, 972 0 0 7, 842) 0 0 11....do....... by different local branches and not ci 871 10 019 I31,313 0 0 15,606 4 4 278 0 0 18,843 0 0 20:378 0 0 16....do.. n.anycasebythesocietyat large. Waes 187~2 10,6314 34, 748 0 0 125316 8 3 3-20 0 15,330 0 0 39, 818 0 0 6 _..doJH 1873 11,312 32,141 0 0 19, 430 1 91 255 0 0 22,48 0 0 49,494 0 0 15................. 1850 1,03 81 12 9........ 85 0 6 102 8 5 98 1 5 4...........To resist rednctions and other en. crotanments. 6n 0, 1,473 331 17 11,... 6 0 0 72 11 1 950 11 4 1.....To resist.nfair working of the, pieco The Provincial Typograph- J s.ystem. ical Association.. 1870 2, 430 1, 730 0 0.. 50 11 5 /,7 4 7 1, 573 0 0 5. 6....To resist reduction of pay. 1871 t 2, 687 2,-243 0 0 -----— 275 0 0'395 12 19 1, 836 0 0 7.. —-----— V~arious.,18742 2,942 1,810 0 0........ 902 3 2 15,739 0 0 639 6 9 10....do-...Various. 1873 3,409 1,-81 0 0 97 100 402 12 4 76 5 2 960 15 2 5. Various. f1860 4, tL20 19, 060 0 0 9, 789 0 0 110 7 0 9, 899 7 0 9, 180 13 0 1..........To resist a, reduction of wages. Boiler-Makers and Iron. 180, 7 21, 701 12 0 10, 5915 10 6 58 9 6 13, 054 0 0 9, 107 12 8 1..........To obtain an increase of wages. Ship.Buildoi,3' Associa. 818-8 8 8,87 3 51,3500 3,4520:,94 6 2To obtala an increase of wages and a 117 9 278 45 8615,3 1, 2 1:97 16.....0 reduction of the hours of labor. 1872 11, 523 39, 710 19 0 9, 972 17 0 8U 1 8 14, 52 3 0 25, 128 16 0.................. To obtrdin an increase of wages., 1873 13,137 53, 368 16 0 12, 077 1 8 281 0 2 1,189 18 0 39, 17 18 0.................. To obtain an increase of wages. ~220 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. NOTES ON THE FOREGOING SOCIETIES. London Society of Compositors.-The secretary of this association, in his return, states that after many vicissitudes, dating from 1816, the society ettled dow into substantially its present form in 1848. Since the spring of 1871, the payet f members ave been 7d. a week. The prices of work have generally been arranged between the society an(d the masters' association, or between committees of the two associations, appointed at general meetings of the respective bodies. In 1872, however, te asters' association was broken up in consequence of a rupture with the compositors' society. The secretary further says that from 1810 to 1866 there was o advance in compositors' prices, but that an agitation which was commenced in the latter year euted a rise of three shillings per week, and a reduction of hours from 63 to 60 per week, and a corresponding increase in the prices of piecework and the pay for overtime. The strike of 1870 was confined to two or three offices, whose proprietors would not adhere to the scale of prices agreed upon in 1866. The society withdrew its members and the offices remain closed to the present time." The strike of 1872 was entered pon to secure a further rise in wages and the prices for piecework, as well as a reduction of the hours of labor from 60 to 54 per week. It was only partially successful, but the secretary states that from 1866 to 1872 inclusive, the society succeeded in raisi prices about 15 per cent., concurrently with a reduction of the hours of labor from 63 to 54 hours per week, and a considerable benefit in the matter of overtime. The item marked (1) in the table includes the purchase of government stocks to the amont of ~600. That marked (3) includes ~1,106 5s. and that marked (5) 1,114 s. expended for the same purpose. These three sums must therefore be regarded s rather transferred to capital account than as forming a part of the expenditures for the years in which they occur. The items marked (2) and (4) are unusually large, the income of the society drig the years 1870 and 1872 having been swelled by special levies to meet the epe consequent upon the strikes above referred to. t Northumberland Miners' Mutual Confident Association.-Tis society was organiza in 1863, with about 2,000 members. It has had no general strike, but in 0 it expended about ~4,000 in support of a long strike of some of its members t Cramligt. The object of this strike, which was an increase of wages, was defeated by bringing en from Cor.wall to take the places of the strikers. Only one other strike of importance (lasting only a few weeks) has occurred among the members of this society, buit it has 6ontributed thousands of pounds to -assist workmen in other trades who wvere on strike in different parts of the country. All differences, except those of a general kiud, betvween the members of this society and their employers, are now referred for settlement to a standing conimittee, (consisting of six employers and six workmen,) which had been in existence for nearly two y(-ars at the (late of the above returns, and had worked satisfactorily. The payments of members are 6d. per fortnight, and they receive l0s. per week when on strike or laid up through accident. There is also a death legacy of ~2 to members' families, bnt no allowance in sickness. Mr. Thomas Burt, recently elected as member of Parliament for Morpeth, has been secretary of this society since 1865, and still retains the position, although the society provides a deputy to perform the ordinary duties of the office. fIron-Flounders' Society of England, Ireland, and Wales.-The expendituresof this society for donations, allowances for sickness, accidents, superannuation, funerals andl emigration, from 1850 to 1859 inclusive, amounted to ~122, 714 4s. 8d. Its expenditures on the same accounts, from 18960 to 1869 inclusive, were ~248,609 4s. 7jd. Expenditures foi strikes are not included in these amonnts. ~ The Provincial 1typographical _AssoCiation..-The secretary of this association states that tie strikes in which it has engaged have had so many different objects'that it is impossible to tabulate them fully. The largest expenditures have been. incurred in strikes undertaken for the purpose of raising wages, bat a very considerable, suma has been expended in resisting reductions and other encroachments, includin~g the luttoduction of an undue number of apprentices. lUp to 1873 the society had no fund for benefits other than relief to men on strikes; but thele is a separate organization under the samne management, the object of which is to relieve the members while traveling. The fund which. that socier~y now has on hand amounts to abouit ~-2,000, which is not included in the above table. IIBoiler-Makers and Iron-Ship Bntilders.-This society has already been noticed. It is to be regretted that returns could not be obtained fromn the M1inens' National Union, unumbering 140,001) members; the Amalgarpated Associ-ation of Miners, numlbering 45,000; the National Agricul-tural Laborers' Union, numbering 6)0 Wo, and the, Federal Union of Agricul TRADES-UNIONS N THE UNITED KINGDOM. 221 tural Laborers, numbering 30,000; but these associations are as yet comparatively young, and probably have not settled into a uniform and systematic method of keeping adonsolidating their accounts. There is probably a reason, too, y they are not disposed to be communicative as to their fiacial condition, for their contests with employers have been severe and protracted, in consequence of which their funds are likely to be low. The secretaries, or other prominent representatives of these associations, as well as the secretaries of the Amalgamated Association of Cotto-Spinners, (numbering 14,200,) the East Lancashire Power-Loom Weavers, (numbering 16,0()00,) and the Amalgamated Iron and Steel Workers, (numbering 20,000,) have been asked for information in regard to their respective societies, but no returns as yet have been received fromn them. The societies just amed, ad those heretofore noticed, comprise all the associations, aving 10,000 members or upward, which were represented at the National Trades-Uin Congress held at Liverpool in January, 175.* It as already been remarked that the number of meiners represented at Liverpool was not less than 800,()(600, after making full allowance for duplicate representation in the case of somie of the cit trade-coucils; but there are many small organizations, and some of very considerable magnitude, which were not represented in the congress at all. One of these, the Scotch Carpenters and Joiners, hasbeen noticed in these pages; another association of the same trade, which so unrepreseted, has its headquarters in Birmingham, and is said to comprise upward of 20,000 members. Mr. George Potter, of London, a gentleman who is exceedingly well informed on all working-class movements in Great Britai, in a paper read before the Social Science Congress some months ago, estimated the total membership of the trades-unions of the United -Kingdom as being certainly not less tbarP 1,200,000, a number which, seeing that it is made up of men, a large, projportion of whom have wives and children, represents a very considerable, section of the population of the kingdom. "1The coal and iron workers," says Mr. Potter, "1cannot count fewer in their union than 300,000 nien; but as these industries are of comparatively recent development, their unions are not yet so complete in their arrangements as in a short time they are certain to become. Still, even in those trades, wonderful progress has been masder in adding provident to tr-ade benefits. Sickness and death and accid'enitareplrovided for in most of thiem; and in some superannuation is added, as well as provision for widows and orphans. Time alone is needed to make all this a vast net-work of provident arrangement, by which most of the worst evils of the workiiigman'~ssituiation will be met andovercomie. Itis sometimes insisted on that the benefits held out by trades-societies to their members can only be continued for a time. Actuaries have proved this. In this matter, however, the calculations of the actuaries have not turned out to be correct. The great trades-associatioinsha've always met their obligations, to their members,/ and with the power of levy which they possess they are not likely to aill in this in the future. They know their own business and they do it very well in their own way, with less internal disagrecinent and less chance of shipwreck through fraud, bad famith, or bad business tact than any other set of societies in the kinlgdom, whatever their object or by whomsoever worked."1 *K~few of the smaller societies have also beeii included iii the atovo notices, as well as tho Scotch Association of Carpenters and Joiners, whio were, not repr., —euetcd1 in the congress. Mr. Potter is editor of the Beehive, the Trades-Union organ. 222 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. This is strong commendation; but it must be frankly confessed that the study of their plan of organization, their management their modes of making the will of their members felt in all matters vital concern, tlleir precautions against fraud on the part of teir officers, their provisions for the discouragement of rash or hasty action i disputes with employers, their p)enalties for boastful or abusive guage, and their carefully-guarded arrangemets mutual su ort and assistance, tend(s to impl)ress one with a much more favorale oiio than that which is commonly received of the sobriety of conduct, capacity for business and for self-government, solid intelligence and oral tatus of the men who compose thein. TRADES-UNIONS. BY MR. J. S. STANLEY JAE. The following, forming the concluding part of an article written for this report lby Mr. Stanley James,'"On the condition of the workingclasses of Eligland," is inserted in this place because of its conectio with the preceding chapter: Trades-unionism in England is an established fact, and a power which, altough many politicians try to shirk or avoid, it is best to opely admit. The uprjudiced observer niust allow that in England trades-unions have aised workigmen morally and intellectually, and have taught them a higher senseoftheirrespOsibiliies. They have increased thl)e prices and shortened the hours of lbor; have educated wokigmen to a knowledge of their common interest and commo duty, and in every Sense have raised the character of English worikmen. Judge Rupert Kettle, in his work on "Strikes," says, respecting the trades-unions,'They have promoted free thought and free action among the band-working classes, and, moreover, have taught them to respect the law and rely upon moral means for obtainin what they believe to be right. We have now no bloodshed, no rioting, scarcely an angry- word in the bitterest and most protracted strikes. Although we owe this salutary change partly to the improved education and the higher moral tone among the laboring class, we owe it lunch more to the, direct and immediate influence Of trades-unions."1 The British Quarterly Review says, "1It appears pretty clear that unionism. by its influence has, by slow degrees, altered for the better the conohtion and circumstances of Biritish workmen." Prior to 1824 all concerted proceedings On the pait of workumen for the purpose of raising the rate of wages were punishable both. at common law, and unuder Ihe "1combination acts, " which were in force both in England and Scotland. In Scotlan1d particularly were these restrictions imposed on workingmen. In 1755 the journeymnen wool-comnbers in Aberdeen forumed themselves into a society. "1Though their seem~ing view," said Lord Kemes, "was to pro-vidlefor th ir poor, yet under that pretext several resolutions were made cranupiug tiade andl tenlding to make them independent of their employers." Thejud~gmen~tofthe couLrt before w~hich the menuwerebrought was, "that such comibidiations of artificers, whether they collect mooney for a common box, inflict penalties, or make by-laws, are of a dangerous tendency, subversive of peace and order, and a-ainst law;" and so under pains and peiialt es the men were prohibited from continuing such society. In 1762the court at EdIinburgh fouind "that the defenders and other journeymien ta-1lors of Edinburgh are not entitled to an hour of recess for breakfast, that the wages of a journeyman tailor in I he said city ought not to exceed one shilling- per day, amid that if a~ny jouincymian tailor not r, t~diaeJ or employed shall refuse to work when requested by a nuaser on the aforesaid terms, unless bor s:ome sufficient cauise to be allowed by the magistrates, the offeuder shall, upon conviction, be punished in terms of law; for arts and utanutlictures which are necessary to the well-being of society, must be subject to) rules, otherwise it may he in the power of a few individluals to do nmuch mlit chief. If the bakers should refuse to make bread, or the brewvers to niake ale, or the colliers to provide coals, without bein.g subjected to any control, they would be masters -of the lives of the inhabitants. To remnedy such an evil there must be a power placed somewhere; andl accordingly this power h as long bee exrcied y magistrates of burghs and justices of the lpea-ce, under ro-v'e of the sovereign court."1 With regard Ito the lropriictyof'the regulations it was observed that the power to fix wages was admitted, and "1it is Of nO purpcs3- to fix w~agcs without also fixing the number of working hours; and it is to no purpose to fix etI.her itf the defenders have the privilege to work or not at their pleasure." But year by year, during this century, the old-fashioned connection of ma9ster and Bservant, with the quasi-feudal servility on the one hand and patron'age on the other, TRADES-UNIONS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 223 as passed away, although many prejudices have survived the times when the dominant and he servient pitios was rigidly maintained. Some encouragement is given to the cotiuance of artificial class-distinctions in England by the maintenance on the statute-book of laws passed from time to time to modify and modernize, but not to ~~~~~~~abolish, he pains and pealties by wic, in barbarous ages, labor was enforced. In opposition to the law, trades-unions grew in power and strength every day. Various acts of Parliament were fro time to time passed in relation to them, but it was not until 7 that the trades-nin act" was passed, by which they were legalized. Many former disabilities are, however, continued, and secret societies are illegal: "All societies are deemed lawfl combinatLions the members of which shall take oaths, or egagements in the nature of oaths, or subscribe any test or declaration nt to disclose itssecrets." According to this law, every trades-society in the United States would be ulawful and its members liable to prosecution. The trades-uios, acting under the old ban of illegality, have, as I have said, raised the wages and shortened the hours of labor in England. This, however, has been done too often at the loss of friendly feelig, comfort, and confidence between employer and employed. Strikes are a barbarous means of adjusting disputes, and much suffering and misery have thereby ensued to the mere. The system of arbitration in disputes between employer and employed has, however, been inaugurated with great success. Arbitration was first proposed and carried out by Mr. Rupert Kettle, an eminent barrister, now jndge of the Worcester County court. For ten years Judge Kettle has devoted his time to this subject, and has mediated with great success in m1any large disputes between masters and men in every part of England. Judge Kettle's se~rvices (for which he will accept no remuneration) are well known and appreciated by the workingrnen, and whenever his decision h.-as been against their claims, they have accepted it loyally and thoroughly. Arbitration is now a principal platform of many of the lending trades-unions. At the last annual conference of the National Association of Miners the following resolution was carried: "1That the miners of the various districts in the association do all in their power to make arrangements with the employers to form boards of conciliation and arbitration, by which any disputes that may arise between both parties aight be amicably settled, without having recourse to the barbarous course of lock-outs." The system of trade-arbitrations is, in fact, now nearly a national one, and Judge Kettle has also the satisfaction of seeing it accepted in a great number of industries in France, where his syrstem, was highly commended by the Clomte do Paris in his book on the labor question; amid in Germany, since its advocacy by the great social economist, Schultze Delitch, and the w eli-known republican, Dr. Bertram. The leaders of the trades-unions in England have now, indeed, great povwer. Of IHalliday, Burt, Macdonald, and especially of Joseph Arch, it may be -,aid, in the words of the Gaul] Liscus to Cwsar, "1There are some whose influence with. the people is very great, who, although private men, have more power than the amagistrates themuselves." 224 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. STRIKES IN ENGLAND. Closely associated with the history of the British trades-unions, is that of those p)rotracted and bitter struggles between workmen and employers, known as " strikes," by which the annals of labor in the present century lihave been especially marked. One of the earliest was the widespread and long-continued strike of the Lancashire cotton-spinners, which took l)lace in 1810. The followingparticularsofthat dsevera other strikes of British workingmen are taken in a condensed form from the work of Mr. Ward on ", Workmen and Wages: Ill 1810, the spinners in the mills of Manchester, Stockport, Macclesfield, Staleybridge, Aslhton, Hyde, Oldhanm, Bolton, and as far north as Preston, simultaneously left their work, and, had the strike continued a little longer, the whole of Scotland would have joined it. As it was, 30,000 persons were thrown out of employment; ay Of these paraded the streets of the above-mentioned towns during the day, tig ad hootiDg at the persons who, as they supposed, were inimical to their cause. Disturbances of the peace were frequent; the authorities were inefficient for the protection of property; several nmasters were unable to leave their mills for fear of soe violent outrage; and such workmen as were obtained to supply the place of the seceders were held prisoners in the establishments where they worked. The direction of this strike was carried on by a congress at Manchester, formed of delegates from all the principal ills. During this turn-out., the men who had struck were supported by the contributions of those who were at work, and the sums so collected amounted for a considerable period to nearly ~1,500 weekly, of which Manchester,alonepaidupwardof. Thisfund was for sonic time sufficiently large to enable the cogress to make a weekly payment of 12s. to the spinners who had struck; but the contributions, and consequently the allowances that flowed firom them, gradually fell off, till they at legth ceased altogether, and those who depended upon them were literally consigned to destitution. When the contributions of these in work, ifailed,such of the men as had laid by money in the days of prosperity resorted to it for support, and thus were consumed in a hopeless warlare the haid-earned savings of years of industry. The required advance of wages was imot obtainned in asiua~le instance, and, after four months of protracted misery, the nien. returned to their work, some even accepting eniployment at the rate of 2d. per pound, instead of 4d., which they had been pi-eviously earning, thus submitting to a rr-eduction of 50 per cent. on their wages, to raise which everything but existence had been staked. *SS In the year 1824 the spinners in Hyde turned out, much against their will, and solely at the dictation of' the union. The reason given for the turn-out was, that the Hyde spinniers were working for wages below the regular rate, inasmuch as they were paid 3s. 7d. per 1,000 lianks of No. 40 cotton, while in other places 18. more was given for the same quantity of work. But the machinery on which the Hyde spinners worked was so supierior, that they could, at these comparatively low prices, earn more weekly than the nemghboring spinners, who, however, insisted that their Hyde brethren were paid lower waoves than themselves, and, therefore, ought to turn out; whereas, it is obvious that they were paid higher wvages, in fact, than wvere given elsewhere. The resu-lt ot this strike was that the men, after enduring the gre4est hardships, and ha ing cest the conibination between ~3,000 and ~4,000, returned to their worka't the same waires which they had struck to raise. In 18 0i a strike likewise occurred of more than ordimiary magnitude, and threatened at one time extieme violence on the part of the strikers. At Ashton and Staleybridge, 3,000 spin ners left their work, by which 52 miills and 80,000 persons were thrown out of work for ten weeks. On this occasion it was necessary to send 1,000,additional troops to that hart of the country to preserve order; and had it not been for the judicious nieasures of the commandant of the district, (Colonel Shaw,) great destruction of life anid property, in all probability, would have taken place. The men, however, returned to their work at the same wages which they had been previously receiving. THE PRESTON STRIKE. The Preston strike was marked by similar features to those just noticed in the cottonmanufameture of Manchester and the surrounding.locality, and ended just as disastrously to the operatives engaged in it, while at the same time it inflicted a great loss, *The opiniomis of this author on the merits of the several contests are usually omitted, but where reproduced they are not always in accordance with the view's of thle author of this r-eport. STRIKES IN ENGLAND. 225 upon the community in the immediate and surrounding district. The operatives of Preston struck work on November 5,1836. The strike lasted thirteen weeks, and the number of persos thrown idle by it were classified as follows: 660 spinners; 1,320 pecers, children employed by the spinners; 6,100 card-room hands, reelers, and powerloom weavers; 420 overlookers, packers, engineers, &c., making 8,500 persons in all. The spines, who numbered 660, were the only parties who voluntarily left their work, and who thrw the others out of employment, so that the 7,840 remaining were completely dependent pon them. The sacrifice, on the part of the piecers, reelers, overlookers, packers, and engineers was severe in the extreme, and the more severe as it was imposed upon them much aainst their will. The following estimate was made of the pecuniary loss to all classes of the operatives in consequence of the strike: The wages of the 660 spinners forthirten weeks, at 22s. 6d................... ~9, 652 Wages of 1,320 piecers for thirteen weeks, at 5s. 6d........................ 4,719 Waes'of.520 card-room hands, weavers, overlQokers, engineers, &c., for thirteen eek..s averagin.g 9..... 38,142 Estimated loss sustained by hand-loom weavers, in consequence of the turnout —---------—.................... 9, 500 Estimated loss sustained by clerks, casters, mechanics, dressers, sizers, &c., in consequence * th -r u.................................... 8,000 Total~................................... 70, 013. From which must be deducted: Estimated mount of wages earned during the partial resumption of work,....between January 9 and Febrn*ary5.. ~, 013 ~~~Estima~ted value of relief given by masters.1, 000 Other privte charity and parish relief-. 2, 500 Allownctotspinnersandpiecersfrom the funds of the union 4, 290 -..- 12, 803: Leavin a net peniary loss, to the whole body of the Preston operatives, of. 57, 210 But, to the town at large, it may be said that the loss amounted to the whole sum of 70, 013, as the deductions were mostly of a charitable nature. The loss to the masters, being three months' interest of ~800, 000, some of wllich, being sunk in capital, was not only unpfoductive, but was taking hearm from being rendered nseless, was estimated at-....... 45, 000! And the loss sustained by the shop-keepers, from loss of business, bad debts, & C -- ---- ----- ---- ----- ---- ----- ---- ----- ---- ----- ---- ---- 4, 986. Making a total loss to the town and trade of Preston, in this unavailingT struggle, of.................................107, 196, THE NOTTINGHAM STRIKES. In February, 1811, the, hosiery trade of Nottingham and the neighborhood was in an~ extremely depressed state, and, as a consequence, large numbers of workmen were re — dnced to pauperism and the most dire distress. On the 11th of March, great numbers. of the country framework-knitters assembled in the market-place and expressed determination to take vengeance on their employers who had reduced the prices paid for making stocking s. Several meetings were held and the framework-knitters resolved to organize themselves, with those of Nottingham and other places, for the purpose of advancing wagfes and destroying such improved machinery as they supposed injurious to manual la~bor. Secret midnight meetings were held in various parts of' the county, attended by delegates from other districts, who attributed their distress mainly to the introduction of what were then termed wvide-machincs, in some of which several stockings were woven at one time, while in others shapeless pieces were maclde for low-priced stockings, called cut-ups. Bands of the "1Luddites"1 prowled about at night to,destroy the obnoxious machines, but they were so disguised, and so organized, that very few of them were brought to justice, as compared to the number engaged in the undertaking. Upwards of 200 stocking-frames were broken in the short space of three weeks; and one manufacturer had 63 destroyed'in. a single night, besides other property connected with this trade. The system under which these deluded men acted was called- Luddism, which was derived from one Ludlam, a youth of Leicestershire, who, when ordered to "1square his needles" by his father, a frtrmework-knitter, took his hammer and beat them into a heap.' The destructive operations of the Luddites were repeated at intervals from 1811 to 1817, in which period upwards of one thousand stocking-frames and a number of lace-machines were destroyed in the county of Nottingham, and th e evil spread itself into the counnties of Leices ter, Derby, Lancaster, land. York. In the two latter counties, the object of the Luddites was to destroy the majchines which 15i L ~226 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. had been introduced to diminish hand-labor, but the frame-breakersin the hoery and nce-trades h ot this grievance to complain of. The Nottingham and Leicester men, however, complained of a diminution in prices, occasioned by the repeal of the act of the 5th of Elizabeth. Until this statute was repealed the framework-knitters were paid by printed statements, drawn up by both parties, the deviation from which, in 1811, and the introduction of wide or cut-up frames, caused the riots, which contined, with various intermissions, till 1817. The plan adopted by the rioters was to assemble in parties of from six to sixty, as circumstances required, under a supposed leader stled General Ludd," or "Ned Ludd," as the humor might seize them; and whoever assumed either of these titles had the supreme command of the party, some of who, armed with swords, pistols, firelocks, and other destructive implements, were placed as guards, while others, having hammers, axes, &c., entered the houses and destroyed the frames. In consequence of the continuance of these outrages, a large military force was dispatched to the locality, and two of the metropolitan-police magistrates, assisted by other officers, presided at Nottingham with the view of discover the ringleaders; but, although a secret committee was formed and supplied with a large sm of oney for the purpose of obtaining private information, no discoveries lof any importance were effected, and the offenders continued their devastations with redoubled violence. A royal proclamation, however, was issued, offering 50 reward fo the apprehension of any of the offenders; but this only tended to inflame the frenzy of the men, who then began to plunder the farm-houses both of money nd provisions, declaring that "they would not starve while there was plenty in the land." The number of unemployed families who were relieved out of the poor-ates i the three parishes of Nottingham, on the 30th of January, 1812, amounted to 4,248, cosistig of no fewer than 15,350 individuals, or nearly one-half of the then population. In 1813, eighteen Luddites, some of whom were guilty of murder and arso, were hung at York; and in the same year an act was passed which made it a crime unishable with death to break a stockin-frame. Seven Luddites were also transported from Nottingham, and several of the leaders in Leicestershire, in 1816 and 1817, were executed in front of the county gaol. Since that period, the framework-knitters, too iserably paid, have periodically had recourse to more temperate and more sensible measures i their endeavors to better their condition; and in 1819 those in Leicester and the neighborhood formed themselves into a union, in which those who were employed contributed to the support of tie unemployed, in order to prevent, the decline in wages, which had fallen nearly one-half since 1815. In this undertaking they were assisted by the contributions of the benevolent to the amount of more than ~3,000, as well as by loans of money and the assistance of the principal manufacturers; and about the close of the year 1823 things began to take a turn, trade being so much improved that there was scarcely a man out of employ. The frame-knitters' union was dissolved, having distributed, during a period of four years, no less than ~16,182 among the unemployed. The wages, however, of the frame-knitters continued to decline, until they reached little more than an average of 5s. per -week after deducting frame-rents and other shop-charges, though certain expert hands could earn twice that sum. Ini 1843, a petition, signed by upward of 25,000 framework-knitters of Leicestershire, Nottingham, and Derbyshire, was presented to the House of Commons for an inquiry into their distressed condition arising from the low rate of wages, the enormous exactions for frame-rent, the prevalence of the truck-system, or payments of wages otherwise than in money, and the manufacture of spurious articles called cut-ups. In February, 1844, Her Majesty issued a commiission to inquire into their grievances. A large body of information was collected and. published in a copious report. The heaviest grievance complained of in this inquiry was the frame-rents. The system of frame-renits and " charg)es" is one of the most oppressive that can possibly be conceived. It grinds the poor stocking-weaver alniost down to the dust; at least there is little left of his weekly earnings when the rents or "1charges"1 are deducted from them. The evidence, both of masters and men, is perfectly conclusive aud-coincident on one point, namely, that the amount of this deduction is regulated by no fixed rule or principle; that it is not dependent upon the value of the frame, upon the amount of money earned in it, or on the extent of'the work made; that it hmis differed in amounts at different, times and at different places; that the youthful learner or appresntce pays the same rent from his scanty earnings as the most expert and skillful workman in the trade from his, of fourfold the amount, and that the practice of this 11chargell has existed for upward of a century. The grievance began with the bagman engrossing the frames'and letting them out to hire. It was the beginning of a powerful and crushing monopoly on the part of the masters to exercise the right to charge, on t~he one hand, a fixed weekly rental for the use of a tool to work with, and, on the other, to reserve to themselves the right to prevent the renter of the tool froum the free aend uncontrolled use of it during the time it was rented. Further, when the bagman could not find fall employment, he prevented the renter of the tool from working- it for other parties. He also exercised the right of STRIKES IN ENGLAND. 227 on allowing theworkmen to begin at a certain hour, and leave off work at another certain hour. To increase, moreover, his power of control, he kept on firther engrossing the frames, by which he acquired the means to forestall the markets, and retain the power of making wht deductions he pleased. A petition was referred to a committee of the House of Commonsas long ago as 1777, in regard to these encroachments on the rights of the workmen, and they agreed that the petitioners ought to have redress, ut upon bringing in a bill it was defeated by the activity and energy of the hosiers, who had organized a powerful parliamentary opposition to it. Notwithstandig the miserable condition of the frame-work knitters, and the evils they have to contend against, strikes have done them infinitely more harm than good, whenever they have been resorted to for the removal of their grievances. General strikes, however, are very rare in the hosiery trade; the number of workmen, and their being distributed so widely about, preventing anythinglike the unanimity which is necessary to secure perfect organization with such a view, to say nothing of the scarcity of funds among the men. It ust we think be obvious that nothing can be more intolerable than the professed objects for which unions are generally formed-the maintenance of an established list of prices for labor-because, in the first place, they are powerless in controlling the influence on wages which the supply of labor ever bears to the demand for it; and, in the next, the unions have not the means of discerning the amount that the manufacturer can afford to pay for waes, as one only of the elements in the cost of productio, which woul leave him a rofit sufficient to induce him to continue the investment of his capital in the manufacture. In many cases, after a long struggle, and extensive injury both to masters and men, the latter have been forced to resume work on the terms they had previously turned out against, and occasionally even on less advantageous ones. THE STAFFORDSHIRE COLLIERY STRIKE. The narrative of the Staffordsire colliery strike is., sad tale, and soon told. It is the history of a hopeless struggle, which was generated in ignorance of the plainest economic laws, and ended as all such struggles must end, in painful discomfiture and defeat on the part of the men engaged in it. On the 4th of July, 1864,just six years after the preceding general strike in 1858, the fortnight's notice of the masters having expired, the thick-coal men all turned out. For a time they were joined by the working engineers, and by the men employed at the blast-furnaces in the making of pig-iron; hilt these, after a shoirt struggle, gave up the contest, and resumed work on the terms proposed by the masters, which were a reduction of ten per cent. The thin-coal workers in the Bilston and Wolverhampton districts did not at first join the movement, for they accepted the reduction, and, were at work, when, by repeated entreaties on the part of the thieckcoal men, they, too, were induced to turn out, some of them without giving notice. This naturally led to magisterial proceedings, and the thin-coal men ultimately a~ll went in and gave notice. On the expiration of that notice, they all turned out, but they did not remain out more than a week, and three-fourths of them at once accepted the masters' terms. It will, therefore, be seen that the thick-coal men were the first to object to the terms which the masters offered; and the, objection became most powerfully displayed among the men who were employed in the domestic trade at West Bromnich, and in the general trade about Dudley and Tipton. In the latter districts the chief employer is the Earl of Dudley. Other masters took the same course, and, seeing that the men intended stoutly to contest the point, they began at once to make arrangements for getting supplies of coal for carrying on the pig-iron and the finishediron works, respectively, froni other districts. Lancashire, Derbyshire, North Staffordshire, and North and South Walee, were at once applied to. The application met with a ready response, and so great was the demand, that every description of wagon had to be used to bring the coal from those districts. The railway companies were ready to run as many special trains as the ordinary traffic -%would allow, so that the enormous quantity of 10,000 tons of coal was daily brought into Staffordshire. The strike-committee attempted to cut off the supplies, by sendiur delegates into the districts- we have named, with a view to induce the colliers to refuse to get coal to be used in au' attempt to defeat the men in Staffordshire. But the attempt was unsuccessful. The colliers at a distance did not believe that they had a right to dictate to their masters,ts to what market they should send their coal, but were ready to contribute to the support of their brethren on strike. Simultaneously with this refusal on the part of the colliers at a distance, there were evidences at home of a want of unanimity. Men who felt that their i~asters would ultimately win the- day, returned to work in small numbers throughout the -whole of the district. There were 30,000 out when the strike was at its height in September, but that number had fallen to about 18,000 in the mniddle of the month, To prevent these from going to work, mnorninUg meetings, at between 4 and 5 o'clock, were detei mined uponi, and thence detachments moved off in 228 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERIA. different directions, headed by drums and whistles. Wherever men were met on the road going to work, they were sure to be prevented from going down that day. Usually, it required much persuasion to bring about such a result, but when that failed, other means of a less agreeable character were resorted to; and when men succeeded in getting to work, unobserved, they were met as they returned, and assailed with the usual epithets of "black-leg," and the like, the presence of the police as their guard notwithstanding. A few of the more desperate resorted, for the first tie in the history of a colliers' strike in Staffordshire, to the throwing of rough hand-grenades into the houses of the men who had gone to work; and as the threats became more nd more vehement, the police had to interfere at the morning meetings, which were ultimately prohibited. The result was that the number of men-ecouraged by two troops of lancers, who were headed by the lord-lieutenant of the county, and by the stipendiary magistrate for South Staffordshire-was quickly enlarged, and work in the pits was very soon resumed. TIlE OTTERY STKs. The strikes in the pottery-trade in the years 1834 and 1836, also "point a moral and adorn a tale" of more than ordinary interest in relation to workigmen. The Staffordshire potteries, as the locality is ordinarily termed, comprise parts of three parishes, and extend, from north to south, a distance of eight miles. Four of the principal towns are included within this limit, of which Bursem is the oldest in the district; and the first in rank next to this town are Hanley and Shelton, which may be said to form one town, as they are immediately contiguous to each other, and are the most populous. At the census of 1831, the population of the several towns within the parish of Stoke-upon-Trent was 35,602; in the parish of Burslem, 12,714; and in the township of Tunstall, in Wolstanton Parish, 3,673; making a total of 51,989. Since that period the population has more than doubled. All the processes of the manufacture of pottery are performed by manual labor, and no machinery, in the common iacceptation of the term, is used. Every branch in the trade is healthy, with the exception of that employed in covering the surface of the ware with glaze, or (as it is technically called) dipping." The regular working-time on which all calculations of wages are based is fifty-four hours per week, or an average of nine hours per day; but when goods are in great demnd, the workmen are often required to make greater exertions, and the time is extended to sixty-six hours per week, or an average of eleven hours per day. The operative potters, as a body, earn fnlly as good if not better wages than the workmen of any other staple trade in the kin gdom, and full employment is afforded a~t suitable occupations to women and children. 0In a statement published by the chamber of commerce previous to the general strike, and circulated throughout the kingdom, there are the following remarks on the subject of the earnings of the workmen, which have been authenticated by the proper authorities: Two or three, yeats ago, when wages were, considerid low, the weekly average was from 17s. to 21s. for men, accordince to their skillfulness; 7s. to 9s.. for women, and 38. 6d. to 4s. Gd. for children fourteen years old. Teargeaning in regular branches are now from 21s. to 28s. for men, 9s. to 12s. for women, and 4s. to 63. for children, the labor being calculated at nine hours per day. The, operative potters, in their general character, are industrious and orderly, and possess the comforts of life to a considerable extent. For ten years previous to the strike, -wage's had been undergoing a progressive advance, caused in part by the operation of the potters' union, but more by an uninterrupted demand for goods, which left few skilful hands ont of regular employment. At no period since the establishment of the trade was the remuneration for labor so ample as at the time of the general strike, in 1536. The first union of the workimen known fn the potteries, for the purpose of regulating0 prices, was established in 1824. In 1825 the hands at a number of ma-nufactories struck for aen advance of wages, but during the continuance of the strike the well-remembered commercial panic of that year occurred -hich frustrated their endeavors, and work -was resumed at the same or lower prices than those previously paid. One of the expedients of the union at that time was to commence manufacturing, and, by thus making the surplus hands a source of profit, it was thought a waste of funds would b e prevented, and at the same time the competition for employment would be checked. The union was dissolved. but its leaders met with considerable difficulty in obtaining employment, and some left'the district, while others took to other occupations. OneC of the leaders of the un1ion, however-a man of somne mark in his way, wvho had subsequently chan ged his views on the, subj ect-m a&f the following observations in a letter published just previous to the strike of 1836: " These simple facts will illustrate the nature of unions, their utter inefficiency, the ihctions spirit they cherish, the false principles on which they are founded, the mateJournal of the Stat.-istical Society, vol. 1. STRIKES IN ENGLAND. 22 rials of which they are ordinarily composed, and the ruinous effects to wich they lead. e spent nearly 3,000 to prop up a hfallacious delusion; labor fell lower than ever in 1826, in consequence ot the depression ot trade. Many of the men were ruined and went in at any price. Many, before in comfort, draggred on a miserable existence on parish-pay, having offended their employers beyond forgiveness." In 1834, another attempt was made at manufacturing by the workmen. A manufactory was taken at Burslem, on a lease for a term of years, and seven of the men who had accumulated property entered into engagements for the payment of the rent. A capital, amounting to ~800, was advanced from the general fund, and two of the most active members of the union had the management. This concern struggled through n existce of eighteen months; the capital was entirely lost, all parties became dissatisfied with each other, and those connected with the lease were happy at being discharged from their responsibilities on almost any terms. I November, 1834, the end of the potters' year, the workmen at ten anufactories in Brslem and Tunstall struck for an advance of wages. The advance demanded was an average of thirty-five per cent. upon the current rate. On the st of March, after a stoppage of fifteen weeks, the manufactories were opened, and masters yielded to the demands of the men. The number of hands employed by the ten manufacturers was at least 3,300, and the weekly amount of waes exceeded1,900. The total loss in wages alone sustained by the worknwasestimated at 27,000. To this amount must be added the loss sustained by the masters on their dormant capital, the loss to the working colliers, and to the other branches immediately dependent upon the potters, The workmen were naturally elated at the victory which they had achieved, and ad the weakness to delude themselves with the idea that nothing could stand against their combined will. The leaders of the union assumed to regulate all matters that related to the workmen and their employers. Further concessions were demanded from time to time, and finally the masters found it impossible to comply with these demands. and submit to the course of conduct purwithout appearing to abandon the' general interests of the trade. Therefore, in cMarch, 1836, the great body of the manufacturers formed themselves into a society under the desiation of a chamber of commerce, the professed object of ieh was to protectte general interests of the trade, but virtually to counteract the effect of the proceedings of the workmen. It had already appeared, that, notwithstanding an agreement to the contrary, the workmen were enabled to effect their object, by causing the hands at any manufactory to strike until their demands were conceded. To counteract this, no other plan presented itself to the chamber than that of inserting a clause in the agreement, whereby the masters might, as a body, be enabled to suspend their manufactories whenever the workmen of any master struck, in violation of any existing contract. Sueh a clause was drawn up, unuder the sanction of high legal authority, and the masters determined on its forming part of their nagreement. The contest on the part of the miasters was limited to these objects-to maintain the established.wages of the trade, to continue the mode of hiring from year to year, and to make an alteration in the form by adding the protective clause named. Workmen thought, however, that if the old mode of enforcing their demands was then adopted, the same result would follow; and the hands at fourteen manufactories struck work, although they were under agreement to It-he end of the year. The chamber of commerce took the ease of these fourteen manufacturers into consideration, and urged them to oppose the proceedings of their workmen. Pecuniary recompense was promised, on a scale proportionate to the relative extent of their business, until Martinmas, the time, when the suspension of the whole bedy -would offer a more formidable resistance. The workmen, week after week, deceived themselves with the hope that the masters would not continue united; that certain individuals, among those whose men had struck, would soon yield rather thanl sacrifice their connections; and that the secession of one would 1)0 the signal for the surrender of all the others. No changye was made in this state of thing-s until Martinmawi, when sixty-four manufacturers, members of the chamber, suspended business, as they had previously resolved. The number of hands employed at the fourteen manufactories which struck in September was 3,500, and the weekly payment. of wages was at an average ~2,560. The total loss to the district on this strikes may be estimated at ~ 31,168. The number of hands employed at the 64 manufactories engaged. in the geneoral strike was 15,660, and the amount of wages was at an average ~1 1,238 per week. Tbe loss to the whole district on this strike may be estimated at ~ 157,442. There are in the potteries 130 mnufactories, which employ 20,000 hands, and pay in weekly wages ~0.14,400. It would thus appear that about half the total number of manufacturers were eligaged in the strike; but as they were the greatest in extent of business, they employed seven-ni'.Aths of the total number of hands and paid four-fifths of the whole amount of wages. The union was completely defeated, not having succeeded in any one of its points. On the 20th of January, 1837, twenty-one weeks from the commencement of the strike 230 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. with the fourteen manufactories, and ten weeks from the general suspension, the men resumed work. The annual hiring was retained, and the suspension clause ormed part of the agreement. The extent of suffering was great, and far beyond anything that had previously been seen in the district. The payments from the union funds were very irregular and did not exceed an average of s. or 6s. per week for n with families; while women and children, who form a large proportion of the working population, did not receive any allowance. The privations f the workmen were great, but they borethem with a constaevncy wvorthyofabetterause. Afewdaysbefore the termination of the strike a considerable number of individuals, amounting to pwards of 200, simultaneously pledged their watches and disposable articles of dress in aid of the general funds. Many of the more provident workmen, who had money in the savings-banks of the district, drew it out, either for the supply of their own necessities or to assist the union. According to a financial statement the total loss inflicted by the strike from first to last was as follows: Total loss to the operative potters. --......152,816 Total loss to colliers, crate-makers, and engravers19, 332 Total loss to the manufacturers.....16, 462 Total...................188,610 No outrage was committed during the strike, either on the person or property of any manufacturer. There were no tumultuous gatherings, nor indications of violence, which was highly creditable to the men. During the strike, however, many of the manufacturers were "'picketed," and any individual seen to enter the manufactories incurred a fine, which was stopped from the succeeding week's allowance. Such a regulation might be necessary in support of a bad cause, but could scarcely be required in one founded upon justice; and it was surprising that n who, from their conduct, appeared to understand so well their rights, and who were so sensitive under what was deemed oppression, should submit tus to be controlled in the operation of their own free will and perfect liberty of action. YORKSHIRE STRIKES. The Yorkshire strikes, as they are commonly denominated, furnish a curious and instructive chapter in the history of the manufacturing classes. In 1831, the stUbbers,,sphinners, and weavers in the cloth trade formed a union. One of the leading firms at Leeds was the first to feel the effect of the combination. They had' just completed a building on a gigantic scale intended for the weaving of fine woolen cloth. All the expensive machinery adapted for that purpose had been purchased and erected, and every nccessary arrangement for commencing the business had been made, when the weavers, to the number of 210, turned out, althongh the wages they had been receiving were equal to those received by others of their class, and averaged 17s. a week. For some weeks the required advance in wages was resisted, until at length those men'who continued at their work were subjected to such treatment, on entering and leaving the factory, that the proprietors were induced to accede to the terms proposed. The men, however, were disappointed in obtaining all the advantages they looked for, as only a sufficient number of weavers were taken back to work. the looms in the old part of the establishment, leaving their newly-erected building unused. The owners soon after disposed of all the machinery it contained, and this commodious and spacious structure, 136 yards in length, stood untenanted for some time, a melancholy monument to the effect of misguided un1ion_ policy. The union men, however, thought otherwise, and deemed the emptiness of the unrivaled structure a triumph of their cause. The men engaged in the various processes of finishing, as well as milling or fulling woolen cloth, joined the union; and the -workmen, for a period, wielded almost irresistible power over the property of their masters. The next step of the union was to draw up a, list of wages to be paid for spinning,D weaving, &c., which was published in the newspapers. This document assumed the air of a proclamation, and was headed "1a scale of prices to be observed by mill-owners, manufacturers, &c.,"1 and had appended to it regulations as to the admission of boys, -and the proportion in which they were to be employed, relatively to the number of adults. The workmen were then ordered by the committee of the union to demand of their respective employers compliance with this scale of wages, care being taken that the manufacturers should be successively applied to for this purpose, in order that there might be less chance of any general resistance on their part, and that the combination might not have too much onl their hands at any one time. The larger number of the masters acceded to these demands, and their names were duly published in the Leeds newspapers. The workmen, however, with a logic peculiarly their own, contended that this scale was not a rise of,wages, but only what they terined. an "1equalization," of them-it being a principal. object of their union to compel the masters to pay every operative STRIKES IN ENGLAND. 231 good, bad, or indifferent an eqal sum for his labor. But the workmen failed to gain, the expected advantage from this advance of wages, as the masters were prevented by the state of the market from maing beyond a certain quantity of cloth, and that only of the superior qualities, while paying the advanced rate of wages; they consequently either sent their yarn to be woven in the neighboring villages, where wages were always lower than at Leeds, or stopped part of their works entirely; and thus a great man of the men were thrown permanently out of employ, who, of course, had to be supported by those who got work. Trade, both home and foreign, was materially injured by these contests. Some of the manufacturers managed to escape the losses they would otherwise have sustained by making alterations i spinning the yarns and setting the webs. The union made new regulations to meet this contrivance, which were counteracted by fresh evasions o the part of the manufacturers, and thus a war of cunning Ad contrivance was carried on between masters and men, in which the latter were sometimes beaten, and in some instances they voluntarily requested their employers to return to the old system and prices. The evil of these proceedings was that the goodness of the cloth was impaired by the alteration of the gear and spinning, and the public had to pay in the deteriorated quality of the cloth they purchased, while our foreign trade was doubtless ijured by these futile and absurd attempts of the workmen to raise their wages beyond the natural level. The union, however, was nothing daunted by these drawbacks. It commenced a sstem of interference in the management of the manufacturers' busiess by requiring them, in case of a contraction of their scale of production, not to discharge any of their workmen, but to supply all, in equal proportions, with the -work that remained. The tyranny of the union at length knew no bounds, and the committee, like all ignorant men in the possession of authority, for which they are totally unfit from sheer incapacity, ran riot in the exercise of power, and frequently displayed the mere wantonness of passion and caprice. ~~~~~~~Th~e most remarkable strike that arose from this union took place in 1833, by which over athousad hands were thrown out of employment. The turn-out in this ended in the complete discomfiture of the men, and it forms the only instance in these trades of a manufacturer having sigle-handed defied the whole power of one of the most extensive unions in Egland and at length gaining the victory. Every mode of annoyance which the union could devise was put in practice on that occasion. This strike was the cause of the invention of the wool-combin_ machine, which wholly superseded the labor of the combers, -who were the chief ringleaders in the affair, and inflicted a blow on the combination from which it never afterward recovered. ENGINEERS' STRIKE. The Amalgamated EnDginDeers' strike of 1851-'52, was, in most respects, like other strikes, intolerant and injudicious. It was a foolish attempt to organize labor upon principles which have hitherto proved fallacious, and which, on their application, have uniformly reslilted. in destroying that which they assume to protect and uphold. As regards the principle which should regulate their particular class of labor-and, indeed, all labor-they do not appear to have had a very clear and just perception. The preamble to their rules is worded as though the association was simply a benefit club, or a friendly society; but as we travel on we find an ominous sentence or so, which at once throws a steady light upon the purport and intent of the body. They look -upon their " vested interests,;' as they term them, as analagous to those of a physician who holds a diploma, or of an author who is protected by a copyright. As regards wages and the hours of labor, the council says that the wages in a certain kind of work sh-all be not lerssthan 35s. per-week. The relative merits of workuianship or individual skill have nothing to do with the question; these elevated qualities must be lowered to suit the comparatively weak and unskillful, and no man shall presume to raise himself above mediocrity. They are under orders, it will be seen, ini all the daily business of their lives. They work, or are idle; they earn, or are destitute; they go out or come in; they obey or disobey their employers; they prosper, or suffer, accordiug to order. If there is anything more despotic than this in the broadest socialisin denounced on the continent, we have never heard of it. After aprotracted struggle between the Amalgamated Engi-neers and their employers, in which a good deal of ill-will was generated, the dispute virtually terminated in the unconditional submission of the men to the terms required of them. The immediate cause of the strike was the desire On the part of the men, to abolish overtime and piecework. The effect of piecework and overtimie, acecording to thieviews~ of the council, is that it causes redundancy of labor. There is, perhaps, never too muchfor all the hands there are to do it-generally too little; and if men work overtime, or. increase production by piecewvork, they also increase the disproportion between. the; labor there is to be done and the nuniber of hands to do it. Those hands, thrown uniemployed upon the labor-market, become at once the competitors of the men in work. 232 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. and a burden on the funds of the society to which they belong. They at the same time draw upon the resources of the workers, and enable the employer, by pitting one class against the other, to diminish those resources; and thus a universal game of "beggar my neighbor" is set up, and the broken of to-day become the breakers of tomorrow. A mn ore extended account than the above brief abstract of Mr. Ward's chapter on the strike of the Amalgamated Engineers in 1851-'52 would, no (loubt, prove instructive, but preference is given to the following history of the engineers' strike on the Tyne, prepared expressly for this report by Evan iR. Jones, Esq., United States consul at Newcastle-uponTynae: THE ENGINEERS' STRIKE ON THE TYNE. Since the great Preston strike in 1854, when 17,000 cotton-operatives turned out for an advance of 10 per cent. on their wages, England has not witnessed such a. determined contest between capital and labor as the engineers' strike in Newcastle and district for a reduction of the hours of labor from fifty-nine to fifty-four hours per week. It will be remembered tha t the cotton-operatives were unsuccessful, after enduring the bardhips and privations consequent upon such a strife for thirty-six weeks; whereas the Newcastle engineers, at the end of a twenty-week strike, carried on with great ability and resolution on both sides, won the day, and completely revolutionized the labor-market of Great Britain. The nine-hour movement had been agitated with varying zeal for many years, and on the 1st.of April, 1871, it showed signs of life at the neighboring town of Sunderland, When a large number Of engineers came out on a strike for the success of the enterprise. The w~ien achieved a victory after a short struggle of four weeks and two days. The masters on the Tyne, taking warning from the attitude assumed by the men at Suuderland, held a meeting on the 8th of April (one week after the commencement of the Sunderland strike) and pledged themselves to aid and support the Sunderland masters in resisting the demands of the men. As already shown, the employers at that town were not equal to the emergency. On the 10th of April the Newcastle engineers held a meeting with a view of procuring aid for their fellow-workmen on strike, and to take the necessary preliminary steps toward extendiuc, the arena of struggle to include Newcastle. The workmen were in council quite frequently during the following weeks; the idea of striking for the inine-hours system was fast becoming popular, and on the evening of the 2d of May the movelnent assumed. definite shape in a circular, which -vas couched in firm but respectful language, asking a reduction of the hours of labor from fifty-nine to fiftyfour hours per week, and expressing an earnest desire to settle the matter "1without a resort to extreme measures." This was signed by "1the acting COMMitteQ of the NineHours League," and sent to the various employers of engineers on the Tyne, with a request that an answer might be returned before the 12th of the same month. Upon the day following the receipt of the circular, the masters met at the Station Hotel for its consideration, Sir William Armstrongr in the chair, and the proposition of the Nine-Hours League was unanimously declined in a letter addressed to the secretary of the league by the solicitors of the masters. Bot eml~yrs nd eployed were now organized for the coming battle, the cloudTs were gathering from all points of the compass, and a, storm was inevitable. With all the respect which is due to the, masters and to their,able chairman for his efforts on their behalf, I must be permitted to compliment the men, and especially the league committee, for the sound policy which dictated most of their movements from the beginning. They evinced particular solicitude that their cause should stand well with th epe the hmaysrtgms which. they executed (luring the campaign stamp them as apt politicians. The next move by the league was a prcposition to appoint six of their -number to meet a like number of their employers "1to try to come to some understanding,"1 but unfortunately -a small body of men had already turned out, and the masters dccliued the meeting, stating that they -would have suggested a written communication from, the league in preference to a mneeting, but for the fact that a strike had already taken place. This comimunication, like the first, reached themen through alawv-firmi,a couirse peculiarly distasteful to the men. Not only did the masters decline to meet their workmen, they would not even communicate with them, save through the medium of their legal advisers. The men were hurt, offended. The masters considered this the -wisest mode of procedure. I believe firmly that it precipitated the strike and added fuel to the flame. On Saturday, May 20, the league held another meeting, and, after discussing the reply of the masters, the following resolution was passed almost unanimously: "This meeting, feeling that the time for energetic action has arrived, recommends the STRIKES IN ENGLAND. 233 following factories to come out on strike as soon as they have worked a legal notice, (one week:) Hawthorn & Co., Forth Banks, Thompson & Boyd, Abbott & Co., Black, Hawthorn & Co., Joicey, Elswick Engine-Works, T. Clark & Co., and Clark, Watson & Gurney."2 The men ow became enthusiastic in favor of the movement, and 7,500 gave in their notices, as authorized by the foregoing resolution. The flour-dealers took time by the forelock, and declared through the daily papers that in the event of a strike the staff of life would be sold for cash only. On Wednesday, the 24th, a committee of the chamber of commerce memorialized the mayor to offer his services as a mediator to the parties in dispute in order to avert, if possible, the threatened calamity, who undertook the delicate duty. On the following day a deputation from the league waited upon him and stated their grievances and the redress sought for. The mayor next called upon the masters assembled at the Station Hotel and explained to them the position assumed by the men and suggested a meeting of six of the masters and six of the men to discuss the question in all its bearings. In answer to a question, he stated that he did not consider himself authorized to make the propositio, but believed that the men would make overtures for such a meeting did they but believe that such a proposal would be entertained by the masters. The masters had, upon the day previous, resolved that united opposition be given to the strike which has commenced, and the mediation of the mayor was unavailing. The employers evidently did not deem it advisable to meet the men, but stated that they would "at all times be ready to receive and carefully consider ally written communication from them." By the following Saturday, several thousands of the men, having worked the legal notice, left the various shops, not to return on Monday morning. The en employed at the locomotive and engine works of Messrs. Robert Stephenson & Co. ad not cast their lot with the engineers of the other shops, but, acting independently, applied for the nine hours concession; their application was made known to the ead of the firm at London, and elicited a kind letter, setting forth the facts bearigon the case and the reasons why it would be incompatible with the circumnstances in which the proprietors were placed, and ultimately injurious to the interests ~~~~of th~~he workmen themselves, to make the proposed reduction in the hours of labor. Mr. Stephenson, in his communication, stated that the manufacture of locomotive and marie engines had encountered severe competition at home and abroad, and to meet that competition the proprietors had submitted to an enormous increase in the expenditure, of capital for the purchase of new tools and expensive machiuery, which could only yield a return for the outlay while it was at work, and a consequence of the adoption of the nine-hour movement would be an immediate serious loss, as the quantity of work would be materially reduced by a shortening of the tinie, while the fixed charges for rent and expenses of management would remain the same. He also added that there was no probability that the competition would be diminished; and as the proprietors had, during the recent period of depression, accepted large contracts which were in themselves unremunerative, for the express purpose of keeping their men and machinery employed, the question became particularly serious in their case, as they could not fail to foresee that acquiescence in the present demand would endanger the stability of the establishment itself, which had at all times consulted the best interests of the workmen. I have thus given a brief summary of the argument adduced against the reduction of the hours of labor to show the magic of a few kind, considerate words upon the brawny sons of toil, Mr. Stephienson having always treated his men with the utmost kindness, and having abstained from joining any combination of employers in opposition to workmen. The result was that the 1,400 men employed at the works of Messrs. Stephenson & Co. never left their work for a single hour. Had the answer reached them through a law-office, things might have been different. Duringr the months of June and July, the officers of the league exerted themselves in procuring funds from their class, in the various large towns in the country, and in securing employment elsewhere for the men on strike. This enabled them to make more liberal distributions of money to those remaining at Newcastle. The first allowance of 38. per man was made on the 6th of June, to the men who were the first to stop work. During the following week a general apportionment of is. 9d. per man was made. These money-allotments, at first trifling and irregular, were soon established as weekly payments, and steadily increased in amount, so that toward the end of July the men were receiving 4s3. each and is. for every child. The number of men entitled to relief had by this time been reduced from. something like 8,000 to 2,770. The United States obtained some first-class workmen during the progress of this strike. During the two months specified several meetings of the workmen were held on the town moor, when the officers rendered an account to the men of their stewardship, and urged them to stand firmly to the end. All the initiatory steps for these mass-meetings were taken with a view of creating 234 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA as much enthusiasm as possible, for quite a number of those on strike were beginning to lose that necessary element in battle, under the infence of short rations. A procession was regularly formed; numerous flags and appropriate mottoes were distributed at intervals along the line, the band struck p, and the procession moved through the principal streets to a stand previously erected on the moor. Efforts were again made by independent gentlemen to have this difficulty between employers and employed settled. Mr. C. M. Palmer, head of the lare ship-buildig establishment at Jarrow, offered his services as peace-maker, and masters and i were finally brought face to face, through his ood offices. The meeting was held at the council-chamber, and amounted to this: The masters stated that they had a copromise to offer, providing the men would agree to vot upon its acceptance or rejection by ballot. The representatives of the league declined the proposition. They objected to having the masters dictate to them how the question should be decided, and here in my opinion they showed a want of confidence in the result of a secret vote. To say that they were so excessively sensitive and independent as to refuse good proposition, simply because it came from the masters, would be to do them an injustice. On the 2d of August, the compromise which the masters desired to submit to a vote by ballot by the men became known through the medium of large posters put in conspicuous places about the town; after stating among other things that their worke would be "opened at the usual hours for the re-engagement of their men. On ths following morning they proceeded to give the rules to be observed by those who would resume labor, from which I extract the followiln: "Working-hours inside: The working-hours to be fifty-seven per week, arranged as may be agreed on between the employers and workmen. "Working-hours outside: Time actually at the work or on board ship only to be reckoned. A fixed time-allowance to be added for traveling, so as to make the total hours equal to shop-hours. -" Allowances and traveling expenses to remain as at present. " Overtime: All time over and above fifty-seven hours per week to be valued at rate and a quarter, except in case of workmen required to work all day, and the whole or a portion of the succeeding night, who will be paid at the rate of time and a half for the time worked after 10 o'clock. " All work on Sunday to be considered special, and the hours worked to be valued as at present, with usual meal-hours." The compromise met with decided opposition from the league, and entirely failed in its object. The masters, still determined to combat the nine-hours movement to the end, began, to look elsewhere for the labor denied them at home. Agents were, sent to the manufacturing towns in this country, and to the continent, to employ engineers for the various works. A counter-plot was set on foot by the league. The various trades societies throughout the country were requested to foil the efforts of the masters. Au agent was sent to Belgium to make known to the workmen of that country the nature of the struggle going on between capital and labor on the Tyne. The strife now became bitter and relentless. The masters appealed to employers of labor throug-hout Great Britain for material aid toward resisting the demands of the men. The league had already canvassed the country for ussistance toward maintaining the struggle, which by this time was generally acknowledged to be of national importance. The month of August was spent by the contending parties in prosecuting their reispective plans, with a view of obtaining the victory. By this time the efforts of the employers to import labor was bearing fruit. From the letter of Sir William Armstrong to the London Times, dated September 12, I find that the total number of workmen introduced to this district from England, Scotland, and the continent amounted to 1,917, to which is added 1,375, who either never left their work, had been hired on the spot, or had returned to their engagements, making in all 3,000 hands. It is but fair to state, however, that this exhibit is qualified by Mr. Burnett, the president of the league, who says that the 1,375 hands who had either continued at work, had been engaged in the district, or had been imported from without, can only be made up by including clerks, draughtsmen, and foremen, a class which formed a very great proportion of those then at work, especially in the establishment of Sir William Armstrong and partners..The mission of Mr. Cohn), the agent of the league on the continent, was destined to be short-lived. The authorities interfered, and he was permitted to return to London. But his failure abroad only stimulated him to extra exertions at home, and by his persuasi'ie eloquence he induced many of the Germans, Norwegians, and Belgians to return to their native land. The masters, through their agent, had entered into a contract wjth the foreigners for a service of six months. It was therefore necessary that every preca~ution should be taken to conceal all uMovemeuts preparatory to their departure from the masters and police, for by this act they wvere, violating their contracts and were STRIKES IN ENlGLAND. 235 amenable to the law. In their endeavors to run the blockade tne strangers left their trunks behind them, many having previously put themselves inside of no less than five sirts and three pairs of trowsers. They usually decamped under cover of darkness, and were piloted to steamers about to sail by guides from the league, their passage being already provided for. During the months of August and September the masters brought actions at law against a large number of men for breach of contracts, and against a few for assault and kindred complaints. I must be permitted to add that actions for assault and disorderly conduct were of a trivial nature and rare of occurrence. Indeed, the men on strike acquitted themselves throughout the prolonged struggle in an orderly, peaceful, and highly creditable anner, and this while their places at the lathe and the anvil were beingfilled by strangers, while the pale cheek of the wife and the pitiful eries of the child made the heart bleed, while the arm that could relieve them was doomed for a time to Lang paralyzed by the workman's side. I felt that the employers would be among the first to come forward and indorse the verdict I have pronounced. If such injurious measures as strikes are again resorted to in this and other countries, may the noble example of the Newcastle engineers for law and for order be emulated and imitated everywhere. Late in September the following proposition was submitted. by the league to the masters, through the agency of Mr. Mundella, M. P., who had come to Newcastle to contribute his influence toward bringing a long-standing difficulty to a close: If our employers will concede the three hours per week reduction in our workingtime, which is now in dispute between us, we, on our part, will consent to a reduction in our wages, the amount of the reduction to be settled either on mutual agreement between ourselves and employers or by arbitration." After careful consideration, the men's offer was declined, as will be seen by the following extract from Sir William Armstrong's letter to Mr. Mundella, dated September 30: Our proposal is that the question should be compromised by the acceptance on the part of the men of two hours out of the five demanded, and that in lieu of the remaining three hours they should take a proportionate increase of wages. The condition of trade justifies, as we have always admitted, an advance of wages, so that the proposed advance, unlike the proposed reduction, does not conflict with the laws of supply and demanud. This increase of pay would amount to 5 per cent., and would apply to every kind of skilled labor; adding the value of the two hours conceded in time, it would represent a total advance of SJ per cent, on the wages current when the strike beg-an."1 It will be observed that Mr. Mundella's mission proved ineffectual, as had the efforts of those who had preceded him. as mediators between the contending parties. At this time the weekly distribution of money amounted to 128. per man and a shilling extra for each child; and although that sum falls far short of being adequate to the requirements of a man who has a wife and children dependent on him for support, it shows that the financial position of those on strike had been gradually improving since the first general allotment of Is. 9d. per man was made in the early part of June. While the praiseworthy efforts of Mr. Mundella were still fresh upon the minds of those concerned, Mr. Joseph Cowen, proprietor of the Newcastle Chronicle, and Mr. R. P. Philipson, town clerk, gentlemen held in high esteem. by their townsmen, met in secret conclave on the morning of October 5, and. drew up the following articles, with fervent hopes that they would be favorably received by the disputants: " Suppose the employers were to concede the fifty-four hours per week, the men would agree to work overtime when and to the extent required by the employers. I "The wages, both as to ordinary -wages and as to overtime, to remain the same in the different factories as existed prior to the strike. "The wages to be reckoned by the hour and quarter hour, and paid weekly at 12.15 p. in. on Saturday. The agreement to be for twelve months, with power to either party to determine it at the end of six months by giving one month's previous notice. "The men to go to work on the arrangement now existing in the shops, (57 hours,) and he new terms (54 hours) to take date from January 1, 1872."1 The foregoing terms were, submitted to the'issociated masters by Mr. Phili pson, and to a delegated meeting-of the Nine Hours League by Mr. Cowen, on the evening of the same day, and to the great satisfaction of the entire community the terms were accepted by both parties. Matters of detail were speedily arranged, and on Thursday morning, October 12, after a strike of twenty weeks, the men returned to their labor with elastic tread, to gladden the hearts of forty thousand souls. 236 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. THE STORY OF A FEW STRIKES. [The following article is from the Chicago Tribue. The Hon. A. S. Bolles, in his just published Chapters on Political Economy," quotes from Thornton's "Labor" and Ward's "Workmen and Wages" the fires of the cost of some famous strikes to the strikers. We reprodce them from his book, and add others: In 1829, the Manchester spinners struck. They lost $1,250,000 in wages before te dispute was at an end. The next year their brethren at Ashton and Staleybridge fo lowed their example in striking and in losing$1,250,000. n1833,thebuildersofManchester forfeited $360,000 by voluntary idleness. In836,thespinnersofPrestonthre away $286,000. Eighteen years afterward, their successors 17,000 strong, slowly starved through thirty-six weeks and paid $2,100,000 for the privilege. In 1853, the English iron-workers lost $215,000 by a strike. Such losses marked too, the stries of the London builders in 1860 and tailors in 1868, and the northern iron-workers in 1865. The strike of the Belfast linen-weavers, which was ended a few weeks since by the mediation of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, cost the operatives $1,000,000. The recent strike of the shoemakers of Chicago cost them a much larger sum than they needed as a capital for a c-operative shop of their own. After they had wasted the first sum, they tried in vain to raise the second. We might add instance to instance to prove the enormous cost of strikes to the wvorkingman. Even when they succeed, the result rarely, if ever, pays for the money unproductively spent. When they do not, the money is of course a dead loss. It is absurd that workingmen, in the face of such facts, should persist in using this twoedged weapon against their employers. In England, Messrs. Mundella's and Kettle's boards of arbitration, and the introduction of industrial partnerships etween masters and men, have done much to prevent strikes. In France, the tate g since established courts of arbitration for the settlement of labor quarrels. They are composed of six membert, chosen by employers and employed, and a president and vice-president, who must belong to neither class. Mr. Thomas Brassey, in his "Work and Wages," says of these courts: "The result in 95 out of 100 cases brouht before these tribunals is a reconciliation between the parties; and, though appeals are permitted to the superior courts of law, they are rarely made. In 1870,28,000 disputes had been heard, of which no less than 26,800 were satisfactorily settled." CO-OPERATION. That a strike, so long as it is unaccompanied by violence or intimidation toward such as do not voluntarily engage in it, is a means which workmen may legitimately use in their efforts to advance, their interests, must, of course, be freely admitted. But that it ig a most costly and, hurtful method of settling trade-disputels is a fact which workingmen themselves have now very generally learned by sad experience. The chairman of the trades union congress of the United Kingdom, held at Liverpool, in January, 1875, in his opening address referred to strikes as a mode of settling differences with employers which ought to be avoided by all practicable, means, and resorted to only in the most extreme cases; and the same opinion, after being repeatedly indicated in the speeches of leading delegates, was substantially embodied in a resolution adopted by the assembly itself, in which fully 800,000 of the trades-uinionists of the British Isles were represented. As a natural sequence to a resolution of this character was another, recommending the adoption of that system which is designed to reconcile Ihe nOW conflicting interests of capital and labor by uniting the two in the same hands, namely, the system. of co-operation, and expressing a cordial desire to act in harmony with the co-operators of the United Kingdom. Similar sentiments are to be met with in the documents issued by the leading trades-associations, as well as in their most influential newspape~r organs; and in fact the system of co-operation itself, as a practical reality, is making rapid advancement among the working-classe~s. As long ago as 1832, Mr. Babbage suggested the advantages which workingmen might derive from co-operative stores. The ilochdale CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. 237 Pioneers com ened in 1843 the enterprise which has since become so celebrated. It originated in the attempt of some flannel-weavers to obtain an advance in wages, failing in which they resolved to try whether they could not make the wages they were receiving procure them a larger share of the necessaries and comforts of life by starting a store on their own account. A company of forty persons engaged, at a rent of 10 per annum, th owd weaver's shop " in "Toad Lane," in which they commenced business with a beggarly stock of salt, butter, and oatmeal. At the end of fourteen years they were doing a cash business to the amount of 76000 per annum. To their original stores they have added several other departments of trade, and have now a good library of froin 12,000 to 15,000 volumes. The retrns furnished to the registrars of friendly societies of England and Wales Scotland1 and Ireland, respectively, as to the industrial and provident co-operative societies in the three divisions of the kingdom, at the close of 1873 show the following results: England and Scotland. Ireland. Wales.. ~...Number of societies790 188 6 ~~~~~~.Number of memers 340, 930 46, 371 464 Number of members admitted during the year 1873.. —--------------- 70,360....-............ Number of members withdrawn dnring the year 1873 ----------------- 31,626 --------- -------- Share-capital, amount of, at end of the year 1873 -~ —--- ------------ 3,334,104 ~235,858 ~1, 413 Loan-capital, amonnt of, at end of the year 1873 -~ — ---------------- 431, 308 ~64, 932 ~e90 Cash paid for goods during 1873.-. ~12,344,780 ~56,130 ~ 14, 576 Cash received for goods during 1873 -~ —— X13, 651, 127 ~ 1, 965, 226 ~16,161 Average value of stock durinMg 1873...... ~X1, 439, 137 ~188,265 -...-...... Total expenses during 1873-~......... X541,824 ~67,468 ~774 Interest on share, loan, and other capital during 1873 -~ —------------ 152,596 ~12, 084 -. —----!Entire liabilities at end of 1873 - ~.......X4, 081, 512 ~400, 590 ------- Reserve-fund at end of 1873.~........ 83, 149 ~19,573. Entire assets at end of 1873 —---- - ----- ~C4,430,34 ~462,857 - -...... Value of buildings, fixtures, and land - ~. -_ 1,361, 197 ~ 97, 869 ~633 Capital invested with other industrial and provident soeibties-~X337, 811 ~3-2, 591. —---- Capital invested -with companiles incorporated under the companies act -~...... 443, 724 ~ 5, 315 - Disposable net profitrealized from all sources during 1873 -~ —------------ 958,721 ~ 150, 302 ~863 Dividend declared due to members during 1873 -~ —---------------- 861,964 ~132,643 - Dividend allowed to non-members during 1873 -----— ~..-~ —---------- 18, 555 ~3, 147....... Amount allowed for educational purposes during 1873.~............... 6,864 ~243....... 238 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. UNITED KINGDOMI OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. In the foregoing discussion of the labor question as it is presented in the history of the earlier centuries of modern times, as well as in the recent past, much space has been devoted to tatements and illustrations which have been drawn from the experience of the mother country. The fact that less than a century ago the greater part of our present territory constituted provinces of Great Britain, previous to which the manufactured goods consumed in the colonies were chiefly produced in England, and the further fact that during the past ninety-ine years the mills and factories of Great Britain have supplied us with products the annual value of which has, of late years, reached hundreds of millions of dollars, render all the data which relate to this subject of the greatest importance to us. No apology is therefore offered forthe space devoted to the history of labor in Great Britain and the modifications which law and custom have from time to time effected in the condition of the laboring-classes. VOLUME OF TRADE WITH THE UNITED STATES. Before proceeding to a consideration of the resent cost and codition of labor in the United Kingdom, the following tables showing the volume of the trade between the two countries are presented: Table I exhibits the kinds and values of British merchandise which found a market in the United States during the fiscal year 1874; Table, the aggregate annual value of the imports from England, Ireland, and Scotland, respectively, during the fifty-four years ended June 30l 1874; and Table III. the value of provisions, breadstuffs, and raw products which were exported to those countries during the past year. IMPORTS FROM THE UNITED KINGDOM. I.-T'able showing the value of the principal articles imported into the United States fromt England., Scotland, and Ireland, during the fiscal year cnded June 30, 1874. Articles. England. Scotland. Ireland. Beer, ale, porter, &c-.........................$1, 221, 082 $179, 285 $102, 834 Books, pamphlets, &c-........................1, 269, 852 139, 956 306 Buttons of all kinds-......................... 657, 776 2, 672...... Chloride of lime-........................... 991, 452 26, 760...... Clothing - ------------------------------- 510, 995 6, 792 6 Coal, bituminous-.......................... 337, 379 146, 206...... Copper and manufactures of-..................... 124, 873 to0...... Corda'ge, &c-............................. 88, 357 932...... Cotton, manufactures of-.......................16,534, 811 2, 918, 2~11 34, 360 Earthen, stone, and china ware-...................3, 779, 727 40, 207 96 F ancy goods-............................. 939, 614 45, 525...._ Flax, manufactures of-........................ 12, 037, 125 3, 775, 712 653, 676 Glass and glass-ware-.........................1, 680, 0601 7, 585 82 liair, unmanufactured-........................ 149, 550 872 -..... Hides and skins-...........................3, 779, 465................ flemp, manufactures of-....................... 96, 733 11, 018...... India rubber, manufactures of-.................... 598, 02)0 364...... Iron and steel: rig-iron-.............................1, 380, 014 947, 972 58, 740 Bar-iron —............................1, 002, 486............ Boiler, hoop, scroll, and sheet iron-................ 667,17-2 2, 150 -..... Rails of iron-........................... 986, 552-............ of steel-........................._ 8,104, 377 1, 113, 561...... Old and scrap iron....................-..... 283,521 -....... 104, 452 Hardware and cutlery-......................2,063,72-22 460...... Steel ingots, bars, &o-......................2, 865, 470 5, 348 2, 977 Fire-arm7s-............................ 580, 451 2, 366...... Machinery-...........................1, 127, 525 109, 543 -..... Other manufactures, not elsewhere specified.. -.........5, 21-2,518 86, 97 2 -..... Total of iron and steel-...................24,273, 808 2, 268, 37 2 166, 169 IMPORTS FROM THE UNITED KINGDOM. 239 I. —Vahue of the principal articles imported into the United States, 4c. —Continued. Articles. England. Scotland. Ireland. Jute, manufactures of.............................................-$ 1, 564,119 $443, 885 $349 Leather and manufactures of...................................... 2,199, 883 3, 770. Marble and stone and manufactures of.....................-........ 165, 877 237, 808 250 Metals and manufactures of......................................... 495, 664 16,172 65 Paints............................................................. 70-2, 343 7, 175.. Paper ma~terials.................................................... 1, 468,197 64, 107 14, 804 Paper and manufactures of ----------------------------------------- 811,131 99, 837. Silk, manuftctures of............................................... 6, 313, 941 11, 944 - 609 Soda and salts of................................................... 5, 938,157 37, 308.......... Straw, manufactures of............................................ 307, 579 20......... Tin in pigs, bars, or blocks.......................................... 1, 857,167 4, 582. Tin, manufactures of............................................... 13, 014, 701 6, 009 3, 485 Wool, manufactures of............................................. 29, 917, 039 295, 0S6 2, 635 Zinc, &c., manufactures of......................................... 187, 674 13, 618 71 iI.-Table showing the value of imports of merchandise from England, Scotland, and Ireland, during the fifty-four fiscal years ended June 30, 1821 to 1874 inchtsive. Imports of merchandise into the United States fromFiscal year ended — England. Scotland. Ireland. September 30,1821......$22, 535, 333 $1, 220, 092 683, 471 September 30,1822.......................................... 32, 008, 936 1, 889, 216 800, 044 September 30,1823......................................... 26, 018, 448 1,083,133 543, 313 September 30,1824.......................................... 26, 508, 758 1, 025, 020 431,637 September 30,1825......................................... 34,188, 632 1, 829, 464 612, 272 September 30,1826......................................... 24, 239, 992 1, 096, 772 672, 994 September 30,1827......................................... 28, 522, 772 1, 083,101 550, 129 September 30, 1828...........................-.............. 30, 445,167 1, 624, 030 711, 041 September 30, 1829.......................................... 23, 852, 937 1, 024, 215 362, 511 September 30,1830.......................................... 22,610,809 1, 38-2, 841 381,333 September 30,1831.......................................... 41, 723, 493 1, 977, 830 261, 564 September 30,1832.......................................... 34, 764, 923 1, 580, 812 491,891 September 30,1833.......................................... 34, 784, 927 1, 725, 136 473,162 September 30, 1834.......................................... 39, 760, 452 1,398,130 274, 712 September 30, 1835.......................................... 57, 763, 551 1,622, 848 542, 890 September 30,1836.......................................... 73, 438, 793 2, 372, 539 508, 356 September 30,1837.......................................... 43, 442, 458 1, 184, 410,131, 776 September 30, 1838 -------------- -. —---------- --------------- 35,182, 511 594, 665 75,162 September 30,1839.......................................... 63, 443, 624 950,183 150, 689 September 30,1840.......................................... 32, 410, 827 524, 92~ 98,349 September 30,1841.......................................... 45,149, 477 849, 57) 81, 921 September 30,1842.......................................... 33, 240, 580 655, 050 102, 700 Nine months ending June 30,1843.......................... 11,835, 404, 128, 846 43, 535 June 30,1844.............................................. 40, 344,122 527, 239 88, 084 June 30, 1845............................................... 44,507,031 708,187 104,857 June 30, 1846............................................... 43, 361,449 1,230,086 85, 774 June 30, 1847............................................... 64, 975, 592 1,837, 014 590, 240 June 30,1848............................................... 57, 846, 550 1,659,484 29.8,978 June 30, 1849............................................... 56, 146, 633 1,959, 320 376, 793 June 30, 1850............................................... 71, 591,705 2, 746, 670 293, 783 June 30, 1851................................................ 89, 513, 571 2, 999, 710 235, 938 June 30, 1852............................................... 86, 641,375 2, 355, 947 152, 533 June 30,1853............................................... 125, 489, 433 4, 337, 990 153,118 June 30, 1854............................................... 140, 303, 577 5, 820, 469 229, 335 June 30, 1855................................................ 102, 328, 825 3, 954, 594 152, 293 June 30, 1856................................................ 117, 623,773 4,131, 506 89, 032 June 30, 1857............................................... 119, 404, 475 7,216,111 113, 453 June 30, 1858............................................... 83, 690, 980 5,160, 767 115, 280 June 30, 1859............................................... 117, 685, 586 -p7, 079, 905 758, 547 June 30, 1860............................................... 132, 969, 411 4, 607,187 923, 726 June 30, 1861.............................................. 101, 743, 552 2, 983, 524 190, 834 June 30, 1862................................................ *74, 759, 710.......... June30, 1863 -..'. *112,898,201........................... June 30, 1864............................................... *142, 204, 433.June 30, 1865............................................... 83,240 527 1, 881,'206 60,634 Juno 30, 1866................................................ 196, 356, 036 5, 845, 328 74, 286 June 30, 1867............................................... 165,162, 468 7,157, 862 77, 598 June 30, 1868............................................... 125,129, 809 6, 795, 605 87,108 June 30, 189................................................ 151,231, 801 7,446,251 211,963 June 30, 1870............................................... 144, 474, 890 7, 444, 304 247, 075 June 30, 1871............................................... 209, 075, 220 11,452, 688 240, 463 June 30,1872............................................... 233, 943, 322 14, 341,572 487, 430 June 30, 1873............................................... 222, 517, 634 14, 344, 770 435, 814 June 30, 1874................................................. 166, 846, 132 12,166, 452 1, 030, 229 *Including Scotland and Ireland. 240 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. EXPORTS TO THE UNITED KINGDOM. III.-Table showing the exports of commodities, the growth or produce of the United States, to England, Scotland, and Ireland, duriig the fiscal year ended June 30, 1874. IDoifestic exports front the United States toCommodities. England. Scotland. Ireland. Breadstuffs: Wheat.................................................. $43,128, 552 $5, 861,579 $25, 903, 529 Wheat-flour............................................ 8, 812, 064 2, 444, 5] 3 285, 245 Indian corn............................................ 7, 483, 120 1, 820, 460 10, 667, 907 All other............................................... 385, 033 105, 980 16, 666 Total............................................. 59, 808, 769 10, 232, 53- 36, 873, 347 Cotton, raw.............................................. 136, 952,187 564, 846 3, 855,303 Hair, unmanufactured..................................... 240, 144........................... Hid(es, furs, and fur-skins................................... 3, 474, 769............. Leather................................... —2, 83, 17................. 2,683,174 Naval stores................................................ 1,110,083 181,124 134, 821 Oil-cake.................................................... 3,624, 465 309, 008 43, 485 Oil: Coal, (crude and refined)............................... 3,500, 376 39, 260 1, 788, 535 Animal and veg(etable...............-................... 1,076, 640 268. 020.............. Ore, argentiforous......................................... 255, 814............,,........ _ —------------ Provisions: Bacon and hams............................ 22, 222, 544 3, 245, 563.............. Beef.................................................. 1, 773, 483 262, 400 400 Butter........................................... 218,778 85,413............. Cheese..........-...................................... 9,129, 370 1, 083, 708.............. Fish, (pickled andidry)......................-. 590, 061........................... Lard.................................................. 3,119,295 889,976......... Mecats, preserved....................................... 404,114 57, 241............... Pork.................................................... 1, 600, 632 179k 272 425 All other.............................................. 61, 753 2,040.............. Total............................................. 39,120, 030 5, 805, 619 825 Seeds...................................................... 227,186 85, 569 4, 906 Spirits of turpentine........................................ 1,238, 046 61, 819 440, 554 Sugar and molasses.................................... 288, 071 146, 819......... Tallow................................ 3, 613, 703 1, 010, 859 4, 206 Tobacco: Leaf..................................................... 7 607, 530 755, 451 9, 889 Manufactured......................................... 1, 251, 592 12, 738............. Timber, lumber, &c......................................... 3, 572, 266 756, 919 355, 509 Other unmanufactured articles............................. 665,792 50,156.............. Other manufactured articles................................ 6,023,196 839, 822 58, 275 Total.. 276, 333, 833 21,120, 561 43, 569, 655 NOTE.-The aggregate quantities of the principal articles exported to the United Kingdom in 1874 were as follows: Raw cotton, 903,571,772 pounds; wheat, 51,833,278 bushels; wheat-flour, 1,703,984 barrels; bacon and hams, 262,723,419 pounds; beef, 23,721,364 pounds; pork, 20,029,898 pounds; cheese, 78,552,976 pounds. The above table not only shows the value of the cotton, but of the grain, timber, naval stores, and other crude products of our fields and forests, and of animal products, which find a market in the United Kingdom. The greater part of these may be classed as the raw materials of English manufactures, for the breadstuffs and provisions, as well as the cottoni, the leather, the timber, and the leaf-tobacco, really become the elements of manufactured products. Whether the material interests of the country would be better promoted by consuming at home a large portion of the food now exported and devoting it to the conversion of crude products into manufactured goods, is a question which will receive no consideration in these pages. Here, as elsewhere in this volume, the author contents himself with the presentation of facts, and declines entering upon the discussion of questions respecting which there are wide divergences of opinion. STRIKES IN ENGLAND. 241 IMMIGRATION FROM THE UNITED KINGDOM. In view of the fact that the inhabitants of the colonies which now compose the United States were, at the time of the change of govern. ment, chiefly of British birth or descent, it is not surprising that of the 5,367,229 persons of foreign birth who formed part of our population in 1870, no less than 3,119,705 were born in the United Kingdom and in the British North American possessions. The immigration into this country from the British Islands during the fifty-four years, from 1820 to 1874, is exhibited in the following table: Statement showing the total immigration into the United States from Great Britain and Ireland during the fifty-four and a half years ended December 31, 1874. England and Wales, Isle G Periods. of Man, and Scotland. Ireland.Britain.* Total. Channellslands. _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1820 to 1830, inclunsive.................. 16,007 3, 180 27,106 35, 534 81, 821 1831 to 1840, inclusive.................. 7, 796 2, 667 29,188 243, 540 283,191 1841 to 1850, inclusive.................. 33,353 3, 712 162, 332 748, 366 1, 047, 763 1851 to 1860, inclusive.................. 53, 444 38, 331 748, 740 297, 578 1, 338, 093 1861 to 1870, inclusive.................. 218, 027 36, 733 495, 969 356,247 1,106, 976 Calendar year 1871.................... 62, 525 12,135 61, 463 7, 814 143, 937 Calendar year 1872 73, 579 14, 565 69, 761............ 157, 905 Calendar year 1873................... 70, 499 13, 008 75, 848............ 159, 355 Calendar year 1874.._.. 43, 969 8, 765 47, 688............ 100, 422 Aggregate................. 779,199 133, 096 1, 718, 095 1, 789, 079 4, 419, 469 * Nationality not s'ated; supposed to be chiefly from Ireland. Owing to the defective returns of the nationalities of immigrants prior to the establishment of the Bureau of Statistics, the countries of nativity of large numbers who came from the British Isles were not set forth in the returns, but their place of birth designated as " Great Britain," as will appear by reference to the fifth column of the above table. From a careful analysis of some of the original papers, an approximate estimate has been made of the proportion of persons of Irish nativity who are included in the number of those "not stated," which, in addition to the 1,718,095 Irish immigrants given in the table, shows that of the 4,419,469 arriving from the British Isles in a little over half a century, upward of 2,950,000, or two-thirds, were natives of Ireland. Of the large foreign element in the city of New York, amounting to no less than 419,094 in the census-year 1870, the natives of Ireland were 201,999, a number almost equal to the whole population of Dublin, wLich, in 1871, was 246,326. Indeed, if the Irish in Jersey City, Brooklyn, and other adjoining cities, which really form a part of the commercial metropolis of America, be included, the number would fully equal, if not exceed, the aggregate population of Ireland's chief city. 16 L 242 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. 1.-RATES OF WAGES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. Before presenting the tables showing the earnings of factory-operatives in various manufacturing towns of the United Kingdom, the following statement, showing the rates of wages paid to mechanics and other skilled workmen in the metropolis, is submitted: SKILLED TRADES IN LONDOXN WEEKILY WAGES IN 1871. Statemnent showing the established rates of wages obtained by members of the various tradessocieties of the metropolis, in summer and winter, compiled uder the supervision of Alsager Hay Hill, LL. B. Rate of wages. Trades. Summer. Winter. Bakers.................................................................... $3 87 $5 08 Basket-makers.............................3 63 4 84 Boat-builders........................................................... 8 47 7 26 Book-binders........................................................... 702 7 26 7 26 Brass-cock finishers............................................................. 8 47 8 47 Brass-finishers......................................................... 8 47 8 47 Bricklayers............................................................ 2, 386 16* 16* Brush-makers.......................................................... 400 () (t) Cabinet-makers........................................................ 500 7 26 7 26 Cabinet-makers, deal................................................... 450 7 99 7 99 Carpenters............................................................. 4, 740 9 14 9 14 Carvers and gilders.................................................... 50 4 84 4 84 Coach-builders......................................................... 25 9 68 9 68 Coach-makers.......................................................... 320 9 68 9 68 Coach-smiths........................................................... 200 4 84 12 58 Coach trimmers and makers................................................. 6 05 6 05 Compositors............................................................ 3, 550 4 84 8 47 Cork-cutters........................................................... 100 7 26 7 26 Cordwainers........................................................... 3, 678 (t) (+) Curriers................................................................ 1, 900 8 47 8 47 Engineers —~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~ ~~~~~33, 539 1* 6 E3:ngineers............................................................... 33,539 1 16* Farriers................................................................ 220 9 68 12 10 French-polishers..................................... 30 26 7 26 Hammermen.....................................................8..... 0 5 81 5 81 Iron founders and molders............................................. 7, 372 9 20 9 20 Letter-press printers...................................................7 26 7 26 Painters, house................................................................... 14* 14* Pianoforte-makers........................................................... — 400 16* 16* Plasterers.............................................................. 14* 14* Plumbers............................................................ 18* * Pressmen, printers'...................................6................0 7 26 Skinners.2............................................................. 25 7 26 7 26 Steam-engine makers................................................... 100 6* 16* 18* 18* Stone-masons........................................................... 17, 193 9 14 7 82 * Per hour. t Piecework. + Uncertain. AVERAGE EARNINGS OF OPERATIVES. 243 AVERAGE EARNINGS OF OPERATIVES. The tables in the following thirty-six pages, which were not personally obtained by the author, but derived from official sources, exhibit the earnings of work-people in the various industries and places indicated during the year 1871. Indeed, so far as factory-labor is concerned, the gures therein given express with approximate accuracy the cost but not the hours of labor which now obtain in the United Kingdom. The obect of the following statement is not to show the specific rates of wages paid to certain operatives, but the average earnings of operatives of various occupations in different localities. In a very large number of occupations the hands are paid by the piece or by weight, and the actual rate of wages would not indicate the sum an operative would take home with him at the end of the week as the price of his labor. The sums stated in all these tables are therefore, the average sums earned per week, whether the labor be paid by the day or by the piece. COTTON IANUFACTURES. In a flue-spinningu factory at Manchester the following are the average, -weekly earnings of the operatives: Hand-mule spinners, small mles*- - - t10 89 Hand-mule spinners, large, mules*- - - - —........12 10 Piecers, women -— 2 18 to 2 42 Piecers, young persons- - - - - - 1 57 Piecers, half-timers - - - - —...............60 Card-grinders, men - - - - —..............5 08 Card-strippers - -- -4 35 Card-room frames, women - - - - 18....... 2I to2 190 Lap-carriers, girls - - - - —..1 iland-reelers, girls - - - - —.............2 77 Mechanics —- - - —...8 18 Hours of work, 59 per week. * These men employed from 3 to 6 piecers, often memubers of their own families. IBritish ~ sterling computed at $4. 84, aind the shifino, at 24 cents. COTTON MANUFACTURES-Sptnlning, weaving, 4'e. tO ca~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~P Occupation..a Willowers, devilers, cotton-opener minders............ $2 90................................................ Bqlowing or scutching-room hands, women. - 2 90 —ro $33u.......Blwigorsuthngromhndwo en........ 0..........................................'......"Fro'm'$t'33 up......................... Blowing or scutching-room hands, men............... 4 35-$4 35.$1 33 to $3 99$3 87 to $532 Female s in spinmning-room............................ $1 93 - Lap-carriersiads —.................. 2 42 - --- ---------- 17to 2 42 ----- 193 96 to 7 26-................ Drawers, viz, draw-frame tenders, women............ 3 1........1 " 3 14 to 3 63 3 02 to 3........2.........-96 to 7 26-...................... Slubbers women 14........ 363 to 399 387-96to 7 26................ Rovers, women — 314-387to..............43......33..8 217.9................ 96 to 7 26 -.9..o.....0 ers dr vers, c7............................................... 9 3 to? 57................................ 2.6 Back-tenters to slubbers, girls........................ 1 69 - -.................. Laborers about mill, oilers and greasers - -........ 4 35.............................-............................ Mlap-aroo vrie o rs, lads.......................... 774................. 72 t~i'o":2' 7 2............i'.565' 7 v.........6........ Self-acting mule-minders, men 677........ 680 to 726 677 to 726484 to 1210 96 to 677 -605to 847 Self-acting m ale piecers, young men............2 903 14 to 3 87 2 42 96 to 6 77 -- 3 14 to 3 63 Self-acting mnle little piecers, lads -- 1 69 --— 1.57.96 to 6 77 — 2.179to.2.................96 to 67................:2:: 7:to:2::66:::: Bleachers-3 38 ~~~~~~~~~"5i~to":484 - Bleachers.................................. 3.......................................................... 33 t o 4 84......... Selfub inbue reers wormac-endrl s......... 33A........................................................ 45 to 2 990................ S~elf actng m wnngo creelersor sack-endes, slads -acin 1 37 —---- ------ -- ---- — 1 —----- 45 — to —- ------------ 2 —------ 9 —------- minders. Throstle-rpiners, women -2 9........................... 0- - -- — 2 -................ Throotle-dffers, adre -1 5............................ - -2................1................ Throstledoffers, halt-.a...............................ime57 -- --- 2 1........................................... Throstle-doffers, winders, women and girls -2 90- 2 90 to 3 63 2 90 to 3 38 -.-. —. —- Femael weavers —-----—...........................................2 17......._ Throsale-doffers, doublers, women and girlsg —- 2 90.Beamers in warping-muills — 2.............. 0 —-90 —------------------------------------------------- -------- Bal-apesmn..................... 7166 -------------—. —------------- ------------------—. —------—. —------- Engine-tenders or engineers -6 77 — 5 a s...............3................................ Jbbersom takle. — 53.................726 $66 —--------— 726t968 —------------------- - - ------- -— 6-to82 B ea boers -_.................... 5 3 6 6.................................................../:..":.'..':.."................':"' ~ ~ " ~............... Loom-tenders, girls and.........................b1 21 - -- ----- -o 9 -- Sizers of warps, men, ball-sizers —..................... 6 2) 91 7 74 7 74 to 8 71-................................................................. 05 to 7 74 ~Sizers of warps. men, slashers............. 6 29............................-................................'Sizers of warps, men, tapers-.............. 6 29-......................................................... Drawers-in of-warp, men-1580-.......... 0........................................................... Drawers-in of warp, women-.............. 363.............................-............................ Twisters-in of warp, women -.............. 363............-........- 3.............63-................... Twisters-in of warp, girls and boys - -......... 2 42-......................................-................... Weavers, four looms-......................... 4 35 to 5 32-..................................... 4 35 to 6 05 Weavers, two looms..................-314 2 54 2 90 to 3 38 2 66 to 2 90-............................ 3 38 to 3 63 NOTE.-The hours of work are 60 per week; the wages partly piece-work, partly day-work. * Boys. [In the foregoing and following tabies of wages and prices in the United Kingdom the British shilling has been computed at 24 cents, and the pound sterling as equivalent to $4. 84 in coin. Since these computations were made the equivalent value of the pound sterling has been recognized by Congress at. $4. 8665; but the difference being small, it'was not deemed necessary to make a re-computation.-E. Y.) 24:6 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. DOUBLING) BLEACHING, AND DYEING COTTON THREAD. Occupations. Nottingham. Paisley, Remarks. Overlookers, men.................................................... $4 35 to $6 05 $5 32 Adults. Bleachers, men...................................................... 4 35 to 7 26..... Do. Dyers or finishers, men.............................................. 4 35 to 9 68.. Do. Cop-winders, women................................................. 8 $1 to 2 42 1 57 Do. Doublers, women.................................................... 1 93 to 2 42 1 93 Do. Clearers, women..-................................................... 1 69 to 2 05.. D. o. Glassers, women.................................................... 2 42 to 2 90.. Do. Rulers.............................................................. 2 29 to 2 66 2'17 Do. Hank-winders....................................................... 2 05 to 2 42..... Do. Boys and girls under 14 — 96 to 1 57..... NOTE.-The hours of work are sixty per week; the wages, partly piece-work, partly doy-work. WOOLEN MIANUFACTURE —SPINNING, WEAVING, ETC. Occrpation.'1 Layers on for scribblers, women. $2 9 90 2 17 -- $2 42 to $2 90.... $1 81 Card setters or cleaners, men....... 4 35 to 4 84 4.. - $4 11 4 59 $4 11............. Sliver-minders, girls - -- 217 -.............................. Condenser-minders, girls........... 242 1 69 Card-feeders, women2 42 to 2.3 14.............................. Woolyers, men. —------------ - ---- 363 387 4 84 4 11 2'42'to'3'87...... 4'35 Woolyers, foremen, men........... 484 5 08 Self-acting mule-minders, men...... 4 35 to 5 56 3 63 - -.t... 2'90.............. 2 —-Pt). —-- Self-acting mule-piecers, boys - -.- -. 169 1 69 1 45 1 21............. Self-acting mule-piecers, boys and girls, half-timers ------ ----------- CO to 84............. Rag-grinders men...............................4 84............... Enginemen and stokers............ 4 59 to 508 4 84.. Warpers......................... 3 63 to 435 363 - 3.....38 2'90 to 4'35 6' 9............... Power-loom tuners, men........... 5 80 8 47- -. 5 80 to 12 10 5 80 Power-loom weavers, women...... 338 3 38 2 90 3 38 2 42 to 3 87 3 38 $2 66 to 3 87 Wool-sorters, men................. 629 605 605...... 4 35 to 5 56 484 5 32 to 6 29 Fulling-millers, men............... 568 5 08...... 5 32 6 05 to 8 47 4 35 4 84 to 5 08 Wool and piece-dyers, men.......................5 3............... 11 4 35 Cloth-dressers, viz, rais~ers, cutters, pressers, tenterers, drawers.................... 80 532 508.................... 4 84 Burlers, women.................... 2 17 242 1 21 2 17 to 2 90 290 1 93 to 217 Riggers and stumpers, men....................... 5 08................................... Menders and stumpers, women.....-.............. 3 143 38. Ol-extracters,..............................5 80 - 3 87 4 35 Mechanics and joiners, men........ 6 53 7 26'4 35 to' 6... 6 53 Rag-pickers, women............................1 93. Hand-spinners; men................ 5 32 6 77 - 6 05 to 7 26 - 84 5 80 to 7 26 Hand-spinners, young persons........ 45 1 45 Slubbers.......................... 5 52'to 5 56 629................. 6 53 NOTE.-The hours of work are sixty per week; the wages, partly piece-work, partly day-work. WOOLEN MIANUFACTURE-CLOTH-DRESSING. Occupation. Leeds. Remarks. Giggers.............................................................. $5 56 Do.............................................................. 4 35 Machinists............................................................ 5 56 Machinists, perpetual................................................. $2 42 to 5 56 Cloth-pressers........................................................ 8 47 Paid by the piece. Cloth-drawers....................................................... 8 47 Do. Cloth tenterers....................................................... 6 77 Do. Handle-setters....................................................... 7 26 Do. Hand-raisers........................................-............... 3 87 and 5 32 Foremen............................................................ 7 98 to 8 47 NOTE.-The hours of work are sixty per week; the wages, partly piece-work, partly day-work. AVERAGE EARNINGS OF OPERATIVES. 247 WOOLEN MIANUFACTURE-COMBING. Occupation. Bradford. Mechanics.................................................................................... $6 29 Wool-washers................................................................................ 3 87 Card-jobbers................................................................................. 4 35 Warehousemen............................................................................... 4 11 Card-hands................................................................................. 2 42 Comb-hands.............................................................................. 2 54 NoTE.-The hours of work are sixty per week; the wages, partly piece-work, partly day-work. WOOLEN LIANUFFACTURE-C.ARPET-MAKING. Occupation. Glasgow. Kilmarnock. Durham Neighborhood of Leeds. Assistant dyers, men. $4 47 $............3 87 to I 26 $3 87 to $4 35 Assistant dyers, boys.............................. 1 53............ 1 5 to 3 38 2 42 to 3 38 Hand-loom weavers and beamers, men..............- 4 96 $41 84 5 32 4 35 to 6 05 Hand-loom weavers and beamers, boys............. 1 93............ 3 38 2 90 to 4 35 Mechanics........................................ 6 9......... 6 29 to 7 74............ Pattern-drawers, men9............ to 7............................. Pattern-drawers, boys....................42....................... -............................ Warehouse-workers, tenters, and sewers, men 5 32 - - - - - - - - - - -.................. Warehouee-workers, tenters, and sewers, boys............................................... Warehouse-workers, tenters, and sewers, women 2 35...... Warehouse-workers, tenters, and sewers, girls...... 1 69...................... ---- Croppers; cutters, and cleaners, men............... 4 59............ Croppers, cutters, and cleaners, boys............... 1 69............ Croppers, cutters, and cleaners, women............ 2 17.......................... Croppers, cutters, and cleaners, girls...............-1 1 08.......................... - --- Winders and reelers, women...................... - 2 17.. 1 53 to 1 89 2 42 Winders and reelers, girls.......................... 1 21 1 21................ Power-loom weavers, Brussels carpets, men.................. 5 56.6 29. Power-loom weavers, Brussels carpets, apprentices....................... 4 35....... Carding and spinning, men............................................ 4 23 to 7 74 7 26 Carding and spinning, lads................................... 96 to 2 42 2 90 Carding and spinning, females and children::::i-9................. 84 to 2 42 Carders, females............................................. 5 7..............-66 Spinners, females............................................. 1 21 --.................. - - NOTE.-The hours of work are sixty per week; the wages, partly piece-work, partly day-work. W-ORSTED MI\ANUFACTURE-SPINNING-, WVEAVING, ETC. Bradford DidOccupation. Keighley. Halifax. Glasgow. Bradford Di-trict. COMBING: Wool-sorters, piece-work, average.................. $4 96............. $6 77 to $7 26 Wool-sorters, day work, per week................. 484 $5........................ Wool washers snd driers........................... 3 3 4 35.- 3 87 to 4 3a Gill-tenters, women............................... 42 2 29................-.. Card-tenters 14...................................... 3 14 -................... Back-washers..................................... 3 14.........-................. — Comb-tenters..................................... 3 38 3 38- - - ------- Overlooker........................................ 677........................ 7 74 to 8 47 SPINNING: Drawers, women2.......... 2 29........................ 24 29. 2 17 to 2 54 Spinners, young persons........................... 2 17 1 93 1i 81 1 St to 2 11 Doffers and jobbers, boys.......................... 2 17 1 93.... Warpers, by the piece-work....................... 3 38.............. 4 35 42 o290 Reelers, women................................... 266 2 78.......... 2 42 to 2 90 Overlookers...................................... 5 56 5 80 - - 7 26 to 7 98 Winders, women and girls...........................- -.............. - 2 78....... WEAVING; Warp-sizers.......................................3 87.................. - -.. - Warp-dressers...............5 8.................... 8 47 5 80 to 6 239 Warp loomner and twisters, by piece................ 3 38 —.............. Weavers, women................................. 3 14 $2 66 to 3 14 2 54.............. 5 Overlookers....................................... 5 56 5 80 -7 50 to 8 22 I)offers and bobbin setters, half-timers................... 60....... 42 to 90 NOTE.-The hours of work are sixty per week; the wages, partly piece-work, partly day-work. 2) 4 8 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. FLAX MANUFACTURE-SPINNING, WEAVING, ETC. Occupation. Overlookers.... 4 84 to$9 68864 84 to $6 05 $7 26 to $9 68..... $6 O5 to 9847....... $4 59 to $5 56 Warehousemen.... 387 to 435 3 63 to 6 05. Roughers.......... 4 84 to 6 05............... Hacklers. 121to 157..............o.............. I!! t 2 54......25. 2'05 Sorters............ 4 84 to 6 05................... Preparers, women and girls......... 145 to 1 75 1 45 to 2 05 1 57 to 1 87 $1 45 1 21 to 1 93 2 05 Spinners, women and girls........ 151 to 1 75 1 08to 1 81 2 05 to 2 29 1 93 1 69 to 3 14 8 81 2 17 Doffers........... 1- 21 to 57 1 45 to 1 93 1 57 to 181-.... Reelers, women.... I 93 to 2 42 1 69 to 2 66 2 90 1'81 1'93'to 3'63......2.54 Makers-up........ 4 35 to 6 05 - - -- 4 11 Enginemen........ 4 84 to 6 05 - -: —........-................................... Mechanics......... 4 84 to 7 26..............''26 -8................0 Dressers, men - -..........3 87 to 532 532.... 4 841to 605....532 Dressers, women............... 90 Dressers, boys................... 1 21to' 2'0..............9. Half-timers........ 24 to 48 36 to 60......6 Carders, females -... 2 05 to 2 42 ---—.... Bunles................4 5 o 4 S......................................... Combers, females.. 1 93 to 2 17..:::::::: 0............. Bundlers.......... 4.35..o.4..4............................8...... Weavers.................................. 93to 387 38 Bleachers, females1..... Warpers~ ~ ~..................................... —----- -— 26 Wirpers —.6 NOTE.-The hours of work are sixty per week; the wages, partly piec~owork, partly day-work. JUTE MANUFACTURE-SPINNING AND WEAVING. Occupation. Glasgow. Dundee. Workers in preparing departments$1 57 to $1 93.......... Spinners, coarse and fine............................................223 Piecers, single frames and double-.................................... 1 08 to J. 51 1 69 Shifters-.......................................................... 990 to 96 1 39 Bobbin-carriers, boys -............................ I- 08 -........ Winders, coarse and fine-......................... 1 93 to 2 05 -........ eelers.................................................. 2 05 2 78 Warpers...........................................1.................... 1 93.......... Packing department...........................3 63 to 5 32.......... Mechanics................................. 6 05 to 6 77......... oilers..................................................................75.............. Tenters...................................6 05......... Assistant tenters............................. 4:35......... Weavers, girls..............................2 42 to 2 90 2 23 to 2 66 Half-timers........................................ 48 Twisters...........................................2 23 Carders.......................................... 2 05 Rovers.......................................... 2 05 Drawers...........1 93 Feeders........................................ 1 99 Bundlers......................I..................... 2 66 NOTE.-The hours of work are sixty per week; the wages, partly piece-work, partly day-work. AVERAGE EARNINGS OF OPERATIVES. 249 SILK MANUFACTURE-THROWING RAW SILK. Occupation. Nottingham. Manchester. Men employed at spinning and throwing-mills............................... $3 87 $4 11 Boys...................................................................... $0 96 to 2 42 1 69 Women and girls, doublers................................................. 1 81 to 2 54 2 05 Women and girls, winders of raw silk...................................... 2 17 to 2 66........... Children, drawing.......................................................... 60 to 96 48 Women, reelers............................................................ 1 93 to 2 17 2 05 Men, overlookers........................................................... 4 84 to 6 77............ NOTE.-The hours of work are sixty per week; the wages, partly piece-work, partly day-work. SILK MANUFACTURE —-PINNING WASTE SILK. Occupation. Yorkshire. Manchester... Silk-boilers, men.......................................................... $4 35................ Silk-dressers, men........................................................-. 6 29................ Silk-preparers, girls........................................................ 2 17 Silk-spinners, girls..2 17 $1 93 to $2 42 Silk-doublers, girls........................................................2 17 1 93 to 2 42 Silk-reelers, girls...........................................................2 17 1 93 to 2 42 Mechanics, men........................................................... 6 29................ Joiners, men............................................................... 5 08................ E gine-drivers, men........................................................ 4 35................ Warpers, men....................................................................... 5 80 Children, half-timers................................................................... 60 NOTE.-The hours of work are sixty per week; the wages, partly piece-work, partly day-work. BLEACHING, DYEING, AND PRINTING. o Occupation. a' Q'0 BLEACHING, SINGEING, AND STITCHING: Foremen.................. $8 47 $7 26 $8 47.............................. Men..~~~$387to 508.........387. Me n.........................3 87............................ Women above 18.......... 2 17 to 2 29................................................ Girls and boys between 13 and 18................... 1 45 to 1 93 1 69 1 33.......................... andiS. ~~145to 193 19 13 Half-timers................ 1 21...................................................... COLOR-MIXING: Foremen............. 10 89............... $9 68 to $14 52.............. Men...35.................................... Boys between 13 and 18.... 2 42 to 3 38...................................................... MACHINE-PRINTING: Foremen................... 13 31.................................. Printers, men............... 10 89 10 89 10 64 7 26 to 12 10 $8 47 to $11 37 Tenters, men............... 3 87 3 87 3 87................ 3 87 Boys between 13 and 18 1 45 $1 21 to 1 45 1 45 1 45 to 1 93.... HAND-PRINTING, (block:) Foremen................... 6 53...................................................... Block-printers, men......... 4................. 6 05 Half-timers................. 72.......................................... AGEING AND STEAMING: Foremen................... 6 05 4 84-to 7 26 6 77.............................. Men....................... 3................. Girls and boys between 13 2 17 1 93 to 4 35...................................... and 18. DYEING, SOAPING, AND CLEARING: Foremen................... 8 47 to 12 10....................... 9 68 to 1452 847 Dyers, men................ 4 11 411...................................... Men....................... 3 87......................................... Women above 18.......... 2 54 to 3 02...................................................... Boys between 13 and 18.... 1 45 to 1 93 2 42...................................... FINISHING, MAKING-UP, AND PACKING: Foremen-..........726 774to 822 726 7 26to 1210.............. Calelidrers and starchers.... 3 87 to 4 11 4 35 to 4 84...................................... 250 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. BLEACHING, DYEING~ AND PRINTING-Continued. 0* Occupation. FINISHING, ETC. —Continued. Makers-up and packers, men. $4 35 to $5 08 $4 35 to $4 84........................-.............. Women, above I8.......... 2 17 to 2 90 2 42 to 3 14 $2 05.............................. Girls and boys, between 13 and 18. —---------------- 1 69 to 1 93 1 l1 to 2 17 133-. MECHANICS, SMUITHS, JOINERS, ETC.: Foremen.................. 12 10....................................................... Mechanics.................. 7 26 to 7 74...................................................... Joiners ------------ --—.7 74 4 59 to 7 26-...................................... Assistants and engine-tenters. 4 84........................................-............. Boys, between 13 and 18.... 2 42 to 2 90...................................................... Watchmen................. 5 08...................................................... Carters..................... 4 25t 4 84....................................................... Carters — 4~~ 35 to 4 84. Book-keepers, men......... 7 26 to 8 95-.Book-keepers, boys between 13andS-6.............. 1 G9................ -...................................... Designers..................................................$........ 59 68 to $14 52 -------------- Engravers..................7................................ I........ 726 to 10 89 $7 26 to $12 10 NOTE.-The hours of work in print-works are not necessarily restricted to 60 per week; in fect they are generally rather in excess of that number. The wages are paid partly by piece-work, partly by daywork. WARP AND SKEIN-PRINTING. Occupation. M anchester Remarks. Designers.................................................................... $9 08 Block-cutters................................................................. 8 47 Block-printers................................................................ 6 29 Warp-printers............................................................... 5 51 Warp-dressers............................................................... 5 08 Warp-dressers, between 13 and 1S........................................... 2 42 Warp-printers, between 13 and 18............................................. 3 39 Females................................................................ —--- 2 18 Color-mixers................................................................. 7 26 Skein-printers................................................................ 6 05 Overlookers. Skeinprinters, between 13 and 18............................................. 1 94 Skein-printers, under 13...................................................... 97 Ordinary printers............................................................ 4 36 FUSTIAN DYEING AND FINISHING. Occupation. Manchester. Remarks. Sadners........................................... $5 08 Washers........................................... 4 84 Copperasers....................................... 3 87 Whizzers.......................................... 4 36 Dryers.......................... 36 Men............................................... 7 26 Lads, from 13 to 15..1 69 Shearers, cutters, and machine-finishers. Lads, from 15 to 17................................. I 06 Do. Lads, from 17 to 19................................ 2 90 Do. Men............................................... 8 47 Hand-finishers. Head-enders, men................................... 5 57 Dressers. Tail-enders, men.................................. 39 Do. Men............................................... 7 26 Stiffeners. Lads, from 17 to 19................................ 3 39 Do. Lads, from 15 to 17................................ 2 06 Do. Females........................................... 3 63 Enders and menders. NOTE.-The hours of work in bleaching and dyeing-works must not exceed an average of 60 per week. Wages paid partly by piece-work, partly by day-work. AVERAGE EARNINGS OF OPERATIVES. 251 DYEING. Occupation. Metropolis. Skilled dyers........................................................................... $6 29 to $7 26 Unskilled dyers........................................................................ 3 87 to 5 57 Bleachers.............................................................................. 3 87 to 7 74 Hotpressers and finishers................................................................ 4 81 to 10 17 Boys.................................................................................. 97 to 3 39 Dyers, women.......................................................................... 2 18 to 3 63 Dyers, girls............................................................................. 97 to 1 94 Folders and ironers..................................................................... 2 18 to 2 90 Calico-glazers.......................................................................... 8 47 NOTE.-The hours of work in bleaching and dyeing works must not exceed an average of O60 per week. Wages paid partly by piece-work, partly by day-work. FUSTIAN-CUTTIXG. Occupation. Manchester. Men on piece-work..................................................................... $ 2t 48 M~en on piece-work-$2 42 to $4 84 Women on piece-work.................................................................. 1 45 to 2 90 Young persons......................................................................... 97 to 1 94 NOTE.-Hours of work, 60 per week; wages paid chiefly by piecework. SMALL-WVARE, BiIAIDS FRINGES, ETC. Occupation. Manchester. Metropolis. Silk smallware-weavers, male............................................. $4 36 to $4 84 $7 02 - Silk smallware-weavers, female............................................. 3 63 to 387...... Silk smallware-winders, female............................................. 42 3 03 Plaiters, women above 18.................................................. 290............ WVinders.........42 1 6O Winders~~~~~~~~................................................... 9, 42 1 69 Makers-up-o................................................................. 369.......... Makers-up, young persons-................... —................................... 1 45 1 57 Plaiters, young persons.................................................... -064.... ". Half-time.............................................................................. NOTE.-Honrs of work, 60 per week; wages paid by the week. BOOT AND SHIOE 3MANUFACTURE. _~~~~~~~~~~~ _n Occupation. Leeds.* -. Ipswich. u Riveters, best class................................. $7 26 $2 90 to $8 47 $4 64................ $6 05 Riveters, second class............................... 4 84 2 90 to 8 47............................ Finishers, best class..................... 9 20 5 08 to 9 68 7 56............ 6 29 Finishers, second class.............................. 6 05 5 08 to 9 68............................ Clickers, males..................................... 605 5 32 $4 84 to $9 68.'2] Machinists, females................................. 1 94 to 3 39 3 00................ 2 42 Fitters, females........................... —............... 1 69 to 2 90 2 30....... Last-makers........................................ 4 84 to 7 26............................ Cloggers............................................................................. Cutters............................................................................. 81 * The number of hours are, for females, 54 per week, and for moles, 59 per week. 252 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. CLOTHING. Occupation. Metropolis. Glasgow. Ipswich. Overlookers, men................................................. $10 17] s $7 26 Cutters, men...................................................... 9 20........... Basters, females, first class........................................ 2 30.0 2 9 Basters, females, inferior........................................... 1 47........ Machiners, females, first class...................................... 3 41 Q 2 90a Machiners, females, inferior......................................... 2 90.... Sewers, females, first class......................................... 96....... Pressers, men, first class.6 61 r. ~, -' 87'2 Pressers, men, first class........................................... 6 61 c, $f -Q 7 26 Pressers, men, inferior............................................ 4 24J............ NOTE.-Ordinary hours of work from 8 a. m. to 8 p. mn., but the average is less than 60 per week. GENERAL FURNISHING. Occupation. Metropolis. Dress-making............................................................................ t2 78 Bedding.................................................................................... 4 17 Mantel-making............................................................................ 2 66 Stuffing of furniture........................................................................ 8 89 Making up of carpets, sewing............................................................... 3 87 Polishing of furniture..................................................................... 9 68 Upholstery, women for sewing, &c.......................................................... 3 03 Making up of bonnets...................................................................... 4 36 NOTE.-Ordinary hours of work from 8 a. m. to $ p. mn., but the average is less than 60 per week. MANTLE-WORK. Occupation. Metropolis. Machinists, sewing: Experienced........................................................................ $3 63 to $4 36 Improvers.......................................................................... 73 to 2 42 Hand-workers: Piece-workers...................................................................... 2 90 to 4 84 Day-workers: Experienced........................................................................ 2 90 to 3 63 Improvers.......................................................................... 73 to 2 42 NOTE.-The ordinary hours of work from 8 a. m. to 8 p. m., but the average is less than 60 per week. STAY OR CORSET MAKING. Occupation. Metropolis. Remarks. Stay-cutters, men.................................. $9 68 Stay-pressers, men................................. 9 68 Stay-machinists, females...........................3 15 Stay needle-hands, females......................... 1 94 Stay-embroiderers, females......................... 2 66 Termed in the trade fanners. Boners........................................... 2 8 Eyleters, boys and girls............................ 1 94 Boxers, girls....................................... 1 69 Finishers and overlookers.........................1 69 Sundry workers for superintending girls Foremen......................................... 4 84 Fitters........................................... 3 63 NOTE. —Ordinary hours of work from 8 a. m. to 8 p. m., but the average is less than 60 per week. AVERAGE EARNINGS OF OPERATIVES. 253 LINEN-COLLAR MAKING. Occupation. Metropolis. Men, cutters, first class................................................................. $8 47 to $9 68 Men, cutters, second class............................................................... 7 26 to 8 47 Men, cutters, third class................................................................. 4 84 to 7 26 Females, machine-hands, first class...................................................... 4 36 to 4 84 Females, machine-hands, second class................................................... 3 63 to 4 36 Females, machine-hands, third class..................................................... 2 18 to 3 63 Females, ironers, first class.............................................................. 4 36 to 5 32 Females, ironers, second class........................................................... 3 63 to 4 36 Females, ironers, third class............................................................. 2 90 to 3 63 NOTE.-Ordinary hours of work from 8 a. m. to 8 p. m., but the average is less than 60 per week. DRESS-MAKING. Occupation. Metropolis. Remarks. Each. Two managers..................................................... $18 55 One dress-maker................................................... 7 42 With board and lodging. Two dress-makers................................................ 6 53 Do. One dress-maker.................................................. 6 05 Do. One dress-maker.................................................. 2 78 Do. One dress-maker................................................... 1 03 Do. One dress-maker.................................................. 6 53 Tea only; no lodging. One dress-maker................................................... 6 05 Do. Two dress-makers...........5 57 Do. One dress-maker................................................... 4 84 Do. Three dress-makers...............................4................ 36 Do. Three dress-makers................................................ 4 11 Do. Seven dress-makers..3 87 Do. Three dross-makers................................................ 3 51 Do. Two dress-makers.................................................. 3 39 Do. Two dress-makers.................................................. 3 14 Do. Thirty-four dress-makers........................................... 2 90 Do. Two dress-makers................................................. 2 66 Do. Fourteen dress-makers....2 42 Do. Five dress-makers.................................................. 2 18 Do. Four dress-makers...........................1...................... 94 Do. One dress-mhker................................................... 1 6 Do. Three dress-makers................................................ 1 45 Do. One milliner.......................................................-...6 05 With board and lodging. Ton milliners'..4 64 Do. Two milliners...................................................... 4 64 Do. One milliner....................................................... 3 51 Do. Three milliners.................................................... 2 34 Do. One milliner....................................................... 2 2-2 Do. One milliner.. 1 85 Do. One milliner....................................................... 1 49 Do. One milliner....................................................... 1 39 Do. Six apprentices...................................................... Do. NOTE-Ordinary hours of work from 8 a. m. to 8 p. m., but the average is less than 60 per week. HAT AND CAP MIAKING., Occupation. Metropolis. Manchester. Glasgow. Machiners, htands............................................ $3 63.......................... Clerks......................................................4 84.......................... Boys................................................... 1 21.......................... Needlewomen................................................ 2 42.......... $2 54 Hat-trimmers, women and girls............................... 2 90 $2 42 to $4 84 2 66 Finishers, men.............................................. $7 26 to 9 68 7 26 to 14 52.......... Bodymen................................................. 7 26 to 9 68 7 26 to 12 10.......... Shapers, men................................................ 9 68 to 14 52 9 68 to 19 36.......... Feltmen.................................................................... 8 71 to 10 89.......... Hatters..................................................................................... 8 47 NTOTE.-Hours of work 60 per week. 254 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. FEATHER-MIAKING. Occupation. Metropolis. Remarks. Men........................................................ $4 84 to $6 05 Men, shaders................................................ 7 26 to 12 10 Women, from 18............................................. 1 94 to 3 87 According to ability. Girls under 16................................................ 97 to 1 69 MIANUFACTURE OF ARTIFICIAL FLOWERS. Occupation. MIetropolis. Men................................................................................... $4 4 Boys......................................................................... 1 21 Women................................................................................ 3 39 Girls...................................................................... 97 IRON-MIAN UFACTURE. Occupation. iddlesborough Neighborhood Darlington. Middlesborough. BLAST-FURNACE: Keepers..................................... $12 28 $12 28 $12 28 Chargers.................................... 9 31 9 31 10 44 Slaggers.................................... 7 62 7 62 $6 77 to 7 19 Mine-fellers................................. 7 19 7 19 Coke-fellers.................................. 5 64 5 92 > 5 44 to 6 17 Lime-fellers................................ 5 64 564 Enginemen.................................. 8 47 $5 08 to 9 31.................. Weighmen................................. $4 35 to 4 84 4 84 to 677................. Laborers................................... 4 65 4 35 to 5 32.................. Maons.................................... 5 08 to 6 05 4 35 to 798.................. PUDDLING-FORGE: Puddlers.................................... 10 50.................. 10 28 Shinglers................................... 13 31.................................... Laborers................................... 3 63 to 5 56. 3........... 3 32 to 4 23 Weighmen.................................. 4 35 to 5 80.................................... RAIL-MILL: First heating................................ 10 28.................. 10 89 Second heating.............................. 13 79.................. 14 52 Rollers... 21 05.................. 15 73 Roughers and catchers.......................-................................... 9 68 Roughers and catchers at blooming............................................... 9 68 Changing and pulling out.................... 6 05............................. Bogeymen.......................-. 7 526........................... Wheeling iron............................... 7 17................... Pilingiron.................................. 6 41.................................... Sawing rails..............................., 9,.................. Straightenerb -................ 6 29...... 5 68 to 7 26 Weighmen.................................. 4 4 to 6 05.................................... Laborers.................................... 3 to 5 80.................. PLATE-MILL: Heaters-................. —..................-..................... 12 70............. Loaders and general laborers.................................................. 3 63 to 4 59 MERCHANT-MILL: Heaters..................................... 8 59.................................... Rollers..................................... 12 10.................. Chargers..........3................ 63.................... Laborers.................................... 3 63 to 4 59.................................... Weighmen.................................6 05..-........-...............-.. Smiths..................................... 4 84 to 7 01 4 59 to 6 53 4 59 to 8 71 Smiths' strikers.............................. 4 59 to 508 435 to 4 84 Boiler-smiths..................................... 4 35 to 8 22 6 77 to 7 O 7 26 Fitters...................................... 411 to 7 01 5 80 to677 6 05 Pattern-makers...............................5 80 to 6 77..... Jonr.0 508 to 653 4.47.to 641. Joiners....................................... 7 01. Molders.................................... 4 84 to 6 77.................. 6 77 Laborers.................................... 2 42 to 7 26.................................... NOTE.-The average number of hours about 59 per week. AVERAGE EARNINGS OF OPERATIVES. 255 IRON-MILLS. Occupation. Manchester. Puddlers.......................................................................,I......... $8 47 Puddlere —-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~$8 47 Puddlers',uderhands..................................................................... 4 35 Furnacemen............................................................................. 12 10 Rollers,................................................................................... 12 10 Rollers' assistants......................................................................... 6 05 Rollers' boys............................................................................. 2 42 Rail and iron straighteners................................................................ 7 26 General laborers.......................................................................... 3 87 NOTE.-The number of hours about 59 per week. IRON-FORGING. Occupation. Manchester. Forgemen...................................................... -........................... 0 F~orgemen-. v? $29 04 Furnaceinen.............................................................................. 8 70 Laborers................................................................................. 4 84 Smiths~ hea v........................................................................... 33 88 Smiths, heavy.-33 88 Smiths, light........................................................................... 6 48 Fitters................................................................................... 6 48 Turners................................................................................. 6 77 Machinists................................................................................ 5 32 NOTEP-The number of hours about 59 per week. IRON-FOUNDING. Occupation. Manchester. Angle-iron smiths......................................................................... $37 Boiler-makers............................................................................ 1 29 Engine-erectors........................................................................... 1 29 Engin e fitte rs and turners................................................................. 1 21 Millwrights............................................................................... 21 Iron-molders............................................................................. 1 37 Loam-molders............................................................................ 1 45 Core-makers.............................................................................. 88 Laborers in founderies.................................................................... 72 Ordinary laborers......................................................................... 64 Smiths................................................................................... 1 26 Strikers for smiths........................................................................ 68 Furnacemen.............................................................................. 1 05 NOTE.-Number of hours about 59 per week. ENGINEERING, BOILER AND AGRICULTURAL MIACHLNE MIAKING. Occupation. Manchester. e Suffofk. Essex. Lincoln. Glasgow. Good engine-fitters................... $8 23 $9 68........................ $5 80 to $6 53 Agricultural-fitters.................... 6 05 $5 80........................ Good engine-smiths................... 7 26 10 16................... 5 32 to 6 77 Agricultural-smiths.......................... $6 05 to 7 26 5 80 $6 72.............. Boiler-makers.......................... 10 89.............. 6 72 5 08 to 7 26 Good machinists, (i. e. woodmen).................. 9 60.... 6 53............. Iron and brass molders................ 7 74 8 70 6 29 6 77.............. Painters.............................. 4 35. 5 3. Day-work laborers........................ 2 90 $3 39 to 3 63 3 63 3 63 to 3 87 Pattern-makers....................... 8 70.............. 8 95 6 77 6 29 to'7 26 Planers............7.................. 26.................................................... Hammermen......................... 4 35.............. 3 39..........L NOTE.-In Manchester the average is less than 60 hours per week. In the eastern counties the full hours are worked. * Per day. 256 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. LOCOMOTIVE-ENGINE MAKING. Occupation. Glasgow Fitters and finishers......................................................5.................... Turners, shapers, planers, and slotters........................................................ 6 05 Drillers.....................................................................................' 3 87 Drillers —~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,.......3 87 Erectors and boiler-mounters.................................................................. 6 53 Pattern-makers............................................................................... 6 77 Iron and brass molders........................................................................ 7 00 Coppersmiths................................................................................ 6 77 Grinders...-................................................................................ 7 50 Boiler-makers................................................................................ 6 2.5 Smiths....................................................................................... 625 Forgemen.................................................................................... 847 Forgemen —~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~8 47 Laborers...................................................................................... 3 6 Ilammermen................................................................................. 4 11 NOTE.-The above wsages are all average rates, many men being paid both higher and lower, according to ability. The hours of work average about 57 per week. BOLT, NUT, AND RIVET MAKING. Occupation. Glasgow. Bolt-makers, good...................................................................... $6 77 Bolt-makers, common..................................................................5 80 Nut-makers, large....................................................................... 7'6 Nut-makers, small..................................................................... 6 05 Rivet-makers......................................................................... 5 8 Screwers of bolts....................................................................... $0 72 to 1 69 Bolt-makers' striker..................................................................... 3 63 Rivet-cutters........................................................................... 1 69 Rivet picker-out........................................................................ 1 2t Turner...................................................................... 6 77 Fitter's apprentice......................................... 17 LOCK AND SAFE MAKING. Occupation. ~ Metropolis. First-class mechanics, known as tool-makers and engineers...... $10 16 to $13 31, per 60 hours. Good fitters................................................... $7 26 to $31 94, per 60 hours, piece-work. Laborers in mechanics, employed to fit up or put together what $4 35 to;$8 47, for 60 hours. is made by machine-mere unskilled labor. Boys and youths..............................................I $L 45 to $ 14 Women, employed to work automatic machines................. $2 17 to $3 14, as the law allows. NOTE BY PROPRIETORS.-Our system is exceptional to all others in this trade, by reason of the parts of the work being prepared by machinery similar to Enfield. Unfortunately, the best men only work about twothirds time; consequently, they take only a part of what they earn. The hours of work are 60' per week. SHIPBUILDING AND MARINE ENGINEERING. Occupation. Glasgow. Metropolis. SHIPBUILD1.NG-YARD: Blacksmiths........................................................ — $6 05 $8 71 Angle-iron smiths.................................................. 6 29 9 43 Hammermen...................................................... 3 75... Riveters.......................................................... $5 08 to 5 32 $5fi to 726 Riveters-~~~~~~~~~~~~~$5 08 to 5 3-2 "$;;'56;'to"7' 2 Platers and fitters.................................................. 5 80 to 7 01 5 80 to 9 19 Calkers............................................................ 5 32 8 71 Helpers or laborers.................... 38............................. 3 385 08 Rivet-boys........................................................ 1 69 1 45 to 2 17 Carpenters and boat-builders....................................... 6 53 8 71 Joiners............................................................ 6 53 7 98 Blockmakers....................................................... 5 80 8 71 Painters........................................................... 7 32 7 26 Riggers........................................................... 6 9 7 26 AVERAGE EARNINGS OF OPERATIVES. 2 57 SHIPBUILDING AND MARINE ENGINEERING —Continued. Occupation. Glasgow. Metropolis. SHIPBUILDING-YARD-Continued. Machinists......................................................... $5 68................ Borers............................................................. 3 93................ ENGINE-WORKS: Draughtsmen...................................................... 8 22...... Pattern-makers..............6....................................... 41 $8 71 Joiners............................................................6 59 7 98 Blacksmiths........................................................ 6 53 8 71 Hammermen...................3.................................... 87 5 32 Fitters andifinishers................................................ 5 86 8 22 Iron-turners..........................................6.............. 05 8 71 Machinists --- - -—..................... 5 50.... Laborers.......................................3................... 32 4 35 BOILER-WORKS: Platers and fitters..................................................6 47 8 71 Riveters and calkers............................................... 5 44 7 26 Blacksmiths........................................................6 29................ Hammermen.......................................................75................ Holders on and laborers............................................. 3 4. Rivet-boys and blowers.............................................................. 21 SHEFFIELD TRADES. Amount per Occupation. Amount per week. IRON AND STEEL MANUFACTURE. Head puddler........................................................................... 29 to $48 40 Head puddler. — ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~$29 04 to $48 40 Ordinary puddler....................................................................... 6 53 Lifter-up, boy.......................................................................... 1 69 Forgeman.............................................................................. 12 10 to 14 52 Forge laborer.............................................................. 4............ 4 11 to 4 84 Armor-plate laborer..................................................................... 6 53 Pattern-maker.......................................................................... 8 47 Roller, head............................................................................ 21 78 to 29 (04 Roller, laborer.......................................................................... 4 84 Furnacemen, laborer.................................................................... 5 80 Spring-fitters........................................................................... 14 52 Laborer to the above.................................................................... 7 26 Wire-drawers........................................................................... 9 68 Wire-cleaners........................................................................... 4 84 Rod-rollers............................................................................. 12 10 to 14 52 Sheet-rollers............................................................................................ EDGE-TOOL MANUFACTURE. Forgers, double, (of which the forger receives $10.89 and the striker $6.05, or $12.10 and 16 91 $4.84, respectively.) Grinders, with apprentice...........................................................13 31 Grinder, single-handed.................................................................10 89 Hardeners.............................................................................. 6 77 Warehouse-women................................. 2 17 FILE MANUFACTURE. Forgers, double-handed, (divided in like proportion with earnings of edge-tool forgers) 19 36 Forgers, single-handed..................................................................9 68 Cutters................................................................................. 7 26 Hardeners............................................................... 8 22 Scourei s, women....................................................................... 2 42 Grinders............................................................................... 9 68 CUTLERY MANUFACTURE. SPRING-KNIFE CUTLERY: Spring-knife cutler, (average, probably, $6.29)........................................ 3 63 to 8 47 Pen and pocket blade grinder................................................. 7 26 to 7 74 Pen and pocket blade forger..........................7 26 to............................8 47 TABLE-KNIFE CUTLERY: Table-knife cutler, (average, probably, $6.77)........................................ 4 R4 to 9 68 Table-blade grinder................................................................. 7 26 to 14 52 Table-blade grinder.~~~~~~~~~~~~7 26 to 14 52 Table-blade forger......................................................... 7 26 to 12 10 RAZOR MANUFACTURE: Razor-cutler........................................................................ 6 77 Razor-grinder...................................................................... 6 05 to 8 47 Razor-grinder.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6 95 to 8 4t7 Rlazor-forger........................................................................ 7 26 Ror17- r7 26 17 L ~~58 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. SHEFFIELD TRAiDES-COntinued. Amount per Occupation. week. CUTLERY MIANUFACTURE-Continued. SCSSORS MANUFACTURE: Forgers....................................................................... $ 84 to $7 74 Fi.............................................................................. 6 05 to 8 47 Borers and finishers................................................................. — 6 05 to 8 47 Grinders, glazed.................................................................... 6 53 to 9 68 Grinders, polished-work (with a boy, a grinder will earn from $2.90 to $6.05 per week 7 26 to 11 61 extra.) Dressers, women................................................................... 1 69 to 3 38 Burnihers, women.................................................................. 1 69 to 2 90 SAW MANUFACTURE: Saw-makers, datal.................................................................. 6 77 to 7 98 Sawmakers, piece-workers.......................................................... 6 05 to 12 10 Saw-grinders....................................................................... 9 68 to 14 52 Saw-handle makers................................................................. 4 84 to 7 26 Scourers, women................................................................... 2 17 to 2 90 Warehouse- n................................................................. 2 17 to 2 90 SILVER AND ELECTRO-PLATE MIANUFACTURE. Silver iths....................................................................... 8 47 Metal smiths-....................................................................... 8 47 Stampers-8.7 o....................................................................... 8 71 to 9 68 Buffers, men....................................................................... -— 6 77 Warehouse-women................................. —.................................... 2 90 Warehouse....................................................................... 1 45 to 1 69 Burnishers, women...................................................................... 2 90 Brishers, girls....................................................................... 61 to 97 The above rates are taken in all cases under the condition that a full week is worked. There are in Sheffield a very large number of small masters, who live from hand to mouth, and who, perhaps, are not always able to supply work to their men during the first day or two of the week. On the other hand, there are a still larger nu er of operatives who decline to work, under any circumstances, on Monday, and very often on Tuesday, and who prefer the minimum of work capable of providing the bare necessaries of life. There are again some branches of the Sheffield trad. so depressed, from various causes, that with the best intention a good workman can hardly get a living, after deducting from his wages his rent and wear and tear.,of tools. There ate thus three causes constantly, in operation, especially in periods when trade is fluctuating and -uncertain, which tend clearly to diminish the average rate of wages in this locality, as given in the foregoing pages. NOTE.-The number of hours worked in Sheffield is about 58 per week. WIV IRE — WOT RK I NG. Occupation. Manchester. Remarks. Weavers-$.........................'8 71 Drawers —------------------------- 9 43 Winders —------------------------- 2 17 Stitchers ----------------------— 7 3 14 Dandy-makers.. —---------------------- 12 10 VEngineers -------------------------- 4 11 Mechanics —------------------------ 4 84 Weaving apprentices -1 —----------------- 60 1 They earn.'.1. 69 for the firs" four Da Ing apretce -- years. The last three years Boys-Cpenies —-------------------— J they earn $3.63 (average) and Boys ---------------------------------------------- 1 8 the rawers$4.59. COPPER-MILLS. Occupation. Manchester. Laborers —------------------------------------------ $4 It V!,urnacemen —....................................... 7 26 Hammer-men —--------------------------------------- 6 05 P-olling-men ------------------------------------------ 81 5Cubc-drawers —-------------------------------------- 5 08 ~Boys over 16 years of age —--------------------------------- 2 4 2 Boys under 16 years of age (full time) ------------------------------- 1 69 AVERAGE EARNINGS OF OPERATIVES. 259 COACH-BUILDING. Occupation. Manchester. Body-makers........................................................................... $6 78 to $9 68 Carriage-makers........................................................................ 6 78 to 8 71 Painters................................................................................ 6 78 to 8 23 Wheelers.............................................................................. 6 78 to 9 68 Smiths...-............................................................................. 7 26 to 9 68 Piecemen.............................................................................. 5 81 to 6 29 Strikers................................................................................ 3 87 Women................................................................................ 1 94 to 2 42 The boys serve for seven years. Their wages begin at 3 shillings per week and end at 10 shillings in the last year. BUILDING TRADES. Occupation. Metropolis. Manchester. Bradford. Cents per Cents per hour. hour. Per week. Joiners............................................................ 16 141 $6 61 Masons........................................................... ]16 15 7 26 Bricklayers........................................................ 16............ 7 26 Plasterers......................................................... 16........................ Laborers.......................................................... 9 7 4 84 Superior laborers and scaffolders................................... 10 8. Painters........................................................... 15 14........... Plumbers and glaziers....................................................................... 6 61 Slaters.................................................................................... 6 77 NOTE.-In the metropolis 563 hours per week. CABINET-MITAKING AND UPHtOLSTERY. Occupation. Manchester. Metropolis. Cabinet-makers........................................................ $7 74 to $3 22 $7 26 to $10 89 Upholsterers........................................................... 7 98 7 26 to 12 10 French polishers....................................................... 6 77 7 26 Painters..14 ets.'per hor 6 477 Painters............................................................... hour 8 47 Gilders................................................................ 7 26 t o 7 74 7 26 to 8 47 Upholstery sewers..................................................... 2 90 3 38 Turners................................................................................ 7 26 to 10 89 Chair-makers............................................................... 7 26 to 12 10 Joiners.........,............ 9 19 Carvers................................................................7 26 to........... 12 10 Decorators.............................................................................. 9 19 NOTE.-Sixty hours per week. CLOCK-MAKING. Occupation. Metropolis. Clock-makers, first elas................................................................ $7 26 to $9 68 Clock-makers, second class.............................................................. 6 05 to 6 77 NOTE-The hours of work are 58 per week. 260 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. POTTERY. Occupation. Metropolis. Manchester. Newcastle-on- Edinburgh. Tyne. Hollow-ware pressers.......................... $7 26........................................... Printers...................................... 7 26............ $5 81 $5 81 Overmen....................................... 6 78 Throwers......-............................... 8 71 $8 47 5 81 6 65 Turners...................................... 6 29............ 6 78 Sagger-makers............................... 8 71............ 7 26............... Dish-makers.................................. 7 26........................................... Plate and saucer makers....................... 7 26........................................... Laborers..................................... 5 08........................................... Transferrers, women.......................... 4 84............ $2 42 to 2 90............. Lathe-turners, women......................... 1 94............... 94.......................... Warehouse women............................ 4 36............ 1 69 to 1 94 1 45 Paintresses, women..2 99........................... $2 42 to 3 39 Boys, full time............................................ 1 94............................... Boys, half time........................................... 60............................... Temperers of clay........................................ 3 87............................... Fettlers................................................... 5 32............................... Slip-makers......................................................... 12 10............... Mold-runners, boys......................... 97 to 1 09................ Biscuit-firemen....................................................... 10 89 4 84 Gloss-firemen.............................................. 7 50 5 81 Dippers.............................................................................. Jar-makers, women................................................... 1 94 to 2 18................ Jar-makers, girls...................................................... 1 45 to 1 69................ Jar-finishers, girls.................................................... 1 69 to 1 94................ ERICK-MtAKING. Occupation. Kent. Remarks. Brick-molders.............................................. $6 53 All brick-making operations Brick sorters and loaders................................... 6 05 are paid at per 1,000 bricks, Barrow-men............................................... $4 36 to 5 08 so that the wages can only Carpenters and bricklayers................................. 5 81 be averaged. Shipwrights................................................ 6 53 Engineers................................................. 8 71 GLASS-MIAKING. Occupation. Metropolis. Founders................................................................................... $8 76 Sparemen, (whose duty it is to fill the crucibles)............................................. 8 64 Kilnmen.................................................................................... 8 40 Cutters..................................................................................... 8 40 Cutters' assistants.......................................................................... 6 24 Grinding-men.............................................................................. 9 12 Grinding-boys.............................................................................. 1 92 Smoothing-men............................................................................. 7 20 Smoothing-women.......................................................................... 2 40 Polishing-men.............................................................................. 8 40 Polishing-boys............................................................................... 2 40 NOTE.-The hours of work are about 50 per week. SOAP AND CANDLES. Occupation. Metropolis. ~ ~~~~~~~~~.L Copper sidesmen......................................................................... $5 76 Tallow-melters......................................................................... 5 76 Candle-pounders........................................................................ 4 80 Carmen................................................................................. $6 24 to 7 20 Boys................................................................................. 1 20 to 2 40 AVERAGE EARNINGS OF OPLERATIVES. 261 OIL MILLS AND REFINERY. Occupation. Metropolis. Pressmen.............................................................................. $7 20 to $8 40 Grinders.............................................................................. 4 32 to 4 80 Hoppermen........................................................................... 4 80 to 5 52 Boys................................................................................... 3 12 to 3 84 Stokers................................................................................ 5 76 to 672 Coopers................................................................................ 7 20 to 7 80 Carpenters............................................................................. 8 64 Yard-hands............................................................................. 5 04 to 7 2 Blacksmiths............................................................................ 7 92 NOTE. -Tie hours of work are 60 per week. RICE-MILLS. Occupation. Metropolis. Millers................................................................................. 95 80 to $7 26 Skilled laborers......................................................................... 5 80 to 6 29 Ordinary laborers....................................................................... 4 35 to 5 C8 Youths over 18 years of age.............................................................? 38 to 4 11 Boys under 18 years of age............................................................. 45 to 2 42 CHEMICAL WORKS. Occupation. NewcastiE Manchester. on-Tyne,. Sulphuric acid manufacture.................................................... $65............ Working reverberatory furnaces................................................. 6 22............ Manufacturing chloride of lime................................................. 6 2q............ Laborers....................................................................... 4 35 $3 63 Bricklayers.................................................................... 6 29 5 92 Joiners........................................................................ 60 5 6 65 Millwrights.................................................................... 6 29. Cartmen...................................................................... 4 59 4 71 Reelmen..................................................................... 6 05. Coopers......................................................................... 6 55s Coopers..~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~6 05......'o Sawyers...................................................................... 5 32............ Brick-makers.................................................................. 4 84........ Furnacemen...................................................................65..... 6 Engineers... 6 29 Boiler-makers....................................................................... 6 05 Blacksmiths......................................................................... 5 3-2 Plumbers...................................................................... 5 929 Masons................................................................................. 7 26 Founders, (molders).............................................................7 13 BREAD AND BISCUIT MAIAUFACTORY. Occupation. Glasgow. Biscuit-baking, men...................................................................... $1 69 to $7 26 Biscuit-baking, boys.................................................................... 72 to 1 45 Biscuit-baking, girls, (packing).......................................................... 72 to 2 17 Bread-baking, men..................................................................... 2 90 to 7 74 262 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. BREWERY. Occupation. Essex. Stores,imen-.......................................... $4 53 Stores, boys-1......................................... 08 Tun-room s, men-........................................ 4 23 Cask-washers, men-...................................... 4 ii1 Cask-washers, boys-..................................... 1 45 Stagemen-........................................... 5 08 Hop-room men, &c-...................................... 4 59 W atchmen-.......................................... 7 01 Stablemen-.......................................... 4 84 Dray and van-men —....................................... 556 AVERAGE EARNINGS OF OPE'RATIVES.20............. i............................. —--—................. 2) 90.................... ~~~~~1...........................,..29) PAPER MTAIXING. Ocppation. Kent. Keighiy. Duetropolih. Glossop Manca shire. ~erSkilled wce-orkmen......................o $6 29 $6 05................. $4 84 to $5 32 $6 05.... Laborers-3 63 to 435 4 11 4 59 38 7. — Women...................... 314 266 4 to 217 2 17. Children, half-timers-6............................................................................ Pan.men.. —$............................................................... 2 50 Bleachers-..................... ---------------- ---------------- ------------— 7-9435 Rag-sorters, women-.......2 42 Paper-sorters, women.... —.....-I2 42 Washers off, men-..................................... 4 35...................................................... Machine, men-.......5 —-------------- ---------------- ---------------------------- 8ts0.Machine, boys-........................................ 2 90 Rag-engineers-.................................................................. 80 PAPERI- STAINDING. Occup ation.,Met ropo lis. Lancashire. Water-color printers, piecework...........................................$4 80 to............. $ 00............68 Flock-printers, piece-work —............................................................. 7 etal-printers.............................................................. 7 20 to 7 94. Boys-1........................................................... $ 0........... 7 74 Paper-stainers-................................................................... 2 40 ziece-work, earn............................................... $2 90 to 4 84 ieee-work. earn..................................... 2 4~2 to 3 87 Laborers................................................................. 2; to 8 39 BOOK-BINDEING. Occupation. Metropolis. Finishers..................................................................$6 05 to $9 6820 Forwrder, first............................................................ 2 4 to 4 8471 Forwarder, pse lain, woen....................................................... 741 81 to 3 63 B, colockred, firso a youths..................................................... 2 90 to 6 78 Blockere n............................................................... 1 81 to 5 32 hFolders, females, piece-w rls...................................................... 1 to 3 634 4 Sewrdeer s, ewom e n and girls............................................. 1 2 41 to 3 687 iCollatorns, a ll per son s employed in this trade 3re paid piece-work, w.hich renders it impossible9 ENVELOPE MAKING. an appr m Occupation of th. wa es, as so muc depends utropon the bilis.ence o Envelop-ctters, men 0............................ l.................................... 6 o 20 Envelope-cementers, women-............................... 2 421 to 4 84 Envelope-stamnpers, plain, women-1........................... 81 to 3 63 Envelope-stampers, colored, woman aud youths-...................... 2 90 to 6 78 Envelope-folders, women-1............................... 81 to 5 32 Envelope-machine hands, girls-.............................. 1 21 to 3 63 Envelope, black borderers, women and girls-1...................... 21E to 4 2'6 With few exceptions, all persons employed in this trade ore paid piece-work, which renders it impossible to give more, than an approximation of the wages, as so much depends uopn the, ability and experience of the persons employed. The boors of work are, as a role, from 9 a. mn. to 7 p. on., wvith intervaLs of one hour for dinner and half an hour for tea. TYPE FOUNDI'NG. Occupation. M1,1etropolis. Casters.........................................-$6 77 to $7 98 Rubbers-......................................... 4 35 to 5 80 Dressers --—.......................................79iS Boys —---------------------------------------— 1 21 to 2 42 NOTFE.-Averaeg about 58 hours per week. LETTER-PRESS PRINTING.-PROVINCIAL RATES OF WAGES. ~I News piece prices per 1,000 ens. ______________________ ~~~Number of Wages. hours bper week. Overtime,-per hour. Weekly. Daiiv. h e Towns. 8~~~~ i. 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ Barnsley..-....................$6 29 $6029....... $0 10 $0 12 $0 12-............ 8 -.....$0 12 $0 12 -.... Blackburn........................................ 6 78 6 78 12 12 12 -.-58 c. -12 12 - Bradford --- 6.29 6.78........ 10 12 12 1.55 -. Chesterfield....................................... 581 58110 12.12 12 Derby............................................ 6 29 6 29. 10 12 " Q.1...................... 58 58 12 12.. Dewsbury....................................... 6 29 6 29 10 11 12....................... 50 5- 12 12 - rham58........................1 581- I10 i0...................... 12 12l........ 0 rldfax-18.......................-3 6-........ Hlartlepool-..................... 581 581 -..... 10 10 12-............ 5 7 ----- 12 12..... HLl-...................6 29 6 53 $7 74 10 10 12 $1 12 $0 14 $0 14 54 54 54 1 2 12 $0 16 Z Lewes-702 702. - 12.-60 60 - 12 12-70..... 12......................... 060..... 2)2.... Leeds-...................... 7 26 7 26..- -.. 12 1.2 1 2-............ 3 -8.... 1 4 1 6.... Manchester-.................... 7 26 7 50 968 14 14 16 18 18 18 So 55 54 1 8 1 8 20 Newcastle-on-Tyne-................ 6 7 8 6 78 8 47 10 10 12 --- 5- 551 54 1 6 1 6 1 6 Scarboiough-................-: —- ------ ------'..5 81 6 29-36 2 1"2 - Sheffield-678 678 800 10 12 1...............................14 8 53 12 12 16 Sunderlandl....................................... 629 629. 10 10 1255 59 12 12 -- York —5 81 60 5.-...... 5.'......................... 12 12........ AVERAGE EARNINGS OF OPERATIVES. 265 LETTER-PRESS PRINTING. Wietk:y watgcs. Compositors.................................................................................... $9 68 Pressmen....................................................................................... 8 22 Machine-men......................................................... 9 68 Boys...................................................................... 1 45 TANNING AND CURRYING. Occupation, Metropolis. Remarks. Skinners.................................................................... $9 12 Shearers and finishers...................................................... 8 8 8 Curriers................................................................... 7 92 Piece-work. Enameliers and japanners.................................................. 7 68 Glove and leather finishers and dyers........................................ 5 5 Tanners................................................................... 59 Tanners' boys.............................................................. 2 64 Jobbers.................................................................... 5 04 Jobbers' boys.............................................................. 3 36 I Dyers..................... -.....................................5 76 Dyers' boys-.............................................................. 288 I Day-ork W ool-rug dressers.......................................................... 5 76 ~~Vosl-rug dressers —5 76 ~~~~~~~ Day-work. W ool-rug dressers' boys.................................................... 288 WVomen employed in sewing skins 2 525 W arehouse and stable men................................................. 5 28 W arehouse and stable boys................................................ 1 92 I Mechanics employed in repairs, &c.......................................... 7 44 J RQOPE~-MAKING. Occupation. Metropolis. Manchester. Rope-yarn hand-spinners................................................... 6 53 $5 57 Twins-spinners, men...................................................... 7 26........... Twine-spinners, boys...............-........................................ 1 21..............77 MIachine-spinners, men.5 81.................................................... Machine-spinners, boys............................. 2................. Machine-spinners, females................................................... 169..... Rope-makers, (by aid of machinery,) men5................................... 32 Rope-makers, (by aid of machinery,) lads 5 to 15 years2...................... 42 Carmen4.................................................................... 484 Van-boys.................................................................. 21............. W arehonse-men............................................................ Engine-driver.............................................................. 6 78......... Blacksmith................................................................ Carpenter................................................................. 581. REED AND IiEALD MSAKING, ETC. Occupation. Manchester. Reed-makers, men...................................................................... $7 26 Rleed-makers, boys, (full time)........................................................... 1 45 Heald-knitting, women.................................................................. 2 90 Heald-knitting, girls (full time).......................................................... 1 45 INDIA-RUBBER MANUFACTURE. Occupation. Metropolis. Manchester. Skilled workmen, class A................................................ $9 68 to $14 52................ Skilled workmen, class B.............................................. 7 50 to 968................ Skilled workmen, class C............................................... 6 29 to 7 26................ Ordinary workmen..................................................... 5 08 to 6 04............... Ordinary workmen..................................................... 3 87 to 4 84................ Lads................................................................... 2 90 to 338................ Boys.................................................................. 1 45 to 242 $1 21 to $1 f69 W omen............................................................... 2 18 to 436 2 90 to 3 39 Girls.................................................................. 1 45 to 2 18 97 to 1 45 Threaders, male........................................................................ 4 84 to 5 08 Mixers, male.........................................................-................ 3 87 to 4 36 Vulcanizers, male...................................................................... 4 11I Finishers, male........................................................................ 3 87 Mechanical hands, male................................................................ 5 08 Lathe-hands, male....................................................................... 2 90 to 3 39 266 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. LUCIFER-MATCH-MAKING. Occupation. Manchester. Remarks. Chip-box makers................................................... $0 64 Half-timers, girls. Chip-box makers................................................... 2 04 Full-timers, females. Match-box makers................................................. 2 46 Do. Machine-frame fillers............................................... 2 62 Do. Match-box fillers................................................... 1 94 Do. Odd hands in match department..................................... 64 Half-timers, boys. Odd hands in match department...................................... 60 Half-timers, girls. Odd hands in match department..................................... 1 94 Full-timers,females. Odd hands in match department..................................... 3 63 Full-timers, males. Wax vesta and fusee makers........................................ 2 38 Full-timers,females. Wax vesta and fusee makers........................................ 85 Half-timers, boys. Match-cutting, boys over 13........................................ 1 69 Full-timers, males. Match-cutting, men................................................. 4 36 Do. Sawyers, laborers, &c., in yard...................................... 4 36 Do. NOTE-The hours of work are 60 per week. FA NCY-BOX-IMAKING. Occupation. Metropolis. Paper colorers.......................................................................... $2 99 Cutters, piece-work..................................................................... 9 68 Scorers, boys........................................................................... 1 94 Block and case hands................................................................... 4 36 Plain work............................................................................. $2 66 to 2 90 NOTE.-These are about the average wages for good hands all the year. CARTRIDGE-MAAKING. Occupation. Metropolis. Laborers, by time, from................................................................. $4 36 to $6 53 Laborers, by piece, from................................................................ 6 78 to 9 20 Work-girls, by time, from.............................................................. 2 42 to 2 90 Work-girls, by piece, from.............................................................. 1 94 to 4 60 BRUSH-MAKING. Occupation. Leeds. Metropolis. Pan-hands.............................726.................................... Hair-hands................................................................ 6 05 $8 47 Painters................................................................... 9 68 10 89 Finishers.................................................................. 6 78................ Borers.......................................................... 7 26................ Apprentices................................................................ 2................ Women.................................................................... 2 18 $2 18to 4 36 Girls...................................................................... 97 1 69 Boys...................................................................... 1 08................ AVERAGE WAGES OF OPERATIVES. 267 RATES OF WAGES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. AVERAGE RATES OF WAGES paid to persons employed in manufactures c,nd trades, and the hours of labor, in various towns and their neighborhoods, in the United Kingdom in 1872. Comnpiled from returns communicated to the statistical department of the board of trade by the council and secretaries of the several chambers of commerce, 4c. LINEN AND FLAX MlANUFACTURE. BELFAST AND NEIGHBORHOOD. I Occupation. Ct 0 _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ -4 _,__ SPINNING: Preparers for spinning, women.............................................. $0 24 to $0 32 10 Spinners, women........................................................... 25 to 32 10 Reelers, women............................................................ *24 to 30 10 Hacklers, men............................................................. *60 to 84 10 Mechanics, men............................................................ 1 21 10 Overlookers, men........................................................... 1 45 to 1 69 10 Laborers, men............................................................ 24 to 28 10 WEAVING: Winders, women.......................................................... *24 to 36 10 Warpers, women........................................................... *30 to 42 10 Weavers, women........................................................... *36 to 48 10 Overseers, men............................................................. 1 45 to 1 69 10 IN BLEACH-FIELDS: Men....................................................................... 72 10 Women...................................................................... 1 28 10 Lads and boys. 16 to 28 10 DUNDEE AND NEIGHBORHOOD. Per week. SPINNING: Preparers for spinning, women.............................................. $1 45 to $2 42 60 Preparers for spinning, lads and boys....................................... 1 21 to 1 93 60 Spinners, women........................................................... 1 93 to 3 39 60 Spinners, girls......................................... 72 to 1 45 60 Twisters, women........................................................... 2 05 to 2 90 60 Reelers, women............................................................ 1 93 to 3 39 60 Reelers, girls............................................................... 96 to 1 21 60 Hacklers, men............................................................. 4 84 60 Hacklers, women.......................................................... 1 57 to 2 54 60 Hacklers, lads and boys.............. 96 to 1 87 60 MIechanics, men............................................................ 4 36 to 7 26 60'Varehousemen............ 3 39 to 6 05 60 Overlookers, men.......................................................... 5 75 to 8 17 60 Laborers, men....................... 2 90 to, 11 69 W'EAVING: WVinders, women........................... 1 69 to 3 63 60 Winders, girls................................... 96 to 1 21 60 Warpers, men.............................................................. 4 84 to 6 05 60 WVarpe.s, women........................................................... 2 18 to 3 95 60 WVarpers, lads and boys..................................................... 1 09 to 1 97 60 Weavers, women..................................................... 1 93 to 1 87 60 Overseers, men............................................................. 6 05 to 8 17 6 Assistant overseers, men............................................. 4 84 to 6 05 60 Per day. IN' BLEACI-FIELDS: 36 10 M1en..................................................................... 6 10 Men... 4*72 to 96 Women..4 to 12 10 e,1 *24 to 18 10 Lads and boys............................................................. 24 to 8 10 Girls................................................................. 24 to 30 10 For piece-work. 268 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. JUTE MANTUFACTURE. DUNDEE AND NEIGHBORTHOOD. ~47 Occupation. SPINNING: Preparers for spinning, wome n. ~-2 00 to $2 iS 60 Preparers for spinning, lads and boys....................................... 1 27 60 Spinners, women........................................................... 2 12 to 2 24 60 Spinners, lads and boys.................................................... 1 39 60 Spinners, girls............................................................. 1 39 60 Twisters, women........................................................... 2 24 60 Reelers, women............................................................ 2 54 60 Hacklers, men............................................................. 3-5 60 Hlacklers, lads and boys.................................................... 1 69 630 Mechanics, men............................................................ 5-S 57 W arehousemen............................................................ 5 30 60 Overlookers, m en.......................................................... 5 $I to 7 o6 60 Laborers, men- 436 60 WEAVING: W inders, women........................................................... 0 IS to 3 39 69 W arpers, women........................................................... 3-15 60 leamers, men.............................................................. 3 63 to 4 I4 60 W eavers, women............................................-........... 30 to 2~ 90 60 Overseers, men............................................................. 8 47 60 Tenters, me i.......................m..................................... 5 57 60 WOOLEN MN ANUFACTURE. DEWSBURY AND NEIGIIBORHOOD. Occupation. 30 PREPARING WOOLEN CLOTH, ETC: W ool-sorters, m en........................................................$6 29 59 W ool-scourers, driers, &c., men............................................ 436 59 Dyers, men................................................................ 5 8 59 Dyers, foremen, men...................................0.................. 9 68 50 Teazers and willyers, men.................................................. 60 59 Scribblers, foremen, m en...................................................10 9 59 Scribblers, feeders, women................................................ 90 59 Slubbers, men.............................................................. 9 68 59 Slubbers, piecers, lads and boys........................2.................... 18 59 Condenstr-minders, women................................................. 290 59 Spinners, m en.............................................................. 7 26 59 Spinners, piecers, lads and boys............................................ 2 8 59 Spinners, foremen, men..................................................... 68 59 Warpers and beamers, men5................................................ 08 59 Warpers and beamers, women --- 314 59 Healders, lads and boys...............................................2 90 59 WEAVING, ETC: W eavers, men............................................................. 4 84 59 Weavers, women -.. 387 59 W eavers, lads and boys.................................................... 387 59 Nreavers, girls............................................................. 2 90 59 Weavers, foremen or timers, men.......................................... 47 59 Knotters and sewers, women................................................- 96 59.Burlers, women............................................................ 2 96 59 Millers, men............................................................... m84 59 M illers, foremen, men......................................................- 47 59 M anager, men.............................................................4 52 59 DRESSING AND FINISHING WOOLEN CLOTH, ETC: Dressers or giggers, men.................................................... 4 S4 59 Dressers or giggers, lads and boys........................................... 387 59 Tenters, men...............................................................5 57 59 Cutters or croppers, men................................................... 484 59 Cutters or croppers, lads and boys........................................... 4;2 59 Cutters or croppers, women................................................ 4 59 AVERAGE WAGES OF OPERAITWES. 269 W,~OOLEN M.ANUFACTUrE-Continued. DEWSBURY AND NEIGHBORHOOD-Continued. -~0 Occupation. 0 DRESSING AND FINISHING WOOLEN CLOTH, ETC.-Continuied. Press-setters, men............................. —............................. $5 32 59 Press-setters, lads and boys.................................................. 3 87 59 Burlers, women..............................................2.............. 66 CO Drawers, men.............................................................. 9 68 60 Drawers, lads and boys..................................................... 2 42 60 Brushers men............................................................. 5 32 60 Brushers, lads and boys.................................................... 3 39 60 Enginemen, men........................................................... 8 47 60 Enginemen, lads and boys.................................................. 3 63 60 Mechanics, men............................................................ 7 02 60 Laborers, men............................................................. 4 84 60 W arehouse-men............................................................ 5 32 60 IRON AND STEEL MANUFACTURE. SHEFFIELD AND NEIGHBORHOOD. Occupation. o 0 IRON-FOUNDERS, ETC.: Iron-molders, men..................................................... $7 74 to $8 23 53 to 571 Iron-molders, lads and boys............................................. 2 42 60 Joiners, men........................................................... 5 32 to 6 78 58I to 60 Grinders and glaziers, men............................................. 5 32 to 12 10 50 to 58$ Grinders and glaziers, lads and boys.................................... 2 42 50 Pattern-makers, men................................................... 7 26 to 9 68 58$ to 60 Pattern-makers, lads and boys.......................................... l45 60 Pattern-makers' assistants, men......................................... 4 36 58f Tinmen, men.......................................................... 6 78 58$ Blacksmiths, men...................................................... 7 26 to 7 74 58$ to 60 Blacksmiths, lads and boys............................................. ]45 60 Blacksmiths, helpers, men.............................................. 4 60 to 5 81 58{ to 60 Engine-fitters and turners, men.......................................... 7 26 58~ Engineers, men.........................................................- 7 26 581, to 60 Millwrights, men....................................................... 7 26 58. Molders, men........................................................... 7 74 58$ Planers, men........................................................... 6 29 58$ Turners, men........................................................... 7 26 581 Screwers, men.......................................................... 4 36 58$ Hammer-men.......................................................... 8 23 581 Strikers, men........................................................... 4 60 582 Borers, men............................................................ 5 81 581 Slotters, men........................................................... 6 29 58$, Furnace-men in forge................................................... 7 26 58$ Founders, men......................................................... 774 581 Engine-men........................................................... 4 84 581 Drillers, men........................................................... 5 08 58$ Carters, men........................................................... 81 cts. per day. 58M Laborers, men.......................................................... 4 36 571 to 58$} FILE-MAKERS: Forgers of files, 12 inches and upward. men.............................. 8 71 to 9 20 48 to 56 Strikers, men........................................................... 7 26 to 8 87 48 to 56 Forgers of files under 12 inches, men.................................... 6 05 to 8 47 50 to 60 Grinders, men.......................................................... 8 71 to 14 64 50 to 60 Grinders, lads and boys................................................. 5 32 50 to 60 Cutters, men.......................................................... 4 84 to 5 81 50 to 60 Cutters, lads and boys.................................................. 2 96 to 3 63 50 to 60 Cutters, women....................................................... 2 18 to 3 63 50 to 60 Cutters, girls.......................................................... 1 69 to 2 95 50 to 60 H,qrdeners, men........................................................ 6 53 to 7 74 50 to 60 Hardeners, women..................................................... 2 18 50 to 60 270 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. IRON AND STEEL MIANUFACTURE-Con0tinue. SHEFFIELD AND NEIGHBORHOOD-Continued. Occupation. C5 HORSE-NAIL MAKERS: borse-nail makers (forgers) by machinery, men..........................$..2 IRAZOR-MIAKERS: Strikers, men......................................................... 4 Forgers, men...........................................................26 48 Grinders, mnen..........................................................7 26 48 Setters-in, men........................................................48 W hetters, men.........................................................,SAWV-MAKERS: M akers, men..........................................................53 Grinders, m en.........................................................71 54 Handle-maker:, m en................................................... 6 53 54 8 CISSOR-MIAKERS: Forgers, m en.......................................................... to 7 Grinders, m en........................................................ 1 47 Grinders, lads and boys................................................to 5 32 47 Filers, men............................................................99 Filers, men, lads, and boys.............................................. 63 Finishers, men......................................................... 6 o 47 5 Dressers, women....................................................... 169 to 315 Burnishers, women.....................................................2 90 0 SlPRINGIIKNIFE BIAKERS: Grinders, best work, men....................-........................... 26 to 71 4 Forgers, best work, men................................................. 26 4 Cutlers, best work, men...3.............................................4 Scale and spring makers, best work, men................................653 54 TABLE-KNIFE MAKERS: Forgers, men...........................................................7 4 Strikers, men..........................................................17 4 Grinders, men.........................................................5 81 48 IHafters, men...........................................................5 81 5 STOVE-GRATE FITTERS AND FENDER-)MAKERS: M olders, tnen........................................................ -. 8 23..50 Molders, lads and boys..................................................90 50 Fitters, men-..........................................................26 5 Fitters, lads and boys.................................................4 50 Grinders, men.........................................................10 50 Grinders, lads and boys................................................ — - - 50 STEEL-MAKING: Converter..............................................................7 Converter's laborer..................................................... 50 to 72 M elter......................................................... 8 23 to 24 20 0 to 72 Puller-out.............................................................. 6 78 to 8 47 5 to 72 Coker..................................................................50 to 72 Forge-man and tilter...................................................1 50 to 72 Rod-roller............................................................. Rod furnace man.......................................................5 08 50 o 72 Sheet roller............................................................ to 72 Sheet-furnace m an.....................................................72 Teemer......... 7...................................................... Pot-makers............................................................ to 72 Laborer............................... —................................. Boys................................................................. NEWCASTLE AND NEIGHBORHOOD. Per ton. Per day. PUDDLING: Highest rate —-...............................3 13 30 Lowest rate —-.........................2 30 l t Average rate —-.............................2 60 10 P~LATE-ROLLING: Rolling.................................. *$I 0S to 1 57 lI Heating................................. — 67 to 97 1.0 Charging —-.................................9~s 30 Shearing —................................ 67 to 84 10 * E xtras are paid on these prices for beet qualities. AVERAGE WAGES OF OPERATIVES. 271 IRON AND STEEL MANUFACTURE-Continued. NEWCASTLE AND NEIGHBORHOOD-Continued. i_ C Occupation. BAR-ROLLING: Rolling.................................................................... $0 68 to $1 09 10 Heating.................................................................... 50 to 93 10 Cutting down.............................................................. 32 10 IRON-FOUNDERS, ETC.: Per day. Iron-molders............................................................... $1 13........ Joiners.................................................................... 1 1 3........ Pattern-makers............................................................ 1 05........ Tinmen.................................................................. 93........ Blacksm iths............................................................... $0 97 to 1 21........ Blacksmiths' helpers-....................................................... 68 to 73........ Engine-fitters and turners.................................................. 97 to 1 21........ Boiler-makers............................................................. 1 21........ M tihwrights................................................................ 1 13........ Planers................................................................... 97 to 1 05........ Turners.................................................................... 97 to 1 21........ Screwers................................................................... 73........ Drillers................................................................... 80........ Apprentices................................................................ 16 to 24........ Carters..................................................................... 0. Laborers................................................................... 32 to 73........ DUNDEE AND NEIGHBORHOOD. Per week. IR0N-FOUNDERS, ETC.: Iron-molders, men.......................................................... $7 26 57 Iron-molders, lads and boys................................................ 1 41 57 Joiners, m en............................................................... 5 57 57 Pattern-makers, men...................................................... 5 81 57 Blacksmiths, m en......................................................... 5 69 57 Engine-fitters and turners, men............................................ 5 75 57 Engine-fitters and turners, lads and boys................................... 1 59 57 Boiler-makers, m en....................................................... 5 69 57 Boiler-makers, lads and boys............................................... 1 94 57 Engineers, m en............................................................ 5 57 57 Engineers, lads and boys................................................. 2 90 57 Planers, m en............................................................. 5 44 57 Planers, lads and boys...................................................... 1 21 57 Turners, m en............................................................. 5 93 57 Turners, lads and boys................................................... 1 59 57 Screwers, m en............................................................ 3 87 57 Finishers, m en............................................................. 5 44 57 Finishers, lads and boys.................................................. 2 90 57 H ammer-men.............................................................. 3 87 57 Strikers, m en............................................................. 3 87 57 Borers, men............................................................... 3 87 57 Slotters, m en.............................................................. 5 32 57 Furnace-m en.............................................................. 4 60 57 Engine-men................................................................ 4 84 57 Carters, men............................................................... 4 23 57 Porters, m en............................................................... 3 115 60 Laborers, m en............................................................ 3 63 57 272 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. SHIP-BUILDING, (OF IRON.) NEWCASTLE AND NEIGIIBORII00D. Occlipation. SHIP-BUILDERS: MIoulders............................................................. Fitters................................................................ $1 0 to 9 1 Chippers..............................................................3 to Riveters...............................................................7 Plasters................................................................ —-65 to 1 33 1 0 Calkers............................................................... 7 10 Carpenters............................................................ 1 13 to 1 17 0 Helpers............................................................... Smiths................................................................97 to 1 17 10 Joiners and carvers....................................................10 Painters.............................................................to 1 13 Drillers...............................................................1 Sawyers..............................................................1 09 Strikers...............................................................0 Boys.................................................................to 40 10 Laborers..............................................................6 to 73 BELFAST AND NEIGHBORHOOD. SHIP-BUILDERS, (IRON:) Ship-smiths................................................................. 0 97 to 0 10 Strikers or helpers..................................................... Sawyers.............................................................. 97 0 Joiners................................................................ 10 Ship-carpenters.......................................................10 Laborers...............................................................10 Platers and boiler-makers...............................................1 0 10 Angle-iron smiths......................................................09 1 Riveters............................................................... Holders-np...........................................................0..... DUNDEE AND NEIGHBORHOOD. Per week. IRON-SHIP BUILDERS: Molders —.................................. $7 26 57 Builders ---—.................................6 78 57 Fitters...................................... 6 78 57 Chippers ---—................................5 68, 58-; Riveters ---—.................................6 05 581Phlters —-.................................. $6 53 to 7 09 5SI Calkers —.................................. S8Ito 6 29 581~ Carpenters..-................................ 5 81 58' Helpers ---—.................................3 87 581: Boiler-makers.................................. 7 26 57 Engineers-.................................... 6 78 7 Joinere and ciarvers —............................. 6 29 57 Painters ---—.................................6 78 8 Drillers ---—.................................4 36 08' Sawyers ---—................................6 209 Strikers ---—................................3 87 5a1 Boys ---—..................................1 45 5 81 Laborers-...................................3 8 7 58e4. AVERAGE WAGES OF OPERATIVES. 273 ROPE AND SAIL MAKING. BELFAST AND NEIGHBORHOOD. Occupatlon. g ~: ROPE AND TWINE SPINNERS: Rope-yarn spinners, men................................................... $4 36 Rope-yarn spinners, lads, and boys......................................... $1 69 to 2 4, 59 Twine-spinners, men...................................................... 36 9 Twine-spinners, lads, and boys............................................. 73 to 1 94 59 ROPE, SAIL, AND SAIL-CLOTH MAKERS: Rope-makers, men......................................................... 4 36 to 6 05 Rope-makers, lads, and boys............................................... 97 to 42 59 Sail-makers, men...........................................-............... 6 53 to 7 74 59 Sail-makers, lads, and boys................................. —97 to -2 42 59 EARTHE:NWARE AN-D PO*ICELAIN MIANUFACTURE. WORCESTER AND N-NEIGHBORHOOD. Occuni alo n. ~. m PORCELAIN: Clay-makers, men ---------------------------------------------------------- 8! 11 Throwers, men --------------------------------------------------------- -9 68 1 Throwers, lads and boys --------------------------------------------------- 3 39 11 Turners, men..................-........................................... 9 68 it Turners, lads and boys..................................................... 1 81 11 Handlers, men............................................................. 7 26 II Pressers, men.............................................................$7 26 to 9 68 31 Figure-makers, men........................................................ 7 26 to 12 10 I1 Figure-makers, lads and boys............................................... 2 42 11 Modelers, men............................................................. 9 68 to 15 24 11 Molders, men- 7 26 to 8 71 11 Saggar-makers, men....................................................... 7 26 11 Biscuit-firemen, men....................................................... 9 68 it Biscuit-placers, men........................................................ 4 35 to 4 84 11 Olost-firemen, men........................................................ 10 16 i I Gloe't-placers, men........................................................ 6 05 tl Kiln-firemen, men......................................................... 6 05 11 Painters, men.............................................................. 7 26 to 19 36 11 Gilders, men............................................................... 6 05 to 8 71 11 Enamelers, women......................................................... 2 42 to "3 39 it Enamelers, girls............................................................ 48 to 1 2' i1 Burnishers, woraen......................................................... 1 93 to 2 90 11 Burnishers, girls..................................................... 48 to 1'21 11 Warehousemen............................................................ 4 84 to 7 26 1i Engravers, men............................................................ 6 05 to 9 68 ]1I Apprentices............................................................... Not stated..... - i Office heads and attendants............................................... 19 60 to 76 0 per annum. NEWCASTLE AND NEIGHBORHOOD. Per day. EARTHENWARE: Clay-niakers, men.......................................................... *$ 5 10 Clay-makers, women...................................................... 10~ Throwers, men............................................................ 21 0 Turners, men.............................................................. 97 10l Handlers, men............................................................. *i 45 10$ Pressers, men.............................................................. 21 10$ Molders, men................................................................1 69 10 Saggar-makers, men....................................................... *1 21 101 Biscuit-firemen, men... I 94 8 Biscuit.placers, men...*97 10 * Rates paid for piece-work. t Rates paid for day-work. 18 L 274 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. EARTHENWARE ANND PORCELAIN MA-NUFACTURE-Continued. NEWCASTLE AND NEIGHBORHOOD-Continued. Occupation. 0 0 EARTHENWVARE-Continued. Printers, men.............................................................. *$1 09 103 Printers' transferrers, men..........................................*48 10 Glost-firemen, men......................................................... tl 21 8 Glost-placers, men.......................................................... *97 i0 Enamelers, men............................................................ *1 94 10 Enamelers, girls............................................................ *24 10 Kiln-men, men............................................................ *97 ]0 Warehousemen, men....................................................... t97 10l Warehousemen, women..................................................... t36 l0d Warehousemen, girls......................... 20 10-.V...... I................... Painters, women.....................................................*..... 73 8 Painters, girls.............................................................. *: 4 10 Burnishers, women......................................................... *60 9 Laborers, men............................................................. 81 101 Laborers, women........................................................... 36 10-.k Laborers, lads and boys..................................................... 0 I0o Laborers, girls............................................................ 20 I1 Gilders, men..........................*..................................... 1 9 10 Potters, men........*....................................................... *1 21 102 CHEMICAL ANIANUFACTURES. NEWCASTLE AND NEIGHBORHOOD. Occupation. ~~~~~~~~~0- 0 CHEIMICAL WORKS: Foremen................................................................... $1 41 10 Time-keepers and weighers, men.......................................... 81 i0 Enginemen and brakesmen, men............................................ 93 10 Firemen, boiler-men, &c., men.............................................. 89 10 Sulphuric-acid makers, men.................................................1 09 10 Sulphate of soda makers, men..............................................1 17 10 Sulphate of soda makers, lads and boys..................................... 36 10 Crude-sela makers, men................................................... 1 09 10 Caustic-soda makers, men.................................................... 1 09 10 Caustic-soda makers, lads and boys......................................... 36 10 Carbonate of soda makers, men...........................1.................. 13 10 Crystals of soda makers, men............................................... 89 10 Bi-carbonate of soda makers, men......................................... 89 10 Bleaching-powder makers, men.............................................. 1 25 10 Fire-brick makers, men................................................ —-...... 97 10 Fire-brick makers, lads and boys........................................... 48 10 Common-brick makers, men................................................ 81 10 Common-brick makers, lads and boys................................. 48 1 0 Tile-makers, men........................................................ 85 10 Blacksmiths, men.............1............................................1 09 10 Blacksmiths, lads and boys................................................. 36 10 Miliwrights, men...................................1........................ 13 10 MNillwrights, lads and boys................................................. 36 10 Joiners, men............................................................... 1 09 10 Joiners, lads and boys...................................................... 36 10 Plumbers, men............................... 10 t Plumbers, lads and boys.................................................... 36 1 0 Bricklayers, men........................................................... 1 13 10 Bricklayers, lads and b oys.................................................. 36 10 Masons, men................................................ 21 10 Laborers, men............................................................. 73 10 Cartmen, men.............................................................. 81 10 Keelmen, men.............................................................. 15 1( Saw-mill men............................................................. 1 09 10 Coopers, men............... —- - -............................................... 1 21 10 Coopers, lads and boys..................................................... 73 10 *Rates paid for piece-work. t Rates paid for day-work. AVERAGE WAGES OF OPERATIVES. 275 BOOT AND SHOE MAKING. NEWCASTLE AND NEIGHBOREOOD. _ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~.. 0. Occupation. 0 0 BOOT AND SHOE MIAKERS: Foremnen, men.............................................................. $8 47 9* Cutters, men............................................................... 5 81 9j Hand-sewn workers, men................................................... 5 08 9* Riveters, men.............................................................. 6 05 9* Finishers, men............................................................. 7 74 12 Fitters, women...................................................... 2 90 9k Machinists, women......................................................... 3 39 9j Apprentices, lads and boys................................................. 1 21 9k Apprentices, girls.......................................................... 1 2i 9* BELFAST AND NEIGHBOREHOOD. Per day. BOOT AND SHOE IMAKERS; Closers, men.............................................................. $0 70 Various Closers, women............................................................ $0 36 to 48 Do. Bootmen, men............................................................. 97 to 1 21 Do. Shoemen, men............................................................ 97 to 1 21 Do. Ladies'-men, men.......................................................... 97 to 1 21 Do. Jobbers, men.............................................................. 97 to 1 21 Do. Binders, men............................................................... 97 to 1 21 Do. Makers, men............................................................... 97 to 1 21 Do. BREWING. NEWCASTLE AND NEIGHBORHOOD. CO 0.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~k..~ Occupation. BREWERS: Mash-house men and others................................................ $5 08 12 Uppermen.................................................................. 12 10 12 Upper cellarmen........................................................... 6 53 12 Malt-house men............................................................ 5 08 12 Upper draymen........................................................... 7 26 12 Under draymen............................................................ 5 08 12 Coopers................................................................... 6 53 12 Carpenters................................................................ 6 77 12 Smiths..................................................................... 6 77 12 Laborers................................................................... 3 63 12 BELFAST AND NEIGHBORHOOD..l Per week. BREWERS: Mash-house men........................................................... $3 39 72 Uppermen................................................................. 3 39 72 Upper draymen............................................................ $3 87 to 4 84 72 Coopers................................................................... *4 84 to 7 26 72 Carpenters................................................................. 7 26 72 Laborers.................................................................. 2 90 72 *Rates paid for piece-work. 276 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. BUILDING TRADES. BELFAST AND NEIGHBORHOOD. Occulpationll.' ___ I BLILDING TRADES: Foremen................................................................... $1 33 to $2 42 10 AIasons.................................................................... i 2 0 MIasons' laborers............................................................ 60 10 Bricklayers 1 21 10 Bricklayers' laborers....................................................... 60 10 Joiners.........................................1 21 House carpenters........................................................... I 2 1 J 0 Plasterers.................................................................. 1 21 0 Plasterers' laborers........................................................ 60) 10 Stone-cutters............................................................... 1 21 10 Slaters..................................................................... 21 10 Painters...................................1............................... I i Plumbers............................ 2. 1 0 Common laborers.......................................................... 48 10 GAS-WORKS. BELFAST AND NEIGHBORHOOD. Occupation. _ & _ & 0 r, C Li Pa t n,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ GAS-WORKS: Gas-makers................................................................ $0 85 to 1 09 10 Stokers......8........................................................... 5 to 1 0 10 Retort-men................................................................ 85 to 1 09 10 Engineers.................................................................. 1 01 10 Joiners..............................................................1...... 05 10 Bricklayers................................................................ 1 13 1 0 Sniths.................................................................. 113 Pipe-layers................................................................ o 10 Lamplighters.............................................................. 60 to 66 10 Laborers.................................................................. 48 10 NEWCASTLE AND NEIGHBORHOOD. Rates of wages Hours per week. iper day. i... GAS-NVORKS: Gas-makers................................................................ $8 23 12 Stokers................................................................... 8 23 12 Retort-men................................................................ 8 23 12 Engine-men......................................... 7 74 12 Joiners. 6 53 f 10 Bricklayers................................................................ 7 26 10 Smiths..................................................................... 6 29 10 Pipe-layers................................................................ 5 81 0 Gas-fitters................................................................ 6 29 10 Lamplighters..............................................................3 87. Laborers 4 3...11.. AVERAGE EARNINGS OF OPERATIVES. 27 7 HAT-MAKING. BELFAST AND NEIGHBORHOOD. Occupation. HATTERS, SILK: Body-makers, men......................................................... $1 21 Various. Silk-finishers, men......................................................... 121 Do. Tippers off, men........................................................... $1 21 to 2 02 Do. HATTERS, FELT: Body-makers, men......................................................... 97 to 1 21 Do. Proofers, me n.............................................................. 1 21 Do. Blockers, men................:............................................ 97 Do. Dyers, men................................................................ 97 D)o. Finishers, men............................................................. 1 45 Do. Crown-sewers, women...................................................... 60 Do. Trimmers, women.......................................................... 24 to 32 Do. Cap-makers, women........................................................ 20 to 24 Do. LEATHER MIANUFACTURE. BELFAST AND NEIGHBORHOOD. Occupation. ~~~~~~~~_ -- - - -! Tanners........................................................................ $ 0 60 Tanners........... $3 00 |6 Curriers ~................................................................ Pi ypee..... Corniers -...' Paid by psece......... Beam-men and shed-men...................................................... 3 60 Strap-makers... 3 63 60 Laborers....................................................................... $2 42 to 2 66 60 NEWCASTLE AND NEIGHBORHOOD. a Occupation. Per week. Tanners, fen.................................................................. $5 08 10 Tanners, lads and boys......................................................... 1 45 10 Beam-men, men............................................................... 6 05 11 Beam-men, lads and boys....................................................... 8 10 Shed-men, men................................................................ 6 17 Shed-men, lads and boys......................................................2 18 30 Laborers....................................................................... 4 36 10 *For every day except Saturday, when the hours of labor are 61. 278 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. SOAP-BOILING. BELFAST AND NEIGHBORHOOD. Occupation. 0 B Soap-boi ers.................................................................... $5 08 Assistant soap-boilers.......................................................... 2 90 to 3 14 Foremen....................................................................... 5 083 Carters........................................................................ 3 14 Laborers....................................................................... 2 90 NEWCASTLE AND NEIGHBORHOOD. Soap-boilers................................................. per annum (9 18) *$I,055 12 Soap-boilers.-.......per annuim (~218)....... $t, 055 12 |69 Assistant soap-boilers........................................................... 5 1 CI9 V at-men....................................................................... 4 60 69 Foremen......... 5 8 69 E'ngine-drivers.........6....9 Engine-drivers ~ ~........................................................ 6 77 C Joiners, one man, two lads and boys........................... —..$9 68 to 12 10 69 Foremen joiners............................ 6................................... 69 Carters................................................. 5 08 69 Warehousemen..........-...................................................... 4 60 to 5 38 69 Laborers, men................................................................. 4 36 69 Laborers, lads and boys........................................................ I 1 to 3 97 69 W atchmen..................................................................... 4 84 69 * Per annum. 0 For the three. SEA.AIEN,S WNAGES. PORT OF HULL. Rates of wvages Occupation. - per month. M asters............................................................................ S Os to $1.l 00 First mate.........................................................-........'8 72 to 48 40 Second mate-..................................................... -........ 33 88 First engineers....................................................................... 53 24 to 87 12 Second engineers..................................................................... 33 S to 58 08 Stokers.............................................................................. 16 94 to 24 20 A. B. seamen................................................................... 14 5 to 4 0 Ordinary seamen..................................................................... 9 69 to. 04 20 Boys.............................................................................. 17 42 PORT OF DUNDEE. M as ters............................................................................... $48 40 to $96 so80 First mate............................................................................ Q4 20 to 38 7 Second mate....................................................................... 14 5 to 29 04 Per week. First engineers.......................................................................e $13 3-t Second engineers-5.................................,.I... 8 47 Stokers-.......................................................................... 6 29 Per mouth. A. B. seamen................................................................... $14 5 to $16 94 Ordinary seamen..................................................................... 2 42 to 12 10 WAGES IN ENGLAND. 279 WAGES IN IRON-MILLS. Before proceeding to vestigate the rates of wages in the iron manufacture of Great Britn in July, 1872, the author had several interviews with Walter Williams esq., who supplied him with letters to the most distinguished iron-asters of England and Wales. In subsequent interviews both in England and the United States, and by frequent correspondence, Mr. Williams has afforded information of great value, especially in regard to the cost of labor in the Cleveland, the South Staffordshire, and the Welsh iron-mills. Finding that the prices of labor in iron-mills then and subsequently prevailing were by no means established-the mutations from the standard of 1871 being nearly as frequent as those of the mercury in the thermometer, or the price of stocks on'change-te author ostponed from time to time the compilation of the data he had at command, until the present period, in order to furnish the latest schedule agreed upon by masters and men. It is probable, however, that before the figures in the following tables meet the eyes of readers, ich other changes may occur as to render them then inaccurate, and they may, therefore, tfil to fully represent the actual earnings of mill-operatives at that later period. STANDARD WTAGES. To show a few of the chanes that have occurred iu the wages of mill-ands, it may be stated that the standard wages in the north of England iron-trade which were adopted and printed in 1871, underwent an addition of 6d. per ton on puddling prices, and 5 per -cent on other wages was giade in October, 1871; a further addition of similar amount in April, 187.2, and still frirther additions in 1872, making a total advance of 20 per cent. from standard rates. In some parts of England, sucbk as South Staffordshire, the aggregate advance a-mounted to 30 per' cent. on the fixed rates. Having reached the maximum the wages gradually declined, until, in October, 1874, they were established at an advance of 12 per cent. on the standard prices of 1871, which are given in the tables on the following pages. The, price for puddling, which in 1871 was 9s. (3d., has, after various changes, been fixed at l0s. 9d. ($2.60 United States gold) per ton. Under date of Stafford, October 25, 1874, Mr.'Williams writes: I send you a trinted list with all particulars at the standard rates. To these add 12 per cent. These rates represent not only the north, but Staffordshire and all the midland counties and Scotland. Wales is 25 per cent. to 271j per cent. lower. Blast-furnacemen's wages wonid not be covered by a rate of'58. 6d. to 6s. per ton on common. iron, and 8s. to 98. per ton, 2,240 pounds, on b-est iron and cold blast. Advices from Wolverhampton state: At a meeting of representative iron-masters and irol!1-workers, held at this place October 2, 1874, a new rate of wages to be paid to the workers of finished iron was adopted. Puddlers, are now paid l08. 9d. per ton, and mill-men's wages in like proportion.' This rate is based upon the average net selling prices, during the past quarter, of finished iron in the north of England, and of the bars sold by twelve selected firms in South Staffordshire. The reduction in puddlers' wages is is. per ton, and in millmen'7s wages 10 per cent. This settles the wages question in England for another quarter. The reduiction has been cheerfully submaitted to bythe men, and has afforded satisfaction to the employers. The former looked for a fall in wages of 121, per cent., and. even 15j per cent. was not thought too much, while the latter were scarcely prepared for, more than 71 per cent. NORTH OF ENGLAND IRON-TRADE. [ (Do Standar-d wages in September, i871. C) PUDDLING-MILLS. Description of work. Bolckow, Vaughan & Co., Hoplis, Gilkes & Co. Darlinton Iron Company. Stockton Malleable-Iron ComWitton Park. pany. Pu.ldlingGray pig..............-..... 9s. 6d. per ton...........-....... 9s. 6d. per ton................... 9s. 6d. per ton................... 9s. 6d. per ton. Mtottled pig.-........... 8s8, 6d. per ton.- 8s. 6d. per tonl ------------------------- - 9s. per ton. White............-Ss. 88.6d. per ton.-......... 8s. 6d. per ton.-........ 8s. 6d. per ton.................. s. Gd. per ton. t Gray, niottled, and white, iixed_ P. per ton ---------------------- Pro rata- ----------------------- 9s. per ton ---------------------- O C(astiligs.-............. 9s. 6d. per 1ton - ------ - 9s. 6d. per ton..........-.... 9s. 6d. per ton.-.-... s....... 10s. per toun. Weighing and wheeling metal to poud- 4s. 2d. and 4s. 6d. per day —.- 2,-d. on puddlled iron; unloading, 22d. puddled bar; ltd. pig-iron, 3d. per ton, including breaking. dles. 2d. on pig-iron. unloading and breaking. Underhands' wages...................- 2s. 6d. to 3s. ld. per shift; 3d. per 3s. 6d. per shift -.. —------ 3s. Cd. per shift................-. 3s. 2d. and 3s. 4d. per shift. shift for full heats, paid by the company. Allowance for working level-hand... 6(1. per shift.................... 6d. each, full heats.-.-........ 6d. per shift - -..........C...... 6d. per shift of full heats. C Terms of arrangement with masons Contract, 5d. per ton...... 3 5-16d. per ton, labor only...... Puddlinig-furnaces, 4'~d. per ton; Masons, 5s., and laborers, 2e. 9d. for repairing furnaces. ball-furnaces, l1(l. pel ton. per day. Puddlers paid for balls mide fr'om 4s. 9d. per ton.-.......... 4s. 9d. per ton.-....s......... 5s. per ton-. —-------- Same as puddled iron on weight scraps for fettling. rolled. ScIrap-ballingon wood or other bottoms. 2s. 6.97d. per ton - 2s. 7.d. per ton.................. 2s. 70(!. per ton- -s.. per ton. Heating cold blooms for slabs, &c ls. 8.73d. per ton, firm-charge and - - s. 51 made by stoppages -.. 2a. lid. per ton. bogey. Reheating puddled-blooms for rail- is..7d.......................... I8. 1.8d., firm finding help; Is. Doubled lumps, s. 1.d......... s. 3Id. per ton; no assistance tops, &c. 3.95d. when two high. folund. Assistance given by firm in ball-fur- Firm pay chargers and pullers- Firm find chargers and bogey- All chargers and bogeymen at nacing, &c. out at 3s. 2d. per day. men at 3s. 5d. for relteating. reheating and scrap furnaces; chargers, 3s. 6d., and bogeymen, 3s. 6d. per shift. Help found by furnaceman on preced- Heater finds one boy at is., a,nd Underhand for scrap-furnaces; One boy, Is. per day at reheating One at 3s. 8d. and one at ls. ld. ing, and wages of each man. piles when balling scrap. boy at reheating furnaces. and ball furnaces. Hammering puddled ballsSingles........................... 9.18d. per ton................... 9.2d. per ton.................... 91d. per ton...................... 10-ld. per ton. Doubles....... 11.55d.per tn.................. 11.5d. per ton................... ls. Id. per ton.......... s. 13d. per ton. Trebles and fours................. Is. 1.86. per ton................ is. 1.9d. per ton...is. Id. per ton.. i....... ls. lld. per ton. HammeringBall-furnace piles................ 9.18d. per ton................... 9.2d. per ton.................... 91d. per ton..................... 10d. per ton. Rail-tops or slabs................ 6.&0d. per ton................... 6.6d. per ton.................... 63d. per ton.................... Assistance given by the firm in bogey- All bogeymen from hammers, at All bogeymen, excepting from All bogeying to furnaces and One boy at each hammer, at 2s. ing or otherwise. 3s. 2d., and one helper when scrap-furnaces. rolls, 3s. Gd. per shift. or is. lld. per day. Rolling- doubling, at 3s. 2d. Ordinary puddled bars.:....... 9.9d. per ton..................... 9.9d. per ton.................... Time, 5s. 9d. per da.y underhands; 10id. per ton. forehands, 1 each shift, 8s. 6d. per shift. Ordinary scrap brir.........9.9d. per ton........... 99d. per ton. —-------— Time, 5s4.9d. per day....... l10-d -per ton, Broad puddled'bars-........9.9d. per ton ----------- 99d. per ton ---------— Time, 5s.9Od, per day-........load. per ton. Broad scrap bars-...........d. per ton-...........9.9d. per ton............Time, 5s. 9d. per day-........ od. per ton. Side pieces3 —----------- Is. l9d. and squares —----— Not done in foro.....9s. per shift --------- __ 2- od. per too. Do rollers find all labor and assistance Firm find boy, at is. 6d., when Rollers find all %brad ass-ist- Time-work ----------— Rollers find nil labor arnd assist-.at rolls? rolling 14-inich slabs. anco, at rolls. ance at rolls. Dragging out and straightening-....3s. 2d., 3s., and 2s. 10d. per day -2ld. per ton-......... Time, 3s. 10d. per day -----— One nt 3s. 6d. anod 3 at 3,s. 8d. per day. Weighing puddled and scrap bars 4s., 3s. l Id., and 4s5. 2d. per day 41-d.; and 5d. including loading. Stock-takers are paid 24s. and 22-s. One man at 4s. 10d., 4 men at 4s. for weigbimeia. per week, standing wages; lift- 9d., and 4 men at 4s. 4d. ing, 3id. pud. bars, 3ad. sla,,bs. Are puddled bars weighed before or Before; 8 pounds per cwt. de- Before;:30 pounds per beat do- Before; 25 pounds per heat do- After. after rolling? If before, what do- ducted. ducted. ducted. duetion is made for waste? Wages paid in connection with the Slagging forges, 3s. 10d., 3s. lid., —.................Hammer-driver, 3s. 2d.; engine. Swee ping mills, 211s. 3d. and 2Is. puddling which are nDot included in 4s. d., 4s. 4d., 3s. 8d., and is. 2.d -; boys, is. 3d. per shift; andi boil- 7d.; firinlg, 2s. 4d. per day; sla gthe above. hot shearing, 3s. Sd., 3s. 7d., 3s. ermen from 3s. 8(1. to 4s. 4d. ging from hammer, 3 men, at 2d., and 3s9.; filling at shears, 3s. s7d I-d., 2s. l0d., 3s. 7d., and 3s.; bogeying from shears, 3s. 4d.,. 3s. 7d., and 3s.; general laborers, 3s., 2!s. 8d., 2s. 6d., Ps., and is. 3d.; ash-filling, 1lid. per ton, long weight. Coal and ash wheeling ---— Casting coals, 4s. 7d. and 4s. 4d — 7Fd, and loading ashes ----— Time-work ----------— 4s. Id., 3s9. ld., and 2s. 7d.; ashes, ~3s. ld. Z4 Tap-wheeling ----------- 3s. 3d......................; —-----------------—.... Repairing peddlers' tools - ----------— s.4Id., 3s. ltd., 3s.1id.. and12s. lid.t 3s. 8d. tos s —--------— Time, 4s. 4d. and 3s. 6d. per shift..3s. Sd. and 2s. 9d. d BAR AND A7NGLE MILLS, 12-INCHI. Description of work. Bolekow, Vaughan & Co., Mid- Palmer's Ship-Building and Iron Darlington Iron Compa ny. J. Abbott & Co. dlesborough. Company. First beatingAngles, T-ir-on,,and fiats-......Anies sand bar-iron, (piles 50 Heating angrles, uP siizes r-oiled Flafs above 1 binch, 2s.; fl. ts ponunds and above,) Is. 11.75d in the mill down to 11-by la 1-inch and und1er, 12s,. Id. per ton. Iinch, and rounds and squares IAngles and T-iron, 2 inch and ~Il to 3 inch-....do-............. down to and including I-inch, 2s. Id —------------- above; rounds an'd Squares,I I to I~ inch-....do-............. and fiats to 2 inches w~ide, is. I 2s9. -,d-..............I toll1 inch, and fiats, 2 to I and 15-16 2s. 4.35d. per ton; includes all 9 3-5d. and 15 per cent. An- 2s. 41d —------------ inch, 2s. 2.4d. Bol-ts and Rounds and squares, inch. fiats below 50 pounds. ~ gles Ij by 11 inch and under, squares under I inch; flas., and 13-16 12s. 7.18d. per ton; includes all flats under 2 inches, and 2s. 43d ------ -------- angles, and T-iron under'2 inch. fiats below 50 pounds. Irounds -and squares under I I inch, 2s. 6.8d. and 11-16 1 and 11-16 inch., 2s. lod.; in- inch, 2!s. 4-5d. and 15 per cent. 2s. 41d............. inch;. eludes all fiats below50 pounds. Reheating any size neces-jJ - Fish-plates, tram-plates, edge and Is. 114d. per ton; piles above 50 Isary, 3s. Q46d, less 5 per cent., 12s. id..-............ 2a. 2.4d. G bridge rails, (sizes not in atboveo.) pounds. )including first beating. Stavdard wvages in Scptember, 1871-Continued. BAR AND ANGLE MILLS, 12-INCH-Continued. 13,olckow, Vaughn & Co., MN'id. Pa.lme t's Ship-Building- and Iron Description of work B kow, V gl & Co., I Ples Ship-Builig nd Iron Darlington Iron Com)pany. J. Abbott & Co. diesborough. Company. Bogeying to rollers-s........ A id. per dlay.S 3s... 2s. 6d. per shift.................. Done by furnacemen. Assistants paid by furnacemen, and Lighting upat is. per fortnight...................................- I boy at Is. per shift............. One boy each. wages of each. Assistants paid by firm in heating, When working piles above 180 Door-drawer at Is.; when pile Bogey boys and help to clharge Above prices include dLelivering q and wages of each. pounds, 2 chargers att 2s. 6 e. xceeds 200 pounds, firm pays above 200 pounds. to rolls. and 1 puller-out at 2s. Gd. two chargers at 3s. per shift. Rolling offAngles, T-iron, and flats... —-- Angles and bar-iron, (piles 50 Angle-iron, all sizes rolled in -...-................. pounds and above,) Os. 8.13d. mill down to 1 by 1U inch, Angles and T-iron, 2-inch and per ton. and roundsand squares down above; roundsand squares, 1 l to3inch........do..................... to and including 1-inch, and 1i.......................... -to 1- inch, and fiats, 2 to4II to l inch........ do..- - flats down to and including ]l-d,............... - in ich, 2s. 11.2d. Bolts and Rouds~~ d - and 15-16 3s. 1.8d. per ton; includes all 2-inch, 2s. 3 1-5d. and 15 per < s, Isd -. —-----—. —---- squares under 1-inch; flats, Rouds ndsqure an 3i n s 3dIadn'e8i V ue -nh s g-nh s ~d Rounds and sq, inch. flats below 50 pounds. cent. Angles, 1i by 1U inch angles, and T-iron, under 2I - and 13-16 in. 3s. 9.35d......................... and under, flats under 2-inch, 1s. l'd........................ inch, 3s. 10.2d1. [and 11-16 in. 4s. 3d.......3I and ro-unds and squares un- -Is. lid. -e —-- Fish-plates, tram-plates, edge and 2s. 8.1Sd per ton; piles 50 pounds d(r 1-inch, 3s. 4d. and 15 per 11id -...... —— 2s. 11.8d. b)ridge rails, and contractors' and above. J cent. rails. (For piles 50 pounds and above: ] I rougher, 7.46d. per ton; catch- I Assistants paid by roller, and waes er, 6.60Od. per ton; hooker-up Roller pays all help at rolls.... -.................................. All labor at rolls. of eachman.' roughing, Is. 3d; hooker-up Rolling re-heated iron-angles, &e.. finishing, Is.; catching at [ 4s. 4 Sd, and 15per cent. includ-. —----- ---------- 3s. 8d. ] finishing, 2s. ld.; 2 boys on ing first heating. -r plate, is. each, all per day. J Labor or assistance given by firm, and Boy on plate-straightening at Two boys on each shift on plato Bogeying to rolls, 2s. 6d.; catch- wages of each man. Is. 4d. per day. at Is. 21. ing a,t finishing, 3s.; hooking Q lip, 2s. 6d.; per shift. Cutting down, wheeling, and piling... 11.34d. per ton.............. Is. and 10 per cent., and 2d. per 10-d........... i........ s. 22d. ton on make for removing scrap. Dragging out and hot-straightening. Paid by roller, except boy, at Dragging out and hot-straight- Dragging out and hot-straight- Done by rollers. Is. 4d., as above. ening and sawing, 1 at 4s.; ening, 3s. per day. I at 3s. 8d.; lad at Is. Sawing.............................. 4s. and 2s. Gd. per day............ Sawing. 2 at Is. each............ Time, at 3s. 6d., and 4s. per shift. Cropping.................................... do -............ Sd. and 10O per cent....................do......................... Time, 3s. 8d. Weighing......... —------- - do............................... do......................... Time, at 3s. per day............. Do. Loading- - d-do......................... Time ----------- Do. do_.. d o............. _ m.............. o. _ BARI AND ANGLE MILLS, 16-TNCIH. Description of work. i Bole ebow, Vaughan & Co).,li- |d Fry, I;ansonll & Co. Hopper, Radcliffe & Co. John Abbott & Co. die0sborough.1 First heating- - Ordinary sizes below 3 rounds Angles.............................................................. by 2 to:l by 3 olrdinary piles, Above 50-pound pile, Is. lid. per and squares, angles above 2 to is.'Std. d' 15 per cent. ton; box-piles, 2s. 3d. 71-inch. 2s. 3d.; box-piles, 2s. Angles...-..............2......................................... by 2 to 35" by 35 box piles, Is.......do.......................... 5.7(1d.; bolts and squares, above,8 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~h 1I'!d.an( 15'pe cent. [ 31, 3s. 6.9d.; bolts 1] and beT-iron ----—....................................... ----------—.......do..........J.. low, 2s. 5.7d. Beams...................................................................... do......................... Flats............. - -Common sizes ls. 11.75d(. per toni Allsizes I to 3-inclh is. 4d. and......do.......................... 15 pe' cent. Rounds and squares.............. Box piles 2s. 2.75d. per ton..........................do......................... Fish,plates................................................................do........ o................................................ Tram plates........3............................................... _... (lo --- s. 31-d. per ton. Edge and bridge rails....o........ d..Do. Contractors' rails.....................................................do......................... 2. 0 per tol)o. 2................. Do. Second heatingAngles, T-iron, fiats, bridge-rails, Common sizes 11.875d. per ton; Hlalf-price of first bealting...Half-price of first heating....... 3s. 10.2d. includes first heating. and rounds and squares. box piles Is. l d1. per ton. Rolling off angles, beams, fiats, and Cormmon sizes 2s. So. per ton.. All sizes 1- to 6-inch, 2s. 31-ld. and Above 50 pounds, s. Sd. per ton. Ordinary sizes as above, 3s. 1.4d.; rounds and squares. 15 per cent. bolts and squares, 1 and above, perl~~~~~~~~~~ I|~3s. 6.9d.; bolts, 1, and below, [ 3s. 1.4d. Z Fish-plates, tram-plates.............................................Os. 3d. and 15 per cent., and for...... o......................... billets, 2s. 1Id., and 15 per cent. Edge and bridge rails..................................................... do...............................d o......................... 3s. 1.4d. per ton. Contractors' rails......................................................... do.-................................... Rolling re-heated iron-Angles, T-irou, Is. 3.35d. re-lheated iron.... All sizes 2s. 10d. and 15 per cent 7d. per ton extra................ 3s. 10.2d. per ton. beams, fiats, and rounds and sq in'aes. Assistants paid by rollers out of the Routgher, catcher at rouhing, ]tougher, 6d. per ton; catcher, Rails rougher 71d., and catcher All help at rolls and on plate, exabove, and wages of each man. hooker at roughilg, hooker-unp.5d. l)er ton,iinclnuling hooking. 6d., hooker-in, ls. per day: cept as specified below. finishing, catcher at finishing, Catcher at finishing, 2s. per finishing-catcher, ~s. 6d.; 3 man on the plate 2s. 6d. paid shift; hooker, Is.; mann on hookers, Is. 8d., Is. Gd., Is. 4d.; by firm and roller half each. plate, 2s. 9d. merchant-iron rougher, 6d. per ton; catcher, 51d. Help found by firm, and wages of each A wages of man on plate as above BogeNyman from furnace to rolls, Hooker-in, 3s. 6d. per shift, roll- 1 hooker-in at 4s., and allowance man. and whell rolling heavy iron a er paying him ils. to roller of 5s. 6d. per shift for hooker found. labor on plate. Cutting down, wheeling, and piling.. Wheeling & piling 10.5d. per ton. 101d. and 10 per cent -...-. 11Id. per ton - Paid by roller, as above. Dragging out and hot-straightening.. - s. 8d, and s. 10d. day-wnd for 1 at 4. s. 2d., d at 3p. e nd., 1 at 3P id. plain pile; is. 41d. boxshort lengths, lId. extra. 4d., 1 at Is. 4d. per shift. pile. Sawing.s............... 3s. 2d. and filing saws.294d.......(.....do................................do ---- Cropping..................................................................... do.-...... 2 men at 3s. 2d. and 4s. Weighing and loading................. 4s. per day and assistant to load 71d. and 15 per cent............. 11d. merchant iron and 9Od. 3s. 8d. per day, and 2s. 10d. per bogeys 2s. 6d. per day. rails per ton, with loading and week for weighman. ~~~_.________________________.__.,clearing hot-bed.._ C0 Standard wayes in September, 1871-Continued. v oD RAIL AND HEAVY ANGLE MILLS. Description of work. Bolckow, Vaughan & Co., Wit- Hopkins, Gilkes & Co. Darlington Iron Company. Stockton Company. ton' Park. Size of train.......................... 21-inch.......................... 18-inch.......................... 20-inch —-...................... 20-inch. Number of furnacesFirst heating......... 13; occasionally 14.............. 13 rail; 5 angle................. 12............................... 14. Second heating. —----- - 4................................ 4 rail; 2 angle.................. 4................................ 4. First heatingRails............-........ Above 45 pounds per yard, Is. 7d. Above 46 pounds per yard, is. Above 46 pounds per yard, D. H., 50 pounds and upward, is. 7d. O 7d.; 46 pounds and under, 2s. 3d. 1s. 7d.; flanged rails, above 58 pounds, Is. 8d; 36 pounds, F. B., 2s. 8id. per ton; and 40, 40.7, and 42 pounds, 2s. 3d. per ton. Angles................. Don't make angles.............. 2s. 3d., all sizes................. Don't make angles. Don't ikeangles. Workman's loss for rails condemned All bad rails made..........2 per cent. on rails made.....2. per cent. on rails made....... All bad rails made. after they pass the saws. Second heating- Rails................. Above 45 pounds per yard,.9d. Above 46 pounds per yard, 9&d.; Above 46 pounds per yard, I). H., 50 pounds and upward, 9id. 46 pounds and under, is. l1d 9d.; flanged rails alove 58 pounds, 10d.; 36 pounds, F. B., ls. 41d. per ton; and 40, 40.7, and 42 pounds, is.11d. per toll. Angles............................ Don't make angles.....is. ls. ld., all sizes.-............................................ Assistants paid by furnacemen and Boy at is. per day; furnacemen Boy,at ls.perday;furnacemen Boy,at is.perday; furnacemen Boy, at Is. per day; furnacemen wages of each man. pay lighting. py lighting. pay lighting. pay ligting. Blooming and catching, rail-piles...... Blooming, 2.2d.; catching, 1.21d.; Bloomning and catching, 3d.. D, H., 3&1-d.; F. B., 31d.; 36 Blooming and catching, 3 13-16d. boy assisting, ls. lid. per day. pounds, F. B., 6fd.; and 40 pounds, 5~d. per ton. Rolling rails, including roughingr and lRoughing and catching, 6.82d.7 Roughing and catching, 7d. Roughing, catching, and rolling, Roughing, catching, and rolling, catching at roughing. rolling, 4.12d.; rollers looking rolling, 4d.; 46 pounds and D. H., ls. 5id.; and F. B., Is. is. 4id.; roller pays all help. after crop-rolls, 2s. 6d. per above in angle nmill, 2s. 5.4d., 5fd.; 30 pounds, 2s. 6id., and 40 week. including all labor. pounds, 2s. lid. per ton; roller ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Cutting -~~~~~~lown- ~pays all help. Cutting %wns — Wheeling and piling rails......... Piling, at 4s. 2d. and 4s. 10d.; R9d., cold...................... 16-inch mill, D. H., 8d.; 16-inch 1 shearnian, at 5s. 3d. per day; 1 Is. 2d. per fiurnace wheeling mill, F. B., 9d.; 20-inch mill, helper, at 4s. 7d. per day; 1 bars, and 41d. per furnace for D. H., 8]d.; 20-inch mill, F. B., wheeler, at 4s. 3d. per day; 1 wheeling slabs. 9d.; all cold. piler, at 4s. 4d. per day; 1 piler, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ~~~~~~at 3s. 4d. per day. Angles...id..Saea al............ Angles.h.ea.tig..................................................................................................... Same as rails. Charging first heating............... 2 men, at 3s. lI di................. All charging and drain'g done 2 men, at 3s. (d....'. Pulling out to first heating............. 3 men, at 3s. Sd.................. at 7.4d. per ton. 2 men, at 3s. 6d................. B3ogeyig to blooming-rolls-...... 2 men, at Is. 7d. per day - 1 menn, nt 1 1-20d -.........D. HT., lid.; F. B., l Id -......1 man, at, 3s. Sd Bo~geying~ from blooming to second' 1 man, At 6s. 3Md. per day -.....2 men, at 1 i.20d. each- -......D. H., lid.; F. B., li1d.......man,at 3s. d. Charging to second.heating - 1 maa s ld oyrnen help See above-............3 men, at 3s., help to run cobblebogey. Pulling( ont to second heating -.....3 men, at 3s. 8d -------------------------— 1 man at machine, at 2s. per shift. Bogreying to finishing-rolls. —---— 1 man, at Is. 7d. per day. —-— 1 man, aIt I, -20d. —-----— D. H1., lid.; F. B. l'd...... Chargingc and drawing, angles.i.............I........ s. Id. includes coble-bogey...................... Charging, at 3s. 5d; drawings, 2at 3s. id. Dragging from rolls...........3 men, at 3s. 6d., pull from rolls ) 3 men, at 4s. 6d. per day..... to saw and fromt filers to ba~nkl Throwin gto filers............ 3 men, at 4s. lid., throw into I Helped by assistant sawyer.- —. 1iman, at Is.1id.; Ima,.n, at 3s. lid. saw, and from.,saw to filers. Hot filing................2 nien, at 4s. 7d -------— Inclnded in r~ate below for cold Included in hot straightening. straightening. Sawing.................1 man, a.t Is. 7d. per day.....Sawing 36 to 4-2 pounds, F. B. Included in dragging. Dragging to saw; hot straight- an d D. H., 8-,d. per ton; 4210 ening; lint filing; pnnching 61 poun11ds, Cd. per ton; 61 Land notching; cold filing and pounnds and npward, rid. per dressing; hammering; load- ton, aill 1). H. and F. B.; dolug and attending to test; none duct Id. per rail for all rails but men employed by con- shaved. Hot stralolitening......tractor touch the rails after IDone by sawyers...... Rails, 2 at Is. 3d. per day, includ. 4 men, at 4s. 8d., hot straighten- leaving the rolls, except cod Ii filing; angles, 2 at 4s. per iDg and piling on batik. sitraigh 1-tener. Patchiing at Idy Dragig. ohnk)Ifire flnerisT~.2d ncluded in contracts below... Hammering.I —------------ ncluded in dressingol.b..... eads, Is. IO Id. 6s. and 4s. 6d. per day. —--— 2 or 3 men, at 4s. 2d. per day. tTI Cold filing and dressing..........3.15d. per ton ---------— Cold-filing, included in contractZ below. T Patching at fire.............Patching, 2.60d. per rail......41d. per rail, including cutting. Md. per rail. Punching for fish........... 4d. per ton ------------ I 3d. per ton...........3 3-10d. per ton. Notching................Punching and notching, 5d. per I2id. per ton...........Punching and notching, lWd per Z ton, extra netching, 7.47d I ton; punching and notching L ~~~~~~~~~light rails, 6.Cd. per ton. Loading.2.4d. for delivery; 2.7d. to stock - From stock, 3d. per ton; to 31 per ton.............. d. per ton.'n ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~stock, 2-18d. per ton. Cold tr straightening......91..................rail..................d.................... d.1d _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~. ~~..... -. - ~ Standard wages vt Scptenmber, 1871-Continued. 1, 0o PLATE-M[ILLS. I.srito ofw. Boco,.~ga C., Description of work. | Bolekowvl, Vaughblana & Co., Pease, Hrutchinson & Co. Consett Iron Company. Palmer's Iron Company. Witton Park. Size of train -..............-. 2 mills, 21-inch.-2 —-- I 2-inch.................... I mill, 22-inch; 5 mills, 24-inch.. 22-inch. First headng-plates on sand-bottoms. From 4-in. thick to 1,'200 pounds,:Is. per ton rollingoff', up to 1 cwt. 3s. d. rolling off................ 2s. 7.2d and 15 per cent. to 10 cwt. 2s. 6.97d. per ton; below-~-in., 3s. 2.06d. per ton. Sheets, single, 3-16 and under. --..-.-...-.......................... 3s. 5d., less 5 per cent.-..... 3s. 7.95d1. - Secona heating-plates.-........ From 4-inch to 1,200 pounds, 3s. To 15 cwt., in addition to first 4s. 5.90d.,incltides first heating- Half-price extra. W 7.83d. per ton, includes lirst heating, Is. 3d., less 5 per cent. leating; Is. per day clipping plates. Allowances for hea~vy or extra plates Above 1,200) pountIds, 4s. 2.4d(. per 15 to 20 cwt., price and quarter; No specified amount............ Over 10 cwt., halt-price extla ~ ton, on first and second heat- over 20 cwt., prico and haltf, of first heating in addition to first Z ing. first-heatingr rate. and second hleating raten. Charging.-.............. 3 men, at 3s. 7d. per dlay, includes 3s. 3d. per shift; man at crab, Cold-charging: rolling-off mills, 1s. per ton, includes pullilng out. M pullinlg out. 3d. per shift extra; 2s. prize- 3s. 10d.; doubling ditto, 3s. 8d.; money when 11 shifts per lfort- when extra furnace is working, night are obtained. 9d. extra; hot-ceharging and plulling out, 3s. 10d. extra; additional furnace, 6d. extra. Help given by firm, aud wages of each.................................. 6 boys per shift, att 1s. 4d. each... In rolling-off mills, fire-lads, is. 1 boy atl 2 furnaces, at Is. id. doorman. 6d. per furnace. (drawing. Assistance paid by futrnacemen, and I boy, at Is. per day-.........- -. — do......................... In wash-heating mills2 furnace- Man to fire. wages of each. men pay 3 lads at 1s. 6d. each. Bogeying............................. Paid by rollers.................. Paid by rollers................. 4s. 8d. per day paid by firm; Firm pays roller 3s. for each shift when working extra furnace, who finds all bogeying. 9d. extra; in 5 mills paid as. above; in heavy mill roller pays 2 men on each shift as Rolling off plates- above, Ordinary piles.................... 6s. below 1-inch................. 4s. per ton, less 5 per cent. up to 3s. 103d. per ton................. 3s. 2.4d. and 15 per cent. 15 cwt. Double piles...................... 4s. 21d. up to 1,800 pounds....... From 15 to 20 cwt., price and...................... Over 15 cwt., half-price extra. quarter; over 20 cwt., price and half. Rolling sheets, singles, 3-16 and under 10s. per week, each mill, for 6s. per ton, less 5 per cent....... 5s. 8,d. perton in rolling-offmills. 4s. 9.6d. and 15 per cent. turning rolls; stamping plates, 2s. per day. Cutting down, wheeling, and piling... 2s. per ton...... Time; men at 4s. 7d. per day and Wheeling, 4s.; when working Is. 6d. and 15 per cent. boys at 2s. 2d. extra, 9d. extra, and piling, 4s. per day; when working extra, Is. extra. Shearing plates....................... 2s. 3Ad. per ton, includes rnmark- 2s. 6d. per ton, less 5 per cent., In 4 mills, 2s. 4-td. per ton, firm 2s. and 15 per cent. marking, lift. ing, lifting, shearing, and cut- marking, shearing, cutting finding 2 men, at 3s. 8d. per ing1, and shearing. ting scraps. scraps, includes lifting. day; in No. 4 mill, 2s. 5d., and 2 men at 5s. per day. Number of hands paid by firm, and None, except for very heavy 2 men, at 3s. 2d. per shift, at each 13Both these prices include all amount to each. plates, when laborers assist. shears, and extra help for spe- labor, except men as above. cial plates. Does shearing include cutting up the Shearing includes cutting scrap Includes cutting up; firm pays Except wheeling, for which firm Firm pays 1 ltan wheeling, at 3s. scrap and wheeling? If not, what and wheeling to scrap-shears; 3s. per shift for wheeling away. pays. 4d., and 2 boys cutting, at 2s. is paid for this firmn pay 2s. 9d. per day for 5d., at each shears. wheeling from scrap-shears. Weighing1............... I man, at 30s., 1 at 27s., 2 at 24s., Time; 2 men,:t 22s., and 1 boy,............ —--- -. Ti- e; 4s. 6d. per day. and 2 at 16s. per week, for 2 at 8s. per day for weighing mills. only. 8d. per ton, includes putting on 3s. 10d. per day.................. 51d. and 10 per cent. per ton. Loadin~g.............................. Bycnrc,1.prtn og machine. Loadin.- E By contract, Is. per ton, long machine. weight. Time; bricklayers, 5s. per day; 2-d. per ton on plates made...... 4d. per ton. Terms of arrangement with masons Contrtact, 3d. per ton on make.. laborers, 3s. per day. for repairing furnaces. Inspector,!Os.per week.. Coal and sand wheeling, and 1 inspector to each mill, at 4s. 3d. Additional wages paid in plate-mill.. Inspecting plates before deliv- e, clearing out ashes and slag, per day; coal, ash, and tap ery, 1 maln, at 37s. 6d. perweek; 1s. 5- d. and ls. 8d. per furnace. wheeling, 6id. and 10 per cent. 1 man, at 3s. per day, testing on make. plates; slagging from furnaces, 4s. 2d. per furnace; wheeling sand, 2s. per day.._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. __ __ Z~ - z7 SOUTH STrAliFORDSlHIRlE. Standard wages paid in forges and mills. [The wages paid September, 1872, are 30 per cent. in advance of the figures in the following table.] Description of work. |No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. SCRAP. PuddlingGray pig-iron..................... 9s. Gd. per ton... s. 9s. 6d. per ton. -.. —-------— p-e 9s. G(d. per ton e. n. White ------------------- do...............................(10- --------------- - do........extra best $ Mottled do. S io. e-r tIo. Mied......do......................... —......do.-.........o. do io. )o. M~/ixed --------------------------—.-......do.............................................................. —-do --------------------------- IDo. Plate-iron......................... 7s. per ton...................... 8s. per ton, refined.-..... 5s., and is. extra for best iron... - 10s. 6d. per ton. Extra paid puddler for doubles....... d.............................. d.............. —------ 6d. per ton...................... 6d.perton Balling heavy iron.................... 6d. per ton extra. 3 balls........ 2s. 2d., and 1- per cent. added 2s. ]Old. per ton..2s. 3d. per ton. lReheating puddled blooms for rail- 5s. 6d. puddling rail slabs i --— Is. 7d., and 1j- per cent. added... tops. Helying paddled ballsSingles.......................... 1A. 6d. per ton for large-sized Is. 21,d. per tonl.................. Is. 4d., 5 per cent. added Is. 7d. per ton. bars; 9-inch bars, Is. 9d. per ton; and ld. per inch above. Doubles.................... 6d. per ton extra, up to 9.inch Is. 4d,-and I1 per cent, added, Is. Sd., 5 per cent. added....... Is. 10d. per ton. bars; 3(1. after. for 5 and 7+ ilnch; I s. 8d., and 1I per cent. added, for 10-inch bars.. Trebles............................................................ s. 2s 6d. for 13-inch, anrd 1 per 2s. ld.......................... 2s. 2d. per ton. cent. added; donbling 6(d. exSqueezing.I —---- ------- -- ---...........d. pper ton.... —----— s. 2 3d. per ton. Rolling ordinary puddled bars........ id. per ton, all sizes............. 10d. in one forge, l. in the others is. s.0d. per ton, ld. per ton extra, No. 1, Is. ld. 3l-inch bars.. for drawing bars. Weighing puddled and scrap bars 3d. per ton.................. 3d. per ton...................... 4d. per ton..................... 4d. per ton. Rolling ordinary bars......... Sd..................... 4s. 3d., 20 per cent. added. s.l d. Smnallbars, &c.,extra;&in.rounds Guide mill for +-inclh and up- lrawing doors, 6d. per turn ex- 3s. 3d., T and angle; 3s. 8d., 6 by and squares 15s. 9d., including ward, 4s. 9d. and 19 per cent. tra; large 1 by 2 inch rounds 4~ T rounds and squares up to heating; general price in added; mnerchant mill 5s. and and flats, 4s. 8{d., and 5 per 41-incIh. small mills, 5s. 8-d. for larger 15 per cent. added. cent.; small merchant iron sizes. under inch, round and square, 5s. 5d., and 5 per cent.; small merchant, another mill, 6s. 3d. less 5 per cent. Extra for large sizes.................................................... Laborers to assist in heavy iron.................................. Changing rolls.............................. Guide mill I d. per pair; mer- 5 quarts ale per fortnight....... Is. per pair; 2s. 6d. T-.rolls; 2s. chant mill 6d. per pair. and sash rolls. Rolling ordinary plates............... 3s. lOd. to 4 cwt................. 6s. 7d........................... 8s. 5d. and 5 per cent............ 8S. Extra for large sizes.................. 10d. per ton ext ra above 4 cwt.; 8s. 5d. anid I ( per cent.,bove 4 10d. and 5 per cent. on sizes above Is. on 400 lbs. and upwar&; fagextras above 7 and 10 ewt. ewt.; lOs. 6d. doubled; 7s. 3d.'224 pounds. goting for large plates, 4s.; reannealing. heating, 3s.; extra. above 32square, 2s. 6d. per ton. Shearing.....-.....i............. ls. per ton, less 10 per cent —. 2s. per ton.-.......... Paid by roller, and fd. per ton al- 2s. 6d. per ton. lowed for cutting up scraps. Furnace-men in plate-mill.......... 3s. Cd. per ton; Is. for extra sizes Paid bv roller...........-........ Paid by roller................... Paid by roller., Assistance given by firm....... Assistance for large plates...... Trolleying, 7d. per ton.......... Assistance for large plates...... Assistance for large plates. Rolling sheetsSinigles.............. 12. 7d. ) s. per ton extr. on 13s............................. 12s. and 5 per cent added........ 12s. 2d. Doubles -............. l5s. itid. all thinner than 14is.d- 15s. 2d. Doibles.......................... 1s. 1( I a fllthinner than 14- 17s. 6d........................... -.................................. Lattens........................... 20s. 9d. - )gauge. ( 218s. 6d-... —-----------—. —- - ----------------- 17s. 6d. Furnace-men in sheet-mills........... Paidbyroller................... Paid by roller................... Paid by roller................... Paid by roller. Shearing..................................................-do —S...................d................................ Singles, 2s. 6d.; doubles, 3s. Gd.; lattens, 4s. Gd. Slitting rods.......................................................... s., less 6 per cent.; 11d. bundling.................................s. 5s., including bundling; new cutters, 3d. per pound; rebundling,,|~~~~~~~~ | | ~10-2d.; heating rods, is. 7d.; is. 9d. for drawing. Coal and ash wheeling................ Cs. 6d boat-lead................... Unloading coal and stocking fur- Time........................... Day-work. naces, 34d. per fiurnace; ashes, ed. per furnace and 2s. 9d. per day. Weight of charge..................... 4 cwt. and 4L cwt................ 4 and 4- cwt.. 4 cwt. and 14 pounds............ 41 cwt. Number of heats..................... 6................................ Cold iron, 6; fluid, 7; steel, 5 6........................... 66. Underhands' wages...................- 3s —............................... 2s. 6d to 3s. 3................... 2s. 3d. to 3s..................... s. Terms of arrangement with masons 4d. per ton puddled iron; 2d. per 3s. 8d. per day; 2s. 4d. in other.................................. Time. for repairing furnaces. ton finished iron, ball- furnace works; 24d. per ton mill and bars, and scrap-iron; lid. per ball furnaces; 4id. in the forge. ton puddled iron reheated. Burning bull-dog, grinding, wheelin Burning, Is. 9d. per day; grind- Burning. ~9 5s. per kiln; grind................................... Burnin, ~12perkiln of 180 tons; in fettling, &c. ing, id. per ton on all iron ing and wheeling, 41d. furnace. wheeling, id. per ton; grindmade at furnaces where bull- ing, l-d. per ton. dog is used. Roll-turning.......................... 44(d. per ton finished iron, less 5 Per roll, according to size......................................... -Day-work. per cent.; extra for shafts. Long or short weight................. Long............................ LongL.......................... Long........................... Long. WVages paid to smiths.................- 4d. per ton on all iron going 2s. 7d. to 5s. per day............................... Time. through rolls. Pattern-makers....................... 2s. 8d. to 4s. 6d. per day.......... 4s. 8d. per day..................................................... Time. Loam-molders................................................. 4s. 4d. per day.................................................... Sand-molders......................... 5s. to 8s. per ton; hammers and 4s. 4d. per day..................................................... anvils, lOs.; flasks, 15s.; rolls, 18s.; wheels, 20s.; chilled rolls andbeveledwheels, 35s.; melting, ls. on whole weight. Engine-men.......................... 25s. to 28s. per week............. 4s. 2d. per day and is. per boiler................................... Firemen................................................................ 2s. 8d. per day.....................;.... C9 290 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. PROTARY PUDDLN It may not be amiss in this connection to refer to the introuction with apparent success, of mechanical puddling, effecting as it will by its labor-saving process a very considerable reduction in the cost of puddling. Mr. Bell, who has recently been xamining the process as conducted in American furnaces, says he believesThat rotary puddling will ultimately be achieved, and it may be the result of some modification of the apparatus invented by Mr. Danks. henever hand-puddling is superseded by mechanical means, Mr. Danks will deserve great credit for the assistance he has already rendered, not only in perfecting the furnace itself, but in idevising other appliances required in manipulating large masses of iron. MNr. Jones, the superintendent of the Erimus works, says: The fettling for the furnace and the materials used for the same are no longer qiestions of difficulty, and in this respect we have no drawback. W line th furnace after each heat with best tap, Pottery mine, prple ore, and Spnish ore; suitable proportions are mixed in a grildig mill and then used in the fgrces. 1ettlino' can be procured suitable to any district, here the difference in the quality of ti e igo-i.ron mostly uecessitates a variation in tefetlingigrediets.'VWith regard t the mechanical imperfections of the Danks machines, they have been of a serious character. The repairs have been very costly, and the loss of output, by reason of frequent stoppage, has affected the cost of production most unfavorably. It became apparent that unless the meehianical constrction of the furnace was such as to insuLre regularity of work, it was hopeless to expect Satfactory returns. A new furnace of a different construction was built. It is a double-ased wrought-iron furnace, hooped with steel, and is water-jacketed. There is a constant flow of water to and from the water space, and the water at the outlet pipe is kept at from 800 to 100~ Fahr., in fact, perfectly cool. This oibe-cased furnace has maintained its miechanical accuracy, xwhich it is almost impossible that a sinle-cased furnace can do owing to the effeets of expansion and contraction. The firing of the new furnace is done in the usual manner. It will not be necessary to describe in detail the improvenments of this machine. Mr. James Jones claims that it has been desned and constructed after all t points of its forerunner have been carefly considered. The, directors are so sat-isnied wvit~f the work done by this machine that they have ordered five, mnore an~dsmx sets ofnew engyines to drivethem. In designing the engines the same aniount of cano has been takcen. They are over-head double-cylinder engines; the w\Beaking pars'lave been carefully designed, and nothing in strength or in the detail is left unprovided for, so as to assure continuous and satisfactory- working. Pigf-iron, refined in Thomas's cupolas is used. The chemical eff-ect is to remove a part of the silicon and phosphoruLs, and in the furnace the fettling stands better. The -weig~ht of the charge is 14 cwt.'o heat takes more than 35 miniut~es to puddle. The heat is -removed in a, single ball, and squeezed or shaped into a piece, abont 4 feet long by 15 inches diameter. It is then cut up at the same heat a-nd taken to reheating furnaces, where it is reheated, hammered and rolled into bars. The Erimus Company are now making angles, bulbs, bars, and tees, with no other iron than Cleveland. Three relays of men are employed at the machines, and work eight-hour shifts. The present consumption of coal is for actual puddling 91 cwt. to the ton of bars. Of fettling (half bought and half from first heating or mill furnaces) 9 cwt. to the ton of bars. The yield of har from pig is 20 cwt. of pig to 20 cwt. of bars. The, whole quantity of coal used to the ton of bars, including reheating, is under 20 cwt. The price we pay the puddlors is at present 3s. 2 4-10d. per t-on longoeiht they paying their own underhands. The whole wages oef~ every kind, including cupola-refining and reheating, is -under 20s3. per ton of bars. It is intended to increase the charge to one ton. The experiment of working this charge has frequently been. made, and the time required. for puddling niever exceeds forty minutes. The n~umber of heats will be the caine as at peesent, viz., six in eight hours, and it- is siniply by the increase, of the w)eighbtof th~e ch-arge that the quantituy wil he raised from 300 to 500 tons. The actual puddling of the six heats will take, up foun hours for fettling, repairing, cleanino gratehars &c. s e find that it takes the same coal to pm dole a ton as to puddle 1-4 cwt., and as the -fineo consumed in cha-rgiug drawving, fettirng' and squeezing, will 1 e the samine as at pirese-nt, it iso bvious that the increase, of the cha~r'-e to a ton is the propier course. We lhave no doubt that we shall be able to brinio theo ceusnupt-ion of coal for puddlhing' down to 7 cwt. to the ten of bars, and the whole of the coal consunied in the puddling,) de6partuient to 15 cwt., and we, anticipate that thio wages will not xcxmed 15's onl the tCii of -bars, wihich will include, all labor elhaioc esri the puddlinfg department. WAGES IN ENGLAND. 291 YORKSHIRE. Wages paid at Molk Bridcge Iron- Morks, and elsewhere in Leeds consular district. Per ton, atDescription of work. "'E %. ~ PUDDLING. s. d. s.d. Puddling iron to helve-hammers............................................... 13 6 13 6 I'uddling iron for 1i-inch...................................................... 14 6 14 6 Pluddling iron formolds, doubled................................................. 14 6 14 6 Puddling iron for 9 and 10 inch bars, in 3 balls.................................... 14 0 14 0 Puddling iron for 9 and 10 inch bars, doubled..................................... 14 6 14 6 Puddling borings and turnings.................................................. 12 6 Puddling borings and turnings for 12-inch......................................... 13 6 13 6 Puddling iron to steam-hamn mers..................................................13 0 13 0 Puddling borings and turnings................................................... 120 12 0 Puddling busstled turnings....................................................... 11 0 HELVE-IIAMMERS. Shingling............................................*1 10 2 4 Shingling for 10-inch bars —*1 11............................................ 2 6 Doubling for 12-inch bars....................-......... —-.............. —--—... * 6 3 3 Doubling for mol(ls............................................................... 2 6 3 3 lItolling forge-bars............................................................... *1 0 1 3 I OD-MILL. Heating and rollingr bars: 1 inch, round and square, and flats 11 inches and above....................... t 7 6 Flsts under 1i inches, bars under 1 inch round............................... 5 6 8 3 Bars, 11-16 and I, round and square........................................... 6 9 9 Bars, 9-16 and ~, round and square............................................. 8 0 12 0 ]Bars, 7-16 and ~, round and square............................................ t 16 6 Bars, 5-16 and ~, round and square............................................. t6 0 24 0 Flats, under inch thick...................................................... t7 3 10 10 Flats, under 1 inch broad..............................7 3........................ 10 10 Flats, under I inch thick and 1 inch broad.................................... t8 9 13 1 Flats, 1-1-16 and s, I and -, j and 1........................................0.. 15 0 Flats, * and 3-16, J and *6..................................................... 16 0 24 0 Billets...........................................................3 3............. 4 10 14-INCH BAR-MILL. Heatinl and rolling: All bars, round and square, to 3 ewt., and all flats 1 to 6 inches broad....... 5 0 7 6 Bars, 3 to 4 cwt.............................................................. 6 6 9 9 Bars, 4 to 5 cwt............................................................... ts 12 0 ]]ars, above 5 cwv t............................................................. t9 6 14 3 Bars, under ~ inch thi.-....... e-tL 6 9 9 rLATE -MILL. Heating and rollfing: Plates trom piles -under 4 cwt-18........................ t 0 112 0 Plates from piles 4 to 5 cwt-1......................... 9 6 14 3 Plates from piles 5 to 6 cwt-1.......................... f12. 0 18 0 Plates from idles 6 to 7 cwt-1.......................... f14 6 21 9 Plates from piles 7 to 8 cwt -1 —----------------------- 16 6 24 9 Plates fr-em piles 8 to 9 cwt-1.......................... f19 6 29 ~3 Plates from piles 9 to 10 ewt ------------------------- tt 6 32 3 STEAM-HAMMERS. ilammermen: Yorlkshire slabs, unmier 700 pounds —...................... 7 6 7 6 York-shire slabs, 700 to 1,000 pounds........................ 10 0 10 0 Yorkshire slabs, 1,000 to 2,000 pounds —.................t.... 1 0 12 0 Yorkshire slahs, above 2,000 pounds —---------------------- 14 0 14 0 Furnacemen: Yorkslmire slabs, -nuder 700 pounds-....................... 6 9 6 9 Yorkshire slabs, 700 to 1,001) pounds. ------------------------ -7 6 7 6 Yormxslmire slabs, 1,000 to -2,000 pomunds-....... —------------ 10 0 10 0 Yorkshire slabs, above 2,000 pomunds -----------— t —------- 1 0 12 0 *Add 10 per cent. I Add 50 per cent. 292 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE. Wages paid at the Biddulph hdalley and orton Iron- ks, orth Stafforhire, August 31 1872. Description of work. Per ton. Description of wor. Per ton. Puddling: s. d. Rolling and eating: d. Nobbling............................. 12 6es6 Doubling........................ 13 6 Faggotig plates9 8 Castings.............................. 14 6 Rivet-iron, (best)................ 6 Extra-lare plates, (over 17 cwt. 4fin Heating: ished, or 5 feet wide, half circles). 12 Piles ------------------—. — --- 3 0 Ro heating, and straightening: Blooms............................... 2 bars14 3 Shingling, steam-hammers:Under 2- pounds per foot 6 Nobblin1..... Rusnsae 4-.... *1 0upDoubling-,*1 6 ward, and flats, 7 to 8 inch - 16.... 2 Doub~lingZ............................. 1 Squeezing................................ *8S3-8 inch, Forge-rolling-~~~~~~lil1 and flats under 1 by; j inch - 1.... 7 8 Forge-rolling.......................... 11.T Brick laying, repairing furnaces: ounds and squares, 5-16 and 1-4 Forges............3- - *.................... *4 Mills................*3 T-iron...............- *3 Cutting down for bar-mills...............0 1 01 Cutting down for plate-mills.............. 8~8sd * WVith 30 per cent. on. Extrs, with 50 per cent. 1 With 50 per cent. on. ~ Per turn per fortnight. NORTH AND SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE. W~ages paid in for-ges asid mzills in 1872. Puddling pig-iron, 6 heats, ordinary quality- -.....12s. 6d. per to-n of 2,640 pounds. Puddling pig-iron, 5 heats, best quality —- -- — I..12s. 6d. per ton of 2,640 pounds. Puddling pig-iron, 5 heats, extra best ---—.-i —— s. per ton extra. 1 to 2 cwt. of scrap-iron, per turn, allowed at full rate for puddling. 1 to 2 cwt. for doubled-iron, two or more balls bammiered togyether, Is. per ton. Shillings. Pe-nce. I to 2 cwt. castings ------------------------— 14 6 per ton. H-ammering, steam-hhmmer. —-----------------— 1 4 per ton. Hammering, steam for doubling ----------------— 1 10 per ton. Squeezeirs ------------------------------ -1 0 per ton. Forge-rolling. ~1 4 per ton. Stocktaking-mills for plates. —---- -------------- 1 2 per ton. Stocktaking-mills for bars --------------— c —-— 1 8 per ton. Miscellaneous labor in forges, iron to forge, coal, including ashwheeling, maill-wrighting, smithing, &c —-----------— 7 6 per ton. In plate-miill: Rolling and beating ordinary plates.. —------------- 9 4 per ton. Rolling and heating faggoted plates. —-. —--. i.........14 6 per ton. Reheated. —---------------- ---------— 14 6 per ton. Extra, large and up to 5 feet wide —------ -- ------— 18 3 per ton. Shearing and speilling, &c.. —-----------------— 7 6 per ton. Miscellaneous labor in mills.....................o 0 per ton. WAGES IN ENGLAND. 293 SOUTH WALES. ages paid in iron-mills. Per ton. Merchant-mill, ordinary sizes, heating, rolling...............-.......... 6s. 4d. Under 2 pounds per f..................................... 78. 9d. Large roundssn................................... 9s. 4d......Small angles and T-iron-........... —-—. 7s. Gd....Reheating —-------— s................. 3s. 4d. Seven-sixteenths and rounds and squares, flats under 1 and s.............. 11s. 4d...Miscellaneous labor in mill —............-....... 5s. 0d. Per day.....rdi.....narylabor is from. 4s. to 5s. Engineers' wages-............................ 5s. 6d. to 6s. 6d. Machinists —---------------—......... 6s. to 7s. 6d. Mill-wrights —--------------............. 5s. 6d. to 6s. 6d..Coal-wheelers and ash-wheelers....... 5s. to 6s...Forge and mill stocktakers —-............... 4s. 6d. to 5s. 6d. Puddlers' underhands —----------—.. —. -... 4s. to 5s. 6d. Hammermen'sasitat —--—.............................. 8s. to 9s...Rollers' assistan.ts- ------ -................. Ss. to 11s. ~~~~~~........Boys from 11 to 14 years of agr -— l-s. 8d. to 3s. 4d. Wages range i South Wales from 15 per cent. to 20 per cent. less than other parts. Men in South Wales earn, however, about as much as in England. They ave more steady work, get rent cheaper, paying about Is. per week for rooms which in England cost about 4s.; get coal for a trifle sa s., while no allowance is made in England. STATETENT OF WALTER WILLIAMS, ESQ. When Mfr. Williams w as in Washington, in Decem.ber, 1872, he gave the following summary of the wages which then obtained in the ironmills of England: For six-heat iron, 102s. Gd. in all parts of England exccpt -in Wales; less in Walea. Best, or five-heat iron, 1s. per ton extra. A man gets the same -wages for five heats as he does for gray or ordinary iron. Puddler pays to underhands 4s. to 4s. Gd., and pays one additional turn alternate weeks. For working level-hands, 6d. per day. Prize-money allowed of 5s. per fortnight where they work full time. Puiddlers allowed one scrap-baill each per day, nojminally one hundred-weight, generally two, and are paid at the same rates as if for puddling. Hammering single halls and shingling, 9d. per ton.; hamniering doable halls, is.; hammerin —g three and fonr balls, is.'2d. Assistance given by the firm. in conveying the metal from the furnace to the sqaeezers. Forgre-rolling ordinary puddle-bars, l0d.; dragging out and straightening, 3d. per ton; add to all the above, except paddling, 20 per cent. Men engagfed in shearing ar d taking out paddle-bars from the forge, 4s. 7+1d.; coal,.ash, and wheeling, 5s. 3d. per day. Bail-mills.-First heating, is. lid, per ton; second heating, 1i1d. for rails..Avgles.-First heating,'2s. 9d.; second heating, is. 2-ld. This is seldom done. Furnacemen pay a shilling a day out of above wages. In rail and heavy angle mills, when paid by the ton, including all labor, 3s. Gd. per ton. Blooming and catching, 5+d. Semi-skilled labor in rail and angle-mills, 5s. 3d. and Gs. 3d. per day. All labor~outside from 5s. 3d. to 6Gs. 3d. per (lay. Rolling ordinary bars, 3s. 3d. per ton; rolling reheated iron, 4s. 6d.; all extra assistance found by the firm. Roller finds all help at rolls at above rates. Extra hell) beyond those at rolls found by firm, varying in wages from that of a main at 5s. 3d. to a, boy at 2s. 10d. WAGES IN BLAST-FURNACES. Wage8 of blast-furnace men in the Stockton and Middleslbrough districts. B. Samuelson & Co., (new works, 3 furnaces.) Stockton Furnace Company. Gyer's mills & Co. Norton Iron Company. Keepers..........9s. per day, and Id. per ton over 400, (new 8s., large furnaces; 7s. 6d., small furnaces.O_. s. 6d. per shift.......Os. 3d. per shift. works, large furnaces.) 7s. 6d. per day, and I'd. per ton over 200, (old works, small furnaces.) Chargers.........Cs. 7d. per day, and lid. per ton over 1,200, 5s. 9d., large furnaces; 5s. 4d., small furnaces. - s. 2d. per shift —----- s8. 2d. per shift. (large furnaces.) t Cs. Id. per day, and Id. per ton over 1,000, di- vided among 10 men, (small furnaces.) Slaggers........ 5s. id. per day, and id. per ton over 400, divided 4s. lid., large furnaces; 4s. 7d., small furnaces 3s. 2(1. per shift. —---— 4s. 2d. per shifth. among 10 meni, (large furnaces.) q Is. per day, and id. per ton over 200, (smallZ furnaces.) Mine-fillers....... 4a. 9d.; (old works, 5 furnaces, 4s. 9d.). —--— 4s. 8d., large furnaces; 4s. 8d., small furnaces. 4s. 8d. per shift. —----- Do. Furnace helpers- C Keepers.. 3s. Sd., and Id. per ton. over 400......... 4s., large furnaces; 4s., small furnaces.....Is. 8d. per shift.......3s. per shift. 2 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 lift. Coke-fillers........Is. 9d., large furnaces; 4s. 5d. and 3.9Id., small 4s. Sd., large furnaces; 4s. 8d., small furnaces. - 4s. Sd. per shift.......4s. 2d. per shift. furnaaces.* Limestone-fillers.....4s. 3d., small fnrinaces*. —----------- -— do --------- do.........4s. 8d. per shift, boys O2s. Cd. Do.Z Spare keepers.......3s. 6d., large furna'ces; 3s. 6d., small furnaees*- 3s. 6., large furnaces; 3s. 6d., small furnaces 3s. 8d. per shift.......3s. 6id, per shift. Table-loaders....I.. s., large furnaces; 4s. lid, and Is. 2d., small Contract..I................. s. 2d. per shift........4s. Sd. per shift. furnaces.* Furnace-fillers..... 4s.6Cd., largofuirnaces; 5s. 4d., small furnaces*. 4s. Sd......................4s. 4d. per shift.......~4s., nine hours. Bls -nieMen.. I- s. 6d., large furnaces; Is. Sd. and 5s., small Contract.I.................. s. 3d. per shift.......4s. 9d., engine-men, furnaees.* steam-lift. Weighing chargers_ 3s.6Cd., large furnaces; 3s. 3d., sma~llfurnaces*. 3s. 3d......................3s. 4d. per shift.......4s. Sd. per shift. Gas stovemen....I.. s., large furnaces; 5s., smnall furnaces*..... 5s. —------—.............Is. 2d. per shift.......4s. 2d. per shift. Gantrymen..I..... s., large furnaces; 4s. 4d., small furnaces*. Contract 2-1d. per ton on make. -.........4s. per shift............. ~ 4s., 3s. Sd., 3s. Cd., 9 hours. Breaking limestone Is. Cd., large furnaces; 4s. Cd., small furnaces*.......do......................do.......... ~3d. per ton short weight. Calciniug kiuen.s., large, furnaces; 5S., small furnuaces5. —--- 4ld. per ton on greenstono...........~4s. Cd. per shift; 2 men at 315s. per week,. All of the above, exc~pt those marked ~, are paid 15 shifts for full 14, per fortnight, except fitters. *Old works, (I furnaces.) WAGES IN ENGLAND. 295 rgenen's wages in Sheffield, England. Da, t e s,. ti4. s.c s. d. s.d. April, 1863-0..................................... 7 1 0 1 0 iDecember, 1869 —--------------------------------------------------— 8 0 1 11 1 0 October, 1871 —90 —-------------------—..................... 9 1 2 1 1o March,1872 —-------------—................... 10 0 1 4 13 August, 1872- -. 12 0 1 7' 1 6* May, 1873-P.. -. 12 9 1 L 17 WAGES IN STEEL-WORIKS. Sta~tenenhowing the aerae weeklyeaings in,, 1i7. of wcor::iew in Slieffield Steel- TVorks.* U. S. ~ s. d. Gold. Puddlers -------------------------------------------------------- 2 5 0 $10 89.Helpers1 ------ —.1.............. I 0 0 4 84.Shinglers —-----—............ 4 0 0 19 36 ~.Shinglers' helpers-1........... I 0 0 4 84 Forge-rollers —---------------—............ 4 0 0 19 36....Ball furnace-men...-. 3 0 0 14 52 Ball furn....e-men's helpers 1 0 0 4 84 Blacksmiths 2 0 0 9 68 Strikers- - 1 4 0 5 80 Fitters1............................. I 10 0 7 26 Slotters and planers-......................1 8 0 6 78 Laborers-1.................................................... 1 4 0 5 08 Engine-tenters............................................... 1 13 0 7 98 Firemen-1 9 0 7012 Hammer-men-1 10 0 7 26 Ash-wheelers-1 0 0 4 84 Coal-nuloaders-1 0 0 4 84 Trolley-boys —------------------------— 0 10 0 2 42 COAL-MINING. Having presented the changes that have occurred in the earnings of men employed in the various departments of the iron industry since September, 1871, it is eminently proper to show the various mutations in the cost of production which another industry intimately connected with the former h~as undergone since the month of September, 1871. COAL-FIELDS OF DUIIIIA11 AND N.OrTIITUMBEIILANDI. By way of an introduction to the subject tile following extracts from a report of Mr. Jones, United States consul at Newceastle, on the "Ilndustrial. Resources of the Tyne,"~ are snbmitted: I -will now consider the industrial resources of the Tyne, commencing wxith coal, that mineral being entitled to head the list as the chief product of the district, as the reports generally speak of this as the Northumberland and Durham district. Carrying coals to Newcastle has ever been looked upon as impossible,and absurd, in a business point of view, yet, since the present high figures have prevailed, coals havo, been carried to Newcastle fronm Hull, and latterly from Belgium, clearly proving that the coal-market of the present day is in an unhealthy condition. *The above is the esthuate of a gentleman connected with. orec of the largest steelma~nufacturingr works of Sheffield. 296 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The coalfields of Durham are more extensive and the mineral softer tan that of Northumberland, which is hard, and in thin seams, requiring a far greater amount of skill in the working thereof than the Durham coal. The annual product is not less than twenty-eight millions of tons. The number of colliers in the Northumberland mines is about thirteen thousand, the average price for mining being 42 cents per ton. In the Durham district the number of colliers is much larger, avergig about thirtyfour thousand, the price per ton for mining being 30 cents. The recent general rise i the price of coals throughout England is nowhere more striking than at Newcastle. In September, 1871, coals sold at $2.42 per ton, and in September, 1872, the same coals were sold at $6.05 per ton, and according to newspaper reports a cotract has just been entered into in France for the supply to England of 250,000 tons. The following statements showing the maximum and minimum cost of labor in the Durham and in the Northumberland coal-mines in 1873 also the advances and reductions made in the wages of miners, wit their average earnings at various dates from April, 1871, to December, 1874, were furnished by T. W. Bunning, esq., mining-eginer of Newcastle-on-Tyne, England: DURHAM. Off-hand labor below ground. [The prices include all percentages given up to December 31,183. Wages per day, Wages per day, with house or al- with house orl lowance for rent. lowance for rent. Class of labor. Class of labor. _ Fore overman -. 2 22 cI 51 $1 86 Greasers, (no house) -. t 27 $0 38 $0 83 Back overman -.........1 78 1 21 1 49 nauling-eiiginemnen-.......165 1 25 1 45 Deputies-............1 8-2 1 25 1 53 Pumping enginemen-......161 1 09 1 35 Timher-leaders -------— 1 57 73 1 13 Firemen. -...........1 37 65 1 01 MNiaster shitterss -........1 78 97 1 37 Furnacemen -..........133 67 1 01 Shifteis.............1 59 68 1 13 Lampmen-...........1 47 60 1 03 Chiockmieu tcontract work) - - - 2 42Z 1 39 1 90 Water-leaders.. -....... 1 57 69 1 13 Stonemen ----------— 1 04 1 25 1 59 nurse-keepers -.........157 61 1 09 Stout putters-..........1 37 61 99 ioltey-way men-........1 94 97 1 45 Master wa-stemnen-........1 99 97 1 43 Rolley-way boys -........157 57 1 07 WAVistemen ---------— 1 55 79 1 17 Set-riders - -.......... 1 57 77 1 17 llelpei s-pn (no house) —--— 1 33 46 89 Onsetters —--------— 2 30 78 1 54 i~ra ~king inclines, (no house) —. 1 55 50 1 03 Onsetters' boys -........1 -21 40 81 Di-iver s, (no house)-....... 75 4-2 59 Shaft-men -1......... 78Ii 79 1 29, Flatter,s (no house)....... 97 36 67 Masons-............1 45 93 1 19 Putters-driv-ng (no house)-...1 23 6t 91 Masons' lahorers-........1it 93 1 01 Lauding-lads, (no house)-....1 35 34 85 Cbargemen sinkers - 1..... I86 1 82 1 84 Conplers, (no, house)-.......1 2t 36 79 Sinkers-............1 78 1 69 1 74 Switch-keeper; (no house)-.... 89 36 63 Waiters-on -..........1 53 1 03 1 218 Tratppers, (no house) - 63 24 43 ilewers at off-hand work-....169 97 1 33 H1an'd-putteis' averageeris $1.53 per day; pony-putters' averae e arom-,$.9.Teewr m11:n wese all aidvasced and reduced at the same dates and to the same iamount as Tminers or bewers. Sftatewent4 sltowing the advances an~d reductions made in the scagcs of Durham miners, together with their avecrage earnings, att various8 dates since Aprit, 1871. Total advance Averg Dates. Advances. Reductions, above 1871 erage-s prices. erngs P1,-st six moniths in 1871 —.................................. $1 13 January aiid February, 1872 —............................... 1 25 March, 1812-.................20 per cent......................... July, 187-2-.................. 15 per centl -..........38 per cent-....... Deceinher, 1872 —...................................... 1 78 February, 1873................15 per cent-..........58.7 per cent....... December, 1873 —...............1 82 April, 1874-10..per.cent......43.4..per.cent..... -Noveniber, 1874-......................9 per cent... - 30 per cent........ December, 1874.........................-............... 1 49 WAGES IN ENGLAND. 297 Drham coal-fields. Off-hand labor above ground. [These, prices include all percentages given up to December 31, 1873.] Wages per day, Wages per day, with house found with house found or rent allowed. or rent allowed. ~~~~~Class of labor. AClass of labor. cq. Foremen smiths.$1 94 $ 96 $1 45 Token-men................... $1 33 $0 70 $1 01 Smiths-......134 1 02 118 Token-boys................... 72 24 48 Horse-shoers -...153 1 00 127 Keeker on screens............1 29 86 1 07 Pick-sharpeners - 179 78 129 Screeners.............,.., 116 60 88 Strikers-1......08....80 Small-wagon boy.............. 72 28 50 Boiler-builders - 145 1 00 123 Apparatus-boy............... 72 28 50 Foremen joinrs - 202 1 12 157 Waiters...................... 48 26 37 oiners-............137 86 11 Callers........................ (*) (*) (*) Wagon-wrights-..123 1 02 113 Stone-teamers................1 45 70 1 07 Tub-menders -..1L27 80 103 Laborers1..................... 41 80 1 11 Sawyers-.........139 88 113 Horse-keepers1................. 21 80 1 00 Fitters-....145 1 08 127 Cartmen...................... 108 64 86 Changers and grathers 189 1 08 149 Plate-layers.................. 129 88 1 09 Saddlers-.......141 1 02 121 Plate-layers' assistants....... 10 60 85 Gasmen-.........145 96 121 Branch-drivers................ 21 72 96 Masons.........155 96 1 25 Wagon-greasers, boys......... 60 30 45 Masons' laborers - 121 46 83 Branch-men................... 1 21 82 1 01 Widing-engineen, (hours). 171 84 1 27 Bank-riders1................... 29 96 1 13 Pmpin-enginemen,(8hors). 133 1 33 1 33 Bank-headmen................ 14 86 1 00 Huling-enginemen, (8ours) 133 1 33 133 Bank-bottom men............. 121 87 1 04 Fan-enginemen, (12 hours)- 133 1 25 129 Coke-burners................. 177 96 1 37 Locomotive-enginemen, (2hrs.) 161 1 33 147 Coke-drawers, (contract)...... 1 98 96 1 47 Boiler-minders - 133 1 00 1 17 Coke-fillers, (contract; no 41Firemen, pit-......133 76 1 05 lowance for house or rent) - - 1 94 1 12 1 53 Firemen, locomotive —--------- 139 86 1 13 Small-runners or loaders, (no Inspector or heap-keeper -....177 92 1 35 allowance for house or rent). 1 94 50 1 22 Banksmen -...........1 85 96 1 41 Oven-daubers, boys. -..... 60 24 42 Putthing in tubs, boys- -..... 7-2 34 53 Oven-levelers -......... 18S 1 06 1 12 Putt~ing in tubs, men -......1 53 76 1 15 Staithmen -...........121 1 00 1 10 Picki-carriers - -......... 60 24 42 Teamers-...........1 02 92 97 Tub-cleaniers - -.......... 60 24 42 Laborers, (no allowance for Weighmen -...........159 76 1 17 house or rent)-........121 64 9-2 *According to time. General adrances.-The, first -was nmade in February, 1872, l2~- per cent.; the second was made in July, 1872, 10 per cent.; and the third in February, 1873, 15 per cent., making a total advance of 42.3 per cent. Reductions.-The first was made in April, 1874, 10 per cent. on all surface labor, except enghine-mine, who wvere reduced 5 per cent. The second was made in November, 1874, 6 per cent. all round, NORTHUM4BE RLAND. General advcnces.-Tn Febrnlary, 1872, the above and below ground off-hand labor was scheduled by a committee and advanced in wage, and in July, 1872, banksmen, putters, and shifters were again advanced 20 per cent.; a third advance was given to banksmen, 10 per cent., putters and shifters, 15 per cent.; making a total of 30 per cent. to banks. men, and 35 per cent. to puntters and shifters. In Angust, 1872, mechanics' wages were advanced 10 per cent., and in March, 1873, it was decided that 5s. per day should be the maximum. Reductions.-See minutes of meetings for May 1 and October 30, 1874, on page 299. ~298 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Northumberland coal-fields. Off-hand labor below ground. [These prices include all percentages given up to December 31, 1873. Wages per day, Wages per day, with house or - with house or allowance for rent. lowance for rent. Classoflabor. Class of labor. ct d Fore overmen............... $2 30 $1 74 82 02 Haulin-eninemen1 82 $1 45 $1 63 Back overmen................2 02 1 51 1 76 Pumipinig-enginemen. 121 1 21 1 21 Deputies-1 —------- -. I 82 1 69 1 75 Firemen............109 1 09 1 09 Timber-leaders, (no house) -.. 1 23 57 90 Furnacemen........21 61 91 Master shifters............... 1 82 1 25 1 53 Lampmen..........39 69 1 04 Shifters............... 80 79 1 30 Water-leaders......33 1 09 1 21 Chockmen............... 1 82 1 21 1 51 Horse-keepers......33 65 99 Stonemen............... 1 94 1 51 1 72 Rolley-way men186 93 1 40 Stone-putters............... 1 45 1 21 1 33 Rolley-way boys109 73 91 Master wastemen.............. 2 02 1 21 1 61 Set-riders, (no house)121 54 88 Wastemen............ 1 63 95 1 29 Onsetters...........4 1 11 1 63 Helpers up,............... 85 48 67 Shaft-lads..........103 57 80 Braking inclines, boys......... 1 21 61 91 Shaft men........... 202 1 21 1 61 Drivers................ 61 48 54 Masons.............33 1 11 1 22.Flatters, boys -... 73 44 58 Masons' laborers 109 71 90 Ptters driving, boys1......... 121 85 1 03 Chargemen-sinkers.190 1 82 1 86 sLanding-lads,........ 1 03 36 70 Sinkers- 178 1 69 1 73 Conupl.ers, boys -73 46 60 Wsiters-on.........139 73 1 06 Switch-keepers, boys --- -- - 57 38 48 lHewersatshiftoroff-handwork 2 18 1 33 1 75 Trappers,............... 48 31 40 Hand putters.......1 49 Greasers, boys.... 73 38 55 Pony putters.......... 25 Off-hand labor above ground. [These prices includeall percentages given up to December 31, 1873.] Wages per day, Wages per dlay, with house or an with house or an allowance f or allowance f o r rent, rent. Class of labor. Class of labor. Foremen smiths -........$1 61. $1 16 j1 38 Pick-carriers, (boys)-......$0 92 $ 0 26 00 59 Sinitbs-.............1 39 96 1 18 Tub-cleaners, (boys)-...... 84 26 55 Horse-shoers-..........1 27 1 06 1 16 Weighmenu -.........1 33 84 1 08 Pick-slharpeners -........1 21 72 97 Token-men-.......... 88 68 78 Strikiers-............1 08 80 94 Token-boys-.......... 68 32 50 Boiler-builders-.........1 33 1 04 1 18 Keekers on screens -...... 121 79 1 00 Foremen joiners -........2 01 1 08 1 55 Sereeners -...........1 60 84 1 2-2 Joiners-.............242 86 1 64 Small-wagon boys-....... 96 3-2 64 Wagon-wrights-.........242 1 12 1 77 Apparatus-boys -........ 66 36 151 Tub-menders -..........242 84 1 63 Waiters, (boys) - 88....... S 28 58 Sawyers-............2 42 96 1 13 Stone-teamers - 1........ I10 76 93 Fitters-.............135 96 1 15 Laborers-............114 712 93 Changers and grathers -.....133 1 21 1 27 Horse-keepers-.........I1-1 70 816 Saddlers-............1 29 94 1 11 Cartmen-............ 96 70 83 Gasmen-............1 08 80 94 Plate-layers —-------- 110 8-2 86 Masons-.............133 96 1 14 Plate-layers' assistants -....1 10 7-2 91 Masons' laborers-........1 08 7-2 90 Branch-darivers -........1 16 84 1 00 Wiuding-eng~inemen -......1 45 1 45 1 45 Wa~gon-greasers, (boys) - 1 16 3-2 74 Pumping-enginemen -......1 69 1 45 1 57 Branch-men -..........114 84 99 Hauling-ellinemen -.......145 1 45 1 45 JBank-riders-.......... 912 88 90 Fan-enginlemen -.........145 1 08 1 26 Bank-headmen-.........1 14 88 1 01 Locomotive-enginemen -.....145) 1 211 1 33 Bank-bottom menl, (no house). 88 48 68 Boiler-minders-.........1 57 1 10 1 34 Coke-burners-.........1 25 1 25 1 25 Pit-firemen -.....1 -III-I15 24 86 1 05 Coke-darawers —------- 1 51 1 38 1 4S5 Locomotive-firemen. —...... 98 80 88 Coke-fillers, (no house)-.....135 84 1 09 Guards-.............108 96 8 02 Staitlimen —--------- 145 80 1 13 Inspector or heap-keeper -....161 80 1!20 Teasuers —---------- 102 88 9 5 Bauksmen -...........1 98 9 1 1 45 Laboiers ----------- 100 3-2 66 Putters-in of tubs, (boys) —-- 12 21 40 80 WAGES IN ENGLAND. 299 WAGES OF NORTUMERLAND MINERS IN 1874. The following statement showing the earnings of Northumberland miners in 1874, was furnished by Mr. Burt: Maximum. Minimum. Mean. Fore-overmen-............... per week. $14 52 $12 10 $13 31 Bfl~ack overmen-do.......do-11096...... d.... 12 10 9 68 10 90 ~~~~~.Deputiesdo -1.................. do.... 10 16 ~H~~~ewers-........... per day. 1 92 1 68 1 so80 Laborers, (underground).............. do.... 1 08 96 1 02 Laborers, (at bank)............. do.... 84 72 78 Egineen-................. per week.. 9 60 8 40 9 00 Mechanics-do............. lo.... 7 20 6 00 6 60 ADVANCES AND REDUCTIONS. Statent showing the advances given and reductions made in the wages of Northumberland mners, with their average earings, at various dates since April, 1871. Total advance Average ~Dates. Advances. Reductions. above 1871 erg prices.. prices, earnings. ~~Ma,,)~rch, 1871.............................................. $1 33 February,1872..............10 per cent................................................ May,872.............................................................. 1 47 ~July, 1872............ 22 per cent.................... 32 per cent.... September, 1872.......................... 1 March, 1873................18 per cent................. 50 per cent............ December, 1873...................................................................... 2 20 ~~~~~April, 1874.....................10 per cent....... 40 per cent............. October,1874.............................. 14 per cent.... 26 per cent.......... December, 1874, (computed)................................................................ 8 At a meeting of the Steam Colliers' Defense Association held May 1, 1874, it was decided thatPutters and other underground men, -now receiving 35 per cent. ad. vance, be reduced to 27 per cent. Trappers.-Wages reduced 1d. per day. -Drivers.-Wages reduced 24. per day. Banlcsmen, now receiving 30 and 35 per cent. advance, to be reduced to 25 per cent., inasmuch as the men who have been getting 35 per cent. have been getting more than the trade allowed. -Deputies having 7s. and 7s. 6d. per da~y to be reduced to 6s. 64. and 7s. Prop and chock drawing to remain unaltered. S~tandard stonemen.-Fixed at 7s. per day. Screeners.-Tliose who are paid by the piece to be reduced 5 per cent., and those who are paid by the day to remain as they are. On June 30 engine-men were reduced 44. per day. At a special meeting held October 30, 1874, the following reductionsl were mutually agreed to: Putters and others at present receiving an advance of 27 per cent. to, be reduced 11 per cent., leaving an advance, of 16 per cent. Trappers.-Wages to be reduced 14. -Drivers.-Wages to be reduced 24. Banksmen.-Advances to be reduced so as to leave an advance of 15 per cent. -Deputies.-.Where no prop drawing to be paid, 7s.; where they draw props, 6s. 6d.; for drawing props, 6d. per score; chockles 4d. a chock., Screeners.-Daily wage to remain as at present; piecework 10 per cent. reduction. Jlfechanics.-N —ages to be reduced 5 per cent. 300 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. SWANSEA AND CARDIFF The following tables are condensed from more extended statements sea and Cardiff coal districts and in other collieries of Great Britain, England, February, 1875: Statement showing the average earnings of workmen in Swansea Class of labor. Graigola. Swansea colliery. West Swansea. Dunvant. Cutters........$12 40 per week...... $1 74 to $2 05 per day $12 40 per week......$55 00 per 4 weeks. Day-workmen. 1 88 per day —47 16 per 4 weeks. Trammers..................'......... "20 to $1 36 per day 1 20 to $1 68 per day 30 00 per 4 weeks. Bankers............................. 1 08 to 1 56 per day 7 40 per week...... 30 00 per 4 weeks. Laborers - 1 88 day, ontside. 1 85 per day....... 5 96 per week...... 30 00 per 4 weeks. I 1 20 day, inside.. ) Engine-men.... 1 44 per day....... 1 32 to $1 56 perday 11 32 per week...... 45 48 per 4 weeks. Carpenters.... 138 per day - 1 44 per day................... 30 00 per 4 weeks. Smiths........ 138 per day...... 1 44 per day....... 1 44 per day....... 30 00 per 4 weeks. Strikers....... 52 to $0 60 per day 52 to $0 78 per day 72 per day.......................... Wei-hers...... 96 per day ------ 74 to 1 20 per day 66 per day....... 33 60 per month.. Hostaers.. 92 per day...... 84 to 1 32 per day 1 08 per day.......................... Firemen.......188 per day..... 1 85 per day............................. Roadmen. 188 per................. Tippers..... 120 per day. —- ---------— I —---------------- -- Repairers................................................ alers...... 1 0 per day. 78 to $1 40 per day 7 40 per week.. 30 00 per 4 weeks Door-boys...... 830 per day....... 32 per day................................................ itmen........ 1 68 per day....................................................................... Stokers......27 88 per 4 weeks. Hitahers....... 1 88 per day....... 28 to $1 68 per day -— 0 —er-week-...... 30 --------- Overmen....... I 68 per day...................................................................... Inclinemen.... 72 to $0 80 per day 92 to $1 92 per day' —-—.':ZZ ——.. —---- ------------ ------- Screeners...... 30 00 per 4 weeks... 1 08 to 1 56 per day...................... Masons............................................................................................ Class of labor. Graig Merthyr. Brynwillach. Resolven. Emily. Cutters........ $2 34 per dlay....... $t 85 to $1 92 per day $23 66 per fortnight.. $2 12 per day..... Day-workmen. 1 80 per day. 1 85 per day..... 1 58 per day....... 80 per day..... Trammers.-~~~"' 1 80 per day.... T'r/mmers...........................j................................... 1 so per d,,ry —..Bankers.............................1 50 per day.......1 22 per y....... 1 32 per day-..... Laborers. —---- 1 20 per day..................... 17 06 per fortnight.. 1 08 per day..... Engine-men ( 178 per day, loco- 1 56 per day 1 32 per day.....................'" Jumotive-men. Carpenters.... 1 20 to $1 3'2 per day 1 32 per day....... 16 44 per fortnight.. 1 76 per day. Smiths........ 1 32 to 1 56 per day 1 56 per day....... 16 44 per fortnight.. 1 44 per day.. Strikers....... 52 to 78 per day.............. 96 per day........ 72 per day.... Weighers...... 84 per day............................. 1 20 per day......................... lnostlers...... 80 to $1 14 per day............... 15 48 per fortnight.................... Firemen.. 2. 00 per day............................. 1 58 per day....... 2 00 per day.. IRoadmen.. 2 to $1 86 per day............... 1 20 per day....... 1 76 per day.. Tippers..................................................... 15 72 per fortnight..................... Repairers........................................................................................... Haulers..................................................... 17 26 per fortnight.. 82 per day..... Door-boys...... 66 per day............................. 64 per day....... 48 per day..... Pitmen.............................................................................................. Stokers.. 92 per day................................................... 80 per day.....I titchers............................. 1 56 per day.............................-................... Overmen...... 1 72 per day................................................................ Inclinemen.... 1 86 per day....................16 44 per fortnight..................... Screeners... 1 20 per day.................................................... Masons........ 1 56 per day....... WAGES IN ENGLAND. 30:1 COAL DISTRICTS. in regard to the wages or earnings of workmen employed in the Swan. and were furnished by Walter Rowley, esq., mining-engineer, of Leeds, coal district, when working full time and without restriction. Primrose Coal Co. Ffoy, Danybank, etc. Cross-Hands and Call- Duffryn Main. fornia. Y " $1 80 to $1 92 per day... -1 80 per day........... $1 82 per day...........$11 53 per week....... ~....1 68 per daY —...................1 S0 per day. 168to 1 per;ay 1 26 per day...........1 28per day. 96 to 1 80 per day.. 1 08 per day........... 92 per day........... 1 08 to $1 20 per day, 108 to $1 26 per day, 84 to 1 32 per day... under ground. 1 4 per dayl 1 per d ray. -......................- - 1 20 eight-hours' turn.. 1 20 per day....... 1 4t$16p da 96 to 1 20 per day... 1 32 per day...........1 14 per day I08 to 144 per day... 1 32per day. 1 2per day........... I 60 per day........... 54 per day, boys................................................................ 96 per dayos.... 96 per day.....................14ea...35 00 per month..1 44 per day................... 180 per day.1 44per day...........200 per day. 1 08 to1 32 perIday... 132 per day, repairers........................... 1 32 to $1 62 per day. 1 08 to 1 36iper day.................170 per day.......l44 per day...... 36 to 1 08 per day... { 54 to $0 60 per day, 60 pboy 60 to 120 per day. carter-boys. boys. j 32. to 60 per day... 32 to $0 60 per day... 40 per day........... 48 per day................................................................................ 1 68 per day...................................................... 82 per day...........1 20 per day. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.*............ 2 e a............................ 1 20 top 4 er day. l26per day 1 ~~~~~~~~~20to$81 44 per da~y........................... 50 26 per dayt......................... 8t 6prdy.......................... 00 per month. 1 28to 1 S6 per day.. ~~~~~~~1 14 per day, head man.............................................................................. 1 44 per day. Morriston colliery, Tyr Foxhole colliery, Park Foxhole colliery, Tir issa Western Merthyr. cenol. pit. pit. $25 60 per fortnight...... $1 58 per day........... $1 81 per day........... $2 00 per day. I i0 per day1 64perday........... 1 77 per day........... 2 06perdy.........1 16 6per day........... 156 per day...... 206 per day1 16 per day. 16prdy I 14 per day........... 1 18 per day.1......... I 20 per day........... 1 68 per day. 1 80 per day........... 80 per day................................... 96 per day. 1 66 per day.1......... I 24 per day........... 1 06 per day........... 1 66 per day. l 20 per day........... 1 16 per day..................................... 1 32 per day. 1 44 per day........... I 22 per day.....................................I1 32 per day.......:.......................................................................... 60 to $0 96 per day. 1 20 per day..............................................1 32 per day. 1 14 to 1 80 per day-.. 1 86 per day........... 1 86 per day........... 200 per day. 1 68 per day.............................. i................................................. 1 6 e l y 168 per day.;::::::.:...:.''..;.y; Z "''1 644 per day. 1 77per day.1 56perday........................... 80 per day........... 96 per day...........1 44 to $1 86 per day. 48 per day........... 24 per day.66 to 72 per day. 1 86 per day. —----------------- ------------- 2p rd y "i'..................;:;;..................................................... 1 e~per day ----------- 06 per (lay....................... 75 per day............... ~............ 1 92 per day ----------- } 9 per day........... 12 56pr ek. - 1 92 per day. 1 ~~~~92 per day. 1 00 per week................................................................................ 1144 per day. 144 per day................................................................................ l 20per day................................................................................. 1 86 pr. day, stonemen 3 02 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Statement of the average earnings of workmen in the Cardi District. Colliers. Haulers. Laborers. MERTHYI VALLRY. Dowlais.................... $14.40perweek; Brith- t8.64perweek;rith- $6.72perweek dir, $17.28. dir, $10.3. Plymonth................... $45.48 per 4 weeks.. $3.86 nderground. $. $25.above, per 4 ABERDARE VALLEY. weeks. 1Navigation and Deep DuIffryn $42.16 per 4 weeks $1 perday;master,.02 per day.... $1.44; collier, $.8 Blaeengwaur.................. $45.48 perwees- $1.12perdaysurface; 94 weeknts per day. surzn $1~~~~~~~~~~~.26,undcer ground; fiace, and' u a ~d e r collier, $1.26. ground. Abercromboy............... $54.50 pr 4 weeks $..urface; $1, under ground. Crombach.....-............. $2.04 per day, all sea- $1.23 to $1.32 per day; 98 cents p day sons foreman, $1.68. Werfa...................... $2.20 per day; $2.40. per night. Aberdare Rlhondda......... $1.78 to $1.96 per day $1.26 1.29perday. to$1... Nant-melyn................. $60 per 4 weeks. 32.8 per 4 weeks 20.48 per 4 weeks..... Powell Duifryn Company's $2.50 per day.26 per day; surface, 1.02 per day.......... pits.1.02. RHONDDA VALLEY. Ferndale.................... $52.64 per 4 weeks.. $1.32 per day; colliers, $1.06 per day; colliers, $1.38; surface, $1.10. $1.26. Bodryngalt.$...... 45.52 per 4 weeks.... $1.perday;foreman, $1.16 to $1.26 per dy; $1.10; 9 hours. $1.20 to $1.26 per night. Tylacock...... $1.68 to $2.40 per day 1.32 per day; master, $1.08to$1.76pernight; 1.L60. $6.64 per week. Pentre and Church......$62.34 in hea~dings; $42.40 per 4 weeks.. Surface, $1.14 per day; $42.32 in stalls. $32.88 nude ground. Ilboudda. Merthyr.2.....$.40 per day......$7.92 per week.....$6.60 per-week..... Ilute MerthyrAhergorehs........$42.06 per 4 weeks... 2 feet 9 inches...... 26.30 per 4 weeks. $32.88 per 4 weeks.. $36.12 per 4 weeks of 6 feet...........$45.08 per 4 weeks... )7 days. LlwynypiaSteam-coal........1$11.92 per 4weeks....$8.121 per 4 weeks....$6.80 per week..... House-coal.........$13.36 per 4 weeks... -.- $9.32 per 4 weeks.. —-$7.40 per week..... Gilfach............ 1.80 per day. —--— $1.48 per day; surface, $1.26 per day; surface, $1.12. $1.10. Coedcae.............. $42.60 per 4 weeks. $30.48 per 4 weeks;............. $25.64 per 4 weeks, surface. Dinas Main..........$47.12 per 4 weeks... $36.92 per 4 weeks; $32.88 per 4 weeks.. — $46.20 per 30 days, surface. Llwy-neelyn..........$1.86 per day...... $1.56 per day.......$1.56 per day...... GelliColliery No. 2.......$2.94 in headings; $2.84 in stalls. I $1.48, 6 days; fore- $1.02 per day, surface; Colliery No. 3.$..... 1.88 in headings; man, $1.68. $1. 3 ne rud $1.94 in stalls.-2udr rud Lan, not full time.$10.....08m per week.....$1.12 to $1.50 per day- $1.20 to $1.44 per day__ Darrandder..........$2 per day.......$1.44 per day................. Cilely............. 1.9-2 per day......$1.08 per day......$1.08 per d~ y...... Powell's Liantwit.......$48.72 per 4 weeks....$37.40 per 4 weeks ---.- $33.36 per 4 weeks... - Llantwit and Black Vein.... $12.40 per week.....$6.48 per week; boys,................ $3.60. Llantwit lRed Ash Company.- $2.02 per day- -.....$1.34 to $1.44 per day; $1.34 per day...... surface, 80 cents. Penrhiwfer...........$12.10 per week.....$7.58 per week, unuder $7.34 per week, under ground; $6.56, sur- ground; surface, face. 5.90. Bir~enclydach -.........$1.88 per day...... 1.32 to $1.12 per day- $1.12 per dy...... Maesteg -MerthyrSeam 1...........19 days, $67.80...... Seam 21...........19 dlays, $00.14..... Seam 3 -..........19 days, $73.36......$1 to $1.30 per day $1.04 per day...... Creditir..........19 dlays, $566.08..... Bryndee............$1.98 per day......$1.10 per day; boys, $1.04 per day...... 78 cents. WAGES IN ENGLAND. 303 coal district, when working full time and without restriction. Tippers. Bnksmen. Engine-men, winding. Firemen. Rodmen. rithdir,.40 per $5.76 to,8.64 per 3.40 to $9.60 per $612 to $6.96 per ~~~week. week wek eek.. $28.14per 4 weeks ~ 37.82 under ground, $43.94 per 4 weeks $29.54 per 4 weeks, $34.14 above, per 4 weeks. 1.10 per day. $1.0.per day. 50 per 4 weeks; 8 $1.86 per 6 days; $1.26 per day. hours. They clean, 84 cents per Sunfit, and repair. day. 97 cets per.... 1.02 to 1.20 per $1.46 per day; haul.................... $1.12 per day. ~day. ing,~$1.28. $1.02 per day. 1.10 to 1.20 per $.50 per day; haul-............... $1.34 per day. d(l~ay. ing,~ $1.34. 98 cents, $1.02, to 98 cents to $1.26 145,9 days......... $1.72, 7 days...... $1.26, $1.34, to $1.43 ~~~~~~~$1.10 per day. per day.~~ per day.............................................................................. 1 to $1.06 per day.. $1.02 per day. $1. $1.4~, to 81.42 $1.68 per day...... $1.18 to $1.32 per per (lay. day. ~.......~$38.36 per 4 wee ks $58.36 per $50 per 4 weeks... $:1. 44 per 4 weeks. 1.14 per d. $.28 per day..1.26 per day........ $1.86 per day...... $1.28 per day. ~~~~~~~$1.01 peper day...... 14 to 1.0 per 1.49 per day. 2 per day......... $1.26 to $1.44 per day. d ay v. $1.16 to $1.26,hours $8 per 12 hours $25.12 per 4 weeks.................... $1.7'2 per 9 hours. $1.14 per day. 1.3 per day $1.63 per 8 hours.... $1.84 per day... $1.30 to $1.34 per day. $33.36 per 4 weeks..- $33.36 per 4 weeks...................... $~6.72 per week. $10.08 per week... $V2.04 per week; $630 per aunnum... 3.12 per week. hauling, $3.54. 96 cents to $1.32 per...........$1.72 per day; al ----------—.1.26 per day. day. lowed 7 days extra per month. 1$7.40 per week... $8.02 per week.... $1.32 per da~y, steam.. —------— $1.321per day, ste'm. $1.56 per day, house ----—. —-— $1.44-per day, hou'o. $1.14 per day.....$1.44 per day....$1.56 per day.....$2 per day. —-— $1.42 per dlay. $30.96 per 4weeks.. $36.68 per 4weeks. $46.86 per 4weeks.. $50 per 26 days; $1.56 per day. $43.84per 24 days, night.' $33.36 per 4 weeks. $1.32 to $1.44 per............$2 per day.....$1.56 per days. day. $1.34 per day.................$1.76, single turn............. $1.32, 6 days.... $1.58, 7 days....$1.76, 7 days; drift,...............$1.48, 6 days.. $1.54, 7 days. $1.,1-2'p'er -day... $1.5 6'p e r'd'ay.. $1.68 per day. $1.08 per day.....$1.02 per day....$1.44 per day. —-- ---------- $33.36 per 4 weeks............$51.02 per 4 weeks $52 per 4 weeks -_ Foreman, $7.40 per............ Boys, $6 per week. $10.80 pe-r week... $8.48 per week. week. $1.34 per day.....$1.34 per day..... $1.50 per day.....$2 per day.....$1.71 per day. $6.32 per week. $6.68 per day.... 8.36 per week....$10.12 per week... $8.84 per week. $1.32 per day.....$1.20 per day.... 1.38 per day.....$12 per week....$1.56 per day. 96 cents per day... $1.26perday; girls, $1.06, $1.26, to $1.44 $1.68 per dlay. —42 to 46 cents. per day............ 98 cents per day... $1.02 per day. —-- ---------- 304 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Statement of the average earnings of workmen in the Cardiff coal Districts. Hitchers. Stokers. Weighers. MEIRTHYR VALLEY. Plymouth................... $28.72 per 4 weeks.....$21.88, under ground, $23.1 per 4 weeks.. per 4 weeks; $2.02, above ground. ABERDARE VALLEY. Navigation and Deep Duffryn $1.42 per day..... M.; $1.10, chief, $1.02. Billy; $1.10, Ioop. Blaengwaur................. $1.24 per day.......... 02 per day$1.32 p day Abercromboy................ $1.26 per day.......... 10 per day$1.12 to $1.32 per day.. Crombach................... $1.14, under ground, 9.............$1.32 to $1.40 per day.. days; $1.02, surface, 1 day per week allowed. Aberdare Rhondda........... $1.26 to $1.40 per da. 76 cents, 96 cents, to $1.14, 1.,to $1.28 per $1.04 per day. day. Nautmelyn.................. $36.48 per 4 weeks. $18.52perwees. $34.08perweeks... Powell Duffryn Company's $1.1perday.1.02 per day...........06 per day.......... pits.?RHONDDA VALLEY. Ferndale............ $1.36 per day......$1.05 per day......$1.32 per day...... Bodryngalt..........$1.46 per 9 hours....$1.32 per 12 hours................ Tylacoch...........$1.32 to $1.44 per day.. $1.14 per 8 honrs................ lihoudda, Merthyr.......$10.08 per week.....$8.28 per week.....$7.80 per week..... Bute Merthyr.........$1.26 per day......$1.08 to $1.16, 28 and............. 29 days per month. Llwynypia...........Steam, $8.48 per week, $1.14 per day, extr a 96 cents per day, 9 hours; house, cleaning flu e, house; $1.'32, steam. $12.40, piecework. Gilfach............$1.38 per day. —--— $1.12 per day......$1.24 per day...... Coedcae............$1.62 per day; night, $1.02 per day. $.... 1.50 per day...... 66 cents. Dinas Main..........$1.56 per day......$1.26 per day......$1.08 per day...... Penrhiwfer..........$8.24 per week. —-— $7.76 per week.....42 cents per week. Blacuclydach................................... $1.12 per day...... Llwynellyn..........$1.56 per day.............................. Gelli..............$1.54, 6 days...... 1.36, 7 days................... Darranddn..........................$1.38 per day.................. Cilely.............$1.20 per day.............................. Powell's Llantwit.......$1.50 per day.............................. Llantwit and Black Vein.- $1.20 per day...................$7.20 per week..... Llantwit lied Ash.......$1.12 per day......$1.34 per day......$1.28 per day...... Maestig Merthyr.......$1.06 to $1.30 per day.. 96 cents to $1.16 per............. day. Bryndee............$1.12 per day; boys, 96 cents per day................. 64 cents. WAGES IN ENGLAND. 305 district, when working full time and without restriction-Continued. Masons Horse-keepers Smiths. Strikers. Carpenters. 034.04 per 4 weeks......................................................... 9 hours, $1.44; la $1.08 for 6 days... $1.14 to $1.26 per 40 to 84 cents per $1.06 to $1.20 per 9 borers, 92 cents day, 9 hours. 9 hours. hours. per day. 132 per day; 86 cents per day, $1.28, $1.32, to $1.34 76, 80, to 92 cents $1.18 to $1.40 per borers, cents to surface; $1.08, u- per day. per day. day; s aw y ers, $1.04. der ground $1.12to $1.32. 10 p$1.28 to $1.34 per day.............. $1.28 per day; saw~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.day; laborers, $1. der ground yers, 1.12 to$1.32. 96 cents to 1.08 $1.16 to $1.28 per 72to 84 cents per $1.32 per day; fore. ~per ~day. day; foremen, nday. men, $1.72,7 days. $1.68, 7 days. $1.44 per day. $1.04 per day, sur-.18, $1.22, to $1.28.72, 84, to 96 cents face; $1.12, un- per day. per day. der ground. $41.92 per 4 weeks; $32.04 pe r 4 wee ks $32.88perwees... $25.48 per 4 weeks. $35.48 per 4 weeks; $~~~~~~~~~30 per 4 weeks,.$30 per 4 weeks, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~laborers. F~sawyers. ~~~~~~~$1.50 ~per day...... 12 per day $1.26 per day 90 cents per day... $1.28 per day; sawyers, $1.18. $1.44 per day....... $1.01, $1.17, to$1.28 $1, $1.08, $1.28, to 66 to 92 cents per $1.25, $1.32, to $1.41 per day. $1.3c5 per day. day. per day; sawyei s, $1.10 to $1.31............ $1.32, 7 dlays.... 1.62 per 9 hours $1.08 per 9 hours..$1 44 per 9 hours................$1.28 per day.....$1.38 to $1.44 per day 96 cents to $1.04 $1.08 to $1.t0 per per (ay. day; sawyers, $1 35............ $8.40 per week $8 per week.....$7.44 per week.. $8.04 per week; sawyers, $7.20. $1.56 per day; 30 $1.06 per day; 28 $1.32 per day; 25 and $1.04 per day.... $1.26, $1.32, to $1.56 days per month. days per month. 26 days per month. per day. $1 32 per day; ina- 96 cents per day; $1.36 per day.....84 cents per day... $1.26 per day. horers, 96 cents. in pit, $1.12. $1.56 per dlay... — ---------— $1.41 per day.....$1.12 per day.. —- $1.34 per dlay. $1.44 to$1 68perday $1.38 per day.. $1..44. $1.60, to $1.68 84 ceut9 to $1.12 $1.46 to 61.68; sawper day. per (lay. N ers, $1.16. $1.60 per day.....$1.46 per dlay. $1.70 prday.... $1.18 per day $1.70O per day. $8.24 per week....$6 80 per week; $8.36 per week. —— $5.72 per week.... $8.12 per week. in pits, $7.28............ $1.34 per day.....$1.62 per day.....$1.12 per day.... $1.34 per day................................................$1.C8 per (ay.................!................... $1.08 per day, 71 $1.70, 6 da.~ a. days; foreman, $1.16. 96 centa per day.. $1.44 per day. ~~i:4j~~ay. $1.28 per day.~~~~~~96 cents per day. $1.312 per day............ $31.78 per 4weeks $50.96 per 4w-eeks. $25 per 4 weeks.. $53 p r 4 weeks............ $5.76 per week... $9 per week..........I..... $7.2 per week..............$1.30 per day.... 1.68 per day. —-— $lper day..... $1.56 per day; sawyers, $1.50.,........... $1.14 per day.....$1.32 to $1.48 per day 98 cents per day.. $1.20 per dlay; sawyers, $1.10nt. 20 L Statenment of the current wages paid to engine-men Selptember 10, 1874. CoLliery. Winding-engine-men. Pumping-engine.men. Remarks. Monmouthshire: Tredcegar Iron and Coal Company, 88 cents....................'..... —---------- No. 5 pit. Not specified which are pumping and which winding B3edweelty levels and pit........... $1.14 to $1.16.......................................... engine.men. Bryn Bach Incline................ 96 cents............................... Rhymney Iron Company, varions pits$.8cet.Nih an] a e et Rbymne~y Iron Company,, v$rious pits.. $..................................... 84 cents.............................. Night and day men kept. Blaenavon Iron Company's pit....$... $1.44 per day of 12 hours, slope $1.06........................................10 per cent.off hese rates from September 1. Vispond & Co., Varteg Hill............ 94 cents to $1.02, $1.17, 10 hours per..2 men, at t1.17, relieve each other each hour, and go day. stoking, for which 12 cents per day is allowed. Partridge, Jones & Co.'s colliery....... $1.04 per day of 9 hours............... $.17 per day of 104 hours............. Paid 7 dlays per week; have to do repairs on Sundays. 0 Rhos Llantwit colliery. ——... —. —. 1.56.-.. —..-.. —-—... —-.. —.. —. Surface, $1.56; under, $1.14........... Under-ground steam-pump men work 8 hours per Do -................................................................ Compressed-air pump, $1.24........... shift; remainder 12 hours. Prothero Trust Plase.. —- $1.52.................................. $1.44.................................. Camgethin Company collieries.4......... 1.47 1.47.............12 hours per day, 7 days per week. Bargsd' Coal1 Company's pits........... 1.29, 6 turns per week............. 99 cents...........................,lantwit and Black Vein Company's pit 1.56 per day.......................................................... Pat Nut and Bolt Company's pit...... 1.20 to 1.3............L................................................ Less two reductions of 10 per cent. Swansea, Vivian & Sons My Newydd.. 72 to 98 cents............................................. Pentie.........$1.26.................................... $1.26............................ Duffrvn Main Company's pit....-...- 1,50................... 1.50....-...................-......... Less 10 per cent. Jones'& Saunders, Emily and Round... 1.66............................................... A. Bain, Hendreforgan................ 70 cts., 55 per ct. advance, $1.92 allowed..................... Merthyr: 1. Crawshay, Cyfarthfa, Cethin $1.04.............................. 82 cents, hauling and fan 84 cents.. No. 2. t Castle.. 1.06.................................. 82 cents, hauling 86 cents............. Dowlais Iron Company: Buxton............................ 97 cents..A a...... A pai 7. turns for 7 days' work. Tunnell...$1............... 91.06; No. 2 pit, 90c.................... 88 cents.....:........... M Aberdare Iron Company............... 1.30 per day, 9 days per week........ 86 to 98 cents per day, 7 days per week. Pumnping-engine-men paid 48 cents per boiler for: Powell Duffryn Steam Coal Company: cleaning boilers. New Trelegar Mine...... —-—. —. 2 per day, 8 hours.......... 1.02, hauling 1.................. Lower Duffryn,'Upper............. 1.16 per day, 9 days per week........ 94 cents, 12 hours per day............. Aberaman - -.. -.. ——.................. 12 per week 7 days, of 8 hours........ $1.10, 9 days per week, 9 hours per day. Nixon, Taylor & Cory: Navigation........................-. 9$50 per month, 28 days, of 8 hours..- 824 cents per day of 12 hours........ Under ground, 89 cents per day; blocking engine, 69 cents; ventilator, 92 cents per day, and 69 cents for each boiler cleaned. Merthyr Vale...................... 46.20 per month............................................................. D. Davis & Sons: Blacngawaur...................... turn for shift, and 1 for cleaning and $1.1274, same allowance as winders..... Hauling $1.27, and 1 turn per month for repairs. repairing boilers. Abercromboy...................... $1.491 1 turn for repairing boilers.. $... $1.33, 4 turn per week for long hours, $1.33, and 1 turn per month for repairs. and 2 turns per month for repairs. Aberdare Coal Company............... 1.45 per day 8 hours........................................................... $1.14 to $1.20, less 10 per cent. from 1st June last. Bute............................... 1.28 to $1.20 for cleaning boilers............................................... Hauling, $1.24; shift, $124. M. Jones, Nautmelyn.................. 1.32 per day, 9 days per week................................................ IRhondda: D. Davis & Sons............. 1.49. and I turn per week for cleaning................................... Hauling, $1.16, and 2 turns per month for repairing, boilers. less 10 per cent. fromnt 1st June last. Bodryngaltt..................... 58.12 per month......................................... Glamorgars Coal Company Hivyn- 1.39 8 hours per shift, 7 days per week.......................................... ypia. Peurhiwfer........................ 1.26 11 hours per shift, 6 days per........................................ Over-time for Sundays or night-work. week. Coffin & Co., Middle pit............ 1.7-2 per day of 8 hours, 7 turns per........................................ week. Powell's Gellygaer Company........... 1.38i per 12 hours, 7 turns per week.. $1.301 per 10 hours, 7 turns per week.. $1.80 per 4 weeks for cleaning engine and winders; 90 cents extra per 4 weeks for cleaning boilers. Powell's Llantwit Company............ 45 per month................................................................. Without extras for cleaning. Thomas & Griffiths................ 1.58 per 12 hours, 7 turns per week... Winders work pump on Sunday...... Ihoundda Merthyr Co.............. 1.55 per day, 3 turns................. $1.04 per day, 9 hours' shift........... Hauling $1.10 per day, 2 turns. Monmouthshire: E I). Williams, Massuddud........ 1.22; under ground, $1.08............. $15 per week.......................... Gwladis........................... 1.46 per day, 7 days per week........ $1.46 per day, 7 days per week......... Leading engineer allowed $6 per month for looking; after pumps. a' Rhoswen.......................... Hauling-engiIse-men, $1.46 per day.... 98 cents............................... E Gwailoedywain --------— ^... —-- Incline-engiue-men, $1.46 per day....Coke-engine-man, 98 cents per day.... Swansea, Governor & Company of C(opper Mines in England: Meadow pit................................................................ $1.16 per day, 28 days per month...... $2.40 per month extra for winding, and 84 cents for cleaning boilers. Bryngarnos........................ $1.18 per day, 24 days per month.............................................. 5 days per mo n th repairing and raising steam; $1.56 per month for cleaning boilers. Bryn....................................................................... $1.08 per day, 28 days per month...... 1i days per monthl repairing and raising steam; 84 Cwmfslin: cents per month for cleaning. Morgan & Thompson............. $1.32 per day.......................... 1.32 per day.......................... Merthyr:.Z Plymouth Iron Company pits...... 84 cts., and $1.02 for each boiler cleaned. 70 to 86 cents for each boiler cleaned W. Winders allowed 9 days per week, pumpers 7. Merdare: Heath, Evans & Co................ $1.44 per day; allowance for boilers........................................ 2 days per week, 60) cents. Yorkshire: BowersAllertonCollieries....... $1.20 per day, 8 days' pay for 6 worked. $1.16 per day, 6j days'payfor 6 worked. Cleaning boilers, 32 cents; cleaning tube, 48 cents extra. Staffordshire........................... 84 to 90 cents per week, 9 hours per........................................ day. Somersetshire: Radstock Collieries............. 96 cents per day of 10 hours........... 96 cents per day of 10 hours........ -. 3 cwt. of coal allowed per week. CO 4 WEST YORKSHIRE MINES. Diagram sh6wing advances and reduction in mners' wages from October, 1871, to October, 1875, in the mincs of West Yorkshire Coal Masters' Association.. Glasgow. West Yorkshire. Derbyshire. Moouth South Lncashire. Somerset. Durham. South Yorkshire. Cumberland. Northumberland. J Walesz. 1\Zn.....73 a, Ad ance Reduction Advance. Reduction Advance. Reduction Advance. Reduction Advance. Reduction Advance. u rut L,, n S~ td dRed ddution Aden. Av e. so Mar., 1973, 80~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~a.,17 euctirs Avue or~on e cc Reltouf R eduction Advance. I R edoctios Adronce. lesciu - -, I 75 7 ~~June ~ ne, 11872 Feb., 1873~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~c.,17 0 Feb.,a187he., 1'873,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 0 75....... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ________ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _______ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _F_1738 ___I —_ 7-5 Marot.1873. 87 May, 1874 a1873 eb 1_0 Sepy 1821J74174 -.. 45 4c Shyb.. 187a -eA. 1874 40 AT~~~~~~~~~~~r-, 1874 40~~~~~~~~~~~~~~p 17 40 ________ _____ Sely 1872 ulyn 187A4 1874'" 35 Ju~~~Sne, 1872 0 gr ____ Mars 1874 Ape. 1874 Sept. 1872. 30 N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ov. 1874 Jalt-1874 Jlyl- 1872 30. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __...30 0 25 Mayit 1874325 M~~~~~~~~~~y ~ ~ Nv, 1974.........'~ ------ 20 Feb.,_ __1872 ____ J Trer 1872 20 - Pro~~~~~Ja. 1872`:eptr 1874___ ___ ___ ___ e 17 ______ c,55. - 15 M ay,______ _______ ______ ______ ______ Ortc 1875 4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~5 0ct., 1871 O ct., 1 8 7 5a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ e t. _1 7 2. The datum line represents rate of wages paid in, October, 1871. The per centum indicated, at the most recent date, in the columns marked "Rdcto, shows the present rates. *South Yorkshire. WAGES IN ENGLAND. 309 YORKSHIRE. Statement showing advances in wages fro 1871 to March, 1873, at three pits of one of the principal colleries in the West Riding of Yorkshire. Boys. Number of pit, and date. Sn o l CZ A PIT NO. 1. oPr ton. Per day. January, 1871 —.................................. $~0 37 $1 13 $2 90 $0 40 January, 1872 --- 39........................ 39 1 21 4:3 4 January, 1873-52...1.7.............. 52 1 67 3 9 97 March, 1873-. -61 1 92 4 52 1 C9 PIT No. 2. January, 1871 —---—..................38 1 13 3 35 57 January, 1872 —---—.............. - -41 1 25 3 4:3 44 January, 1873 —-------------------------------------------- 59 1 67 4 38 65 March, 1873-67........................ 67 1 92 6 05 75 PIT No. 3. ~~~~January, 1............... 31 1 1 3 4 —--- 40 January, 182-...................... 39 1 25 ---- 44 January, 1873-..................... 48 1 67.......... 85 March, 1873-....................... 57 1 92.......... 97 In May, 1872, riddles ceased to be used at all the pits. The benefit acruig to the colliers from this change cannot be set down at lens than id. per ton. One penny per ton must, therefore, be added to the apparent advance. EAARNINGS OF COLLIERS IN ENGLAND. In the Sheffield district the colliers earn from ~3 5s. to ~4 a week, working only for five days. There are colliers in the neighiborhood of Hnddersfield who are now earning as much as ~1 a day. In East Worcestershire the Wages rangne from 8s. to 12s. a dlay. in Wales and the west wages are lower as a a-ale; in tile north they are higher. Taking the average of the best coal-districts, it is obvious'that a collier can easily earn from 88. to l0s. any day lie wishes to work. Price of coal in London 40s.-Londoit Telegraph, Septemiber, 1873. Under date of October 25, 1874, Walter Williams, esq., writes: Colliers' Wages a-re nominal; do riot represent their eatrniugs, which vary from 5s. Gd. to 8s. per dlay of eight hours, except, in portions of Wales, where they aie less by 15 per cent.; but in ia-o-making districts, nOW, colliers in thin mines or common coal-works do not get more than 28s. to 30s. per Week; steam-coal and house-coal from 35s. to 40s. per week, all Working eight hours for a day's work; common laborers earn 3s. to 3s., 6d. per day; skilled, 4s. to 4s. 6d.; brick-layers, stone-masons, 5s. 6d. to 6is.6d. per (lay, (nine, hours;) painters, 7s.; carpenters, 5s. Gd. to 6s.; smiths, 5s. 6d. to 6s.; locoimotiveengine drivers, 7s. 6d.; stationary-enagineers, 48. Gd. to 6s. per day. Wages earned by -rke engaged in the Durham coal-fields, January, 1875. Overmen, ~2 to ~-2 15s. per week. Deputy oveanmen, 5s. 6d. to 68s. per day of eight honrs. Coal-hewers are paid. by the score of twenty-one tubs, which vary from 6 cwt. to 12 cwt. each, according to the different seamis of coal worked; their average earnings are from 5s. 6(d. to 6s. 9d. per day of from five to seven hours. Lab'-rers, tnuder ground, 4s. to 5s. Gd. per day of eight honrs. Pit-engine-nacn, 5s. to 5s. Gd. per day of eight hours. Laboaer"s, at bank, 3s. 4d. to 4s. per day of ten honrs. Mechanics, 4s. to 5s. per day of nine hours. In addition to those wages, it is the custom at nearly all collieries to provide honses for their workmen. The houses vary very much in quality at differenit collieries, buat, together with fire-coal, may be taken at ~15 to ~20 per annum. addition to workmen'swages. 310 LABOR IN EUROPE D AMERICA. ENGLISH MINING IN 1872. Mr. Robert Hunt, keeper of the minig-records for Great ritai has made the following returns of English mining in the year 1872: Minerals.No of Cfoal........................r.... Quantities. ale....... Tons. Cwt. Coal ---------------— I —-----------— 3,001 123, 497, 316 ~46, 311,133 Iron-ore...............................................57 7,774,874 Copper-ore............................................91, 3 443, 738 Tin-ore......................................... 162 14,266 1,246,135 Lead-ore...............................................68 3 1,146, Zinc-ore................................................ 73, 951 Iron pyrites, (sulphur-ores).-.........65, 6 3 39,470 Arseunic..........1...................., 5. - 1-7,964 Wolfram...............................................88 5 993 Cobalt.................................................1 1 20 Manganese.............................................3 7,773 38, Finuor-spar..............................................0 12 40 Ochers, umbers, &c.....................................26 8,227 Bismuth-ore............................................ Chloride of barium.....................................65 130 Barytes................................................ 9,092 17 7, 078 Clays, fine and fire, (estimated).........................1,200,000 450,000 Other earthy minerals, (estimated).....................650, 000 Salt....................................................497 10 65, Coprolites, (estimated).................................000 0, 00 Total value of the minerals produced in the United Kingdom58,913,541 Metals obtained firon the ores above enumerated in the United Kingdom in the year 1872. Description of metal. Qutities. Value. Pig-iron-...............................tonsB. 6, 741, 9~29 ~,18, 5)40, 304 Copper-................................do - 5, 703 58Q3, 2)32 Tin-~.................................do - 9, 550 1, 459, 990 Lead..................................do. 69, 455 1,2~09, 115 Silver-...............................ounces.. 6-28, 920) 147,230 Zinc-.................................tons-. 5,191 118,076 Other metals, (estimated) -—............................... 2, 503 TotAl value of metals produted from the ores of the U~nited Kingdom.. -....... 22, 070, 14:1 The total value of the metals produced, coal and other minerals raised], in the year 1872: metal, value of, as above, ~22,070,447; coal, ditto, ~46,311,447; minerals, earthy, &c., ~,1,811,826; total, ~7 0,193,416. The increase in total value, amounting to ~12,871,523, is chiefly due to the additional cost of "1getting" each ton of coal. To the 3,001 coal-mnines should be added the product of 150 others not included. RISE OF WAGES IN THE UNITED KCINGDOM. The tables on pa ges 243 to 2 78 give the wa ges, or earnin gs of work -people in Great Britain which were lpaid in 1871 and which, with the exception of work in iron-mills and in coal-mines, do not in general differ greatly froln those which ruled in 1872 and subsequent,years. T'he strikes in the eligineering and other trades were chiefly for (liliniished houi-s and not for an illcrease of per-diem wages. Tihe reduction of hour-s demanded was, in most cases, from ten to nine hours per day, or from. fift.y-nine to fifty four hours per week, an actual advance, in the,cost of labor of about 10 per cent. The rise in wages which originated mainly in the coal and iron industries, soon extended to nearly all other brianches. In most trades there was an advance in the cost of labor WAGES IN ENGLAND. 311 more or less marked, in addition to the increase caused by the reduction in the hours of labor. The various advaces and reductions in wages which have taken place since 1871 in the iron mills and furnaces and in the collieries, appear in the pages immediately preceding, while on the following pages the rates obtaining in 1872 when the author visited the manuftcturing districts of Great Britain, ad at subsequent periods, are presented. ~~~While~ed in the rates of wages indicated in tbfollowing tables vary but little from those of 1871, the respective hours of labor at the different periods must be regarded, whether for fifty-nine hours in the earlier, or from fifty-four to fifty-one hours in the later periods. Those in the later years show, it is true the extent of the weekly earnings of workmen, unless they labor ater hours, which is unusual; but whether compared with similar data at another period or in other countries where the hours of labor were or are greater, the increased cost of labor per hour in recent years is indicated in the tables. RAES OF WAGES IN 1873-MECHANICAL TRADES. Bates of wagespaidper week in the kingdom of Great Britain for different kinds of labor. Trades. Trades. Engineers and machinists-.........$8 22 Ship-joiners.................-$8 22 Blacksmiths, (general)-........... 8 2-2 Iron-molders-............... 8 22 Carpenters and joiners-...........8 2-2 Pattern-makers-.............. 8 2-2 Stone-mnssons-............... 8 2!2 Paddlers.................. 8 71 Brieklayers-................ 8 22 Smelters.................. 8 71 Carriage and wagon makers-........ 7 26 Stone-quarry men-............. 5 12 Sladdle and harne-~s makers-........ 5 80 French polishers-............. 8 22 Tin-men aanl tinnlers-............ 7 26 Printers-.................. 7 74 Painters-.................. 8 2-2 Book-hinders-............... 8 22 Coppersmiths-............... 8 ~22 Cabinet-ma~kers-.............. 8 -22 Angle or iron smiths-............ 8 22 Upholsterers —-------------- 8 522 The above statement, furnished by a gentleman in Liverpool, gives a fair average of the rates of wages paid throughout Great Britain for the different kinds of skilled labor indicated. But inasmuch as the same wages, $8.22 per week, is given as the rate paid to carpenters, cabinet-makers, and painters, as well as to blacksmiths, masons, ironmolders and machinists, who usually receive higher wages, it is not so accurate as the tables on the two following pages, which Show the various rates paid to skilled workmen in mechanical and building trades in each of the principal towns of the United Kingdom. 312 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. BOILER-MAKERS AND IRON-SHIP BUILDERS. Tabl~e 8haw~ng the weekly wages paid lo boiler-maktrs and iron-ship nlesi oeo.h prinial towns and cttiesof qthe United Kingdom darinig the year 1873. [Hours of labor per week, 54, except in Aberdeen, Dundee, and Glaszow, where they are 51 hours. Average of 51j hours per week throughi tho year.] Localities. Smiths. Platers. Rivctors. Calkers. Holders-np.* Aberdeen.......... -........ $6 05 $3 Sl to $6 05 $5 81 $4 60 Bwr ow-in-furness - $....... 8 72 to$9 16* $8 23 to 8 7-2 7 74 to 8 ~23 - -.......$5 81 to 6 05 Belfast-.............87,t~o 9 16 18 23 to 8 72 7 26 629........ Birkenheadt —-------— 8 72 to 9 16 8 7-2to 9 16 7 26 to 7 74 7 26 to 7 74 5 SIlto 6 17 Bradlord............ 8 7-2 7 74......7 0-2 6 2.9 BI3'rs\oIt-............ 9 19 8 72 7 74 7 26 5 56 Bury-.............. 919 872 8 2 3 - —.......774 Chester-............. 9 1 9 8 72 7 7 4........5 81 Cork-.............. 944 8 71 7 26 674 4 60 Cr-owe-.............7 99 to 8 93 7 99 to 8 7 1 7 50 to 7 74........6 05 Derby............. -8 71 8 71 6 78 - —.......532 Driblint-............8 71Ito 9 19 8 231to 8 71 7 75-.............. Dundee..-........... 7 0-2 7 02 6 53 to 6 77 6.531to 6 77 4 84 Ebbro Vale-........... 799 799 6 77to 7 99 - -....... 556to 5 81 G'asgow ship yard -_.7 26 7 75 6 80 I6 80 4112 GlasTow boiler-shop -...... 8 47 to 9 19 8 23 to 8 47 7 26 to 7 33 7 02 to 7 33 4 36 to 5 56 Greenwich'snip hard...... 10 10 10 16 8 2~3 7 26 6 77 Greenwich boiler-shop..... 10 16 10 16 7 98 7 26 6 29 Huddershcid -.......... 8 23 8 ~23 7 26........5 81 Ilull boiler-sbop -........ 1012 9 19 7 74 726 to 7 74 6 29 Runl.ship-yard......... 10 12 9 19 7 74 7 S0 to 7 74 6 29 Leedo boietshop -....... 9 19to 9 68 8 71to 9 19 6 29to 7 7 1 - -.......532to 62~9 Livuerpool boiler-shcp-......9 19to 9 68 8 71lto 9 19 7 26(ito 7 74 7 26 to 7 74 6 O5 to 6 29 Livepoolsi ad87 o91 8 71 7 26 7 26 5 81 London boiler -shop -.......8 71 to 18 65 8 71 to 10 16 7 26 to 9 19 6 77 to 7,99 4 84 to 6 29 London ship-yard-........9 68 to 10 16 9 19 to 9 68 7 74 to 8 71 7 99 5 81 to 6 29 M1anchester-.......... 9 68 9 19 8 23 - -.......7 26 to 7 75 Newcastle-upon-Tyne boilershop-............7 75 to 8 7 1 8 23 to 8 71 7 27 to 7 75 6 77 to 7 75 5 32 to 6 29 Newcastle-upon-Tyne ship-yard 7 99 7 1)9 7 75 7. 02 6 29 Nottingham-.......... 9 19 8 71 7 27 -.......- 5 81 Portsiinouth..-........ 919 9 19 7 91....... 5 81 Preston boiler-shop....... 9 19 8 71 7 75 7 75 5 81 Preston ship-yard -....... 9 19 9 19 7 75 7 75 5 32 Roclidale-.......... " 9 19 8 71 5 81 - -- ------- 7 75 Sheffield-............. 7 99 to 9 68 8 71lto 9 19 7 75 to 8 23 6 77 to 7 27 6 O5 to 6 53 Wigaa -—................. 9 19 7 75.......702 Wolv'erhbirpton........ 8 71 8 -23 6 5 3.......5 56 Woolwich............ 9 44 8 71.775........581 York -—.................... 7 99 7 50........581 Average in above places. 8 97 8 64 7 48 6 82 5 92 *I-n some shops holders-np are employed on the piecework system. tWorking-boors from light till dark in winter. WAGES IN ENGLAND. 313 CARPENTERS AND JOINERS. Table showing the weekly wages of carpenters and joiners, with the number of worhi. i:g-ho'zrs.per week, in the jollowing principat towns of the United Kingdom during the 5'ear i873. Wages per Hours Wages per Hours wek of labor per Laof hnor per w week. week. week. Towns. Towns. Aberdeen..............6 4'2 $6 42 51 51 Kirkcaldy.............. $6 93 $6 93 51 51 Abergavenny.......... 6 49 6 49 54 54 Leeds.................. 7 06 7 06 50 50 Aldershot............... 7 26 7 26 58$ 58$ Leicester............... 7 08 7 08 54 54 Ayr............... 6 93 6 93 5[ 51 Liverpool.............. 8 32 8 32 55 55 Belfast.................. 7 62 7 62 54 54 London ----—...........9 53 9 53 52$ 52$ Birkenhead........... 8 32 8 32 55 55 Leith.................. 7 71 7 71 51 51 Birmingham...8 17 7 6.3 54 50$ Londonderry...........6 6 629 60 60 Bolton.................7 86 7 86 51 5 1 Macclesfiel............7 42 6 33 54$ 46$ Bradford............. 7 24 7 24 49$ 49$ Manchester............ 8 79 7 58 54A 47 Bristol.................. 7 62 7 12 54 50$ Newcastle-on-Tyne..... 7 56 7 56 50 2 50 Bury.................... 7 89 7 89 54 54 Nottingham.7 62 1 13 54 47 Chester.............7 26 7 26 554 55$ Oxford..... 08 7 08 54 54 Coventry................7 26 7 26 56j 56 Plymuth - 6 17 6 17 56$ 56$ Crewe.........6 77 6 77 54 54 Portsmouth.............6 53 6 53 58$ 584 Cork................ 7 26 7 26 G0 560 Preston.............. 6 77 6 77 49$ 491 Derby...................734 7 02 56 531 Perth........ 7......... 20 720 5t1 5t Dublin..................8 23 8 23 60$ 601 RHchdale............... 7 62 6 91 54 49 Dumfries............ 6 17 5 81 51 48 Rugby................ 7 14 7 14 56$ 56$ Dundee:.. 7 45 7 45 51 51 Sheffield................ 7 56 756 50 50 Dunfermliue.......... 7 20 7 20 51 5t Southampton...........6 53 6 5.3 584 586 Exeter.................. 6 26 6 26 56A 56$ S afford................ 6 83 6 83 56$ 56$ Edinburgh.. 7-20........ 7 20 5t1 45 Stockport.............. 7 96 7 96 54$ 54$ Gloucester.. 6 26 6 26 56 56 Sgo................... 6 77 6 77 60 60 Greenwich........... 9 11 9 1 56 56$ Stirling..........6 68 6 68 51 51 7 7 1 jWolverhampton. 7 6-2 7 62 54 54 Glasgow.............. to 1 6 90 51 45 Woolwich.............. 11 8 23 56$ 51 8 23 Worcester.............. 7 08 6 61 54 50$ 720 Waterford........ 629 629 60 60 r o 7 20 51 51 363 3 63 Greenock............. 3 63ick6 ai23xWick................ to to 7 6 57 Halifax................ 677 677 50 50 4t36 4 36 Huddersfield.......... 6 53 6 53 50 50 York................... 6 94 6 93 53$ 53 Kidderminster...6 53 6 53 571 57$ 571 Kilmarnock.. 7 20 7 20 51 51 Average............ 7 24 7 10 59 54 * Although here computed by the week, the rate of wages is usually fixed either by the hour or by the day. STONE-MASONS. Table showing the wages of stone-masons per hour and the number of hours worked per week in 8ome of the principal towns of Scotland during the year 1574. 22 Localities. a Localities.. Cents. Gents. Aberdeen........................ 13 51 Kilmarnock..................... 16 51 Airdie............................ 17 to 18 51 Leith............................ 15 51 Ayr.............................. 15 51 Montrose...................... 12$ 51 Dunbarton....................... 16 51 North Berwick.................. 16 to 17 51 Dumifries........................ 14 51 Perth........................... 14 51 Dundee. 16 to 17 51 Saint Andrews.................. 12 to 13 51 Edinburgh................. 15 51 Stirling......................... 15 51 Glasgow......................... 16 51 Greenock........................ 17 51 Average.................... 15. 06 In many of the smaller towns the hours of labor are longer and the wages lower. 314 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. PRINTERS' WAGES IN ENGLAND. In London the established wages of either compositors or machinemen are:6s. ($8.71) for fifty-four hours' work. There are always a few men, not exactly overseers, who will have, perhaps, five to eiht shillings ($1.21 to $1.93) more than the establishe wages, men of quick and steady habits, who are worth the extra money. Piecework is paid per thousalnd ens. The prices paid per thousand vary, according to the description of work-lose manusript and leaded manuscript, and also reprint matter leaded and reprint matter close. The prices are from six to seven pence (12 to 14 cents) per thousand. English to mini a(l opareil take one-half nenny (I cent) rise per thousand, and smaller than nonpareil a higher rise, according as the font may be. When books are stereoyped or electrotyped, one-fourth to one-half penny of rise on the above, as spaces being high or low determine. Piece-hanis.-Good or average men can make easily, from tirty-six to tforty shillings, ($8.71 to $9.68.) Inlerior hands run from twenty to thirty shillings, ($4.84 to $7.26.) Some of them are poor hands, those that can only make twenty shillings, ($4.84.) Superior hands can make from forty five to fifty shillings, ($1089 to $12.10.) 1in the provinces, in some of the large towns, such as Maneer, tirty-three shillings ($7.98) is the established wage. Piece pices consequently, a shade lower; but all oter things much in the same way as in London, &c. In most of the English provinces earnings are about thirty shillings ($7.26) per week. SCOTLAND. The established wages in principal towns, twenty-seven shillings- and: six-pence, ($6.65,) for fifty-tour hours, for machine-men and compositors. Best class of men are generally on a wage of thirty shillings. ($7.26.) Machine-men, aII nearly, thirty shillings. Piecework is lpaid at sixpence (12 cents,,) per thousand ens; all descriptions of work, except very wide-leaded books, which are one-fourth penny (I, cent) per thou. sand less. Stereotyped and small fonts the same as in London. Piece-hands.-Good average men can easily make from twenty-eight to thirty shillings, ($6.78 to $7,26,) andI where very diligent and. attentive, thirty-tive to forty shillings, ($8.47 to $9.68,) and sometimes more, but they seldom keep this up. Boys, in case-room, after three or four years, can earn about ten shillings ($2.42) per week, if they are active; and their, earn~ings increased to lourteen shillings ($3-38) a week, during the seventh and last year of their apprenticeship. Many of them., from the fourth year,.e the half of their earnings. In the inachine-room, or pregs-irmom, they start -with sevene or eight shillin gs, (* 1.69 to $1.95) per wveek, which. gradually rises to, say, sixteen shillings, ($3.87,) during the last weeks of apprenticeship. Little boys, not applrentices, from four to seven shillings, according to work; some as hi-h as tenr shillin~gs-pointers. Girls in. machine-room, earn from four to eleven'shillinlgs, (96 centVs to $2.66,),according to ability. Those earning eleven shillings per week are they who point the sheet on the second side of platen machines. WAGES IN ENGLAND. 3 15 MECHANICAL AND FARM LABOR IN ENGLAND. Statement howing the rate of wage paid for mechanical and farm labor in the year 1874. ~~Mechanics. Durham. Middlesex. Nottingham. Blacksmiths. ----------------- 4 $1 30to per day. 1 20 to $1 68 per ay.. $0 15 per hour. *Bricklayers and masons........1 441 192 per day — 1 44 to 1 92 per a.. 16 per hour. Cabinet-makers —.....1 32 per day 1 44 to 1 92 per day 14 per hour. Carpenter.....1 32 per day 1 44 to 1 68 per (lay 15 per hour. Coopers....1 10 per day ]1 68 to 1 92 per day... 17 per hour. Miners..... 1 46 per day Generally by the job... 1 21 per day. Machinists....... 1 36 per day 1 68 to $1 92 per day... 1 45 )per (lay. Painters....... 1 32 per day 1 44 to 1 68 per day... 14 per hour. Pasterers... 1 42 per day.. 1 44 to 1 68 per day... 17 per hour. shoemakers... 90 per day..........................1 09 per d(lay. Stonecuters.... 1 44 per day 01 44 to 1 92 per day... 16 per hour. Tailors.. 1 0 per (lay.. 1 20 to 1 68 per day-.. 1 21 Pel d av Tanners................... 1 44 to 1 92 per day.. 1 33 per day. Tismiths.... 1 20 per day. 1 44 to 1 92 per day. 1 21 per (lay. Wheewrights..... 1 32 per day. 1 44 to 1 92 per day.. 14 per hour. FARM-LABOR. Experienced hands... Summer.. 84 per day. 2 40 to 3 84 per week. 4 84 to -5 56 per week. Winter... 64 per day 2 40 to 2 88 per week 4 84 to 5 56 per week. Summer.. 64 per day 1 92 to 2 88 per week 4 35 per week. Winter.. 40 per day 1 92 to 2 40 per week 4 11 per week. Common laborers at other than farmwork, for six days only 70 per day 32 per day............ 84 per day. Female servants..4 86 per ionth 40 00 to $100 00 per year. 38 72 to $48 40 per year. PRICE OF BOARD. October, 1874ek.......................... 3 40 per week2 90 to 3 39 per week. For workwomen. 2 40 per week........................... 1 45 to 1 94 per week. * Working five days only, and for the sixth day, 72 cents. In Saint Helens, Lancaster, ordinary farm-laborers receive 84 cents per day. CHIEF M1ANUFACTURING TOWNS OF GREAT BRITAIN. In previous pages statements have been presented showing the, wages or earnjings of work-people in various mills and fhctories of the United Kingdoml, classified by industries. The pices of factory-labor therein given were chiefly those prevailing in 1871, and which were kindly furnished to tile author by officials of the British government. It is now propoSed to present statements, classified by towns, showing the rates of wages, which were obtained personally by the author in the year 1872 and by consuls of the United States and others at subsequent periods. hit presenting the prices of labor in the chief towns of the kingdom it is neither intended to submit historical statements in reg ardl to the rise, the p~rogress, or the Ipresent condition of what may he regarded as the leading industry of each town or manufacturing center, lior to consider the, causes which rendered each place eminent in its peculiar branch of industry. Interesting as such a historical and statistical sketch might. be of the manufactures of Manchester and IBirniingliam, of Leeds and Sheffield, of Bradtord and Nottingham, of Glasgow and Dundee-and it must be confessed that the temptation to puirsue such a course is unusually-strong-there is neither time for its preparation nor spa~ce in these pages for its Ipresentation. A passing aillusion to the chief industries of the above and other manufacturing towns of Great Brit~ain is all that is necessary; any more detailed statement would be a reflection upon the intelligence of the larger part of Anglo-American readers. JIldeed, the leading productions of some of these man ufac 316 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. turing centers are so well known that towns in the United States largely engaged in similar industries are frequently esignated as the counterparts of the former. Thus, Lowell is the Manchester, Pittsburgh the Birmingham, and Paterson the Macclesfied of America; while, owing to the recent raplid growth of iron-ship-bilding in Wilmington, Chester and Philadelphia, the river Delaware is designated as the Clde of America." LIVERPOOL. Population in 1871, 493,405. Liverpool, the principal sea-port of England, sitated on the river Mersey, four miles above its mouth. is celebrated for its great commercial importance and its immense trade with every part of the world. The vast amount of English merchandise which nds a market in the United States is chiefly shi)p)ed fiom this port, the value of which, in the year 187 1, reached ~26,310,743, ($128041230.) In the beginning of the eighteenth century Liverpool possessed Only one dock, but now its magnificent and commodious docks cover a spae of 400 acres. Shipbuilding,* both iron and wooden, is extensively carried on at Birkenhead on the opposite sidle of the river, where the engineering works of Messrs. Laird and others are situated. The manufctures of the town ofLiverpool, however, are but limited, while the products of the consular district, which, during the year ended September 30, 1872, were exorted to the United States amounted to nearly $38,000,000, as indicated by the following table: EXPORTS TO TIlE UNITED STATES FRO LIVERPOOL. Statement shoing the value of exports to the United States from the Liverpool consular district during the year ended September 30, 1872. Articles. Value in Atce.Value in Articles. ~~~U. 5. gold.* Atce.U. 5. gold.* Iron —................. 7, 052, 940 Rags, waste paper, &c-......... $850, 212 Steel.................. — 1,078, 650 Fruit-................. 403, 715 Hlardware —.............. 97, 515 Beer-................. 262, 480 Tin —.................. 468,'298 Coal-................. 23q), 889 Tin-plates —..............12, 949, 396 Earthenware-............. 107, 146 Wire-rope —.............. 127, 692 Ii~dia rubber................ 189, 244 W ool..................... 3, 840, 763 Slates-................ 64, 749 Chemicals —..............3, 215, 769 Miscellaneous-.............3, 487, 032 Lea~ther and skins - -..........1, 539, 439 - Salt...................... 941t, 507 Total............... 3, 860, 903 Dry goods.................. 944, 466 *Alt~hqigh the rates of wages and cost of subsistence in the United Kingdom which appear on pre. ceding and subsequient pages are computed at the rate of $4.84, United Stat'es gold, per pound sterling, and the shilling at -24 cents, yet, in the above and other tables of exports from manufacturing towns, the pound sterling is computed at the rate now established by law, viz, $4.8865. RATES OF WAGES IN LIVERPOOL. Mechanics and skilled artisans, in October, 1873.-The wages of engirleers, boiler-makers, shipwrights, mast and block makers, printers * SrIIPBUILDING ON TilE MERSEY I.N 1873.-Tile five principal ship-building firms on the Mersey turned out twenty-nine stoamers and seven iron saililng- ships during the year 1873, the total tonnage of the steamers amounting to 33,507 tons, and of the sailing-ships 12,164 tons. Messrs. Laird Brothers built eleven steamers, whose tonnage amountetl to over 13,000 tons, and six gun-boats, aggregating nearly 2,000 tons. Messrs. Bowdler, Cha-_ffer & Co. built seven steamers, amounting to 7,000 tons. Messrs. Thomas Royden & Sons lannched five screw-steamers of the total amount of 5,407 tons, and four iron sailing-ships, aggregating 6,764 tons. R. & J. Evans & Co. built four steaniers and one iron sailing-ship, amounting to 7,900 tons. Messrs. Potter & Hodgkinson built two steamers and two sailing-ships of iron, aggregating 5,600 tons. WAGES IN ENGLAND. 317 and litograpers, and of some of the men in the building trades, as ~~~paill~t~ers joiners masons, lubers, &c., vary from 5s. 6d. to 6s. ($1.33 to $45) per day of nine working-hours, or from 33s. to 36s. ($7.98 to $8.70) per week of fiftyfour ours. The wages of pressmen in oil mills, of the higher class of workmen in cemical works, sugar-refineries, &c., vary firom 27s. 6d. to 32s. 6d. ($625 to $7.86) per week, the hours varying from ten to twelve per day. The wages of ay laborers in Liverpool vary from 21s. to 25s. ($5.08 to $6.05) per week. In some o the smaller towns they range from 18s. to 22s. 6d., ($4.35 to $5.44.) Domestic servats.-The wages of housemaids and waitresses vary from 0 to 20 ($48.40 to $9680) per annum, (of course board found;) of cooks from 12 up to 40, ($58.08 to $193.60;) of gardeners, ~1 to 1s. ($4.84 to $7.26) p week, living out of the house at their own cost. Footmen and coachme's wages vary too much to give any fixed rates. WAGES IN ENGINEERS SHOPS, IRON-WORKS, ETC. Tefollowigstaement, showing the rates of wages paid by the general association of master engineers, ship-builders, and iron and brass founders, was kindly furnished by Colonel Clay, of Clay, Inmian & Co., proprietors of the Birkenhead Forge, under date of October 29, 1873: Statement shoing the weekly rate8 Of Wages paid to workmen in different classes of work'in e district of Liverpool during the second quarter of the year 1873. Employers. Class of w ork. _ _ _-_ _ _ - _ _ _-_ _ _-_ _ _ No. 7. No. 9. No. 11. No. 12. AverSmiths.........$8 32 $8 32 $8 46 $7 82 $8 23 Strikers-......................... 5 4-2 5 50 5 08 5 18 5 30 Angle-iron smiths-....................... 8 94 9 19 8 46 8 53 8 70 Strikers —......................... 5 32 - -.......- ----- 5 32 Platers............................ 832 8 71 9 19 8 50 8 43 Helpers —......................... 4 64 —-- -------- - - 4 64 Riveto-rs........................... —7.74 7 59 774 750 7 62 Ro'uers-np.......................... 7 74 6'29 6 29 6 07 6 60 Turners............................. 7 98 8 3-2 8 24 812 8 16 Coppersmiths --—............................... —--- 8 11 8 11 Brass-finishers -—.......................... 7 74 7 6-2 7 86 7 74 Fitters andl erectors-...................... 7 86 7 6-2 7 62 7 810 7 72 Millwrighits --—.............................. 7 74 7 74 7 74 Planers-........................... 6 77 7 50 7 50 6 53 7 08 Shapers-........................... 6 77 6 77- -.... 633 6 61 Slotters-........................... 6 77 726 6 77 605 6 71 Drillers-...................... —----- 5 94 605 580 5 92 5 92 5Sand-....................... 8 71 8 71 871 8 71 Iron-moldlers.. - Loam-........................ 9 68 9 43 9 43 9 51 Brass-molders-............................10 16 8 8:3 8 01 9 00 Core-makers-............................ 7 50 7 01 7 32 7 28 Pat'vern-markers-....................... 8 47 8 32 8 2-'2 8 10 8 128 Carpenters arrd joiners-.................... 7 98 8 32 7 1-0 7 32 7 78 Grineiers-........................... 756 8 47 7 50 708 7 65 Engine drivers and tenters. —---------------- 6 05 5 312 5 08 5 56 5 50 Calkers-........................... 6 Iti ----- ---- ---- 6 11 Foundery-dressers..-....................... 6 29 6 219 6 29 6 29 Founder.-laborlers-...................... 4 84 5 32 5 32 4 69 5 04 Ordinary laborers-....................... 4 59 4 35 4 59 4 69 4 55 Average wages of skilled workmen in all the shops-.........-......-..... 7 70 318 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. WAGES AT THE CANADA WORKS, B3IRKENHEAD. Average rates of wages paid to skilled workmen at the Canada Works, Birkenhead, in the sixteen years from 1854 to 1869, inclusive. Year. ae eS W HV m; mm PS 8 _ I 1854 4-...1 s.d sd s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s.d. s. d. 1854......... 09 4 31 6 27 0 31 0 34 0 34 0 26 0 366 240 32 0'280 31 6 30 3 1855.... s 3.30 3 3010 27 0 315 340:340 270 370 230 316 286 310 30 3 1856.........29 03 3 3 2810 27 0 32 0 35 0 34 0 26 0 360 240 33 0 290 30 6 30 5 1857.........30 6 33 0 29 0 24 0 31 0 34 0 34 0 26 0 336 260 330 282 3 6 30 41 1858......... 31 6 28 0 240 30 0 326 34 0 27 0......266 320 276 320 296 1859.. 27 61 31 0 30 0 22 0 29 6 33 0 34 0 26 0..... 25 0 31 6 29 0 30 6 29 1 1860.... 27 61 32 0 31 0 260 30 3 33 8 34 0 27 0 33 0 27 0 31 6 29 6 31 0 30 3 1861. 27 0 31 6 29 6 25 6 30 0 33 0 34 0 27 0 36 0 26 0 32 6 30 0 31 6 30 3 1862..... 27 10 32 0 28 6 27 0 29 6 32 6:34 0 27 0 35 6 25 6 32 0 2)6 31 0 30 2 1863..- -28 0 31 6 28 1 27 6 31 0 33 0 34 0 27 0 35 0 25 6 32 6 29 6:31 6 30 4 1864......... 28 0 316 31 6 27 6 30 6 33 0 34 0 27 0 34 6 25 8 33 0 29 0 31 3 30 6 1865..... 28 1 315 31 3320 33 34 6 34 0 25 6 33 0 26 6 33 0 30 0 31 9 3011 1866..:31 0 31 6 32 6 28 6 31 9 36 0 34 0 24 0 32 9 27 6 52 ) 30 6 34 2 31 31 1867..3 2 6 31 0 32 0 32 0 32 9 37 0 34 0 24 0 33 0 24 6 34 6 31 4 32 0 31 7 [868... 31 0 30 0 32 0 26 6 31 6 36 0 34 0 25 0 326 24 0 34 2 30 9 32 0 30 8j 1869......;... 30 0 29 34 30 9 230 300 6 0 30 26 0 2 26 230 31 6 300 320 2910 Alerage in U.S.old $7 027 53 $7 34 $6 45 $7 44 $8 26 $8 22 $607 $7 27 $611 $7 86 $7 11 7 17 $7 24 The above table, extracted from Mr. Brassey's "Work and Wages," exhibits but slight variations in wages during the sixteen years prior to 1870. The average of the thirteen different occupations for the years 1854 to 1857 and from 1860 to 1864 was alnost identical while in 1869 there was a slight decrease. Nor does the general average in the sixteen years, viz, 29s. lid. ($7.24) vary greatly from the rates in 1872, when the author visited the works, or from those of 1873, as shown in the table on the preceding page, in which the wages of all the skilled workmen averaged 3ts. 10d., ($7.70,) an advance of but is. 11d. (46 cents) per week, or about 6 per cent. The increase in the cost of labor, however, is chiefly owing to the rednu(etion in the hours of labor, which, as before stated, is equivalent to about 10 per cent. The weekly wages paid in the above works, as stated by Mr. Laird, of Laird & Brothers, October 14, 1872, were as follows: turners 30s. to 32s.; riveters, 34s. to 36s., but do not work all the time; ordinary machinists, fitters, &c., average 26s.; pattern-makers, 34s. to 36s.; laborers from unskilled to skilled, 18s. to 23s.; ship-carpenters, 6s. per day in shop; 7s. outside. Mr. Laird stated the advance in the rates of wages paid in 1872 over those of 1867 was 10 per cent. on the higher and 15 per cent. on the lower rates. From 800 to 900 men were at that time employed in the works. BIRMINGHAM. Poptlation in 1871, 343,787. In arddition to the various articles of iron manufacture for which Birmingham was, at an early period, celebrated, brass goods began to be produced about the seventeenth century. This branch now torms one of the most important in, the town. Every description of article in this WAGES IN ENGLAND. 319 metal is produced in immense quantities. Metallic bedsteads in brass and iron lamps, chandeliers, gas brackets, cornice-poles, ornamental railings metallic picture-fraes curtain-bands, as well as more common articles, afford employment to many thousands of men, women, and boys. The buckle trade, formerly so large, has entirely disappeared, and metal buttons are produced in but small quantities. The glass trade including stained glass for windows, is very successfully prosecuted, and in the vicinity of the town is the gigantic establishment of Messrs. Chance, who supplied the whole of the material required for the glazig Of theCrystal Palace for the exhibition of 1851. A writer (Leland) in the time of Henry VYIII speaking of Birmingham, sa, (ipsissima erba et litera:) The beaty of Birmigam, a good market towne in the extreame parts of Warwickshire, is one street going up alonge almost from the left ripe of the brooke, [the Rea,] up a meane ill by the length of a quarter of a mile. I saw but one paroch church in ~~~~~~~~Lthe towne. There e many smithes in the towne that use to make knives and all manner of cutting tooles, and many lorimers (saddlers) that make bittes, and a great many naylors; so that a great part of the towne is maintained by smithes, whoe have their iron and sea-cole out of Staffordshire. Camde, who wrote half a century later, describes it as'" warming with inhabitants and echoing with the noise of anvils." Electro-plating, which has sprung up entirely within a recent period, is now carried on to an almost incredible extent. The manufactory of Messrs. Elkington, elsewhere mentioned, is the parent establishment in the town. Jewelry, in the fabrication of which female labor largely enters, is made in great quantities. The papier-mache trade is extensive. Such articles as sofas, tables, and other kinds of furniture, in addition to the smaller kinds, such as desks, work-boxes, and inkstands, are manufactured and ornamented with figures, flowers, and landscapes, and inlaid with pearl. Fire-arms in great numbers are made in Bir. min~gham. The gun trade, first stimulated by government patronage in the time of William 1111, retains its early reputation. The factory of the Birmingham Small-Arms Company is largely employed iu executing orders from foreign governments. A proof-house, where all gun-barrels manufactured are required to be proved, was established by ami act of Parliament in 1813. Metal-rolling, wire-drawing, and pin-making are extensively carried on, while Birmingham stands unurivaled in the manufacture of steel pens. Mr. Consul Gould furnishes the following interesting information in regard to this important industry: Steel pens are now made at fourteen factories in Birmingham, and the aggregate productioa is 15,000,000 per week. There are not less than 2,500 persons employed in the manufacture, producing an aggregate of 750,000,000 annually. Joseph Gillott, the famous steel-pen maker, died in this town January 6, 1872, at the age of seventy-one. Probably no name has been more widely known for the last forty years thai that of this man. Every school-boy in the Old and New World has become familiar with the articles which bear his name. At the time of his death it is estimated that his establishment was3 producing 150,000,000 pens annually, averaging a ton per day. If we estimate one-half this number as the average for the last thirty years, it will give the enormous aggregate of 2,250,000,000 pens sent out by one nian. It has been denied that he was the first to produce the steel pen, which was origiinally iu the round or barrel form, the two edges of the strips of steel being brought together and formuing the slit. These were produced by hand, but Mr. Gillot conceived the idea of manufacturing them by machinery, and his establishmenthslu been one of the attractive places for persons visiting B3irmingham. *thsln Joseph Gillott began life poor, his calling being that of a grinder of cutlery at Sheffield. He came to Birmingham about fifty.yeais ago and followed the business of steel-toy maker for some time, and about thirty-five years since began to make the steel pens which have caused his name to be so well known to the world. These pens 320 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. at first were clumsy and stiff and poorly adapted for writing purposes. One of hie first devices to remedy the stiffness was the small slit on each side of the point With the use of dies came the various forms which have since been furnished. The first pens sold for fifty and seventy-five cents each, and for a long time the value was twenty-five cents. The price has gradually decreased, till at the present time they are sold as low as one cent per dozen. Josiah Mason, also a manufacturer of steel pens, is still living at a greater age than that of Mr. Gillott, and his history is quite similar to that of his compeer, he having started from the most humble circumstances, though he is now regarded as the richest man in this wealthy town. Having no childreo of his own, he has devoted the whole of his immense wealth for the benefit of the children of the poor. His magnificent orphanage, costing a half million of dollars, is one of the ornaments of our suburbs, and a whole square has been purchased by him in the heart of the city, where elegant and costly buildinigs are to be erected for a college for poor young men. His imlmense pen establishment is to be left in the hands of trustees, who are to devote the proceeds to the support of his beloved schools. Mr. Mason's name has not become so intimately associated with steel pens as that of Mr. Gillott, from the fact that he has chiefly manufactured for other parties, whose names have appeared upon the products. * * * Each esthblishtnent manufactures three hundred and fifty tons annually. The celebrated Perry, of London, has had his stamp upon Mr. Mason's pens friom the first, and they have been justly esteemed as equal to any in the market. EXPORTS FROM BIRMINGHAMT TO THE UNITED STATES. Comparative statement of exports from the consular district of Birmingham to the United States for the respective years ending September 30, 1873 and 1872. [The pound sterling computed at $4.8665.] Description of goods. 1873. 1872. Hardware, steel, and iron................................................... $1, 218, 992 $1, 924, 982 Sheathintg-imetal.............................................................. 83, 305............ Iron; cotton-bale hoops........................................................ 179, 456 111, 363 Anvils and vises.............................................................. 94, 809 93, 641 Tin-pla,tes.................................................................... 119, 194 104, 788 Chains, hoes, and scythes..................................................... 4:32, 745 416, 456 Saddlery and skins............................................................ 148, 666 181, 954 Guns and implements......................................................... 659, 850 675, 442 Needles and buttons.......................................................... 450, 825 451, 221 Watches and materials........................................................- 3C, 833 42, 924 Chemicals................................................................... 147, 101 133, 638 Cotton and silk goods......................................................... 61, 506 167, 779 Boot materials............................................................... 61,:,78 68, 434 Glass, sheet and ware........................................................ 283, 182 273,109 Pens and tips................................................................. 99, 448 85, 359 Jewelry and fancy-goods...................................................... 344, 117 484, 560 Optical....................................................................... 30, 604 37, 146 Chandeliers.................................................................. 32, 152 30, 564 Nickel and cobalt............................................................. 4, 036 22, 236 Jet, real and imitation........................................................ 93, 180 16, 443 China, ware and Parian....................................................... 122, 0)!2 78, 203 Miscellaneous................................................................ 19, 094............ Total for Birmingham.................................................. 4, 716, 765 5, 400, 242 Leicester agency............................................................. 9C0, 132 821, 011 Kidderminister agency........................................................ 696, 6;79 947, 902 Wolver,ampton agency....................................................... 519, 453 689, 958 Iedditch agency.............................................................. 60, 384 672, 710 Total from Birminghamn and districts................................... 7, 463, 413 8, 531, 823 WAGES IN BIRMINGHAM. On previous pages, in the classification by ilidustries, the wages paid in Birmhighiam are given. The rates in some branches of manufacture were personially obtained from the proprietors of the shops, factories, and works indicated, and verified by conversations with the more intelligent workmen. WAGES IN ENGLAND. 321 ngineering-works.-Mr. May, of May & Fountain, engineers, took particular pains to afford full information in regard to the wages paid in iron-founding and machie Shops, as they are designated in the United States. Fitters, turers, smiths, &c., best men, earn 36s. per week, a very few as high as 40s.; ordinary machinists, 28s.; inferior machinists, 24s. to 26s. Those receiving but 24s. have not served a regular apprenticeship. Average of the whole shop, about 30s.; laborers, somewhat skilled, 18s. to 24.; laborers, unskilled, 15s. to 18s. This firm does not employ society men. In shops employing society men only, the average rate is about 32s., some of the best earning as much as 40s. Young men, not so well skilled, earn 25s. per week. A society man," a molder Of considerable intelligence, working in another establis ent gave the following as the wages in shops employing society men: Molder 4s. per week of 54 hours, a few obtain but 32s.; fitters, 30s. to 32s. A few superior men get more. Average of all excet molders, 30s.; laborers assisting in putting up machinery, 20s. Harness-factory.-Messrs. Ashford & Winder furnished the followiginformation in regard to the earnings of their work-people: Ordinary workmen earn from 24s. to 26s. per week; best workmen earn from 28s. to 30s. per week; girls, 88. Men on saddles, piecework, after payig women to help, earn about 40s. Curriers, on piecework, earn from s. to s. These last save nothing, however, some being out of money beforethe week is over, owing to intemp)erance. The sewing is chiefly done by hand. They have one sewing machine and are about to order another. They prefer those of Boston make. In houses workig-people, girls were seen sewing traces, and at oteraresswork. Aharess-maker, working in another shop, stated that he earns at piecework 26s. Men working by the week average not over 24s., or at most 25s. They find it difficult to support their families on such wages. Many leave off working at trades and become porters, because they can thus earn more money. Silver-plated ware.-Mlessrs. Elkington & Co.'s manufactory of silverplated ware is celebrated throughout the kingdom for the excellence of the worknmanship and for the artistic taste displayed in the great variety of articles produced. The manager gave the earnings of the employe's as follows: About 500 hands are employed, who work fifty hours net per week, mostly on piecework. Chasers earn from 40s. to 45s.; other workmen, from. 35s. to 40s.; inferior, as low as 26s.; avera-ge of the whole, about 35s. Gillott's. Steel-Pen Works.-The employ6s are nearly all girls, who earn about 10s. per week. Thimblc-factories.-Small girls chiefly employed, who earn from 4s. 6d. to 5s. per week. Other facories.-T he average weekly wages of girls at other factorylabr i abut s.,some receiving as high as l0s. Birmingham Small-Arms Company's IVor/ks.-These works are at Smallheath, some four miles from the city. Abo'ut, 1,000 men are usually em.ployed, but when the visit of the author was m ade only 5-00 were at work, on a largreorder for the lussian governimenit. Mostofthemen work under contractors, who pay from 30s. to 305s. per week for good hands; ordinary and inferior obtain less. Small boys receiv-e 8s. per week;- youths, l6s.; laborers, about l.6s., but they usually wvork over-hours, and thus earn 20s.; tool-makers, 36s. to 40s., average about 388.; grinders, 50s. to 60s., obtaining higher wages in consequence of the dangerous nature of the work. 21 L 322 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. WAGES OF LABORERS IN BUILDING TRADES. Mr. George E. Jeffery, secretary of the Birmingham Master-Builders Association, in a letter to one of the newspapers of that city, dated March 10, 1874, gives the following statement of the rates of wages paid to laborers in Birmingham for the preceding nine years: For several years before 1864, and to May of that year, the rate of wages paid was 17s. per week of sixty hours. In May, 1864, 18s. was paid per week of sixty hours. In June, 18(;5, payment by the hour was commenced, and the rate per hour was advanced to 4d., the time worked fifty-eight and a half hours, or 198. 6d. perweek. In May, 1867, time was reduced to fifty-six and a half hours, and wages advanced to 41d. per hour, or ~1 per week. In May, 1868, the rate of wages paid was 4d. per hour for fifty-six and a half hours, and this rate of wages and time continued till May, 1872, when, under the arbitration, conducted by Mr. R. Kettle as umpire, wages were advanced to 41d. per hour, and the time reduced to fifty-four hours, or to ~1 18. 4d. per week, which is the present rate of wages and time. These figures show an advance of wages per hour in nine years at te rate of 40 per cent., and 5 per cent. more is now offered, making fifty-four hours, at d. per hour, or ~1 2s. 6d. per week. It is proper to state in this connection that Mr. Stephens, secretary of the laborers' association, asserted that the rate of wages was then but 16s. per week. WOLVERHAMPTON. Wolverhampton is situated in the great midlad coal and iron mining district known as the Black Country, and has manufactories of almost every article produced from iron, steel, and brass. It is a place of considerable antiquity, although little is known of its history until the year 996, when Wuif'rune, sister of Etheired II, endowed a church and college here. The town was then called Hampton, and afterward Wulfr-une's Hampton, which has since been corrupted to the present name. Wolverhampton depends mainly upon the manufacture of iron and hardware. The lock-manufacture is one Of the oldest in the town, the famous Chubb lock being mnade here. Tin and japauned ware, hollow ware, gun-locks, safes, cut nails, tools, and implements, are also manufactured;- and all these branches together with brass founding give eiiployment to a large number of hands. The report of the sub-inspector of factories for this district, in 1873, states: In Wolverhampton and the Black Country, trade has been very good in almost all hranches. Many new works have been opened, and old ones have been enlarged. One firin that in 1868 employed 272 hands, inow employs 821.19; and another that at the same (late had one thectory with 540 hinds, 280 of whom were females, has now three factories with 1,143 bands, of whom 504 are females. The tnbe tra~de in particular has made great strides within the last few years. The number of such factories has doubled since 1868; and, with one or two exceptions, all the factories then in operation have been enlarged. The demand for labor has consequently increased. The following notes, in regard to wages in Wolverhampton, are from the author's note-book; those relating to the cost of snbsistence and the condition of the working-people will appear in subsequent pages: July 10, 1872.-Went to Wolverhanipton, passing a succession of villages in the Black Country, the town of Dudley off to the left-all engaged in coal-inining or in. the production of iron. Saw ruins of the old Warw~Nick Castle, which, with the mines, belong to the Earl of Dud WAGES IN ENGLAND. 323 y. The Earl works the mines and makes iron. His income is said to have been 600,000 in 1871, and it is estimated that in the current year (1872) it will reach 1,000,000. Visited large iron-works of Thorneycraft& Co., Wolverhampton. They pay the usual rates for puddling. Laborers in yard wheeling iron, &c., receive 16s. per week. Men who assist in rolling large iron get higher rates, some 4s. 6d., and a few 5s. per day. Women wheeling cinders earn 8s. per week. The firm had declined to employ women for such work, but of late, owing to the scarcity and high wages of men, have been obliged to engage them. The work, thogh very dirty and unsuitable for women, is not hard. Coal now costs 13s. to 14s. per ton of 22 cwt. The firm owns mines, but can purchase coal which is mined nearer the works at lower rates than they can mine it. A pddler employed in Jenks & Sons iron and steel works says that his net earnings are only 30s. per week, viz: 4 tons at lls.-44s.; less paid for helper, 4 tons at 3s. 6d.-14s.; net 30s. He says that he can lay up little or nothing. Visited Chubb's lock factory; from 80 to 90 men employed; no machinery used. The locksmiths are highly skilled workmen. Men are engaged on piecework. Average weekly earnings 35s. per week. On consulting the books of the firm it was found that some of the most skilled men received last week 44s. each. In other shops and factories: In engineering or machinists' shops the average wages is 30s. per week. A tool-maker earns at piecework 50s., pys assistant 7s. on the 1-18s. 9d.; net earnings 31s. 3d. A hoe-maker who had gone to the United States, where he obtained igher wages, but owing to high prices of subsistence and the heat, had returned has worked for one firm twenty-four years, and never lost. time except from. sickness. Receives 30s. and has to work all the time to live and support family of five children, none of them old enough to earn anything.. Girls in various branches receive from 7s. to u1s, per week. SHEFFIELD. Population in 1871, 239,94-6. The enumeration of the various leading articles manufactured in Sheffield would fill many pages, and yet the principal productions can be expressed in two words, steel manufactures. This town was renowned for its knives in the time of Chaucer, and is still the chief seat of the English manufacture of cast, shear, and blister steel of all kinds, steel wire, cutlery and tools of almost every variety, railway and carriage springs and buffers, and many other kinds of steel and iron ware, as well as all classes of silver, silver-plated, electro-plated, German silver, britannia, and other white metal goods. Britannia metal and the process of silver-plating were, invented here. The, Cutlers' Company, known throughout the kingdom by its anniversary, called the "1Cutlers' Feast," had its origin in the sixteenth century in certain trade, regulations, wholly opposed to modlern ideas, "Agreed upon by the whole fellowship of cutlers."1 It was incorporated by statute in. the reign of James I. The list of trades given in the charter of the company enumerated only "1knives, scissors, shears, sickles, and other cutlery." An examination of the stock of one establishment, such as'that of the Messrs. Rogers, would indicate a considerable increase in the variety 324 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. as well as the volume of articles manufactured from steel. It would be interesting to trace the progress of the leading industries of Sheffield, and to refer to some historical incidents,* but time and space torbid. EXPORTS TO THE UNITED STATES. The variety as well as the value of the manufactures of Sheffield, which find a market in the United States, are, to some extent, indicated in the following: Statement showing the exports from Sheffield to the United States during the years ending December 31, 1872 and 1873. Articles. 1872. 1873. Steel ----------------------------------- -$3,186, 053 $2, 975, 273 Bessemer-steel rails. -.$1,89, 09 1,2803, 5 Bes~s~emer-steel rails........................................................... 1, 829, 019 1, 803, 658 Fish-plates................... —............................... —---—. —------------------ 12, 519 47, 456 Tires................- ------------- --------------------------- 2, 273 1,593 Axles..........-..................................................-....... 12, 213 5, 876 Crank-pins............................................2,915....................,915 2, 868 Wheels an(l axles with Bessemer-steel tires................................... 4,137............ Cast-steel tires --- -............. - -.................................................. - -165, 446 161, 036 Tire-blooms.......-.....................-....................... 123, 057 122, 565 Springs.................................. —.............................. 27,155 13, 458 Axles.-......-..................................................- 54, 971 74, 053 Frog-points, crank-pins, and pinions...................................... 3, 692 2,208 Switches, railroad-chairs, &c -— 2............................, 286 2, 559 Cast-steel bells -.............................. —.:..... ] ——.-. --- ]:[.1, 94 1 3, 462 Cast-steel rolls...............-............................... 335 1, 893 Steel tube.................-........................... -3, 438 Gun-castinigs........- -...-....................................................... 3, 658 Iron, iron wire, iron fence, rods, &c...................................... — 72,193 41, 290 Telegraph-wire.......... —............................................ 187 1,358 Machinery. —- -—. —-.................................. 3, 743 4, 827 Hardware.-.............-.....-......- 2, 502 2 849 Anvils.................................................-........ —---------------------- -............... 9, 245 5, 613 Cutlery.-. —-------------------------------- 1,246, 949 1, 514, 385 Files..................-...................... / -564, 024 563, 498 Saws...................... —...........................-. —- -- " —"-'-" - 24, 024 14, 364 Other tools............. —-------—. —--------------- -...................... —. —--------—.......... 111,094 94, 599 Garden tools —................................................................. 5, 943 5, 875 Scythes, sickles, and grass-hooks......................... —.................... 10, 291 10, 003 Sheep-shears....................... —-------------------------------..................................26,126 22, 979 Plated goods......................................876............................ 4,876 1, 403 Trays and waiters.................. -.............. —----------------------—................. 3, 496 3, 094 Umbrella-ribs........... —--------------------------------------............................................19, 584 17, 439 Hackle and gill pins,steel mills, flyers and doctors or calico web.............. 6,172 4, 296 Upholsterers' materials, viz, curled hair, cotton-warp seating, &c............- 56,118 51, 994 Guns, gun-material, shooting-tackle, &c........................... —............ 38, 779 27, 348 Measures, measuring tapes and rules.............................- -............ 17, 537 15, 997 Optical and mathematical instruments, spectacles, &c ------ ----- - 7, 529 7, 268 Surgical instruments, bandages, &c - -------------------- 8, 403 4,125 Salted skins.................................................................. 256, 685 355, 365 Granite tomb................................................................ 477............ Grindstones... —-.....................-..................................... 10, 887 14, 023 Miscellaneous...-...................- 20, 033 19, 570 Total..................................................................... 7962, 440 8,035,884 Total-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/7, 96'2,440[8 35 8 * The poet Montgomery lived, was imprisoned, and died in Sheffield. The advocate of political as well as personal liberty, of free speech, and of a "free press," he was rewarded by a long imprisonment. The publication office of his paper "The Iris," (now a small provision shop,) his editorial room, his chair and his desk, as well as thq house in which the latter years of the good old man were passed, and where, in 1854, he died, were visited with deep interest and veneration.-E. Y. WAGES IN ENGLAND). 325 RATES OF WAGES IN 1872. The earnings of workmen in the mechanical trades and in some of the iron and cutlery works of Sheffield, in 1871, are given on previous pages. In addition thereto the following statements are presented: Tabe showing themean wages of mechanics and other laborers per week, in Uni'ed States gold. Class of labor. Wages. Class of labor. Wages. ~~~~~~~Mechanics: Engineers' tools-Continued. Blacksmiths......... $6 53 Grinders........................... $7 62 Carpenters........ 7 26 Filers.............................. 6 53 Masons............ 7 74 Sheep-shears: Painters......... 6 53 Forgers............................ 9 68 Plasterers........ 7 02 Strikers............................ 6 78 Sbemakers.......... 32 Grinders........................... 9 80 Boiler-makers —- 6 53 Hammer-makers: Wheelad mill wrights - 7 74 Forgers............................ 9 68 Carters-....... 5 08 Strikers -.......... 7 26 Clerks in railway-offices6 05 Razors: Slaters, 7d. per hour, 53 hours per Forgers............................ 7 26 week. —-------------- - 7 26 Grinders........................... 9 44 ~~~~~~~~~~~Sl ~/:afters' assistant,.d. per hour, 53 Hafters - - -6 78 hours per week......... 5 32 Girls, assisting, putting up, &c... 1 63 ~~~Table-cutlery:~~ -Silver-plated ware: Table-blae forgers.7 19 Silversmiths........................ 7 87 Table-blade grinders6 69 Chasers............................ 7 87 Table-blade baters.5 34 Engravers......................... 9 68 Table-for-ks, steel: Burnishers Women - - - 3 03 Forgers-............... 6 29 Burnishers. Girls, 12 to 16 years 1 82 Grinders —------------ - 787 Buffers Women 3 39 Filers, boys and girls.... 2 05 ers - - Girls, 12 to 16 years.. 1 82 ~~Pocket —cutlery: ~White-metal ware: Pocket-blade forgers —-- 6 69 Spinners...,,,,,,,,,,,.. — -, —- 8 83 Grinders-........... 7 26 Putting together. —- -- - --- 7 02 Rafters........... 6 05 Casters and stampers.............. 7 50 Saws: Buffers —— Men...........Men....... 6 41 Saw-makers. —----------- 7 02 Bufr -— Womeu ------ - - 2 90 Saw-grinders. —---------- 8 47 Women-casters —--------- - 2 42~ Hand lers —------------- 6 78 Girls, buffers and cleaners....... 1 45 Rubbers, women........... 2 18 Women in warehouse......... 2 54 Scissors: Burnishers. women..... -....... 2 90 Forgers............... 6 05 Files: Grinders —------------- 8 83 Forgers................ 13 31 Filers ---------------- 6 41 Strikers-................ 9 68 Putting. together........... 6 41 Grinders --------- - ------ 12 71 Burnishers, women.......... 1 94 Cutters —-------- - ------ 7 26 Edge-tools: Steel: Forgers............... 10 16 Melter —............... 12 10 Strikers................ 7 74 Puller-out......... —--- 7 02 Hardeners ------------- 6 78 Cokers --------------- - - 486 Grinders-.............. 10 29 Pot-maker - —............ 9 68 Engineers' tools: Coniverting-furnace men- —...... 4 88 Forgers-............... 7 87 Builders' Association wages in NYovember, 1873. Carpenters. —----------------------------------- 15 cents per hour. Bricklayers.. —---------------------------------- 15 cents per- hour. Stone-masons....................................... 16 cents per hour. Stone-fixers, (trimmings, &c.)-18...........................I cents, per boor. Laborers. —------------------------------------ 10 cents per hour. The following extracts from. the auho' note-book present some data in regard to wages in Sheffield. Those relating to cost of provisions a nd rent will be found -on subsequent pages. July 12, 1872.-Visited the extensive, steel-works of Messrs. Thom-as Firth & Sons, and was courteously shown through every part by Mr. Firth, jr., who explained all the processes and afforded information in regard to wages, &C. Head-roller works by the cwt. and earns fromt ~3 to ~4 per week. At melting, five men employed at a fire; one receives 40s., two 28-s. each, and two 19s. eachi per week. ilammner-m~en from 30-s. to 408., Ia. 326 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. borers more or less skilled from 19s. to 21s., from 6s. to 8s., large boys or youths who assist in rolling, wreceive p to 15s. and even 16s. Swedish iron is largely used, especiallyfortools. Forotherworkand for some of this, there is an admixture of best English iron, selected brands. July 13.-In company with Dr. Webster, United States consul, was shown through the celebrated cutlery works of Messrs. Rogers & Sons. Grinders receive about 60s. per week, but having to find stoes and tools, they net about 45s. per week. Owing to precautions taken, this work is not so destructive to health as formerly. Average earnings of the men engaged in the various kinds of work range from 28s. to 30s., some earn 35s. In some branches, such as forging pocket-knife blades, two men work together, and at piecework each cani earn 7s. d. per day, but as the work is hard, they are unable to labor all the week, aveaging only four days, and earning but 30s. In Laycock's hair-cloth factory the girls who weave hair-cloth earn 8s. per week. Some men who do work for large establishments by contract, pay men from 28s. to 30s. and earn from ~5 to ~6 per week; but these are really contractors or small manufacturers, and must not be classed with men who work at fixed rates. Laborers in Sheffield earn from 18s. to 19s. Carters, drivers of teams carrying steel and hardware to railway-stations, or driving for manufacturers, get from 20s. to 22s. PROSPECTIVE DECLINE IN WAGES. It has been seen from statements presented on preceding pages that there has been a considerable reduction in wages in the iron and coalmi-ning industries from the maximum rates of 1872, but a movement ha's been made looking to a reduction in iron-founderies, engineering-shops, and other branches, or, in other words, an increase in the hours of labor. A returmi to the old system of ten hours per day is proposed. The following extm~act from an article in the London Times of December 21, 1874, more fully explains, the proposed change: A very important step is being taken by the directors of the Atlas Works, John Brown & Co., one of the largp st manufacturing concerns in S8heffield. A few weeks since tbey discharged a largue number of their workmen, and reduneed the wages of others by 12j per cent. They are now about to make a change more important than any yet carried out. A notice has been posted in the works announcing that from the 4th of January the wages of the engine-tenters, the hammer-drivers, and the boilerfiremen will be reduced 10 per cent., and those of the laborers in the engineer's, buffer, foundery, and planing departments will be reduced by a similar amount. The time of the laborers in the steel, springr, forge, rail, and tire mills and hanimer-shops will be altered to fifty-nine hours instead of fifty-four as at present. The object of the notice clearly is to endeavor to bring about a return to the old system of working ten hours a day. In departments where this cannot bedone the wages of the men are to bereduiced 10 per cent. Thus, in the engineer's, buffer, foundery, and planing departments the skilled workmen a-re under the fifty-four-hour system. While this continues it is obviously useless to keep the laborers employed fifty-nine hours, and consequently the wages of the whole of them in these departuients are to be reduced 10 p)er cent., which is considered equivalent to the difference between fifty fotir and fifty-nine hours. Bat in the steel, spring, forge, hammer shops, and mills it is possible to increase the workingY houms of the laborers to fifty-nine, because the skilled artisans work night and day turns. Lu all these departments, therefore, so fitr as the laborers are concerned, the fifty-nine-hours system is to be introduced. The proposed change is one which will strike a severe blow at the nine-hour movement, but in the present condition of trade it is not likely the men will offer any very serious opposition to it. To the introdue WAGES IN ENGLAND. 327 tion of that movement the directors, John Brown & Co., attribute very much of the present depression in the Bessemer steel, railway, and other heavy departments. It is said that the loss of for working hours per week has resulted in an increase in the cost ~~of production~s of flly 10 per cent. This fact, coupled with the keenness of continental competition, makes it almost impossible for Sheffield makers of railway and other heavy-class goods to successfully compete with Belgian houses, for wages in Belgium are not so high as they are in England, and the men work ten hours a day. There is no dot that the example set by John Brown & Co. will be followed by all the other large works at Sheffield, and that ultimately the skilled workman, the engineers among the number, will be asked to return to the fifty-nine-hour system. An attempt in this direction on a small scale has already been made at two works and with a successful result. NOTTINGHAM. Population in 1871, 86,621. The invention of the stocking-frame in the year 1589 gave rise to one ofthe most interesting chapters in the history of mechanical and manufacturing industry. It was upon this machine that, about a century ago, a oarse imitation of cotton-lace was first produced. The fabric was all woven from one continuous thread. A beautiful adaptation of the machinery enabled a fine silk net (point lace) to be made, employ~~~~~~~~ing for any years 1500 frames in Nottingham and its vicinity.' Tlhis fbrication has long since died out. Then the machine was so arranged that the material should be used altogether as warp. This very ingenious machine is still Usefully and extensively employed. In 1809 a working-frame smith in Nottigham invented and patented the bobbinetmachine. A woman making lace on a pillow may produce three to five meshes oi interstices in a minute. The first machine produced 1.000 meshes per minute. Asquare yard of the produce was sold for $25. This machin, as originally constructed, though displaying great mechanical skill, was a complicated one. During the time that has since elapsed, ircessant and remarkable ingenuity has been shown in simplifying and improving the machine, and plain net, of like quality to that firsD made, is now sold currently at 12 cents the square yard. A man turias off with ease 40,000 meshes per minute from this "1mechanical Pilbw," as the bobbinet-machine was originally called by its talented inventor. The, Jacquard apparatus has been since applied, at great cost, but with perfect success. EXPORTS TO THE UNITED STATES. Tie annual exportation of lace, hosiery, and other Nottingham goods are e,,bibited by the following statement, showing the exports from Nottinghim to the United States during the years ending December 31, 1872 -nd 1873, the value being computed in United States gold:___ Goods. 1872. 1873. Goods. 1872. 1873. Lace-........... 3, 027, 885 $3, 389, 687 Ribbons —.............. $16, 386 Hosiery-..........1, 080, 825 1, 033, 058 Artificial flowers-......$1, 389. —--- Cottons —.......... 47, 460 60,'25 Straw plait.. -....... 9, 655 796 Linens-........... 86, 569 33, 084 Woolen goods-....... 2, 329 169 Quilts —........... 3, 751 i, 136 Umbrellas..........-.. 2, 505...... White gods - -........ 2e8,935 61, 945 Salted skins.. -....... 301, 977 330, 891 THtndkerciefs —------- 21, 703 4, 767 Plaster and cement-..... 9, 985 15, ~283 muslins —.......... 125, 324 42, 154 Earthenware --------- i, 316 3, 426 Elastics —.......... 66, 376 57, 699 Machinery and iron goods. 28, 553 20, 1:35 Velvets —.......... 68, 577 69, 202 Miscellaneous-....... 7,1lii 9, 049 Crape —........... 555 27, 154 -- _ _Silk-............ 1, 344 1, 903 Total -.........5,114,124 5, i78, 130 Nottilmgham, although not visited in the order indicated, is noticed in this I-ace, because it lies within the consular district of Sheffield. The Plowing data from the author's note-book relate only to wages. Inforinaton, in regard to the rent of rooms, prices of provisions, and conditionof the work-people will appear farther on. 328 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. July 20, 1872.-Visited a number of lace-factories. In that of Mr. Thomas Hill the following wages are paid: Earnings of men, piecework, average, Mr. Hill states, 28s. or over per week. His son thinks the average nearer 30s., and banded me the weekly pay-roll. The first twelve averaged exactly 30s., but those lower down received less. The average is between 28s. and 29s. Some men receive as high as 40s., while others, such as old men, earn as low as 10s. Those who average 28s. are the first class. The second class earn from 20s. to 22s. There is a wide difference between the efficiency of the first and second classes, owing partly to difference in machinery, the latter using old-fashioned handd-looms, the former the most improved machinery. The average earnings of the young women is 9s. 6d. per week. A few earn from 11s. to 13s. per week, but they usually overlook a few others. Small girls-known as " half-timners," because they are required by act of Parliament to attend school half the time-receive from 2. d. to 3s. per week for such labor as they can perform. The wages of work-people, with best class of lace-mainery, on lace curtains, black-silk laces. &c., average from 35s. to 40s. per week of fifty four hours for men, as given by Messrs. J. S. Wells & Co., lace-curtain manufacturers, and 40s., as stated by Mr. Hill. In explanation of the high rates, Mr. Hill stated that the work commanded higher prices because it is injurious to the eye-sight, few men over fifty-five, or at furthest sixty, being able to work at it. Women employed in the same branch earn on an average s. 6d. per week. Good fitters engaged in these factories earn 4s. per week. Some men on machines making black-silk lace ear fom 3 to 4 per week, but this is exceptional. The high wages obtained is explained by the fact that the work consists of some new pattern or style, which is at the moment fashionable and in great demand, but will probably soon go out of fashion and the demand con1sequently cease. Did niot visit the works of Mr. Muadella, M. P., whom I saw in London. Hosiery factory of Mlessrs. A. T. Stewart cf (Jo., of New York.-The earnlings in) this factory are indicated by the following extract from a letter from Mr. T. G. Carver, agent in Nottingham, to the firn in Mauchester, in reply to an inquiry addressed to him concerning the averag~e earnDings Of the various hands employed in the factory tlere. The original was shown, aud a copy handed me by Mr. Fox, resfient partner at Manchester: In reply to your question as to the earnings of our various hands for the Las- three mionths, I have to report as follows: Rotary half-hose hands, ~2! 4s. 5d. per week; shirt-body bands, girls mostly, ~1 9s. per week; rib-top hands, ~2 is.; averag earnings on Paget's patent frames, all girls, l6s. 6d.1 MANCHESTER. Population in 1871, 383,843; Salford, 124,805)-508,648. This ancient town, the site of a fort built by the Celts. was iamed iMancenion, or "Ithe place of' tents." It was taken possessiorn of about the year 72 by the'Romanas, who continued masters of it unti their final departure from the island, some three centuries afterward. It fell into the hands of the Pictish invaders and was occupied sucecsively by the Saxons, the Danes, (about 870,) and long afterward by tie Norman Conqueror, by whom it was assigned to William of'Poictou, who I It is not pretended that the above are the regular or usual earnings of Qeratives in other factories in Nottingham, or elsewhere in England. In reply to myinquiries of Mr. Fox, in Manchester, and of Mr. Stewart, subsequently, in New Yok, it was stated that the men and women who. earn snch high wages are most superr in skill and iudustry.-E. Y. WAGES IN ENGLAND. 329 became the Lord of the Manor. It is not celebrated, however, for its historical associations, but from the fact that it ranks as the first man. facturing town in the empire, while in population it is only surpassed by London and Liverpool. Manchester has been a place of trade from a very early period. In the reign of Henry VIII a law was enacted to remove the right of sanctuary from Manchester to Chester, on the ground that it caused the resort hither of idle and disolute persons, to the injury of trade, both in linens and woolens, for which the place was distinguished, and which gave employment to many artificers and poor folks, whose masters by their strict and true dealing, caused the resort of many strangers from Ireland and elsewhere with linen, yarn, wool, and other necessary wares for the making of cloth to be sold there. The disturbances in France and the Netherlands had tended not a little to the growth of manufactures in the town, by causing the settlement of French and Flemish artisans in Lancashire. Early in the last century, it was mentioned as a remarkable fact that in Manchester and Bol. ton alone goods to the amountf ~600,000 were annually manufactured. Manchester is the center of a great system of canals, and has railway communication with nearly all parts of England. The name of the town has from a very remote period been connected with industry and trade; but its present great importance is specially due to the magnitude of its cotton manufactures, the greatest in the world. It is mentioed as having maintained a trade with the Greeks of Marseilles. In 1552 an act was passed for the better manufacture of Manchester cottons; and in 1650 its manufactures ranked among the first in extent ad importance, and its people were described as " the most industrious in the northern part of the kingdom.7" Connected with the cotton manufacture are many important and extensive branches of industry, such as bleaching, printing, and dyeing works, manufactures of the various materials employed in those processes, and particularly the great establishments for the construction of steam-engiines and machinery. Among these the Atlas Works and those of Sir Joseph Whitworth are the most prominent, while the extensive works in Oldham and Manchester for the production of cottonmachinery are well known in other countries. It is also the chief market in the world for the production of cotton yarn or thread, the supply of which passes through the hands of numerous resident foreign. merchants, who export it to their respective countries, giving to Manchester in this respect a character quite unique a~mong inland cities. The manufacture of silk and -silk goods and of mixed cotton and silk -fabrics is also largely carried on. As Manchester is the seat of the cotton-trade of Great Britain, it may not be inappropriate to present here some data in regard to the extent of that vast industry: In 1871 there were in. Great Britain. 2,484 mills for its manufacture, 38,218,758 spinnfing-spindles, including 3,523,573 doubling-spindles, 440,676 power-looms, employing in all 449,087 persons. The cost of the buildings and machinery about the trade is said to have amounted to ~57,000,000, ($277,390,500,) with a floating capital of ~,30,000,000,, ($145,995,000;) and there were 4,500,000 persons, in all its branches, dependent upon its prosperity for their livelihood. The total quantity of yarn exported in 1872 was 211,900,000 pounds weight, of the value Of $81,270,550, and the tptal quantity of calicos, cambrics, fustians, &C., was 3,585,100,000 yards, worth $286,636,85-0. Besides these there were $21,899,250 worth of lace and small wares, raising the local value to $389,806,650. Such is the perfection, too, to which cott~n.-spinining 330 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. is carried, that on a self-acting mule a single thread has been produced measuring upward of one thousand miles in length and only weighing one pound. To illustrate the great decline in the prices of cotton goods, owing to the introduction of improved machinery and the reduced price of raw material, the fact may be stated that a kind of calico which sold toward the close of the last century at 6s. a yard can be produced now at 6d. The average price per yard of goods exported in 1815 was 34~ cents; in 1825, 202 cents; in 1835, 13 cents; in 1845, 6-}5 cents; in 1859, 6~cents; and in 1871, 63 cents. The average price of yarn exported, per pound, in 1815 was 3s. 73d. In 1871 it was 131d. In this connection it may be interesting to present a statement of the number of spindles and amount of cotton yarn produced in Great Britain as compared with other cotton-consuming countries at the close of the year 1873. Table showing the number of spindles and cotton consumed per spindle in the under-mentioned countries, with the pounds of cotton consumed per spindle and the total annual consumption, supposing the mills to be running full time. ~c ~ountries.Number of I= Pounds spun spindles. annually. Great Britain, (1871)................................................ 34, 695,185 32 1,223, (100, 000 UJnited States, (1874)............................................... *9,415, 383 57 538, 082, 000 France........................................................... 5, 200, 000 38 197, 600, 000 Zollverein......................................................... 3, 000, 000 47 141, 000, 000 Russia............................................................ -2, 000, 000 60 120, 000, 000 Austria........................................................... 1,900, 000 47 89, 300, 000 Spain...........-I- -—............................. 1, 400, 000 48 67, 200, 000 Alsace and Lorraine............................................... -— 1, 700, 000 38 64, 600, 000.Switzerland....................................................... 2, 000, 000 25 50, 000, 000 Belgium............................................................ -— 800, 000 43 34, 400, 000 Italy.................. —-..................................... 500,000 48 24, 000, 000 Swed(en and Norway...... —-.........................300, 000 60 18, 000, 000 Holland........................................................... 230,000 439, 890, 000 *Furnished by B. F. Nourse, esq., of Boston. WAGES IN COTTON-MILLS. The reduction in the hours of labor and the increase of wages in cotton-mills are shown in the following table: Statement showing the average weekly carnings of operatives in cotton-mills during the years 139,1849, 1859, and 1873. Week of 69 Week of 60 hours. hours. Occupation. Sex. 1839. 1849. 1859. 1873. Steam-engine tenders................................................. $5 76 $6 72 $7 20 $7 68 Warehousemen....................................................... 4 32 4 80 5 28 6 24 Carding: Stretchers............................... Women and girls...... 1 68 1 80 1 92 2 88 Strippers................................ Young men............ 2 64 2 88 3 36 4 56 Overlookers...................................................... 6 00 6 72 6 72 7 68 Spinning: Winders on self-acting mules..................................... 3 84 4 32 4 80 6 00 Pieceis...................... Women and young men. 1 94 2 16 2 40 3 84 Overlookers...................................................... 4 80 5 28 6 24 7 20 Reeling: Throttle-rulers.......................... Women............... 2 16 2 28 2 28 3 00 Warpers.... -—..................................................... 5 28 5 28 5 52 6 24 Sizers............................................................ 5 52 5 5 6 00 7 20 Doubling: Dou blers................................ Women............... 1 68 1 80 2 16 3 00 Overlookers...................................................... 5 76 6i 00 6 72 7 68 WAGES IN ENGLAND. 331 Other branches show the same ratio of advance. The following statement was furnished by the proprietors of the cotton-mills of Messrs. Shaw, Jardin & (Co., of Manchester, England, operating 250,000 spindles, and producing yarns from No. 60 to 220, sewingcottons, lace-yarn, crape-yarn, and two-foid warp-yarns: Average wages (per week of 59 hours) of persons emlployed in 1872. Occupati on. Wages. Occupation. Wages. Carding: Spinning-Continued. Overseer........................ $10 89 Mule-spinners.................. $13 31 to $15 73 Second hand..................... 7 26 Mule-backside piecers.......... 2 42 to 3 87 Drawing-frame tenders.......... 2 66 Repair-shop, engine-room, &c.: Speecder-tenders.................. 3 14 Foreman or overseer............ 14 52 Griuders......................... 5 32 Wood and iron workers......... 7 74 Strippers........................ 5 32 Engineer....................... 9 68 Spinning: Laborers........................ 5 32 Overseer......................... 14 52 Mages per week (59 hours) in cotton-mills in July, 1872. Occupation. Sex. Wages. Remarks. pi n nr l ie....... Fine-............. Me n.............. $9 60 Spinners.. Coarse...............do............ 8 16 Very few in Manchester; nearly all self acting. Cyphers............................do............. 3 60 A cypher is a kind of piecer, &c., on a hand-mule machine; he helps tho spinner. -do............. 3 60 sinr iqtr....... Piecers, on self-Wctorsmen....o....... 2 4C Fine............. Boys............. 2 28.Fine............. Girls............. 2 16 Piecers - - - Coarse - Boys 2 64 Cas........ Boys.............. 26 tCoarse........ Gi..ls. 2 40 Overlooker..................... Man............. 8 40 In a fine mill. Coarse........... Boys............. 1 80 I Coarse........... Girls............. 1 44 Fine ime.......... iBoys.........~... 12 Scavengers Fines1 12 Fine -----------— Girls.9............ 96 I Half time... Boys under 13 yrs. 60 W g Half time........- Girls under 13 yrs 60 W-e'ving: ( Men............. 4 80 Minds two sail-cloth looms or four Weavers.... calico-looms. Women-...... 4 08 Minds three calico-looms. Winders-............do -....... 3 24 Taking ill sorts together. Rulem...........-..do -....... 3 12 (Fine -.......Men -........ 864 Miuders -.- - Coarse-........do -....... 6 7~2 ft - ~~~~~Women; —---- 3 00 Doablers-...............do -....... 2 88 Averaje weekly wages (54 hours per week) in eiigineering-works, in July, 1872. Trade. Wages. *Rem'irks. Boiler-makers - -......... $9 20 OVERTIME.-For the first four hours past the usual time Riveters —............ 823 each hour worked counts as I~ hours, and for each succeedMolders —........... 8 23 ingohouirit is reckone(d asI, hours. No bonus or overtime Pattern-makers - -........ 8 21 is allowed, unless the fall week of 54 hours is worked. Fitters-............... 7 02 This note applies to all the trades mentioned on this list. Turners-............. 7 02 Novra,-The r-ites of wages given in this table are those Machine-men-minders of slot- paid by one of the largest engineeringy firms in Manchester. tiug, drilling, and planing ma- At present, in consequence of the special activity in this chinles —............ 5 32 branch of business, the wages paid are higher than the Blacksmiths —.......... 70V2 trades-union rates. Strikers —............ 4 84 Laborers —............ 4 36 332 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Weekly wages (54i hours per week) in building-trade in July, 1872. Trade. Wages. Remarks, Plasterers.........-............ $7 98 The plasterers are threatening to strike for fewer hours. Painters........................ 14* Painters are paid by the hour, and in some small shops work 59+ hours per week. Plumbers................. 7 98 Carpenters and joiners.......... 7 98 Bricklayers.................. 8 71 Bricklayers, bricklayers' laborers, masons, plasterers, and 5 56satr Bricklayers' laborers...a........ 5 81 o fOctobhe ltter end Masons....................... 7 98 of October to the beginning of March, and, except in the Slaters......................... 7 26 case of masons, receive 1 cents a dayless. * Per hour. Weekly wages in miscellaneous trade. Trade. Waes. Trade. Wages. Engine-drivers, &c.: Binding: Drivers...................$8 47 to $10 89 60 Folders and stitchers $3 39 55 Stokers................... 5 08 to 6 78 60 Binders7 02 5 Cleaners.................. 1 45 to 3 67 54 Finishers8 71 5 Printing: Baking: Compositors............... 7 0298 5560 Compositors on newspapers 8 23 53 Second hand6 78 60 Machine-men........-... 7 98 55 Third hand5 81 60 Machine-men on newsp'ers 8 23 53 The foregoing tables furnish accurate data in regard to the rates of wages paid in various shops and factories in Manchester and vicinity in 1872. The investigations of the author made in this seat of the cotton industry related chiefly to the condition of the work-people, their habits, mode, of life, and condition of their holnes, and also to the cost of subsistence, the success of the co-operative stores, and their influence upon the members. The wages paid in several well-known establishments were as follows: In the works of Sir Joseph Whitworth & Co., where heavy and light machinlery and machine- tools and steel-guns are made, the weekly wages of ordinary workmen range from 30s. to 32s., probably averaging, as in other manufacturing towns, 30s. Some of greater skill obtain higher rates, while inferior workmen receive less. Laborers in the works receive from 18s. to 208. Sir Joseph Whitworth is favorably known to Aluerican engineers, and his report in regard to various industrial establishments of the United States was a fair exhibit of such as he visited. An account of the aid which he offers to young men who have an inclination toward mechanical pursuits will appear on a subsequent page. The works of Messrs. W. Higgins & ~Sons, manufacturers of cotton machinery, though not so large as that of Mr. Platt, at Oldham, is well known in the United States.* About 800 hands are employe(]. * In this and other machine-shops, and in engineering works in various parts of Europe, one who, though an inexpert, has visited such first-class works as those of Sellers & Co. and others ia Philadelphia, of Corliss in Providence, and, indeed, in all our chief cteespecially the locomotive-engine works in Philadelphia, Paterson, Taunton, &C., is struck hy the inferiority of the tools and machinery as compared with those of the United States, which are of the hest class. There are exceptions, such as the Atlas Works, in Manchester. In iron-ship yards, however, such as that of Messrs. J. Elder & Co., and others, on the Clyde, the Tyne, the Mersey, and the Thames, although all are not'of equal excellence, yet the larger number are thoroughly equipped with the best and most improved tools and machines. WAGES IN ENGLAND. 333 Machinists earn about 30. on an average; boys from 6s. 8s.; laborers, 18s. Some men work by the piece, and earn more than 30s. They can earn 40. per week if they work full time, which many here, as elsewhere, do not. "Blue Mondays," though less known than in some other industries and in other towns, are not unknown here. ~~Mr. Dodge~, formerly of Cooes, N. Y., who now makes files near Manchester, gives the following as the average rates of wages in machines and fitters, from 30s. to 32s.; planers, from 28s. to 30s.; shapers also drillers, or those running drilling-machines. from 26s. to 28s.; laborers, fom 16s. to 20s. Indeed, in machine-shops throughout the manufacturing towns of England, the average rate of wages for skilled hands is 30s., and of laborers 18s. per week. Rochdale is another of the cotton-manutfacturing towns in Lancashire, and the wages of operatives in cotton-mills and in machine-shops are substantially the same as in Manchester. The earnings of young women were stated to be 12s. per week, while some of greater experience and skill receive from 13s. to 14s. Half-timers, whose weekly wages were only 2s. d., now receive 4s. 6d., and some as high as 5s.; turners in maine-shops 28s., and some higher. SEAT OF WOOLEN MIANUFACTURES. As Laasire is the chief seat of the cotton industry, so almost the whole of the woolen trade is confined to the West Riding of Yorkshire. Leeds is the principal center and emporium of the woolen manufacture, and on its semi-weekly market days its celebrated Cloth Hall* is crowded with manufacturers and merchants, where the various kinds of woolen -cloths, long celebrated for their excellence, change hands. Hudderstield is also largely engaged in manufacturing tronserings, waistcoatings, and fancy goods- while Dewsbury, lleckmoudwicke, and the surrounding neighborhood make great quantities of carpets, blankets, and coarse cloths. Even more, important is the worsted manufacture, which, like that of woolen, has its chief seat in the West Ridling, viz, at Bradford. The neighboring towns of Halifiax, Keighley, Bingley, Otley, and the surrounding villages are also engaged in it as their staple business. The number of hands e mployed in these textile industries in 1871 w~as as follows: Woolen cloth, 71,683 males, 56,781 female's-total, 128,464; worsted manufactures, 34,053 males, 60,713 females-total, 94,766. LEEDS. Population in 1871, 259,212. Its site was probably at one time a Roman station. It was subsequently occupied by the N'orthmen, and in succession by the Saxons and Normans. The name Loidis (Leeds) is Saxon. As a manuflicturing town it dates back only to the sixteenth century. There are many handsome public buildings, an excellent library, founded by Dr. Priestly in 1768, and library and museum of the Literary and Philosophical Society, and a Mechanics' Institute, with 2,000 members and 8,000 volumes. * Among the rules which govern the trade are the following: 37 inches are allowed to the yard; and, in addition, abont one-half yard in pieces uinder 40 yards, and a yard to pieces ovrer 40 yards in length. Sales are.Dmade at three months, and 4d. in the pound deducted for cash payments. 334 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The flax manufacture consumes annually 12,000 tons of flax. Dyeing, coal-mining, iron and machine making, the manufacture of paper, tobacco, pottery, oil and chemicals, form also important branches of indutstry. Nearly one-fourth of the whole population, half of whom are females, are employed in the various manufactories. No other town in England is so admirably situated for trade, being placed in the heart of the inland navigation of the country. It is also the center of a net-work of railroads converging to it from all parts of the country, and placing it in connection with every important town of the kingdom. WAGES IN WOOLEN-MILLS. The following statement showing the rates of wages paid the employ(s in the Saint Helen's Mills, Leeds, was furnished by the proprietors, Messrs. John Wilkinson, Son & Co., October 9, 1872: [lands employed, 443; hours of labor per week, 581.] Occupation. Men. Women. Boys., Block-cutters......................................... $6 72 per week................................. Color-mixers............ —.............................3 96 per week................................. Fullers............................................... 564 per week................................ Willey-men.......................................... 4 44 per week................................. Weavers, tapestry....................................3 76 per yard.. -$3 28 per yard................. Washers -- ~~~~~~~~~3 28 perweek. ——.. Washers............................................................................. Overlookers.......................................... 3 52 per week................................ and upward. Hardener-machine-men......................... 4 68 per week................................ Firemen.............................................. 5 76 per week................................. Card-fillers...................................... 2 64 per week................. Sewers............................................................... 2 04 per week................ Spinners.......................................... -A1 44 to $2 16................ per week. Tentering-machines................................................................... $2 28 to $2 64 per week. Perpetual cutting-machines......................................................... 1 80 to $2 04 per week. WOOLEN MANUFACTURERS. Occupation. Occupation. Overlookers............................... $12 10 Weavers................................ $3 63 Spinners.................................. 7 74 Burlers................................. 2 66 Turners................................. 7 74 Cloth-millers............................. 9 20 Woolliers................................. 5 80 Engine-men.............................. 8 47 Fillers.. -.................................. -2 90 Warp.dressers............................ 6 29 WAGES IN ENGLAND. 335 Statement howing the pricespaid for abor in the variovus trades in the Leeds consular district, September, 1872. [Hours of labor per week, 54.] Trades. Per week. Trades. Per week. ~~~CLOTH-DYERS. FINE-LEATHER FINISHERS-Continued. Blue-dyers............$5 08 Kid-calfgrounders.................. $1016 Black-dyers —........ 4 84 Shavers............................ 9 88 Finishers........................... 7 40 CLOTH-FINISHERS. LINEN THREAD. Giggers —......... 7 26 Giggersboys —............. 2 90 Skilled men, mechanics, joiners, &c $5 80 to 6 78 Hand-raisers —.......... 7 02 Overlookers........................ 5 08 to 6 05 Overlookers —....... 12 10 Head overlookers................... Up to 9 68 Cutters —................7 02 Laborers, (unskilled)................ 3 87 to 4 36 Cutters, boys —.............. 1 57 Women, and girls over 15 years of age 1 41 to 2 54 Steamers —............ 8 47 Half-timers, under 13 years, (for a Boilers —............ 7 26 week of 29 hours).-................. 48 Tenterers — (................Reelers and winders, (paid by piece). 1 69 to 2 90 Pressers-............... Weavers, (paid by piece)............ 2 18 to 3 63 Drawers — (............). umberers —...... 2 90 MACHINERY. Handle-setters —........... (1) Enie-men —............... 8 47 Boys, (according to age)............ 1 21 to 2 90 Boners —.............1 94 Laborers............................ 4 36 Strikers............................. 4 60 TANNERS AND CIRRIERS. Smiths.............................. 6 53 to 6 77 Planers............................. 5 56 Skilled tanners.......7 26 Turners and fitters, (ordinary meUnskilled-.$7 02 to 6 77 chanics).......................... 6 53 to 6 77 Skilled curriers7 26 to 8 95 Best mechanics..................... 9 68 Unskilled assistants.4 36 to 7 26 Foremen........................... 12 10 Laborers for both trades.4 36 to 5 32 Model-makers, (joiners)............. 7 02 FINE-LEATHER FINISHERS. BOOTS AND SHOES. Fellmongers............. 5 94 Clitters-...............4 36 to 6 05 Fleshers-............... 8 32 Fitters-................4 36 to 6 05 Pnrers-................ 8 78 Machinists-..............1 94 to 2 90 Chamois gronnders-.......... 8 76 Overlookers-.............7 26 to 9 68 *8d. per end up to 40 yards. t 7d. per end up to 40 yards. Id. per rod. March's machine works-(m anufacturers of flax-machinery.)-Mr.George March, jr., stated that wages had advanced about 16 per cent. The rates now paid for fifty-four hours' work are as follows: molders, 34s.; riveters, turners, best men, 34s.; machinists, ordinary to good, 30s. to 32s.; machinists, inferior, 26s. to 28s.; laborers in works, i8s. to 20~s., formerly 16s.to i8s. Woolen Factories.-Yewdell & Sons make woolens of a common quality. They state that weavers, experienced women, earn at piecework 18s. per week, some few as high as 20s. Men earn more. Younger girls work by the day and earn 9s. to l0s. per week, as doff. ers, &c. Small girls, half-timers, from 3s. 6d. to 4s. 6d. Planing mills.-Men working in yard, loading flooring and other finished lumber, driving team, &c., 19s. to 22s. BOO0T AND SHOE TRADE. At a, conference of the Leeds boot and shoe manufacturers and their workmen, held April 26, 1872, the following rates of wages were agreed upon, the scale of prices to be clear of all rivets, sprigs, &c.: 536 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Wages in the boot and shoe tradeat Leeds. Per dozen. Class of work. MEN'S LIGHT WORK. Best kid, calf, and seal levant..2 2 66 $2 18........................ Kip and gnus levant.............................................94 2 42 1 94 Split or fleshers........................................1 82 2 30 1 82 Common lace-kip, brown bottom........................82 1 94 1 46 Comnnmon lace-flesh boot, plain brown bottom............70 1 82 1 33 Men's shooting-boots, wide welt........................ 3 16 3 87 3 39 Cricket boots and shoes................................ 3 28 3 40 2 90 Twos to fives: Best ki(l, calf, and seal levant......................58 1 82 1 46 Kip, split, gnus, and grained levant................1 46 1 70 1 33 Common lace kip and flesh boot, plain brown bottom1 33 1 46 1 21 Elevens to ones: Lest kid, calf, and seal levant........................1 46 1 58 1 33 Kip, split, gnus, and grained levant................33 1 46 1 21 Common lace kip and flesh boot, plain brown bottom1 21 1 21 96 Sevens to tens: Best kid, calf, and seal levant......................08 1 33 1 14 Kip, split, gnus, and grained levant............................ 6 1 21 1 02 Common lace kip and flesh boot, plain brown bottom84 96 78 MEN'S STRONG WORK. Stubbed heels and mock clinkers.......................08 1 70 1 21 For-ge-boots............................................2 66 1 70 1 21 Sparables and hobs.....................................2 4 1 70 1 21 lTwos to fives, sparables and hobs.......................1 82 1 33 1 0 Elevens to ones, sparab)les and bobs....................1 58 1 08 84 Sevens to tens, sparables and hobs......................21 84 66 EXTRAS ON MEN'S WORK. Patents................................................. —.. Fiddle-waist............................................ Machine-sewn-24 24. Bevel edge —...................................... 24..... Ried welt-.....-.................................. 12..... Best inside-bevel clump-............................ 24 96..... Best outside-bevel clump-........................... 72 96..... Seconds and thirds inside-bevel clump-24....................~ 72..... Seconds and( thirds outside-bevel clump-.................... 72 72..... F1~irsts, seconds,and thirdissquiare clumip. (All clumps to bejumped in the waist) 24 24 -..... One row of rivets or sprigs extra'........... -........... 24 12..... Screwed tee and Joint in clumps....-......................-. 48 24..... Three rows of rivets or sprigs in middle-.................... 12. Common laced kip and Ilesh boot, black waist-..................... 12..... Nailed boot, with black waist-............................. 24 -....... Wellingto1n...........................-........ 24 24..... Twos to fives: Paten ts-.................................. 12 1-2 -.... Machinle-sewn -------------------------- ---- 18 18..... Fiddle-wadst-................................... 12 --....... Bevel edge-.................................... 18..... TiZed welt —..................................... 12..... Best and common inside-bevel clump......-...........-... 24 48..... Outside-bevel clumps-........................... 48 48..... Firsls, seconds and thirds square clumps-................. 1-2 12..... Screwed toe and joint in clumps-...................... 36 18..... One row of rivets or sprigs extra-12.................... 6..... Three rowvs of rivets or sprigs in middle-.................. 12......... Common lace kip and flesh boot, with black waist-................ 12..... Nailed boot, with black waist-.......................... 12..... ]Elevens to ones and sevens to tens: Pateit.............t-..................... 6 6..... Fiddle-waist-.................................... 12..... Machine-sewn-............................... 12 12..... Blest and common bevel clumps-...................... 12 36..... One row of rivets or sp)rigs extra-.................... 1-2 6..... Three rows of rivets or sprigs in middle-.................. 12 6..... Common lace kip and flesh boot, with black waist-................ 6. Nailed boot, with black waist-........................... 6..... MEN'S SLIPPER WORK. Common pumps, white bottoms-........................ 84 96..... Common pumps, brown bottoms-........................ 84 84..... Boys' twos to lives common pumps, white bottoms-.............. 72 84..... Boys' twos to fixes common pumps, browvn bottoms-.............. 72 72..... *No extra for finishing one extia row on common brown bottoms. WAGES IN ENGLAND. 337 ages in the boQt and shoe trade at Leeds-Continued. Per dozen. ~. Class of work. a X. e * _p WOMEN'S WORK. 1. Best kid and seal levant, either plain, fancy, blocked, turned in or not..... 1 27 $1 45 $1 21 2. Kid and gnus levant, either plain or blocks, not turned in................. 1 15 1 33 1 09 3. Kid, sand-boots, and block-grained-.............. 96 1 21 96 3. Calf and grained bals —96.................................. 96 1 09 84 4Clirniesrsrs....................................... 84 1 09 84 5. Commonalforsheepironrivetsorsprigsflatheels, (nothigherthan 3 inch) 84 96 72 Elevens to ones: 1. Bestid and seal levant, either plain, fancy, blocked, turned in or not. 84 1 09 90 2. Kid, gnus, levant, sand-b............................... 72 96 78 3. Common calf and sheep, flat heels, iron rivets and sprigs.............. 66 84 65 Sevens to tens: 1. Best kid and seal levant, either plain, fancy, blocked, turned in or not.. 72 96 78 2. Kid, gnus, levnt,............................... 66 84 66 3. Common calf and sheep, flat heels, iron rivets and sprigs.............. 60 72 54 Fours to sixes: 1. Bestkid and levant.60.................................. 60 72 6C 2Cl domn................................ 54 66 54 EXTRAS ON WOMEN'S WORK. Firsts, secondsand thirds outside-bevel clump............................... 48 72....... Firsts, seconds, and thirds inside-bevel clump............................... 24 7......... Firsts, seconds, and thirds squre clump..................................... 24 24........ Firsts and seconds machine-sewn............................... 24 4................................ 12 12......,............................ 48s 48.... ~Thirds macblu~e-sewn................................................ Wiirtemburg heel................................................... 4........ Fiddle-waist —------------------------------------------ -........ —....... Channels... —-------------------------------- ---- 12..... White foreparts ------------------------------- ---- 12..... 12 ~~~~~~~~!Black waist and brown foreparts................ Brown waist..and black foreparts.................................. 12. All patent.. —--------- --- ------ ------ ----- --- 12 12.... One row of rivets or sprigs extra;* —....................... 24 12 -.... One row of sprigs or rivets round forepart and three in middle.......... 36 12..... Women's high-le-red boots, 7 inches...................... 24 24..... Elevens to ones and sevens to tens: Machie-sewn, elevens to ones............................... 12 12........ ~~~ 1Machine-sewn, sevens to tens.............. 6 6....... Fiddle-waist —-.................................. 12 -. -...... White foreparts. —-----— %.......................... 12. —-- Black waist and brown forepart........................... 6..... Brown waist and black forepart,........................... 6. —-- Channels........................................ 6..... Firsts and seconds bevel clump....................... 12 36..... One row of rivets or sprigs extra* — 12................... h 6..... One row of rivets or sprigs round the forepart and three up middle.... 24 6..... Fours to sixes: Machine-sewn................................. 6 6..... Fiddle-waist —-................................... 12..... White foreparts —-................................ 12. —-- Black waist and brown foreparts -—........................ 6..... Brown waist and black foreparts -—........................ 6..... Girls' high-legged boots, all sizes —..................... 12 12Copper tips, all sizes.......................... 6......... WOMEN'S SLIPPER WORK. Pumps, -white and black bottoms-.................3...... 0 84..... Pumps, brown bottoms-............................ 60 72..... Women's cashmere pumps, with top-piece or spring-heels-........... 72 84 7 *No extra for finishing one extra row on common brown bottoms. HUDDERSFIELD. Extensively engaged in the woolen manufacture, lluddersfield is celebrated for its production of shawls, flushings, &c. It possesses extensive canal aild railway communication and a plentiful supply of water and coal. The number of operatives in the matnufacture of woolens in 1871 was 17,297, of whom 11,292 were males and 6,005 females. The variety and extent of the exports to the United States are Minccated by the following22 L 338 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Statement showing the exports from Huddersfield to the United States during the year ending June 30, 1873. Description. U. S. gold. Description. U. S. gold. Woolen goods......................... $2, 022, 683 Cotton and wool - $56, 400 Wool and worsted goods.............. 103, 533 Cotton and silk...................... 1, 205 Worsted goods........................ 82, 328 Sewing cottons...................... 149, 483 Worsted and silk goods............... 43. 517 Fustians............................ 3,1638 Wool and linen 31551 Flocks 64,162 Worsted and cotton -,...'::...... 9,182 Linen................................ 31,454 Wool and silk......................... 38, 815 Linen and cotton..................... 4, 269 Wool, silk, and worsted --------------- - 2 1,381 Calf-hair............................ 227, 507 Wool, cotton, and silk................. 2,219 Chemicals and colors................. 46,220 Worsted, cotton, and silk.............. 4, 304 Machinery........................... 3, 719 Mohair and cotton.................... 8, 697 All others............................ 4, 810 Mohair............................... 1,796 Mohair and wool...................... 4,497 Total........................... 3, 049, 374 Cotton goods.......................... 110, 004 WAGES IN WOOLEN-MILLS. Wages paid in a large manufactory at Huddersfield doing business with the United States. Occupation. Sex. U. S. gold. Wool-sorters.................................. Men.................................. $5 so Dyers ------------------------------------------ do................................. 484 Overlookers....................................... do................................. $9 68 to 14 51 Teasers........................................... do................................. 4 36 Feeders....................................... Boys and girls........................ 2 18 Engineers.................................... Men.................................. 847 Spinners.......................................... do................................. 7 26 Warpers........................................ Women and girls..................... 18 Beamers...................................... Men.................................. 2 18 to 290 Sizers.............................................. do................................. 4 84 to 19 36 Timers............................................ do................................. 4 84 to 19 36 Weavers-....... do................................. 5 80 to 968. Women............................... 3 63 to 484 Menders......................................-..... do................................. 4 36 to 6 29 Knotters. -...... Girls................................. 2 18 to 2 90 Buffers...................................... Women and girls...................... 218 Scourers...................................... Men.................................. 206 Fullers or millers.............................-.... do................................. 7 26 Tenterers......................................... do — 6 29 to 7 26 Fiishers- do-4 84 to 5 80 Finishers.................................. do.................................. 4 84 to 3 88']Boys-194 to 388 Pressers -.......... Men........................ 4 84 to 5 80 Warehousemen.................................. do 4 84 to 7 26 Engine-tenters..................................do................................. 5 80 to 9 68 Firemen......................................... do — 5 32 WAGES OF MECHANICS AND FARM LABORERS. Rates of wages paid for mechanical and farm labor in the year 1874. [Hours of labor vary from 50 to 52i per week.] Occupation. Per week. Occupation. Per week. MECHANICS. MECHANICS-Continued. Blacksmiths...................... $4 80 to $6 00 Tanners......................... $5 76 Bricklayersand masons ---------- 7 68 Tinsmiths -------------------- - -. 1 20 Cabinet-makers................... 4 80 to 7 20 Wheelwrights................... 6 920 to 6 7-2 Carpenters....................... 6 48 Coopers.......................... 6 72 to 7 20 FARE-LABORERS. Miners.......................... 8 64 Machinists...................... 4 80 Experienced hands.............. 2 0 Painters.......................... *11 to 14 Ordinary hands ------------------ t36 to 72 Shoemakers....................... 7 20 to 8 40 Common laborers at other than Stone-cutters.................... 7 20 farm-work..................... NO to 96 Tailors.......................... 7 20 to 9 12 Female servants................. -72 to 1 32 * Per hour. f Per day. WAGES IN ENGLAND. 339 BRADFORD. Population in 1871, 145,830. Bradford, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, is, as was previously stated, the seat of the British worsted trade, and exports largely to the United States. In the years 1872 and 1873, the value of principal merchandise exported from the Bradford consular district to the United States was as follows: Statement showing the exports to the United States from the consular district of Bradford, during the respective years ended September 30, 1873 and 1872. Articles. 1873. 1872. Articles. 1873. 1872. Worsted goods........... $12, 931, 894 $14, 631,176 Yarns................... $3, 861 $16. 562 Carpets-.................. 1, 620, 304 1, 911,470 Shawls --------:, 220, 297 Wool..................... 926, 362 906, 951 Mats and rugs........... 446 562 Machinery............... 167, 590 216, 793 Velvet.................. 1, 291 1, 07 Iron and steel............ 124, 514 105,071 Damnasks. —----- 1,573........... Cloths.................... 66, 558 52, 343 Miscellaneous.2.......... 8, 462 68, 306 Soap-grease.............. 11, 680 27, 252 Flocks................... 12,511 8, 544 Total.-............... 15, 900, ~266 17, 940, 40 In addition to the above the value of Bradford goods, invoices of which are certified at Manchester, amounts to about a million dollars, making an aggregate importation into the United States, in 1872, chiefly of worsted goods, from Bradford and vicinity, of about 819,000,000 in, specie, at prime cost. When the freights and other charges, insurance,. and duty (of about 60 per cent.) were added, the total currency value of these goods when landed in New York must have approximated. $36,000,000. In this connection the following extracts from a pamphlet on "'Bradford and the Worsted Manufacture," by Mr. George Taylor, will prove interesting: The whole area of the West Riding worsted manufacture may be included in a triangle, of vwhlich the base is a line drawn from Halifax to Otley, and Skipton the apex, containing about 200 square miles. In 1801, the population of this district was 358,698; in 1871, it was 453,047. The term " worsted" is generally said to be taken from a small town in Norfolk, where the manufacture at one time was chiefly conducted. The rapid. growth in Bradford and the district which it embraces, of the trade indicated by theword, "worsted" has been remarkable, and indeed almost unprecedented. WTool had long: been spun by hand in private houses, but it was not till the end of the last century that spinnin6, by steam-power was established in Bradford. The first steanm-factory in the town, which -was, lbnilt in the year 1800, had grown, in the year 1871, into 133 worsted factories within the borough of Bra~dford alone, with 12,807 horse-power, and employ-. ing- 27,855* work-people; and, in the -whole of tile -worsted trade throughout the kingdom, into 630 worsted factories, worked by steam-engines of 48,977 horse-power, andemploying 109,557 work-people. ANN~UAL VALUE OF TI-E WORSTED TRADE. A careful investigation of the value of this industry was made in, 1864, by Mr. Behrens, then president of the Bradford Chamber of Corn. mnerce. The total value, then, of the -wool, goats' hair, cotton, &c., manufactured into worsted and woolen ya~rns and tissues, in A. D. 1864, was ~,64,400,000. Of this, the worsted portion was ~33,600,000, the -woolen ~30,800,000. After quoting this estimate, Mr. Taylor continues: The progress has been great in both respects; and', withouft going into unnecessary details, an estimate made by the same gentleman, and which is mainly based upon The returns of the census of 1871 give the numsber of work-peoplein the worsted trade as 26,598; males, 9,340, and females, 17,258; and in the woolen-cloth manufacture, 6,508 males, and 2,727 females, total 9,235.-E. Y. ~340 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. theagricultural returns and the board of trade tables for 1872, shows a corresponding extension of the worsted trade during that period. While the available quantity of wool and of similar animal fiber for all purposes was 384,000,000 pounds in 1864, it was last year 500,000,000 pounds, (138,000,000 pounds being of home growth,) of which, probably, 245,000,000 pounds were required for worsted, and 255,000,000 pounds for woolen manufactures, producing in combination with cotton, silk, and other materials, 46,700,000 of worsted yarns and tissues, and ~36,100,000 of woolens. Nothing shows better the great and constant development of the Bradford trade than the amounts exported to all parts of the inhabited globe, which wereYarns. Worsted tissues. In 1842....................... ~637, 305 ~3,556,963 ~4,194,268.In............... 1,430, 140 4,933,090 6,363,230...In 1862. -. —....... 3, 662,555 5,881,789 9,544,344....In 1864....-..... 5,183,229 10, 800, 521 15,983,750 In..................... 6,110, 138 20, 905,163 27015,291 As even a brief mention of the worsted trade would be incomplete without a reference to Sir Titus Salt, to whom more than to any other man is the growth and prosperity of that leading industry due, a somewhat extended notice of the works at Saltaire will appear on sbsequent pages. WAGES IN WORSTED-MILLS, BRADFORD. Statement of the rates of wages paid to the various operatives employed in manufactories of yarns and textilefabrics in Bradford in 1872. Occupation. Sex. Wages Remarks. perweek. W~ool-combing: wool-sorters*.$..................... 6 77 Long English wool, $1.44 to $2.40 per pack. Wool-washer*..................5 es Patent bowl. Wool~~~~~~~was.......r....... 4 60 Hand-fork, (old way.) Makers-up -............ Mn........ 4 00 IWomen ------- 29 Takers-off-................do -........ 2 78 Comb-niinders.. -..........Men -......... 4 11 Preparers-..............Women -....... 3 63 Ballers-.................do-........ 2 90 Dryers-...............Men -......... 4 ii Jobber-...............Young man 16 to 20 3 15 years. Mechanics —....................... 7 62 Warehousemen —...................... 4 16 Overlooker —....................... 9 07 For competent person. Drawing and spinning: Drawers-...............Women........ 2 78 Rovers-.................do-........ 2 66 Spinners-.............{........... 2 90 Minding 3 sides of a frame. I.................. 1 30Minding 2 sides of a frame. Twisters —..............Women-....... 2 90 Bobbin-layers - -...........Boys and girls.... 2 30 Bobhin takers-off - -..........Bo'ys over 14 years. - 2 54 Jobber -- do...............-0........ 2 48 Reelers, (piecework) -—................... 9 68 61 to 7 cents fine counts over $9.60. Hank and grossers (piecework) - - -............ 512 Packers -—......................... 4 11 Weft-men -—........................ 6 53 Overlooker-........................ 7'56 For competent person. WveavinDg: Warp-dressers -—..................... 7 26 Twisters -—......................... 7 26 Weavers, (piecework) -—................. 4 36 $4.32 per week; Vien, $5.76. Takers-in -—........................ 7 02 Overlookers -—....................... 7 56 Pa~ttern-designers.. —................... 10 97 *Foreign wool $2.40 to $4.80 -per pack of 240 pounds. *Some portion of this extraordinary increase may be accounted for by the advance fn prices which took place in 1871 and 1872. WAGES IN ENGLAND. 341 A.~~~~fpproximate rates of plages and earninglls of Sir Titus Salts Sons - Co., Saltaire, October, 1872. Average ~Occupation. ~Sex. earnings per week. Preparing, ~Wool-sorters-Mb.......................... Men.............. $6 78 to $7 98 ~~~Wool-washers-do-.......................... do............. 3 87 to 4 84 ~Wool-dyers-do - 4 36 to 29........................ do............. 4 36 to 6 29 Wool-combers-do - 387to484........................................... ---- 3 87 to 4 84 Carding and spinning: Spinners-............................... Girls.............. 2 18 to 5 08 Warpers and beamers-..................... Women........... 4 84 to 7'26 Reelers-do -40.......................... 460............. - 3 39 to 4 60 ~~~~~Overlookers-..................... Men.............. 7 26 to 8 47 Weaving: ~~~Weavers $...........484t........ do............. 484to 5 81................ Women........... 3 39 to 4 36 Burlers-Men — 3...................................... Men............. 3 15 Overlookers-do - 7 74 to 8 96...................................... do.......... 7 74 to 8 96 W~arp-dressers ------------------------------------------------------ ---- do -............. 7 26 to 8 47 ~~~~~~do............... o —--—... 4 84 to 8 05 Engine-room yard-cleanrs....................... do...... 4 84 to 6 05 Mechanics, such s machinists,......................... do............. 7 99 Laborers and watchme....-..................... do.............5 81 to 6 78 ~~~~Carters-do -- 6 05.......................... do............. 6 05 lMr. Titus Salt, jr., who furnished the above figures, states that the workme are not quite so well off now as they were before the rise in wagesowing to the greater advance in the prices of provisions and especially of coals. Mr Bacchus, the resident agent of Messrs. A. T. Stewart & Co., says: Women in worsted factories earn i8s. and men about 24s. per week. Laborers and the lowest class of workmen earn 20s.; machinists, 28s. per week. Mechanics' qvages.-Masons, joiners, plumbers, plasterers, smiths, and painters, 5s. 6d. per day to good workmen for five days in a week and 2s. 6d. on Saturdays; total earn.ings, 30s., $7.25. HALIFAX. Population in 1871, 65,510. The manufacture of cloth commenced. here in the beginning of the fifteenth century, and Halifax ranks next to Leeds and Bradford as a seat of the woolen and worsted industries. But it is best known as the place where the carpet-mills of the celebrated firm of John Crossley & Sons are situated. A visit to these extensive works, when so courteously shown through every department as the author was, amply repays the journey. It is pleasant to recognizeb patterns of carpets il. use in our houses, to note that the most elegant and tasteful patterns belong to several of the leading carpet dealers in the chief cities of the United States, and to be assured that one of them has the best- taste in this direction of any dealer in Europe or America. Sir Francis Crossley is deceased, but the present head of the house, Mr. John Crossley, and his partners, possess also a high reputation for business integrity and-enterprise and for the benevolent interest taken in their employe's and townsmen. A notice of some of the benefactions of the members of this firmi, as well as those of Sir Titus Salt, alike celebrated in a kindred industry,'will appear on subsequent pages. The number of hands employed in the chief industries of Halifax, according to the report on the English census of 1871, was as follows: Males. Females. In woclen-cloth manufacture.~~~~~~ ~~3,416 1, 837 In worsted and stuff manufacture-.................. 3, 421 4, 6030 In carpet and rug manufacture.1, 223 732 342 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The following scale of weekly wages in the carpet-mills of John Crossley & (Co., Halifax, was sent to the author by that firm at the date ilndicated: WAGES IN CARPET-MILLS, HALIFAX. Mean rates in UJ. S. gold. Wool-sorters, 20s. to 28s...... 75..... Dyers, (very much according to ability and special work.) Spinners, boys and girls, from 8s. or 9s. to 13s..4 3 Spinners, men, from 20s. to 30s6...................... 0 Weavers, men, from 20s. to 35s................47 Young women in various employments, from ls. to 20s3 63 While the wages are correctly stated above, the margin is too extended. From conversation with weavers employed in these mills, the information was gained that men earned at piecework from 23s. to 24s. per week, and women from 13s. to 14s. It will be observed at these figures are within the limits above given, and are more definite, and may be regarded as the average earnings of male and female weavers. It was stated that girls on regular wages, not on piecework, receive but 10s.; laborers, 18s.; and machinists to repair looms and machinery, from 26s. to 28s. per week; the latter working ten and a half hours per day. KIDDERMINSTER, WORCESTERSHIRE. Although not in Yorkshire, Kidderminster has long been known as the seat of the ingrain-carpet trade, but of late this branch has been transferred to Dewsbury, while Kidderminster now makes the worsted or tapestry carpets. The following statement of the average rates of wages paid in carpet-mills was presented by the proprietors at the date indicated: Weeky wgesof prsos eployed in, 1872 in the wvorsted sp~inning and carpet manufactory belonging to John Brintons 4c Co., in, Kidderminster-, England. [Hours of labor per week, 59.] Description of work. wages. Description of work. Wages. Engine-room, yard, &c.: Worsted yarns and fabrics-Con. Engineers-........... $9 CS Gill-box and drawing bands $ 2 66 Mechanics-...........$0 72 to 1 21 Spinners-1.......... 81 Laborers, watchmen, and yard Twisters-...........2 05 hands.. -........... 4 36 to 6 05 Reelers —...........2 66 Foremen —........... 9 CS Overseers —..........9 68 worsted yarns and fabrics: Assistants —..........4 84 Wool-sorters.. -........ 7 26* Dyers-........per day.. $0 56 to 0 64 Wool-washers ----- ----- 4 84 Weavers-......per yard. 05 Combers-............ 4 84 Finishers-.....per piece..- 12 to 14 *7-2 cents to $1.C9 per pack, according to quality of wool. AGRICULTURAL-IMPLEMENT WORKS AT IPSWICIH. In the exposition at Moscow, in 18712, a most creditable display of agricultural tools and implements was made by the firm of Itansomes, Sims & Head, proprietors of the Orwell Works at Ipswich, England. In reply to a request for the rates of wages paid in the works, the, following letter and statement were received: Ipswicn, October 12, 1872. EDWARD YOUNG, Esq., London: Our books will not enable us, without considerable trouble, t6 give you the information which you hi2.vo asked for respecting wages paid in our works to different classes of men, so that, although we have filled up your paper as nearly as we can, yet the fig WAGES IN ENGLAND. 3 43 ures must not be taken as strictly correct. The wages vary very much, according to the skill of the workmen, and the average weekly earnings depend very much upon the amount of overtime which the men may make. We may say that we have for a numer of years taken the average weekly wages earned by all the men and boys, whether mechlanics or laborers, in our employ, and find that it averages 20s. 6d. per week. The proportion of boys under twenty to men is about 3 in 11. The standard hours of labor per week are fifty-four, ut this is considerably increased by overtime. The price of coal is also much more than it has been for many years. We are yours, faithfully, RANSOMES, SIMS & HEAD. Mean rates of agespaid in United States gold to workmnen employed in the agricultural-imleent ork of Messrs. ansomes, Sims 4c Head, Ipswich. Occupation. Wages. Occupation. Wages. Wood-workers-......... $5 93 Painters................................. $5 44& ~~~~Iron-workers:, Laborers.................................. 4 231 Molders-........... 6 77 Carters.................................. 4 35' Turners or machinists7 50 Apprentices or youths................... 1 93 Blacksmiths......6 77 Foremen or overlookers................... 13 31 Hours of labor per week, 54. On piecework they earn from j to 3, more. Rents of 3-roomed tenements, occupied y working people, 72 cents per week. Present price of coal at works per ton: steam coal, $7.26; smiths' coal, $5.32. THE BRICK MAKING TRADE. The foowigextract from the report of the inspector of factories for 1874, shows the earnings of work-people at brick-making, and also ain the blacking-workCHESTER. BRICK-MAKING, NEAR MANCHESTER. By the union tariff, the sum drawn by the molder from the master is now 9 shillings ($2.16) per thousand bricks, which is thus distributed: to, the molder, 2s. 4d., (56 cents,) and the same amount to the temperer; to the wheeler, 2s. 3d., (54 cents;) to the carrier-off, Is. 0jd., (25 cents;) and the same to the wailer. The m older has also the right to nominate the carrier-off (who is from 13 to 16 years of age) and the waller. The former is generally his son, the latter his wife or daughter. If the molder does not claim his right to nominate, it passes to the temperer; failing him, to the wheeler; and failihg all three, to the employer himself. The average number of bricks- turned out by each molder this season has been 500,QOO during the 20 weelis; which is at the rate of 25,000 per week bf 45 hours, (rather more than one day per week having been lost by rain.) Thus the earnings have been, molder, 14.19; carrier-off, $6.35, and -waller, $6.35; making a, total weekly average for the molder,'his wife, and his son of $26.89. One case of a molder I knew, who tamed out 620,000 bricks this season. His son, aged 14, carried them off, and his daughter aged 17, wfilled them; a second daughter, of 19, worked at another stool. The -net weekly earnings of. this man and his three children amounted to $41.00. The brick-makers, as a rule, are -not improvident; the system of leaving back money with the masters is being generally adopted. Some carriers-off, at the end of the season, had ~8 to. ~,10 to take. MOSS BROOK BLACKING-WORKS. The wrappers-np are lads of 16 to 20 years of age; there are 70 of them, each served by two half-timers, or by one full-timer putter-on, at which rate the average weekly earnings -are as follows: A wrapper-up, per week, $4.32; full-time putteron, pr-ek, -$2.16; half-time putter-on, per week, $0.96. The total ndumber of persons employed, all boys, is 321. LONDON. Population. in 1871, 3,254,260. The rates of wages in the metropolitan district, especially those ruling in 1871, are given on preceding pages unuder the heading "Metropolis." IUnlike most of the towns whose industries have been considered, it is 344 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. not the seat of any very extensive manufactures which find a market in the United States. To show the variety, but not the extent, of the exports from London, the following report, made by the United States consul-general, Gen. Badeau, to the Department of State, is presented: Summary of qoods exported from London to the United States of America during the years ending September 30, 1871, 1872, 1873, with a list of theprinci e PRINCIPAL ARTICLES SENT FROM LONDON TO THE UNITED STATES. Acids, arrowroot, artists' materials, animals of every description, (alive,) alpaca wool, ammonia, ammunition, axes, brass, bronzes, bleachig-powder, blacking, beer, biscuits, buttons, braces, belts, buckles, brushes, bristles, bricks, books, boots, bbs, baby-linen, brilliants, balls, barometers, braids, bone, bolts, bedsteads, bars, bark, copper, cutlery, clocks, crystals, cabinet-work, carvings, cork, cork-wood, cochineal, chemicals, cement, chalk, chocolate, cocoa, colors, china, coffee, chiccory, corsets, carpets, cords, cottons, crapes, cartridges, caps, cards, cricketing materials, castings, candles, cliff-stone, carriages, drugs, druggists' sundries, dogs, diamods, decanters, emry, essences, essential oils, engravings, earthenware, furniture feahers, flowers, all kinds of fancy articles, furs, fringes, felt, floor-cloth, fog-sigals, flax, flannels, fishing-tackle, granite, guns, gold, gold bronze and leaf, gums, glass, gloves, gutta-percha, gun-waddings, gelatine, gold-beaters' skins, grindstones, hardware, ats, hatters' furs, horsehair, harnesses, horns, horses, hops, haberdashery, hosiery, human hair, hides, iron, ivory, ink, India-rubber goods, isinglass, jewelry, jet goods, kamptulican, lead, lime, leather, linens, laces of all kinds, linoleum, metals, mustard, mineral waers, manufactures of all kinds, models, moldings, molds, musical instruments, music, millinery, manufactures of leather, matches, milk, machinery, needles, newspapers, oils, oilman's stores, oaium, oxen, oatmeal, platina, precious stones, plated goods, perfumery, powder, provisions, pins, photographs and photographic materials and utensils, paintings, pictures, prints, piano-fortes, paper, periodicals, pamphlets, parchment, playing-cards, paper-waste, pigs, plants, prints, parasols, percussio-caps, pickles, preserves, patent barley, quicksilver, ribbons, retorts, rags, ready-made clothin of all descriptions, ugs, rope, raw silk, steel, skins, spelter; stone, silver, sticks, soaps, sodas, starch, spirits, shells, shell goods, scienitific instruments, stationery, stereotype-plates, shoes, sheep, seeds, shirts, silks, sheetings, shawls, straw-plaiting, straw hats and bonnets, string, stuff-goods, sun-shades, sausage cases, sauces, spices, salts, statuary, tin-foil, tin, tea, tapestry, tobacco, toys, tools, umbrellas, veneers, varnishes, vellum, vulcanite, wire, -watches and movements, wood, wines, wax figures, wools, woolens, and worsteds. Year ending Vau. Year ending Vau. Year ending Vle Sept., 1871. Vau. Sept., 1872.* Vau. Sept., 1873.t8 Vle ~ sa d. ~ s. d. ~ s. d. Dec. 31, 1870. 1, 756, 998 12 6J Dec. 31, 1871.. 1, 930, 377 112 10 Dec. 31, 1872.. 2, 759, 304 16 1 Mar. 3!, 1871. 2,331,842 16 0* Mar. 31,1872.. -2,240,674 7 8 Mfar. 31,1873.. 2,060,138 7 8 June 30, 1871. 2, 248,-830 12 3 June 30, 1872.. 1,856,446 11 6 June 30,1873.. 1,556,815 9 11 Sept. 30, 1871. 2, 320, 365 0 0 Sept. 30, 1872.. 2, 644, 485 14 8 Sept. 30, 1873.. 1, 202, 814 0 9 Total....8, 658, 037 0 10 Total-....8, 671,984 6 8 Total-....7, 579, 072 14 5 Year 187-2, ~13,947 5s. 10d. mere than the year 1871. Year 1873, ~1,092,911 12s. 3d. less than the year 1872. DEPTFORD, COUNTY OF KENT. Statement showing the average weekly wages (in United States gold) of persons employed in the engineering-works of Messrs. J. Stone 4- Co., in the town of Depyfod, county of Kent, En gland. [Hours of labor per week, 54.1 9% Cs 10.Cm Occupation. Wae.~Occupation. Wagres. 16 Pattern-makers - -........ $9 19 50 Laborers.....:.......$4 36 to $5 18 12 Brass-molders-.........$8 71 to 10 16 80 Boys and apprentices.......1 21 to 2 40 20 Iron-molders-.......... 9 19 Engineers............ 8 71* 10 Coppersmiths —-------- 9 19 Laborers or unskilled workmen 4 36 to 5 18 12 Braziers.............7 26 to 8 71 Apprentices or boys....... 1 20Oto 2 40 86 Turners. —--------— 7 98 to 9 19 Foremen or overseers-......9 68 to 19 36 98 Fitters. —---------— 6 77 to 7 98 *And upward. WAGES IN ENGLAND. 345 NEWASTLE-UPON-TYNE. An extended report on the trade and industry of Newcastle-uponTne was prepared for these pages by Evan R. Jones, esq., United States consl for that district, a condensed statement from which is presented in the following pages. "The various tables given in connection with the different subjects treated in the report," Mr. Jones says, "have been prepared with great care, and can be relied upon with confidence: 1 NEwcASTL.-Newastle-upon-Tye, as its name indicates, is situated upon the river Tyne, ten miles west of where that river flows into the North Sea. Formerly Newcastle was the chief town of the county of Northumberland, but by virtue of a charter granted by Henry IV, in the year 1400, it became a county in itself, and is represented in Parliament by two members. At the last census, taken in 1871, the population of this town was 128,443, to which we must add 48,637, the population of Gateshead; for, notwithstanding the last-named place is in the county of Durham, its interests are identical with Newcastle, and in a, commercial point of view we must consider them as one. The two towns are divided by the river Tyne, and united by three large bridges, including the High-level Bridge, oneof the engineering triumphs of Robert Stephenson. The source of the great wealth of Newcastle and district, which includes North and South Shields, is the rich coal-beds found in the immediate neighborhood. Not only does this commodity contribute toward the prosperity of the Tyne directly; but we are also indebted to its cheap price, in all probability, for the establishment upon the banks of this river of some of the most complete and extensive engineering-works to be found in the United Kingdom, if not in the world. I particularly refer to the Elswick engine and ordnance works of Sir William G. Armstrong & Co.; the shipbuilding-establishment of Messrs. C. M. Palmer & Co., at Jarrow; the factories.of Messrs. Robert Stephenson & Co., and Messrs. R. & W. Hawthorn, for the manufacture of locomotives and other engines and machines, together with some of the largest chemical-works in this country. THE TYNE.-I have repeatedly been informed by masters of American ships that in former years the entrance into the Tyne was both difficult and dangerous, and that the channel of the river was in a shallow and otherwise unsatisfactory condition. I need not remind you that such a state of things must have proved a check both upon the shipping interests and the general commercial growth of the district. Thanks to the river Tyne commissioners, causes for complaints, under this head, no longer exist. I extract a few brief passages from the" "report of Captain E. K. Calver, royal navy, on the improvements effected in the river Tyne." He says: "1The depth of the channel over the bar, which was 6 feet 5 inches in 1849, had been increased by dredging to 15 feet in 1865, the time of one of my periodical examinations. Now there is no har, as a' depth of 27 feet exists along the track in from sea!, till the proper channel of the river is reached. "1There is now a minimum depth of 24 feet in that portion of the entrance channel where the I'stontls,' with 9 feet over them, formerly existed. "Briefly stated the result is, that the commissioners have, by the process of dredging, cleared away the bar; they have freed the throat of Shields Harbor from the obstructions which -nearly blocked it up; they have removed seven extensive Shoals from out of the channel of the river between Shields and Newcastle, and increased the ruling navigable depth between the same limits from 21 feet to 13 and 14 feet, while, by the consequent tidal grain, they have created a power for assisting in the future maintenance of the "increased capacity of the river. These results, of nattonal as well as of local importance, establish the Tyne as the most noteworthy example of river improvement within the bounds of the United Kingdom." No one questions but what these truly wonderful improvements have greatly contributed toward makin~g the Tyne what it is, and has been for several years, the third among the great shipping rivers of the kingdom, in the number and tonnage of vessels entering and clearing. 8kip-buildin)g.-Iron-ship-building takes rank next to the coal-trade in magnitude and importance, -no less than 20,000 men being employed in the various establishments on the Tyne for the construction of iron vessels. Among the many extensive works of the kind to be found on this river, the Palmer Ship-building and Iron Company at Jarrow is the largest and most complete. They employ about 8,000 men. Next in importance stands the establishment of Messrs. C. Mitchell & Co., at Low Walker, four miles down the Tyne, where about 3,000 men areemployed. 346 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Vessels or an aggregate of 88, 000 tons were launched from the various ship-yards on the Tyne during 1871. Locomotive and engine works.-Newcastle-upon-Tyne is the radle of the locomotive engine. At Wylam, eight miles west of this town, George Stephenson, the inventor of the first successful locomotive, was born in 1781, and in 1824, associated with Qther men of skill and means, he opened the locomotive-works which have since made Newcastle famous for the manufacture of these engines. Locomotives and marine engines manufactured here are exported to every country in the civilized world, with the single exceptionoftheUnitedStates. Those who have traveled in England will verify my statement, that both in appearance and in the arrangement of suitable protection for engine-driver and fireman, the locomotives of England, generally, are behind thos of America. But in countries where Newcastle engines are brought into competition with those manufactured elsewhere, statistics prove them to be possessed of great merit, both for speed and durability. The work turned out per anumand the number of men employeand at the works of Messrs. Robert Stephenson & Co. and those of Messrs. R. &. Hawthorn ae as follows:.~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~'.. 5 Firms. Messrs. Robert Stephenson & Co.......................52 12 1, 400 9 hours. Messrs. R. & W. Hawthorn & Co.......................hours. *4,000 horse-power. I was furnished with the number of horse-power, and not the number of engines, by Messrs. Hawthorn. The Elswick ordnance and engine works.-The Armstrong gun, by name at least, is known to nearly every American; comparatively fe, however, are aware that the ordnance works of Sir William George Armstrong & Co., where the destructive weapons are forged, are situated at Elsxvick, in the West End of Newcastle. Sir William, the son of a born merchant, who once filled the office of mayor of'Newcastle, was born at this town in 1810. He was educated for the law, and finally practiced as a solicitor in his native town. But the law had no charms for him; his mind was of the inventive and scientific turn. His earlier achievements were improvements -upon hydraulic engines and cranes; and in 1846 the Elswick engine-works were founded by Sir William and a few friends, chiefly foi: the construction of that class of machinery. During the Crimean war he, invented the breech-loading gun, with which his name will ever renmain associated. At present the Elswick engine and ordnance works of Sir William G. Armstrong & Co. is one of the richest firms, and most completely arranged works on the Tyne, where artillery is manufactured for nearly all the governments of the earth. The number of men employed in these works are in the neighborhood of 3,000, and are distributed nearly as follows: Ordnance works, about.1, 100 Hydraulic works, about. —------------------------—.1,200 Foundery works, about. —---------------...........400 Blast furnaces, about..............................200 Officers, about-.-.60 Total. — - - - - - - - - - - -- - ---- -- -- -- - -- - -- - — 2,960 The genius, indefatigable energy, and persevering industry of Sir William Armstrong have brought his gun to such a state of perfection, both in range, precision, and econoniy of powder, that, by almost unanimous consent, it is acknowledged to be the first of English ordnance. An ordinary 312-pounder weighs 6,384 pounds, requires ten pounds of powder, and carries a ball 3,000 yards. The Armstrong 32-pounder only weighs 2,912 pounds, requires five pounds of powder, and sends its shot or shell 9,000 yards. The first pieces turned out by the inventor were lined with steel; wrought iron, in the hand of a master, has since been found to be equally efficient. The Elswick ordnance-works construct guns ranging from a 12-pound field-piece to a 600-pounder, and are possessed of facilities for turning out several cannons per week. WAGES IN ENGLAND. 347 The time ocpied in the construction of a 600-pound gun is as follows: Forging, three weeks; for contraction, one week; turning, three weeks rifling, two weeks; finishing, two weeks; and for extra work, two weeks-total, 13 weeks. Glass-works.-Te Tyne Plate-Glass Company, of South Shields, employs 500 hands, athe following rate of wages: Casters, 30s. ($7.26) to 35s. ($8.47) per week; finishers and polishers, 35. ($8.47) to 40s ($9.68) per week. The quantity of glass produced per annum is about 600,000 feet; present price, 3s. 3d. (79 cents) per square foot. The works of Mr. John Sowerby, for the manufacture of glass-ware, are situated at Gateshead, just across the Tyne. There are several leading hoses engaged in the manufacturing business, which are also large exporters to America, not yet mentioned; such as Messrs. W. J. Cookson & LCo., in the leads, red and hite lead, and Venetian red trade, Messrs. Hoyle Robson & Co., manufacturers of pitc, varnishes, paints, &c., and others. Te alkali trade-The alkali trade forms by far the most important branch of the commerce carried on between this district and America. Soda crystals, alkali, and bicarbonate of soda are continually oing forward to all the larger ports on the Atlantic coast, and occasionally to San Francisco. Cheap fuel has induced capitalists to establish some of the largest chemical works in the kingdom upon the banks of this river. Takig three largest manufactories in the district, viz, the Jarrow Chemical Company, the Tyne Chemical Works, and the works of H. L. Pattinson & Co., I find that together they manufactured during the year 1871, 40,607 tons of soda crystals, 34,720 tons alkali, (refined and unrefined,) and 8,153 tons bicarbonate of soda, besides large quantities of caustic soda, chloride of lime, pearl hardening, and oil of vitriol. The alkali trade is in a thriving condition. Either through sagacity or by good fortune the manufacturers made large contracts for both salt and coal before the late advance in the prices of those articles took place, and by consequence they are now reaping a rich harvest. In former years the outlay attending the transportation of salt from the Cheshire beds was nominal; the charges of railway companies to Hull and Grimsby were at a very low rate, and at those places the article was taken in as ballast by vessels bound for the Tyne. However, such a state of things no longer exists; railway charges are high, and reg ular freight is charged by all vessels bringing salt from Hull and Grimsby to this river; and to-day the price of that article is 278. ($6.53) per ton, with an upward tendency. Small coal, which is chiefly used in the manufacture of this class of chemicals, is at present commanding 20s. ($4.84) to 25s. ($6.05) per ton. I need scarcely add that these figures are considerably in advance of those at which the fortunate contracts were made. If manufacturers engaged in what is generally known as the alkali trade were obliged to pay current pr-ices for salt and coal, I conjecture that decomposing the chloride of sodium would yield but a very moderate profit. The three firms above named employ no less than 4,500 men, at an average wage of 48. 6d. ($1.09) per day. The hours of labor necessarily vary according to the nature of employment. The following exhibits a fair estimate of the working hours of men engaged in the alkali trade; Mechanics, fifty-four hours per week; yard laborers, fifty-eight hours per week; processmen, (excepting decomposing-furnacemen,) twelve-hour shifts. "1Overtime" is not allowed -until after the full week's thue has first been worked. "1Piecework"1 is largely entered into in this as well as nearly every other branch of industry, and the more active'and ambitions men frequently realize from 40s. ($9.68) to 45s. ($10.89) as their week's, earnings. Price of labor.-During the year 1871 a complete revolution took place in the labor market of this country. In the early spring the engineers and machinists of Sunderland, spontaneously and without organization for the purpose, demanded a reduction of the time of labor from 59 to 54 hours per week. The demand was refused by the masters, and the men came out on strike. This might be considered as the keynote of the nine-hours' movement, which resulted in establishingc nine hours as8 a day's work in all branches of industry which admit of its application, throughout the United Kingdom. Not only have the working-hours been reduced, but in consequence of the increased demand for nearly every natural and manufactured commodity produced in this country, and the very considerable rise in the Cost Of living, wages have also been gradually advancing, especially since the first of this year. To illustrate this fact I have selected the engineer, as belonging to that class of workmen most closely identified with the great strikes of 1871. An engineer (erector and fitter) while working ten hours a day received only 26s. ($6.29) as his weekly wage previous to the strike; at present,-, with nine hours as a day's work, he obtains 308. $7.26) per week. 348 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The following table gives the average prices paid for labor on the Tyne September, 1872: Occupation. -Wages. ccpation. Wages. _ Carpenters.................. $8 47 54 GLASS TRADE. Joiners...-................... 7 50 54 Bricklayers................. 7 26 54 Casters$7 26 to $. 47 54 Stone-masons................ 7 26 54 Finishers and polishers 8 47 to 9 68 54 Plasterers.................... 7 26 54 Painters..................... 6 78 54 COLLIERS. Plumbers.................... 7 26 54 Fitters....................... $6 78 to 7 26 54 The Durham pits30 cts. per ton. 42 Blacksmiths.................. 7 02 54 The Northumberland pits -- 42 cts. per ton. 42 Strikers...................... 4 84 54 Riveters..................... 7 74 to 8 47 54 PRINTING AND OOK-MAKING Holders-up................... 5 81 to 6 29 54 TRADE. Platers....................... 8 47 54 Engravers, fist-class Lithographic printers ALKALI TRADE. Compositors and letter-press printers-7....6......... 7 - Mechanics................... 7 26 to 8 47 54 Book-biders6 53 54 Laborers..................... 4 84 58 Book-folders and sewers,woBrass-men.................... 6 05to 7 26 (*) first-class$2 42 to 2 90 * 12-hour shifts. Night-work upon dailypapers. Ruby, per 1,000 ems..................................... Nonpareil, per 1,000 ems................................ Minion, per 1,000 ems................................... Bourgeois, per 1,000 ems................................ W:eekly papers are less-12 cents per 1,000, minion, instead of 15 cents. The prices for day -work are ld. (2 cents) per 1,000 less thn for night-work. NOTEPriter inEngland measure differently from what they do in America. The width is measured in ems ad the depth in ens. Wages in iron-ship-building and engineering works.-The following statement of the wages, ruling at the close of -1874, shows but few changes from the rates of 1.872, as given by Mr. Jones. In this, as in a case previously noticed, the difference between the maximum and minimum rates is too great; the mean is not believed to be, the true average. For instance, some boiler-mnakers may earn 38s., but the mean rate, as above stated, 35s., is above the average, which is under 34s. So in regard to laborers; the average is not 22s., the mean rate here given, but 20s. at the utmost..Average weekly wages (computed in United States gold and working 54 hours per week) paid to persons employed in iron-ship-building and engineering shops in Newcastle-on-Tyne and vicinity in the year 1874. Occupation. Wages. Occupation. Wages. Iron-molders-............$7 74 to $lO 89 Foremen-.............$10 89 to $14 52 ~Best-........ 750 Engineers, fitters —------- *'6 77 to 8 22 Machinists.. - Ordinary-...... 6 05 Pattern-makers and carpenters - - 7 26 to 8 71 (Inferior-...... 5 32 Assistants-.......... 5 321 to 5 80 Helpers-......... 4 84 Laborers, carters, &c -........ 4 35 to 5 80 Boiler-makers-...........7 74 to 9 19 Apprentices-............ 1 45 to 2 90 Helpers-............. 6 53 Millwrights-............ 7'26 to 8 71 Iliveters-..............7 26 to 7 74 Assistants-.......... 4 35 to 5 80 Holders-on -...........5 80 to 6 77 Brass-founders-.......... 7 26 to 9 68 Flangers-.............9 68 to 10 89 Brass-fitters-........... 6 77 to 7 74 Helpers-............ 6 77 Brass-turners ----------- 6 77 to 7 74 Blacksmiths -............6 77 to 7 74 Sailmakers-............ 7 26 to 7 74 Helpers....-.......... 4 84 to 5 80 WAGES IN SCOTLAND. 349 The above list of waes shows what is being paid in the first-class and largest shipbuilding and engineering establishments in this neighborhood; we ourselves employing some men in all the trades for our making new and repairing old work. DAVID MOFFAT, Master Superintendent. NEWCASTLE-oN-TYNE, ovember 25, 1874. Wages in steamers.-The following scale of wages in steamers belonging to the Tyne Steam Shipping Company, limited, was furnished by Richard Welord, esq, secretary and manager: Pay while navigating. Pay during detention at home. Station. -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Per week Per day. Per week of 7 days. of 6 dlays. ~ s. d. s.d. s.d. s. d. Master........................ *4 0 0................................ Mate~ Chief............. 48 0 6 10 30 0 5 0 Mate................ 37 0 5 3j 26 0 4 4 ~Carpenter............... 36 0 5 I 35 0 5 10 ~Boatswain........... 31 0 4 5 24 0 4 0.Seamen --------—..... 30 e 4 31 24 0 4 0 ~~~Cook................. 24 0 3 5 24 0 f4 0.Steward........... 21 0 3 0 21 0 t3 6 Cook and steward........... 27 6 3 11 24 0 t4 0 (Chief................ 60 0 8 7 42 0 7 0 ngineer Seod................ 42 6 6 1 32 6 55 Third.......... 33 0 4 8- 1-25 0 4 5 ~~Firemen.......... 30 0 4 31 24 0 4 0 Trimmers............... 28 0 4 0 24 0 4 0.Watchman.. ------------------.-... --- - ~18 0 3 0 ~:Stewardess:..... 10 6 1 6 ().......... *'Generally this amount. t Not found. + If a mechanic, 28s. ~ 3s. extra on Sunday. 11 Per agreement. NOTE.-Twenty-four hours before sailingr-honr, and twenty-four hours after arrival, vessels are to be considered as in 11cmiso. Detention beyond this time places officers and men on reduced pay. Wages in all cases are to be reckoned and paid by the day. GLASGOW, SCOTLAND. Population in 1871, 477,732. Glasgow is the, commercial and manufacturing metropolis of Scotland, situated on the river Clyde, which, along its whole course, is beautified by magnificenat natural scenery and embellishments of art. Its banks are crowded with the abodes of industry and a thriving population. It was a place of some consideration at the commencement of the twelfth century. Glasgow now unites within itself a portion of the cotton-spinning and weaving manufactures of Manchester, the printed calicos of Lancaslhire, the stuffs of Norwich, the Shawls and mnslins of France, the silkthrowing of Macclesfield, the flax-spinning of Ireland, the carpets of Kidderminster, the iron and engineering works of Wolverhampton and ]Birmingham, the pottery and glass making of Staffordshire and Newcastle, the ship-building of London, the coal trade of the Tyne and Wear, and all the handicralts connected with or dependent on the full development of these various and important branches. Glasgow also has its chemical-works, tanneries, rope-walks, dye-works, bleach-fields, paper-manufactories, distilleries, and breweries, beside a vast number of staple and fancy hand-loom fabrics, which may be strictly said to belong to the locality. 350 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. While the iron, textile, and chemical products of Glasgow and vicinity are well known, the manufacture of iron machinery, and more recently the building of iron vessels, have given the Clyde a fame which is possessed by no other river. SHIP-BUILDING ON THE CLYDE. While in the days of wooden vessels the Clyde was noted for the marine-engines built by Napier and others, which attained the highest excellence of workmanship, the introduction of iron as the chief material used in building sea-going vessels, both sail and steam, has more recently rendered this small stream one of the celebrities of the world. From Glasgow to Greenock, twenty miles, the river is almost lined with ship-yards, working to their full capacity in the building of merchantships. There are in all twenty-eight yards on the Clyde, and these have launched during the year 227 vessels in all, with an aggregate tonnage of 224,000. The following table will specify the classes of vessels and tonnage of each class for 1872: STEAMERS. number. Aggregato tonnage. Paddle-wheel........-............................................ 10 6,200 Screw.-......................................... 146 198, 800 Hoppers and dredges.-................................... 5 1,900 SAILING. Iron.......-.......-,..................................... 11 12,500 Composite....-.................................................. 1 300 Wood......i.............................. 12 1,700 Barges........................................................... 14 600 YACHTS. Steam..-......................................................... 8 1, co(;00 Sailing.......................................................... 20 400 Total...................................................... 227 224,000 The larger of these vessels are destined to the following services: For the East Indian and China trade, 38; West Indian trade, 6; South American, 18; New York, 10; New Orleans, 6; Canadian, 7; African, 8; Mediterranean, French, and Spanish, 30. The others are chiefly coasters. The following is the aggregate tonnage launched from the Clyde yards during each of the last ten years. 1863. 124,000 1868........................ 1169,571 1864............................ 178,505 1869........................... 192, 300 1865.-..................... 153,932 1870........... 180,401 1866............................ 124,513 1871............196,229 1867............................ 108,024 1872..-......... —-.... 224,000 The year 1872 has been the most prosperous one in ship-building yet experienced on the Clyde. Although the number of vessels launched has not been quite up to each of the last few years, the tonnage exceeds 1871 by 28,000 tons and 1870 by 34,200 tons. The increase of last year has been larger than any yearly increase for many years past, and has been entirely in the class of screw-steamers. The year's tonnage of screw steam-vessels is 40,800 tons above 1871; 67,000 tons above 1870; 73,000 tons above 1869; and 77,500 tooni above 1868. But while the screw-vessels have so enormously increased, all the other classes seem on the decline. In the building of war-vessels, 1872 has been a blank on the Clyde. In paddle-steamers there has been a considerable decline, WAGES IN SCOTLAND. 351 and the year only shows 6,200 tons as against 10,900 tons in 1871; 10,150 tons in 1870; 8,300 tons in 1869; and 6,300 tons in 1868. In yac-buildig there has been a good trade, chiefly in screw steamvessels. CLYDE SHIP-BUILDING DURING 1873. [Condensed from an article in the London Economist of March 14, 1874.] When the movement for reducing the hours of labor in the engineering and shipbuilding trades was in progress a couple of years ago, followed or attended, as it was, with an advance of wages, there were many persons who, like "birds of ill omen," prognosticated a sudden collapse in the great ship-building industry of the Clyde, but, strage to say, notwitstandig the past year, 1873, has been the most extraordinary one that has ever been experienced in the whole history of that industry, and has most completely falsified all the evil prognostications, when we compare the tonnage launched during the whol of 1873 with th at launched in 1872, the result of the contrast is surprisig. In making the annual summary statement regarding the Clyde ship-buildin trade, it is cstomary to embrace all the vessels shipped in pieces, barges, and most of the small vessels in the December return; and doing so now we find that the December tonnage for each of the four years, 1871-'73, is as follows: 1870,61 vessels of 23,100 tons; 1871,76 vessels of 22300 ton; 1872, 50 vessels of 26,300 tons, and 1873, 46 vessels of 33,500tons. This last monthly total, therefore, brings up the work done during 1873 to 194 vessels of an aggregate of 261,500 tons, as against 227 vessels of 224,000 tons in 1872 231 vessels of 196,200 tons in 1871, and 234 vessels of 189,800 tons in the, year 1870. A brief examination of these returns brings out some very interesting facts. First, we notice that extending over a series of four years, while the number of vessels has fallen from 234 to 194, the tonnage of vessels has increased from 189,000 tons to 261,500, the increase upon the four years being 71,700, or considerably more than one-third of the whole tonnage launched in the year 1870. Within the short period of four years, therefore, the average size of vessels built on the Clyde has advanced from about 811 tons to about 1,348 tons, which indicates such a radical revolution in the mechanical arts as but comparatively few persons could have confidently.calculated upon at the commencement of that brief period. The question of "1 paddle versus screw 11 has again come to the front in connection with the ship-building statistics now under consideration. Paddle-steamers, as to tonnage, were nearly stationary in 1870 and 1871, being between 10,000 and 11,000 tons; they fell off in 1872 to rather over 6,000 tons, but last year they again rose to 19,100 tons, which was a very considerable increase. It was due, howevter, almost entirely to the demand miade by the China Steam NYavigation Comipany of Shanghai, which had no fewer than five large paddle-steamers supplied to them of 1,250 up to 3,2~00, and 200 up to 400 horse-power, or in totals 12,410 tons and 1,450 horse-power. Of screwv-steamnshi ps there were 125 launched during 1873, of an aggregate of 218,000 tons. These uumbers show that the average size of the Clyde-built screw-steamers has risen to I1,44 tons, which is a very extraordinary fact. For its explanation we must refer to the very large number of first-cl ass ocean steamers built during the year for various great mercantile companies. The Pacific Steam Navigation Company, for example, were supplied with nine new steamers as the year's addition to their already mnagnificent fleet. One of them was a vessel of 4,820 tons ad60hrepwr n the totals were 28,895 tons and 4,500 horse-power. No fewer than six of these great ocean steamers were built by Messrs. John Elder & Co. This is -the largest amount of tonnage ever supplied in a single year to any shipp ing company. There was a marked increase in the amount of tonnage launched in 1873 under the head of iron saziling-vesse1s. As compared with 1872, there was only one additional vessel, making twvelve ia all, but there was an increase in the aggregate tonnage from 12,500 tons to 19,000, most of the vessels of the class ranting from 1,550 to 1,980 tons, which are certainly extraordinary sizes for sailing-vessels. [From the Glasgow Daily Mail.] The total number of vessels of different classes launched on the Clyde during the year 1874 amounted to 187, with a gross tonnage of 244,467. This, as compareid with last year, shows an increase of 17 in the number and a decrease in the tonnage of 2,375. In the class of sailinlg-vessels, as compared with the previous year, there is an increase in number of 29, with an increase in tonnage of 313,710. Paddle-steamers have decreased in -number by four, and in gross, tonnage by 8,651. The number of screwv-steamers launched during 1874 has been only one less than that of the previous year, while the gross tonnage of these vessels shows a decrease of 29,229. From this it would appear that the average tonnage of the screw-steamers built on the Clyde this year has been much below that of those built during the previous year. As compared with 1864, the number of vessels shows a decrease of 18, while there is an increase in the tonnage of 64.959. 352 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. EXPORTS FROIM GLASGOW TO THE UNITED STATES. During the year ending June 30, 1872 the imports into the United States from Scotland, chiefly from Glasgow were as follows: Pig iron, (135,695 tons)..305,18..............8... Old and scrap iron...44...03....3. Steel rails..................................23 Steel ingots, bars, &c -117 063 Steel manufactures... 7..4.... Cotton goods.-.-...88..........7 Other cotton manufactures....2,206, 318.. Flax, raw....................................208,082 Flax manufactures.3,740, 148 Jute manufactures............................206 Chemicals...................................300 933 Sugar, brown............................. 316351 Other articles.................894......16....4 Total, 1872..............14......341,572 Total, 1873-.............................14,344,770 Total, 1874............................. 2,166,452 RATES OF WAGES. Mr. Consul Jenkinson, in transmitting to the author a statement of the rates of wages at the close of the year 1872, makes the following remarks in regard to the cause of the fluctuations in the price of labor: UNITED STATES CONSULATE, Hon. EDWARD YOUNIG, Glasgow, January 1, 1873. Chief of Bureau of Statistics. SIn: The condition of the laboring classes in Scotland is -' subject well worthy the careful study of all who are interested in solving the great problem of labor in the United States. The last three years have been years of unceasing strife between capital and labor, the employers and the employ6s. "1Locking-out," a s it is termed, on the one side, and strikes on the other, have been of almost daily occurrence. As the capital of the country is in the hands of comparatively few, these can. readily combine to put down the wages of labor, thus forcing the laborers into combinations,and "n nions " to put them up again. Nearly every trade has its. "1union"1 and almost every locality its combination of these unions. All classes alike suffer from these ceaseless contentions between master and man. For instance, for some months past a struggle has been going on between the miners of this district and the proprietors of the coal-mines, resulting in great loss to the proprietors, destitution and suffering to the miners and their families, and an extraordinary rise in the price of coals to the public. Coals which sold here at retail one year ago for 16s. per ton are now selling at 368., an increase oT more than 1OQ per cent. But the trouble ends not here- iron and many other things, in the manufacture of which coals largely enter;, have enormously advanced in price. And what are manufacturers to do'? They supply a foreign market, in which they can successfully compete only by selling as low as or lower than others. High prices for labor and material at home will require high prices abroad. If they demand these, others will undersell them and take their trade, while, if they fail to get the advance, they must close their works at home. High wages are, therefore, impossible with them. And this explains in a word the lamentable condition of the laboring mal in this country, and his utter inability to elevate his condition. He m-ust work for a mere pittance, to enable his employer to sell his goods abroad at low rates, or there will be no work for him to do, and he will be left to starve. The strikes of tihe last few years have considerably advanced the wages paid to skilled labor in Glasgow; still, to an American mechanic the prices now received would seem exceedingly low. In some instances the best workmen get from 30s. to 33s. per week, but the average pay of mechanics, such as blacksmiths, carpenters, masons, tailors, &C., is not more than 27s. per week, equivalent to $6.53 in United States gold. WAGES. IN SCOTLAND. 353 ages in engineer works in-1872.-The following figures show the average rates of weekly wages paid to workmen in engineering and shipbuilding trades in Glasgow: Occupation. Wages. Occupation. Wages. Pattern-makers-....... $6 62 Carpenters............................ $6 94 Turners-............. 6 40 Smiths' finishers....................... 5 97 Planers............. 6 13 Painters............................... 5 30 Drillers-........4 74 Ship riveters and calkers.............. 6 42 Finishers-........ 6 11 Ship-smiths............................ 6 20 Fitters.6........... 27 Holders-on............................. 3 90 Smiths-.................. 6 64 ammeren-.......... 4 54 Average of all classes............ 6 11 0Platers-.. 770 Itiveters-6 ~~~~96 C 3 63 Cakters -- 6........... 96 Unskilled labor.................... 3 63 Calkers.................................. 6 96 ~6 05 Joners-.............. 6 540 Common labor outside of works........ Sawyers....... 552 3 87 orks John Elder & o.-The author went to Glasgow from Liverpool on purpose to obtain trustworthy information in regard to the cost and condition of labor in the ship-yards and engineering-works on the Clyde. The facts and figures immediately preceding were obtained lafterward and forwarded at the date indicated, as well as more extended information as to the condition of the working classes in Glasgow,which will be found nder its appropriate head. The following extract from the author's notebook afford some information in regard to a wellknown firm which has recently forwarded one of the most valuable statements in this report: GLASGOW, October 15, 1872. Reached ere this morning after nncomfortable night-journey from Liverpool, in a1n unwarmed car. Having been furnished with a l.etter of intr1.oduction to Messrs. J. Eider & Co., one of t~he most eminent iron-ship-building firms, we crossed one of the bridges over 111he Clyde, examined their utpper works, and rode down about three miles to their yard; were, courteously received by one of the partners, who conducted us through every part of the works, explaining every process, from the drawings and models to the finished ship ready for launching. The demand for iron vessels has become so great that this firm and nearly all the other builders are working to their utmost capacity. A steamship which had already received part of her plating was on the stocks, from which another had been launched but thirteen days previously. The ships of the National Line, ply3ing between Liverpool and New York, -were built by this firm, and are of great strength and entire seaworthiness, [as we afterwards ascertained by a return-passage in one of them.] The tools and machines in use in Elder's works were fully equal and a few superior to those iu Laird's well-known establishment, which I visited onR the previous day. The increase in wagres and in iron and other materials has greatly enhanced the cost of building iron ships. One nearly completed was pointed out for which the builders were to receive ~130,000, of the saime size as another which had previously been built on the same spot for ~91,000. Tine, there were some changes made in the construction of the higher-priced vessel, -which enhanced her cost to some extent. The great demand for Clyde-built ships has not been caused by their superiority, (for, no doubt, those of Newcastle, Birkenhead, and Belfast are equally as good,) but from thfe fact that they can be built at less cost, owing in part to the cheapness of materials, but chiefly to the abundance of skilled workmen and the low rate of wages paid to them. True, there has been a, large advance in labor, averaging about 15 per cent., but it has been no greater, proportionately, than in England, thus leaving the relative-rates as before. As som1e changes in the rates of wages, as well as in the price of iron ships, haeI icetken place, the figures then obtained are not presented here. The following statement, however, gives, in detail the number of men in each branch or subdivision of labor in the ship-yard and in the engineering and boiler works resp ectively, and the rate of wages paid to each. The average rates are computed in United States gold and the gen23 L 354 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. eral average given, which amounts to $7.07? in the engineering-works and $7.13 in the ship-yard; or to $7.96 and $8.02, respectively, in lawful money of the United States. Average weekly wages (per week of 51 hours) paid to persons emnployed in the enginerig, boiler-making, and ship-building works of John Elder 4' Co. at Glasgow and Govan, i the year 1874. ENGINEERING AXD BOILER WORKS. SHIP-BUILDLNG YARD. =Occulpation. Wages. ~! Occupation. Wages. M3achlinists: 226 e ers......................... 16 Best.................$......... 7 50 14 Augle-iron smiths................ 6 68 22 Ordinary..................... 6 70 13 Helpers.......................... 10 22 Inferior...................... 5 38 78 Ship-smiths..................... 68 2B6epe, 0~..........................10 Eepr 26 Helpers..................... 4 08 100 Helpers.4 35 63 Pattern-makers and joiners 7 72......146 Riveters........................ 6 8 49 Turners.......................... 130 olders-on 220 Engine-fitters.................... 6 88 Rivet-boys...................... 1 33 Blacksmiths......................7 26 68 Calkers.......................... 6 68 44 Hammermen..................... 4 56 88 Drillers.......................... 4 72 4 Millwrights...................... 7 90 266 Joiners........................... 7 98 230 Apprentices...................... 2 54 37 Apprentices...................... 2 30 167 Laborers......................... 4 10 18 Cabinet-makers.................. 8 2 7 Brass-founders............ 8 74 7 Pattern-makers.................. 7 9 5 Foundery dressers................ 5 40 8 Blockmakers..................... 7 18 9 Foundery laborers................ 4 35 37 Machinists....................... 6 17 12 Brass-finishers............... 6 76 256 Carpenters....................... 98 5 Coppersmiths.....................8 22 40 Apprentices...................... 3 08 2 Crane-men...................... 6 05 25 Boat-builders.:.................. 8 22 6 Riggers.......................... 6 17 43 Iron-finishers..................... 7 18 34 Boiler-makers....................7 98 15 Brass-finishers.................. 1 54 Riveters and calkers........... 7 00 10 Mechanics........................ 68 16 Holders.on...............4...... 84 25 Plumbers......................... 7 74 4 Flangers........................ 7 74 13 Tin-smiths....6 68 19 Blacksmiths 6................52.59 Painters..................774 24 Hammermen..................... 4 60 45 Red-leaders..............66 28 Apprentices..... 4................. Riggers......................... 9 38 Rivet-boys..................... 1 86 227 Laborers........................ 4 10 126 Laborers or helpers............... 3 87 13 Carters.5 110 Foremen, (engineer, &e).......... 14 64 9 Furnace-men.................... 4 96 6 Sundry v................ 12 94,25 Foremen-........... 10 89 119 Fitters —.............. 7 18 582 7I 07 Averag.e.....7.1.407.Aver..e-7 13 DUNDEE, SCOTLAND. Dunde'e has been celebrated for its manufactures of linen and hempen fabrics, chiefly of the coarser descriptions. The manufacture of linen -appears to have been introduced from Germany in the beginning of the last century. Jnsigniflcant in extent at first, it gradually increased until the close of that century, when machinery having been applied to the spinning of flax, a great impulse was given to it. Hand-spinning has been entirely superseded by machine-spinning. The chief articles of manufacture are shirtings, sail-cloth, dowlas, sacking, and bagging. Dundee is now best known as the seat of the jute manufacture, including all kinds of jute carpeting. Manufactures of jute are almost exclusively, carried on here. The consumption in Dundee of this material, which is grown in India, amounts to nearly 40,000 tons annually. As the raw material is inexpensive, costing in Dundee from 2 to 3 pence prer pound, the cloth made from it, reckoned by weight, is the cheapest textile fabric made in Great Britain. Of jute many varieties of fabrics are made, from the coarsest mail-bagging to carpets of great beauty. This range includes pack-sheets for every species of merchandise, sacks for wool, coffee, and guano, &c. WAGES IN SCOTLAND. 355 The annual value of the flax, hemp, and jute manufactures in Dundee is upward of ~3,000,000. Dundee is also famous for its manufacture of confectionery, which is exported to all parts of the world. Ld. Ship-building and machine-making are carried on to some extent. The author was unable to make a personal examination of the jute industry, although strogly urged by Mr. Consul MIcDougall in the following extract: DUNDEE, Jutne 10, 1872. Permit e to press upon you the necessity (if at all possible) of your visiting this city. The jute manufactures here, to the extent of three-fourths of the whole quantity manufactured, go direct to the United States. The quantities made are something enormous. They are peculiar to Dundee alone, and the machinery in operation is so attractive and powerful that it is of the utmost importance that the bureau which you represent should be fully apprised of the Dundee jute and linen manufactures. Indeed, I am bound to say that in no other city will you receive such useful information, and of such paramount importance to the United States, as you will receive here. Mr. McDougall forwarded the following statements of the rates of wages which Oained in Dundee at the periods indicated: FACTORY-LABOR. ac pai per k at Dude, Scotland, the seat of the jitte and lieea -trades, October, 1872. ~~~~Per week. ~Per week. ~~~~~Occupation. Occuation Wag I 55ra res in IU. nt S S.gold. Jutespinuin, preparing flat: Joiners-......................51 $6 29 Foremen -.........55 $6 53 Blacksmiths-.......... 51 6 77 Women -.........58 $~2 18 to 2 4-2 Masons-............51 $7 99 to 8 47 Boys, 12 to 15 years-....58 1 69 to 1 93 Laborers-.......... 5 1 4 11 to 4 84 JTute, spinning flat: Plasterers-..........51 5 81 to 6 05 Spinners, women -.....58 12 48 to 2 66 Plumbers -..........51 7 26 Piercers, girls, (12toll5yrs.) 589 1 81 Ito 1 93 Brass-finishers-........51 6 05 Shifters, girls, (12 toll5 yrs.) 58 1 57 to 1 69 M olders-...........51 6 78 to 7 74 Half-timers, boys and girls, Bakers-............60 6 29 to 6 78 (7 to 12 years)-......58 36 to 66 Painters-...........51 5 81 to 7 26 Bobbin-winders, women -....58 266 to 2 90 Shoemakers-.........54 6 29 to 7 26 Cop-winders, women-..... 58 2 66 to 3 14 Tailors-............60 5 81to 6 78 Warpers, women -.......58 2 90 to 4 12 Domestic servants: Power-loom tenters, men.-.558 6 53 to 7 26 llousemaids-..........*58 08 to 67 76 Power-loom weavers, women-. 58 2 66 to 3 38 Cooks, women - —......... *96 80 Machinists-........... 6'I to 8 71 Gardeners, men -.......60 5 32 to 5 56 * Per year, with board. Average rates of icages per wreek paidl to the different svork-ers employed by a jute-weavtiisg' establishment at Dundee, F'ebruary, 1875. ____________________ W_ ace per_____ wek Wages per week. Occupation. 43Occupation. - - Jute-pickers - —..............$4 7-2 Single-loom weavers —..........$2 54 Strikers-np - —...............3 15 Double-loom weavers —--- - --- -— 3 51 Hand at softeners-........$2 48 $3 51 3 0-2 Tenters-............$6 05 $ 7 02....'Preparers -2........... 18 2 90 2 48 Starchers-...........5 81 6 53.... Spinners -—................2 46 Mill-overseers-.........6 05 7 74.... Coarse spinners-.........2 66 2 90 —-...Calendermen: Piecers -—.................1 87 Lappers -..........4 84 5 69.... Shifters, (half-timers)-...... 68 76 72 Calenderers-........4 84 5S 8.... Rleelers-.............2 1 8 3 155!2 78 Measurers, tiers, &co....... - 4 36 5 57.... Cop-winders-..........2 412 3 39 3 02 Mechanics —................6 53 Warp-winders-..........2 78 3 39 3 15 Joiners —.................6 29 356 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Statemrent showing the rates of wages paid for mecha ical and farm labor in the consular district of Dundee during the year 1874. MIECHANICAL LABOR. Occupation. Wages per Occupation.Wages per O~ccupationweek. week. Blacksmiths...................... $5 76 to $6 24 Plasterers....................... $8 16 to $8 64 Bricklayers and masons........... 8 40 to 9 60 Shoemakers...................... 6 00 to 8 40 Cabinet-makers................... 6 00 to 7 20 Stone-cutters.................... 8 40 to 9 60 Carpenters........................ 7 20 to 7 68 Tailors.......................... 6 00 to 7 20 C oopers........................... 6 48 to 7 20 Tauners......................... 5 28 to 6 00 Miners........................... 10 00 to 12 00 Tin-smiths....................... 5 52 to 6 48 Machinists........................ 6 00 to 7 00 Wheelwrights................... 6 72 to 7 20 Painters.......................... 6 72 to 7 20 Hours of labor per week, 51. FARM AND OTHER LABOR. Wages per month. - 5s Experienced................. $12 40 to $15 00, with board. Farm-handts.'............ - Ordinary......- 11 20 to 12 40, with board. Common laborers at other than farm-work.... 23 84 without board. Female servants....................................................... 4 20 to $10 00, with board. Mr. P. Fleming, of Dundee emigration agent, when in Washington, furnished the following rates of wages, per week of fifty-one hours, obtained in that town in 1872: Occupation. Wages. Occupation. Wages. I i Mechanics.............. $6 05 per week. Overseer............... $6 05 to $7 26 per week. Molders................ 6 78 to $7 26 per week. Joiners................ 5 81 to 6 05 per week. Weavers............ 90 to 3 38 per week. Plasterers............. 6 17 per week. Spinners -.......,.... 2 18 to 2 42 per week. Masons................ 14 per hour. General hands, (female) 1 94 to 2 18 per week. Painters............... 12 per hour. LEITH, SCOTLAND. Population ini 1871, 44,280. This is the sea-port of Edinburgh, from which it is only about a mile and a half distant. The water of Leith, at its confluence with the Frith of Forth, divides the town into two parts, called, respectively, North and South Leith. The principal buildings are the exchangrethe customhouse, thetown-house, the church of South. Leith, and the forts-a military station for a small body of artillery. The'Chief manufactures of Leith are ropes, sa il-cloth, locomotive. engrines and machinery, glass, soap, ale, refined Sugar, and oil-seed cak-es. Iron ca.d timber ship-building is also carried on to a considerable ext u-let. RA~TES OF'WAGEIS IN 172 The followingr statements, shiowingI tihe rates of wares paid in 187'.2 for mechanical and agricuiltural labor il. the Leith consular district, which includes the city of Edinburgh,'Were furnished -by Mr. Consul Robeson: WAGES IN SCOTLAND. 357 MECHANICAL LABIOR. Statement howg the rates of wagespaid to mechanics in Leith, Scotland, in October, 1872. Classes of operatives. Remarks. 1. Masons..............51 6 95 WVages of masons are greatly reduced by what is called "broken time," arising from unfavorable weather, and the average weekly earnings of this class of tradesmen throughout the year may be stated at $6.05. II. Joiners............51 6 75 Averagewages, 13 cents per hour. Work. ing-time: 9 hours for 5 days and 6 hours on Saturdays. Overtime paid at the rate of l0d. (20 cents) per hour. Teams oneweek's warning. This class of mechanics is not so liable to loss from broken time as masons. I. Plumbers.......... 51 6 75 No broken time. IV. Blacksmiths......51 6 05 Do.'V. Plasterers............51 7 20 VWages of plasterers,like those of masons, are greatly reduced during the year by broken time, arising from unfavorable weather, and the average weekly earnings of this class may be stated at $6.29. VI. Tismiths............51 6 29 N o broken time. These wages obtain all the year round. The hours during which these classes ~~~~~~VII. Bootmakers: ~work throughout the year are as fol. Closers...............5 7 26 lows: Feb. 15 to Nov. 9, 9 hours for 5 Makers of entlemen's boots 60 6 78 days and Saturdays 6 hours; Nov. 9 to Makers of ladies' oots.60 6 05 27, 8 hours for 5 days and Saturdays 5 Jobbers................60 5 32 hours; Nov. 27 to Jan. 11, 74 hours for I}~ ~ 5 days and Saturdavs 4 hours; Jan. 11 I to Feb. 15, 8 hours for 5 days and Sat. VIII. Linen-manufacturiun, operatives: Lud~y 5hus Skilled workmen...........51 $0 84 to 1 21 According to ability. This class has no per day. broken timie. Mechanics, tenters, &c....... 51 $0 84 to $1 21 Do. per day. Young women and girls........ 5,1 242, $3 39, Do. and $3 87. IX. Engineers and millwrights: (Extra time is paid for according to cir. Best hands.......51 7 26 cumstances: usually "tim e and a quarSecond-class hands..........51 6 77 ter" and lId. (2 cents) per hour as an Third~clss hand.51..... 6 51allowance over and above. These op. Third-clss hand................ 51 0 eratives are not liable to broken time. X. Painters: Journeymen house-painters.......... 6 67 72 cents extra per week allowed to each Graiunimen and'ornamentalpainters..15 cts., 36 cts., man worki ng 1h miles or upward from and 48 cts. (the center of the town; also railwayper hour. * Jfares to and from work when necessary. Boys..................... 80 73 Boys get 3s. first year, and wageisraised, according to ability, to $2.42 and $2.90 XI. Printrs and biders in Einburgh:perweek during apprenticeship of 6yrs. Compositors..............54 $6 89 to 7 26 These are hwgspi oteepo~ Letter-press-machine men.......54 6 748 to 7 2!6 ofoe the wargest paid ton the epuoy. Letter-press boys...........54 121 to 1 45 of oin of etheblargesprntsing andtlpub. Letter-press girls.......... 54 1 45 to 2 90 lihn sabihet i ctad Lithographic-machine men.......54 6 90 to 7 74 Working-time, 9A- hours for 5 days and Bookbinders..............54 7 26 to 8 47 6Q hours on Saturdays. These opera. Girls.................54 1 94 to 2 90 tives have no brokun time, and the Sewers and folders......... 54 1 45 to 3 15 working —bours specified obtain, all the Apprentices..............54 60 to 1 21 year round. The following are the rates of wages paid in the office of the Daily Scotsmanit: fP~egular'lay-hands... 5201 7 86 These day-hands work us~ually 8 hours extra time during the week, for which they are paid at the rate of is. per hour; Compositors, henco their weekly wages amount to I ~~~~~~~~~~40s. 6d. No broken time. PRegular night-hands. 48 9 68 Casual day-hands.... 521 7 2)6 to 10 40 According to ability. I.Casual ni~ht-hauds.. 48 8 4'7 to 13 31 According to.ability; hours, 8 p. m. to 4 n.m.; ~of an hour off. *According to ability. t The principal Edinburgh paper, if not the most influential paper in Scotland. 358 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AERICA. Statement showing the rates of wccges paid to mehais in Leith, 4c.-Continued. Classes of operatives. Remarks. Rates of wages paid in the office of the Daily Scotsman.-Continued. Machinists......................... $9 Machinists, feeders, (boys, 16 to 24 52 $3 87 to 4 36 years.) In the establishment of the Edin......... Day-compositorsare paid at the rate of d burgh Courant. ad 6d., and night-compositors 7d. and Sd., per 1,000 types, according to size. XII. Carters...........................514 84 This obtains al the year round. XIII. Laborers........................ 51 4 Masons' laborers average weekly wages throughout the year may he stated at $1.84. Day-laborers in country and land-ward distrietsare paidat the rates of 72 cents and 84 cents per day, but taking into consideration the broken I ~~~time to which they are exposed, the avAGRICU-LTU-RAL LABO: T~able sh~ow~ing therg eanisrnings of agrthat class do not exceed the sums of $3.84 or $408. Some classes of laborers have little or no broken time, hut it is estimated that the average weekly earn-. ings of a, laborer in Scotland m~ay be j ~~~~stated at from $3.36 to $4.32 per -week. AGRICULTURAL LABOR INT SCOTLA'ND. Table showing the earnings of agricultural laborers in Scotlanid. *Aunual earnings. Class. Ia In a money. ~~~~~~In gains. Total. 5 Farm-stewvards ---- $101 64 3.1 loads oatmeal, at 40s., ~6 l0s.; 1-2 bushels barley, at 4s., ~2! Ss.; 1,600 yards ground for planting potatoes, ~4; cow kept, ~7; house and garden, ~3; coals, ~2; hsrvestu meat, ~1...........-~2-26 99........ Farm.-hinds ------- 8-2 28...... (10......................207 63..... Farm-shepherdts. 116 88......do......................242 24..... Foresters: overseers...........................................- 5 09 Ordinary hands.....................................$....3 63 *These are the waves, &e., actually paid to the farm-servants on a farma about 25 miles distant from the city of Edinburgh, and may be stated as a fair averaae of the annual earaingOs of farm-servants in the southe-istern part of Scotland. Bsdstee wages, farm-servants (binds) usually keep one or two pigs, and are provided by their masters with the necessary straw for " beddiu-r free of charge. It is of importance to observe that the -farm-servant has no'brok"en time fr-om sicklness or inclemiency of weather,&. There is a class of agricultutral laborers k-nown as " bendagers," a class of farmu-servants almost peculiar tlo Scotland]. These are females, young-w~omien-who w-orkat fie'ld labor. For th.esummer half-year their mioney-warges is fromn ~8 to ~10, according to experience an~d ability; and for the winter half-y~ear ~6 to ~8; that is, in the former case, $38.72 to $418.40, and in the latter, $2m.9.04 toR38.72. In,ddition to this wage they have bed, and botnrd, anti washing. On so me farms it is imperative on the hind to provide a bend agrer for field-liabor, and he hires one accordingfly. The bendager lodge"'Cs tinte hI.ind's house and shares the family living. For her services on the farm' the farmer pa ys -the hind at the rate of 30.2 cents a dlay for nine months of the year, and 21.2 cents per day 1for tharee months, with an allowa,.nce of $4841 for lharvest-food, WAGESIN IRELAND. 359 and $2.42 per week for four weeks during harvest operations, in lieu of the ordinary rate of 30 cents per day. This system of bendage is a fruitful source of complaint among the hinds, whose circumstances are, in these days of dear provisions, greatly stinted by being thus, as it were, each compelled to maintain a female worker for the farmer. In many districts the bendage system has been dispensed with altogether, and it is gradually becoming a thing of the past. It is evident that the condition of the bendager, so far as regards remuneration, is much better relatively than that of her master, the hind. IRELAND. Ireland has of late years been regarded as an agricultural country, and while it is possessed of cheap labor and other facilities for carrying on manfacturing with success, has not, for various reasons, kept pace With the counties across the Channel, especially since the introduction ~~~~~~~~~ofmachinery. Theaufactureoflinens, which has its seat at Belfast, and of Irish poplis, which are produced in Dublin, are industries widely known and hihly celebrated. To a limited degree cotton, wool, and worstedfabricsareproduced;asis also lacein Limerickl. Great progress hasbeen adeithinthelastfew years in the mrnanufacture of embroidered muslin, which employs about 300,000 persons, principally females. The annual value of the mnufactured goods amounts to ~1,400,000. Indeed, at thepresent time the established branches of production and commerce are taking a wide sweep. A better system of agriculture has, within a brief period, been introduced, and with it a larger demand, and consequently a better remuneration for labor. The immense emigration, chiefly to the United States, as appears from a statement on page 2~..41, has not only served to improve the material condition of the emigrant1-1s, and reacted Qn Ireland by the increased wealth and position of those who have soug-ht fortuLne in other lands, but by reducing the excess of popu lation, has largely advanced the rates of-L wvages of those'who remain at home. WVAGES OF IRISH FARM1 LABOREUS. The folklowing informatfion in regard to the, wages of fiarm- laborers in Ireland appeaArs in the journal. of the Statistical Society of London, Marc, 170,andis computed. in United States gold: Per day. lPerweeh. Per year. C ou ntie S. -TVi h O r1 Wi thLo VIut boar.W lthoar Wvthbord With hoa~~ board. Wihbar. Wtoar Wihdoad Cork. L-imerick, W aterford _9 21 to PO i1 8 91 07 $0 73 to 41A 46 I4 0 t 4 3$38 93 to $48 67 Auntriu4, Arru'gh, Down, Lou I donderry, Ty_ rone..............-....................... 4 33 to 43 67 Dublin, Wicklow, Kildare.................. Meath, Queens, Wexford. 33 9- I - 97 Louth, Cavan, Down. 17~ 0o 4 4$0 24 to 49 1 4 G 2 43........ Rings, Longford, Ros"coufflon! —---- 2 4 to 37 1 36 1 02 38 93 -W estmeath-........... i5 to 85 1..................... Donegal, Fernianali............... 0to 4867....to..7300. Clarxe, Gaiway, li3erry, Lime.49 Cork............. ------- 33to 47 198 2043 58 37 to 68310 Carlow, Cork, Tippe -. - 37 to 150* 35 1 2-2 1 83 50 18 Leitrim, Mayo, loomon 33 to 509.............. - 38 93 to 48'67 Sligo_ W ~inter 22..... ih o! 5........ 1 522 —---- 38 93 to 48 67 *Hlarvest-wa~res. 360 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Statement showing the rates of wages paid for mechacal and other labor in Ireland in the year 1873. Occupation. Waterford. Cork. Londonderry. MECHANICS. Blacksmiths............ $8 40 per week.......... $5 84 to $1 32 per ay. Bricklayers, masons -.... 6 72 per week.......... 6 33 per week84 to 132 per ay. Cabinet-makers........7 20 per week..........96 to 104 per day. Carpenters.............6 24 per week......... 84 per week72 to 132 per da Coopers................ 76 per week.................. o 108 per day. Machinists.............7 50 to $9 60 per week. 7 30 per week1 20 to 180 per day. Painters................6 00 per week..........5 84 per week1 08 to 56 per day. Plasterers.............. 6 72 per week.......... 6 33 per week. 6 to 1344 per day. Shoemakers............6 00 per week.......... 1 4 per week. Stone-cutters.......... 6 72 to $7 20 per week.. 1 46 per day96 to 144 per day. Tailors................ 6 00 per week.........6 09 to 7 per week. 5 88 to 66 per week. Tannerss.................................6 per week. Tinsmiths............. 7 20 per week............... per week Wheelwrights......... 6 24 to $6 72 per week 8 52 per week4 32 to 576 per week. FARM LABORERs. Experienced hands: In summer.........' 72 per day............ 3 440 per day. In winter.......... 60 per day............ 43 per week36 to 40 per da Ordinary hands: In summer......... 60 per day 2 92 per week32 to 36 per day. In winter........... 48 per day........... 1 95 per week.32 to 36 per day. Common laborers, at other than farm work 48 per day............to 72 per day. Female servants....... 60 00 per annum...............00 to 60 00 per anum. MISCELLANEOUS. Seamen............... 12 40 to $15 per month............... Laborers or unskilled workmen, 1874.................................. 2 92 Apprentices orboys, 1874................... 1 46 per week. Foremen or overseers, 1874.......................9 73 per week.................... Mr. E. II. Derby, of Boston, who traveled in Ireland in 1872,. gives the following memoranda in regard to wages at that time: Londonderry-servant girls, 13s. per month; servant men, from ~10 to ~14 per year; masons, 4s. per day. Girls in shirt factories earned an average of 8s.; many at piecework- earned fromn 6s. 4d. to ~1 per week each. ilousemaids in Dublin get ~10 per year. A washerwoman earns is. 6d. per day. Wages of farm laborers, with board, l0s. to 112s. per week. Extra help 29s. to 3s. each per day. BELFAST. Population in 1871, 174,413. Belfast is the chief manunfacturing and commercial town and the great depot of the linen trade of the north of Ireland. It is. the center of the Irish linen manufacture,* to the cultivation of which it is mainly indebted for its prosperty. There are also flour-mills aud: saw-mills, founderies, tanneries, breweries, and distilleries, a felt manufactory and vitriol-works, and being a maritime town it has extensive. ship and rope yards. It presents an appearance of bustling activity not to be found elsewhere in Ireland. *Linen was woven in Ireland as early as the eleventh century, but the first mention of Irish linen on -record occurs in the thirteenth century, it being, stated that in 1272 it was used in Winchester. z WAGES IN IRELAND. 361 IRON-SHIP-BUILDING AND ENGINEERING WORKS. Iron-ship-building is extensively carried on by Messrs. Harland & Wolff, the builders of the well-known steamships of the White Star Line. Facilities for this branch of industry, equal to those on the Clyde, are possessed at Belfast; indeed, the rates of wages are said to be somewhat lower. The following rates paid by the firm above mentioned and kindly furnished for this report, being given by the day, and not in such detail as the statements made by the firm of Messrs. J. Elder & Co., of Glasgow, are, therefore, not so valuable for purposes of comparison. Average wages per day (enmputted in United States gold) paid by Messrs. Harland 4 Wolff to hands employed in their iron-ship-building and engineering works in October, 1874. Occupation. ]Wages. Occupation. Wages. Platers, riveters, and calkers........... $1 13 Riggers................................ 09 Holders-on.............................. 68 Smiths................................. 1 06 Shipwrights............................ 29 Hammermen.......................... 58 Joiners................................. I 10 Fitters and pattern-makers............ I 15 Painters................................ 1 17 Laborers............................... 62 Sawyers................................ 98 DUBLIN. Population in 1871, 267,717. Dublin City, the capital of Ireland, claims a high antiquity. In the early part of the ninth century it was taken by the Danes, and in 1169 by the English under Strongbon. The manufactures are limited to Irish poplins, stockings, cotton, and a few other fabrics. Iron casting, cabinet making, and manufactures of the minor articles of jewelry and apparel are thriving, but afford employment to but a small part of the population. The well-known Dublin porter is an important item in the trade of the city, the exports in 1871 reaching 281,301 hogsheads. Mr. Wilson King, United States consul at Dublin, under date of November 24, 1873, writes as follows: In all, or nearly all, branches of labor wages are greatly higher than they formerly were, and I do not think that the cost of living has advanced proportionately. Bread is slightly dearer, but meat, sugar, and tea, and even oatmeal, can be had for nearly the s:ame as before the advance in wages. '362 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. AGRICULTURAL WAGES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. Rates of agricultural wages and amount of weekly earnings for men, women, and children, in each county of England and Wales, in the quarters ended M1ichaenias and Christmas, 1869, and Lady Day and Midsummer, 1870. [Compiled from parliamentary papers, No. 371, of session 1870, and No. 181, of session 1871.] Children under Men. Women. Districts and counties. Weekly wages Weekly earn- Weekly wages Weekly wages without lodg- ings by task- without lodg- without lodging and food. work. ing and food. ing and tood. SOUTHEASTERN. Surrey............ Mibcealmas, 1869* $3 38 $3 63 to $4 84 $1 21 to $1 45 $0 96 to $1 08 Christmas, 1869.. 3 14 3 63 1 21 to 1 45 62 to 1 08 Ladv Day, 1870.... $3 14 to 3 38- - - 1 33 to 1 45 1 08 to 1 21 Kent............Michaelmas, 1E69 338 to 363 4'35 to 6"05 1 45 to 2 17 72 to 1 19 Christmas, 1869 3 14 to 3 63 3 63 to 4 35 1 45 72 to 1 93 Lady Day, 1870... 3 14 to 3 63 3 38 to 4 11 1 45 to 1 61 72 to 1 21 Midsummer, 1870 3 38 4 11 1 45 96 to 1 21 Sussex...........Michaelmas, 1669* 2 C6 to 3 261 3 63 to 4 84 1 45 48 to 1 49 Christmas, 1869 6.. 2 6 to 2 901 3 14 to 3 63 1 21 72 to 1 08 Lady Day, 1870... 2 66 to 3 14 3 02 to 4 35 1 21 to 1 45 72 to 1 45 Midsummer, 1870 066 to 2 90 3 14 to 3 63 1 21 to 1 45 72 to 96 Southampton..-. Michaelmas, 1869* 2 66 4 35 to 4 84 1 21 96 to 1 21 Christmas, 1869 2 66 2 90 to 3 26 72 to 96 1 21 Lady Day, 1870. 2 4~ to 2 66 2 90 to 3 63 72 to 1 21 84 to 1 33 Midsummer, 1870 2 42 to 2 90 2 90 to 3 63 96 to I 21 72 to I 21 Berkshire.... Michaelmas, 1869*. 2 66 to 3 14 3 63 to 4 84 1 21 to 1 45 1 21 to 1 69 Christmas, 1869. 1 93 to 2,42 2 42 to 3 14 96 to 1 08 84 to 1 69 Lady Day, 1860... 2 42 2 66 to 3 14 96 to 1 08 84 to 96 M idsummer, 1I70. 2 17 to 2 42 2 90 to.3 63 96 to 121 Si to I 21 SOUTH MIDLAND. Herts............ MIieh.elmqs, 1869*. 2 72 to 4 34 5 47 1 68 96 to 2 69 Christmas, 1869... 2 54 to 3 14 3 26 1 08 96 Lady Day, 1870.... 2 60 to 3 14 3 26 96 96 to 1 08 Midsummer, 1870 - 2 78 to 3 14 3 63 96 96 North'coptonshire Michaelmas, 1869*. 2 90 to 3 14 3 63 to 6 05 96 to 1 45 84 to 1 45 Christmas, 1869.. 2 42 to 3 26 3 38 to 4 11 72 to 1 45 48 to 1 08 Lady Day, 1870.. 2 66 to 2 90 3 38 to 3 63 96 to 1 45 84 to 1 08 Midsummer, 1870. 2 66 to 2 90 3 14 to 5 08 96 to 1 45 60 to 84 Euntiigdon. Michaelmas, 1869*. 3 87 4 35 1 45 1 45 Christmas, 1869 -.. 2 66 3 38 1 21 72 to 96 Lady Day, 1 870 -. 2 66 2 90 1 21 72 to 1 21 Midsummer, 1870 2 4-2 2 90.1 21 96 Bedfordkshire-... Michaelmas, 1569*. 2 66 to 3 63 3 63 to 5 32 1 21 to 1 45 60 to 1 45 Christmas, 1869... 2 42 to 338 2 66 to 290................ 60 to 1 21 Lady Day,187 0.. 2 4-to 38'2 66 to 2 90 --- 6to 121 Midsunim er, 1870'. 2 42 to 3 38 - - - 1 21 to 1 45 60 to 1 45 Cambridge. Mccaelmas, 15,j9 2 42 to 2 0 3 63 to 3 87 72 to 1 21 48 to 84 EASTERN. Esse-x.............ch] s c'. 24 o 363+ 290to 7 26 S4 to 1 21 4S to 1 45 Christmas. 169.. 2 42 to 3 021.. 184 to 72 48 to 1 45 Lady.D,1 0... 2 42 to 2 908 1 42 to 3 S7 84 to 1 45 48 to 1 45 MIid surmn/er, 1870 - 2 42 to 2 910i 2 4-I to 3 38 84 to 1 21 48 to 1'45 Suffolk.......... Miehelmas. 1869*. 2 17 to 2 90 3 38 to 7 26 96 to I 08 48 to 1 69 Christmas, ~S69... 42 to 2 90 2 90 96 to 1 08 48 to 96 Lady Day, 1870. 2 42 to 2 90 2 90to 3 38 96 48 to 1 45 2cidsuimer, 1870.] 2 42 to 2 90. - 96 48 to 1 45 NorfoL........... michaelmas, lS69*. 2 4-2 to 3 14 13'1464' 435 " to I 1'4 to 1 21 C h ristma s, I18;9.. 2 17 to 3 14 2 90 to 3 C3 t o 1 8 43to 1 21 Lad~1)aI, l$ 0....'2 42 to 3 14 2 90'6 to 1 0l5 48 to I 21 Alid u-m,,_aer, ";10. 2 429 to 3 14 2 90 to t3 5 72 to I 1I 4 to I 21 S0UTi1igYSTE N. Wilts............. Michnelmas, ISO9'.,2- 4to 2 90 3 5t 4 35 96 t9 1 45 4 to 1 45 Christma~" PS93 12 2 9to 266 22ii 4 4 to 1 45 Lady Day, 187 0. 2 29 to 2 6 63 2 90 to 3t., Ite 45 46 to 1 45 Midsummer, 1870*. 2 4.2 3o 2 1 8! 1 4! 48 to 1 45 Mid~~~~1 t o 14 o 30 to_ D)orset......... Mheleas 1*69*. 2. 17 to 2 4.2j1 3 83 to 4 35 96 48 to 1 08 Christmas, 1869... 2 65 to 2 1- 9 to 3 14 7to 96 48 to 96 Lady Day, 1870.... 2 05 to 2 90!:, 2 17 to 3 14.:4 to 96 48 to 1 45 Midsumme-r, 1870*. 2 17 to 3 6311 2 42 to 4 35 72 to I 45 72 to 1 69 * With beer at hay-time and hirtvest. f U Ysu witt h beer at Larvest-time. + 6With food. AGRICULTURAL WAGES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 363 Rates of agriciltnral wages and amount of irecekly earninygs, -c.-Continued. ]Hen. Women. Children under Men. ~~Women.,6 16. Districts and Qualrters ended — counties. Weekly wages Weekly earn- Weekly wages Weekly wages without ledg- ings by task- without lodg- withoutlodg. ing and focd. work. iag and food. ing and food. Devonshire -. ichaemast, 18695. 81 93 to $2 90 $92 17 to $3 63 096 to $1 08 $36 to $1 21 Christmas, 18695.. 2 17 to 92 PO 2 54 to 3 63 96 to 1 08 72 to 1 21 Lady Day, 1870+... 2 05 to 2 80t 2 42 to 3 63 96 to 1 08 48 to 1 21 Midsummer, 1870+. 2 17 to 2 90t 2 42 to 3 38 96 to 1 08 72 to 1 21 Cornwall........ Michaelmas 1869'2 66 3 6311 1 08 1 08 Chiistmas, 1S(9... 2 66 3 38 1 08 72 Lady Dal, 1870.... 2 66 3 63 96 72 Mid'surmier, 180. 2 66 3 63 1 08 96 Somerset........ Micateimas, t869;. o 42 to 2 90 3 38 to 4 84 96 to 1 45 96 to 1 93 Christmas, 16C9. 2 429 to 54 2 90 1 21 to 1 45 145 Lady Day, I1t701.. 242 to 266 2 42 to 3 14 1 21 84 to 96 Midaitkumler, 18i c6,o 42 2 90 1 21 84 to 145 WEST MIDLAND. Gloucestershire.. Mihaelnimas, 169. 2 42 to 3 14' 3 38 to 5 08 1 21 to 1 57 96 to 1 21 Chirlsiurmas, P~69++ 2 42 to 2 99 2 90 to 3 63 96 to 1 21 72 to 1 21 Lady Day, 1870. 2 17 to 2 901 2 90 to 3 63 96 to 1 21 84 to 1 21 Midsummerlj1870l. 2 17 to 290 2 90 to 4 84 96 to 1 l21 84 to 121 Herefordshire -. — Michaelmas, 1869. 2 42 to 2 54 3 14 to 4 84 96 to 1 08 48 to 1 45 Christmas 18691 2 17 to 2 4-2 2 66 96 to 1 21 60 to 1 21 Lady Day, 1870. 217to 266 290 96to 108 72to 145 Midsummer, 1t70++. 2 17 to 2 90 2 66 to 3 63 96 to 1 21 72 to 1 45 Shro Dshire ------- Micha]imas, 18690. 42 to 2 991 3 63 to 3 87 1 08 121 Christmas, 1869* 2 42! to 3 141 --------- 84 to 1 08 -........ La dy Day, 18 IM 2 42)to "514 -......... t4to 1 08......... Midsummer, 1870*. 2 66 to 3 143 5 8 I 08 1 45 to 1 93 Stafford-.......... M, iech3elmas, 1869*. 3 14 3 87 1 21 84 Christmas, 1869* 14............... 1 21 84 LadyDay,'1870*. 314 -.. — 121 84 Midsummer, 1870'. 3 14 3 87 1 21 84'Worcestershire M. ichaelmas, 1S69. 2 36 to 3,7 2 9t to 6 05 7-2 to 1 45 48 to 145 Christmas 1869~ 2 42 to 3 14 2 90 to 3 87 72 to 1 21 48 to 96 Lady Day, 1870' 242 to 290 242 to 387 96 to 121 48 to 145 isumrner, 1870'. 242to 290 242to 387 96o 1 21 48to 145 Warweisckrhire Michaelmas, 1869++. 2 66 to 3 87 3 75 to 4 84 24 to 72 7-2 to 96 Christmas, lS69+t.. 2 54 to 3 14 3 14 84 to 1 21 72 Lady Day, 1870.. 2 6to- 3 14 3 64to to 1 45 MHdsummer, ~870 2 66 to 3 43 6464 to 1 43 4to 96 NORiTH MIDLA'ID. Leicestershire Micbaelmas, 1E69 3 148 3 65 3 to 1 45 36 to 72 Christmas, 18 9. 4to 3 14 314 84 to 96 72to 84 Lady Day, 1 070.. 0 9 t 338 3 o 3 6 —84 4.6 84 to 145 Midsummer, 1870 3 14 3 63 to 4:.4 96 to 1 21 72 to 96 Ruticsd........Michaelmas, 1869. I'll 0t2 4 63 1 45 84 to 145'Christmas, 1869... 2 90................ --------------— 72 Lady Day, 1870.... 2 90.o 3...... 7 2 to 145 MiTfdsummer, 1870 3 14 72 to 145 Lincoln......... - Miehaelmas, 1869*. 3 38 1 1 72 96 Christmas, 1869... 3 6 to 3 63..... 72 Lady Day, 1870 2 3 26 to. 72 to 1 45 )Aidsummer, 16 3 16 4 353 to....... 7-2 to 193 Lottingl..h.ire. Michaelmas, 1869*. 3 26..3 75 to 7 06 1 45 96 Christmas, 1869... 290 to 3 26 4 145 108 Lady Day, 1870.. 290to 33 St6 to 4136 1 21 to 181 4to 1251 Midsummer, 1870. 26 90 to 3.63 3 63 to 4 36 1 8 to 1 45 96 to 1 08 Derbyshire. Michaelmas, 1869.. 2 O to 3 63.. 2 42 to 2 90... Christmas, 1869. 90 8 3 63, 1 45 -. 0. Lady Day, 187O.... 3 38 3 98 t o3 145 48 o 1 45 NOIITIWESTERN. Cheshire-.....Mieaia, 25.2 90 to 3 61~ 4 8 4 1 45 to 2 17 96 Christmllas, 12698 - 2 90 to 3 63 563 1 45 to 2 17 48 to 7-2 LadyI Day,18t... 29080o 3 63 -.........1 45 to 2 17 -........ Midsummer, 18709. 2 90 to 3 63 o1 45 to 2 17 1 08 to 1 45 Laneashire...... Michaelmas, 1869. 3 63 4 35 to 5 89 1 8 to 2 17 1 21 to 1 81 Christmas, 1869 2 90 to 63. 145 to............ Lady Day, 8I0 S. 3 63 387 to 484 1 81 to 2 17 1 4i5 Midsummer, 1870. 363to 435 363to 484 l8lto 217 l45to 21l *'With beer at hay-time and harvest..lTsually with beer at harvest-time. 1With food.. it With food and cider at harvest-time, and a cottage, &c. '364 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Bates of agricultural wvages and aniount of weekly earninigs, 4,c.-Continued. Men. Women. ~~~Children under Districts and counties. Quarters ended- Weekly wages Weekly earn- Weekly wages Weekly wages without lo~lg- iugs by task- without lodg- without lodging and food. work. jag and food. ing and food. YORKSHIRE. West 1liding.. - - M ichaelmas, 18691. $3 38 to $5 80 -.........$1 45 to $3 38 $1 21 to $3 38 Christmas, 1869... 3-26 to 3 99 $3 63 to $4 35 1 45 to 169 96 to 1 93 Lady Day, 1870... 3 26 to 4 11.......... 5to 1 69 72 to 1 45 Midsumm'er, 1870 - 3 63 to 4 35......... 121 to 145 96 to 1 45 North Rliding,-.... Michaelmas, 1869 - 3 63 to 4 78 - -........1 45 to 2 17 72 to 1 45 Christmas, 1869.. I 90 to 3 87......... 121 to 145 78 Lady Day, 1870.. 2 90 to 3 63.......... 60 to 1 45 60 to 96 Midsumm'er, 18710. 3 63 to 4 35 3 75 1 21 to 145 84 to 96 NORTHERN. Durham......Michaelmas, 1869~. 3 63 to 4 35+ 4 35 12101 to 1S81 84 to 96 Christmas, 1869.. 3 63 to 3 81.......... 96 to 145......... Lady Day, 1870.... 3 63 t~4 11,....-....1 08 to 1 45......... -Midsummer, 1870 - 3 63 to 4 11t..........145 84 to 1 21 Northumberland. Michaelmas, 1869 -3 63 to 5 80 - -......... 96 to 4 35 96 to 2 17 Christmas, 1869.. 3 38to 3 87......... 121to 181 60Oto 1 45 Lady Day, 1870.~ 3 63to 4 35 -.........l21lto 181 72 to 1 45 Midsummer, 1870 3 363 to 3 87......... 145 72 to 1 45 Cumberland. Michaelmas, 1869.. 3 63.1....... 81S to 2 17 1 08 to 1 45 Christmas, 1869... 2 42 to 3 63..........1 45 to 1 69 712 Lady Day, 1870.. 3 63......... 3, 45to 181 72,to 1 08 Midsummer, 1870. 3 63 to 4 35 -.........l45 to 181 72 to 1 45 Westmoreland... Michaelmas, 1869~. 3 50 to 4 35 3 63 to 5 08 48 to 1 57 30 to 1 29 Christmas, 1869 -.-3 63 to 3 87.......................... Lady Day, 1870.. 3 38 to 4 11-.........1 45 1 21 Midsummer, 1870 3 399 to 4 35-......... 217 54 to 1 21 WELSH. Monmouth.....Michael~aas, 1869- 2 42 to 3 6311 3 63 to 5 32. 1 45 36 Christmas, 1369... 2 42 to 3 63 3 631to 4 35 121 48 Lady Day, 1870.. 2 66 to 4 0011 3 63 to 4 35 1 45......... - Midsummer, 1870 2 661to 3 631 3 63to 5 32- llQ1to 145 -..... WALES. lUnien8. M erthyr Tyddil. - Michaclmas, 18691t 3 01, to 4 35 3 87 1 21 to 1 45......... Christmas, 1869..2 9010o 411 - -........ 96 to 121 72 Lady Day, 1370.... 3 63 - -........ 96 to 121 - -......... Midsummer, 1870. 3 63 - -........ 96 to 1 45 48 to 72 Bridgerid and Michaelmas, 1869 - 3 14 to 3 63J 4 35 to 5 08 1 45 72 to 1 69 Cowbridge. Christmas, 1869..-3 14 to 3 6'3......... 1 45 72 to 1 69 LadyDay, 1870.. 3 14to 3 63 4 35 to 5 08 145 7210o 169 Midsummer, 1870 3 14 to 3 63 435 to 50OS 145 72to 1 69 Gower..... Michaelmas, 1869 - 2) 90* 3 63* 145 1 69 Christmas, 1869.. - 2 90 3 63 1 45 1 45 Lady Day, 1870.... 2 90......... 145......... Midsummer, 1870 - 2 90......... 145........ Llanelly......Michaelmas, 1869t. 3 14 to 3 63......... 121 to 1 45 72 to 96 Christmas, 1869..31410o 3 63......... 12110o 145 72 to 96 Lady Day, 1870.... 3 26.......... 145 1 21 Midsummer, 1870 - 321.6.........145 1 21 Llandils-fawr.. Michaelmas, 1869. 2 42 to 2 90 4 84 to 5 80 1 21 to 1 45 72 to 96 Christmas, 1869.. 24210o 2 90 2 90 to 3 38 121 to 1 45......... Lady Day, 1870.. 2 42 to 3 38......... 96 to 1 21 72 to 96 Midsummer, 1870 -2 90 to 3 38.......... 96 to 121 72 to 96 4Carmarthen....Michaelmas, 1869 -2 90 3 63 121 72 * Christmas, 1869 -. 2 1 7 2 90................. Lady Day, 1870... 2 1 7 2 90 92 92 Midsummer, 1870 - 2 17 211 90 9 2 92 Haverfordwist.. Michaelmas, 1869 -2 42) to 2 90.......... 145 96 Christmas, 1869. 1 21 to 1 454.96......... Lady Day, 187 0. 1 21 to 1 45+~.........96......... Midsummer, 1870 -1 21 to 1 45sI..........96.... Cardigan.....Michaelmas, 1869~. 2 17 2 42 to 2 90. 72 to 1 45 72 to 14 Christmas, 1869. 1 93 to 2 17 19310o 2 42 96.... Lady Day, 187O.. 1 9310o 2 17 1 93 to 2 42 96......... Midsummer,1870~. 2 17 to 2 66.......... 96 to 1 45 96 *With beer at hay-time and harvest. tUsually with, beer at harvest-time. $ With food. 11 With food and cider at harvest-time, and a cottage, &c. ~ Usually with food and beer at harvest-time.'-~ AGRICULTURAL WAGES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 365 Rates of agricultural wages and amount of weekly earnings, 4c.-Continued. Men. Women. Children under 16. Districts and counties. Quarters ended- Weekly wages Weekly earn- Weekly wages Weekly wages without lod- by task- without lodg- without lodging and food. work. ing and food. ing and food. 2 42*1~~~...,..,...... Crickhowell..... Michaelmas, 1869*. $2 90 $3 63 $1 45 $1 45 Christmas, 1869... 2 90 3 63 1 21 96 LadysDay, 1870.. 2 90................1 21 96 Midsummer, 1870. -$2 90 to 3 14................ $1 21 to 1 45 -.... 2 ~~~~~~~45 1..,....~...~..~... Knighton........ Michaelmas, 1869. 2 42*............... 21 9 Christmas, 1869... 2 17* 2 42 96 50 Lady Day, 1870.... 2 42*................ 1 21 1 21 Midsummer, 1870 - 2 42*............... 1 21 1 21 Conway.......... Michaelmas, 1869. 1 93t-................ 1 45 1 45 Christmas, 1869... ~3 38 - - - - 1 45 72 3 38 ~~~~~~~~~1 45 / Lady Day,1870. 1 93 1 93t 1 45 1 45 Midsummer, 1870 2 17t 3 63 1 45 t24 With food and cider at harvest-time, and a cottage, &c. t With food. Meekly earnings of women and children at task-worl. WOMEN. Quarter endedCounties. Michaelmas. Christmas. Lady Day. Midsummer. Rent................................................ $2 17 $1 45 to $2 17 $1 93 to $2 17 Sussex............................... $2 0................................................ Southampton........................ $1 93 to 2 42 96 96............ Berkshire............................ 1 45 to 1 69 1 45 1 45 96 to 1 45 Northampton........................ 1 45................ f 08................ Norfolk............................ 72 to 1 21............................................... Wilts................................ 193to 242............................................... Dorset............................... 96 to 1 45................................ 1 08 to 2 90 Devonshire.......................................................................... 96 to 21 Cornwall............................................................................ 1 45 Gloucestershire...................... 2 05 to 2 17................................................ Herefordshire....................... 1 45 to 2 17................ 1 21.............. Shropshire..........2....8.............. 45 96 to 25................ I 81 Stafford1..............................! 45 —................................ 1 45 Worcestershire....................... -72 to 2 90 1 21 to 1 93 96 to 1 93 1 21 to 1 93 Varwickshire-....................... 1................................ 21................ Leicestershire....................................... 96................................ Lincoln..........1 39. Nottinghamshire 2 17..................2............. 2'17 North Riding, (Yorkshire) 2 17................ -................................ Durham-...........................5. Monmouth............................ 1 -1................ 1................ Gower, (Wales) -------------------- 1 93................. Crickhowell......................... 1................ 21................................ CHILDREN UNDER 16 YEARS. Southampton...........................9................................................. Berkshirse............................1 1 4 9................ 6..1................1 21 Sorthapo............................. 1 93................ I................ I................ orthamptonshire...........................................-108................ H-edfrtshr............................. I 81....o1 5I............ —-................[.................Yortbmponsi......................... ~~ ~................ I................ I1O................ Bedfordshire......................... 1 21 to................................................ Norfolk..........................- 24 to 2................................................ Dorset-.............................. -............................................... Devonshire2......................t 96................................................. Cornwall -------------- ---------------- ------- - - -1I 451 Gloucestershire - —...........1 4.5-....................... Shropshire........................... 1............................................... Worcestershire...................... 72 to 1 69................ -................................ Leicestershire —...........6 — -$0 —-— e 96-................ Lincoln.......................- -- 1................ -.............................. ~Nottinghamshire.................... 1................................ 96 to 1 2 Lancashire.......................................................... 2 05 1 69 366 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. A return, similar to the foregoing, was made to the House of Co. mons in July, 1873, giving the average rate of weekly earnings of agricultural laborers in England and Wales during the quarters ended MIichaelmas and Christmas, 1872, far as the same could be readilyf obtained.?The following information, condensed from this return, exhibits a gratifying improvement in the earnings and the condition of farm-laborers over those of 1869-'70: At Epsom the weekly wages to men were 14. a week; and women, 6.; children under sixteen years of age, 5s.; and the same stated as weekly earnings by task-work. In the eastern district the men earned 16s. by the week and 20s. by tsk-work. In Kent (at Faversham) the men earned 20s. as weekly wages and 26. at task-work.,Only those who sow and reap are engaged by task. Beer, ale, and cider are given in some places; in others no refreshment. In one place in Wales the weekly wages to men was from 15s. to 22s., and with "task money stated at. 6d.; and at the same place breakfast was given, as well as other meals, with about four pints of beer a day. It is mentioned that the supply is afforded during the hay and corn harvests, and it is added, "They are not stinted in food." At Northampton the weekly wages was 14. Of course, the amount is different in the various counties. In Dorsetshire the wages to the men were from 9s. to 12s. per week. Shepherds, 20. in the lambing season. On the (Queen's) Osborne farms laborers formerly received but 14s. per week, from which was deducted 2s. for the rent of the cottage with which each is provided. A garden is attached to each cottage. A quantity of thin beer is given to each man. FAR3I-tWAGES N 1874. There has been an advance in the price of farm-labor and a reduction of the hours of labor since 1870. In an article on. the condition of the working-classes of England, which appears on subsequent pages, Mr. Stanley James says: The averag~e rates of farm-wagres throughout England have since risen, and the hours of laborbhave been reduced. in the northern counties,1i8. a week is now paid for farmlabor; in the midland districts, 163.; and in the southern districts, from 128. to 148. There are still parts of England, however, in which men are paid less than the latter SUM. From the London Times and other undoubted authorities the following information in regard to the prices. of farm-labor in Great Britain is,obtained: In Aberdeenshire, a plowman receives from ~28 ($135.512) to ~30 ($145.20) per annum, with food and lodging. In Mid Lothian, agricultural wages have doubled since 1840. In Northumberland, 21s. ($5.08) a week and 3.3. (72 cents) extra in harvest, house and garden free, and 80 stone of potatoes within the year. In North Lancashire, 208. ($4.84) and 218. ($5.08) weekly to plowmen. Yorkshire, 208. ($4.84) to 23,3., ($5.56.) Lincolnshire, 188. ($4.35) per week, winter and summer..Norfolk, 28. 6d. (60 cents) per day, ordinary la-borers. ZAgricultural laborers' wages have risen from 50 to 100 per cent. all over the country within the last quarter of a century.-Tirnes, April 17, 1874. -*Yew Market, (April, 1874.)-Weekly wages paid by an employer under the Duke of Rutland, as follows: Laborer, 178. 2d. to i88. 9d., ($4.15 to $4.5-3);) horsekeeper, 1i8s. 6d. to 208. Sd., ($4.47 to $4.94;) yardman, 218. 4d., ($5.16,) including harvest-work and piecework.I'"Thetfforcd.-Wagres paid upon the Kuettishall farm to a man sixty-eight years old, -who is the lowest paid among, the able-bodied laborers employed. Forty-seven weeks at 148., ($3.38) $158.86; piecework over day wages, ~2 i5s., 8d., ($13.47;) five weeks harvest wages, ~8 19., $43.31; making a total of $215.64.-Tirnze June 8, 1874. Mr. Walter Williams, uinder date of October 25, 1874, writes: " Farm laborers earn, from Ns. 6Gd. to 3s. 6d. per day, accorAding to capacity, with perquisites." LABOR IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. FARMI WAGES IN 1875. The following extracts, from the Chamber of Agriculture Journal show the wages of farm laborers in different counties of England at the most recent dates, and indicate a marked advance on the rates of 1870: Berkshire, (Maidenhead,) January 2S.-Lowest price for day-men, 13s. or 14s. per week Working hours per day, 9~. Hampstead Norreys, January 29.-Wages, 12s. and upwards; 7 o'clock to 5.30, next month to 6 o'clock. Essex, January 14.-Wages, from 13s. to 16s. per week by day. Hours, from 7 to 5. Suffolk, January 19.-Wages, 13s. and 14s. a week; S8 hours a( day. So ersetshire, (M1artochl,) January 21.-Wages 11s., and three gallons of cider per week. Buckinghamshire, Febrluary 17. —Wages, 14s. per week for ordinary laborers and stockmen, 16s. for 9j hours' work. Cardiganshire, February 19.-Laborers abundant, on account of the strike in the iron and coal works. Wages, where food is not given, average 10s. to 11s. Herefordshire, February 19.-General wages, 12s. per week, with cider; wagoners ad stockmen, from 2s. to 4s. per week more, with cider and harvest money extra. orth Essex and South Suffolk, February 18.-Wages, day-work, 2s. per day from 6 a.. to 6 p. m., two hours for meals. Contract work up to 2s. 6d. per day. Bucks, North, February 26.-Wages, 13s. to 16s. a week. Essex, February 25.-Wages, 14s. weekly, from 6.30 to 5 o'clock. erefordshire, (near Madley,) February 25.-WVages vary from 12s. to 15s. per week; except in the winter, they work from 6 a. m. to 6 p. m. Kent, February 25.-Wages, 16s. a week and upward. Leicestershire, (near Grantham, ) February 24.-Ordinary wages, 2s. Gd. a day; no scarcity of men. Hours, from 6.30 a. m. to 5.30 p. m.; in fact) the men leave home at 6 a.., and reach home again at 6 p. m. Monouthshire, (Llanarth,) February 25.-W ages, 12s. to 15s. per week, with perquisites. Hours, 10k. Yorkshire, North Riding Dales, (Leathobne, Yarm,) February 23.-Wages of farm servants, laborers, and mechanics are high, much out of proportion as compared with the price of wheat. W-aruvickshire.-Wagres, 15s3. per week. Hours, about from 7 till 5. Cheshire, (Tarporley,) M arch 3.-Wages mostly vary, according to locality, from 13s. to 17s. per week, and laborers are scarce. H-ours of labor from 7 in the morning until 6 in the evening, with 30 minutes for breakfast, and 1 hour for dinner. Berkshire, March 11.-Wages, 12s. and 13s.; carters, &c., I s. a, week- more. Hours of labor,~from 7 a. m. till 5 p. m., 1 hour for dinner; in many places from 6 a. M. till 6 p. in., with half an hour for breakfast, and 1 hour for dinner. Dorsetshire, M5 arch 11.-W~ages, nominally, about 12s. a week, with Perquisites; 15s. without. Good men earn fron~ 2s. to 5s. a week extra. Gloucestershire, March 11.-Wages from 11s, to 14s. per week. Hours of labor, from- 7.a. M. to 5P. M. No)folk-, (West,) Marcht 10.-W anes are -nominally 13s. per week, but good men have more. Yorkshire, (W~est Biding,) March 20.-Wages from. 18s. to 24s. per week. Ten hours pe dlay. Buckingharnshire, (South?,) March 18.-Wagres, 14s. per -week; many men earn more by piecework. Hours, from 6 to 5. Devon, March 18.-Wages, 12s3. per week, with cider. Wiltshire, (Tisbury,) March 18.-General wages, 12.s. per week; but in many parishes,it is 11s, for 10 hours' work; women, 10d. per day. SALARIES OF CLERKS IN BANKS, INSURA NCE COM-LPANIES, ETC. The following information, condensed from the London Economist of May 1, 1875, in regard to the salaries of clerks -in banking and other institutions, although forming no part of the object of this report, will -prove of interest to some readers: As regards the initial pay, the usual age of entry in banks and insurance companies is from seventeen or eighteen to twenty, and the salary from ~70 to ~80. The usual,pay of a junior clerk between eighteen a-nd twenty may be roughly put at about ~80. The Bank of England, with an establishment of eight hundred clerks, returns the age of entry for ordinary clerks as eighteen to twenty-five, and the initial pay "1about ~X70 per annum."1 The London and Westminster Bank, with 443 clerks, returns the,age of entry at fromn eighteen to twenty-one, and the initial pay ~80 per annum, except 368 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. in the case of the juniors, who enter between sixteen and seventeen at 50 per annum. In Glyn's, with 200 clerks, the initial pay is 75 per annum, and the age of entry between seventeen and eighteen. Seventy-five pounds for a lad of eighteen is by no means a low salary. Upon that point I can speak with considerable confidence. Taking the general run of clerical employment in the city, there are not many places where a lad of eighteen would get ~75 a year. As regards maximum pay, about ~350 to ~400 a year in ban and, at the most, 300 a year in other establishments, are the maximum amounts to which ordinary clerks, if they are possessed of merit-there being hardly any promotion except by merit-may look forward to. Thus, in the Bank of England, the secretary stated that every clerk would rise to a "maximum" of ~300 about forty-one to forty-four years of ae. In the London and Westminster Bank, and in Glyn's, the maximum in both cases is stated to be ~400 for an average clerk. RELATIVE AMIOIUNT OF WORK PERFORMED. In estimating the actual cost of labor in the United Kingdom, from the figures presented on the precedingpages, regard has only been had to the number of hours of labor which the work-people have exchanged for the sums named. The computation is made upon the supposition that each man, at a given occupation, will perform a definite amount of work per hour, whether he labor eight, nine, or ten hours per day; in other words, that men who have been working ten hours per day will perform on tenth less if the time is reduced to nine hours, and one-fifth less if reduced to eight hours per day; which supposition may or may not be correct. If it be required to ascertain the advance in the cost occasioned by a reduction of the hours of labor, this pro rata mode of computation will furnish the result approximately correct. But when, in determiigte results of this investigation, it becomes necessary to compare the cost of labor in Great Britain with that in the United States, other data will be required in addition to those which have already been under consideration. The question is, What amount of labor is exchanged for a given quantity of coin, or of food, clothing, and shelter? This leads to the further inquiry, Does a workman in the United Kingdom accomplish as much work, in the same space of time, as one in a similar employment in the United States? This branch of the investigation engaged the attention of the author before and during his visit to the manufacturing towns of Great Britain, and.he endeavored to gather such facts as would enable him to determine this question. Through observation and inqjuiry the conclusion was reached that, in most industrial pursuits, a workman in England does not perform so much work in, say, nine hours as another of equal ]knowledge and skill in the same branch in the United States. The reasons assigned for this were various, some of which are here presented. M1r. Sellick, then United States consul at Bradford, is of opinion that work-people will nDot perform as much work in a week as similar workmen in the United States. The English work-people, he stated, lack intelligence, waste time, and by their intemperate habits injure their health, and consequently lessen their ability to labor. The same reply, substantially, was made by the consul at Sheffield, and by others elsewhere, each possessing such an acquaintance with the subject -as enabled him to express an intelligent opinion. A Mr. Dodge, former!ly of C ohoes, N. Y., a manufacturer of files near Manchester, having employed workmen at the same labor in both countries, and therefore fully qualified to form an intelligent opinion, stated, in reply to a question, that English workmen perform less work in a given time than Americans in similar employment. Hie gave as areason, that it was owing to the want of "adaptability" of the -former LABOR IN TE UNITED KINGDOM 369 to different kids of work; that it was difficult to get them out of "old ruts," or to train them to orrk more rapidly than they had been accustomed to. It is evident that the intemperate habits of the men, and the loss of te consequent thereon, revent them from performing a full week's work. True, while at work, especially during the latter part of the week, the men work as rapidly as those in the United States; but in the earlier part of the week this IS not the case with men who drink to excess. Even if men of such habits do not observe the festal day of their patron, Saint-Monday, they are unable to perfcrin a fair day's work so soon ater the dissipation of Saturday night and Sunday. This is especially true of the men in Sheffield, as will appear in subsequent pages nder the caption, "Condition of the laboring classes." The fact will ot, p aps, be disputed, that in most branches of anfacture, especially a macie or engineering work, and in the bricationofharwarecutleryand other manufactures of iron and steel, the women perform less work per week, on an average, than an equal number in the United States. The next inquiry is, What percentage of reduction should be made in the computation From observation and inquiry the author is led to the conclusion that it aouts to ten per cent.; in other words, that, on an avere, nine hundred en i the United States, employed at the branches indicted, as well as at many others, will accomplish as much efficient work per week as one thousand in England. If, therefore, the hours of labor in Egland were as formerly, fifty-nine per week, and in the nited Sates ifty-four, the amount of work accomplished by a given number of en in the respective countries would be about the ~~same.~~fatrie n in som th hnn of In cotton and in other textile factories, and in some other branches of industry, the difference between the amount of labor performed in the two countries is not so great. A fair aiverage of the whole industrial population of the two countries would, it is believed, indicate, in favor of the, work-people of the United States, at difference of but eight, possibly of but six, per cent. in the amount of work performed. In this connection it may be st~atedi that, after the rise of wages in England in the year 1872, it was ascertained that the men in many branches of industry performed less work than'when the rates were lower. An illustration of this fact is given by a correspondent of the Leeds Mercumry, who presents an interesthing comparison of the work done by colliers in 1864 and 187 3: In 1,864 the average product of our coal-mines gave fer each person employed 3-271 tons, which for 313 working-days, is equal to 211 cwt. for each person per day. In 1868 the average product gives for each person 317 tons, which, for 31.3 worki~ng days, is equal to ~20 cwt. for each person per day; and in 1873 the averagfe product gives for each person only t271 tons, which, for 313 days, is equal to 171 cwt. for ea,)ch person per day. It, will thus he seen that in the first period of five years (1864 to 1868) there was a diminished output per person of about 7 per cent.-211 to 20 cwt. In1 the second period of five years (18~69 to 1873) the output had declined by 121, per cent.-20 to 17J ewt. per day for each person. So in the ten years each person employed about a, coal-mine has reduced his labor by nearly 19 per cent.-211 Xto 171 cwt. per day. Irt is a remarkable fact that, while there has been so great a reduction in the amount of work performed per mhan in 1873, the rates of wages have advanced from 30 per cent. upward. A further illustration of this fact was given to the author by a inine owner or iogent residing in Manchester. The average, earnings of all thme miners in a certain mine in 1871, was 4s. 74. per day; while in 1872, when the rates were from 100 to 150 per cent. higher, the weekly earnings of the same mnen were really 24. per week less. They averaiged less than 4 working-clays per week, while miany worked but from 3 to 31 deays. 24 L 370 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. 11.-PRICES OF PROVISIONS, GROCERIES( HOUSE-RENT ETC. Having in the foregoing pages given the earnings of work-people employeel in the manufacturing and minilg districts of the United King domn in 1871, before the advance in the cost a the reduction in the hours of labor, also the rate of wages paid i1872 and in subsequent years, and the earnings of farm-laborers in 1870 and in recent years, the reiaders of these pages who may desire to institute a comparison between the )prices of labor in Great Britain and those in Continental Europe or the United States of America, will nd the necessary data so ftr as regards the United King(lorn. The figures, originally given in 13ritish money, have, in most cases, been computed in the coin, but ot in the paper-currency equivalent, of the United States. If the purchsmig-powver of the British shilling were really, as well as nominally, identical in value with 24 cents (coin) in the United States, and with the mark of Germany, which are very nearly the equivalents,* then no future presentation of facts were necessary to enable the economist to make the comparison above indicated. If; in the near future, a uniformity of weight and fineness of the old-coin bearing different names and the impress of sovereignty of various countries be adopted, the traveler would find that his coin would pass current in the world's market. but hle would be doomed to disappointment if he supposed that its ability to minister to his wants were the same everywhere. PURCHASING-POWER OF WAGES. If a workman in B irmningham receive for fifty-four hors labor 30s., or about. 8.33 in United States currency, and another of the same occup-ation in Philadelphia earn $12.50, it would be inaccurate to say th at the earnings of the latter were 50 per cent. more than those of the lo-rmer. The question is not what is the United States equivalent of the thbirty British shillings, but what is the purchasing-power of the wages of 4the one workman in England and of the other in the United States. In other words, how much of food, clothinlg, and shelter will the earnin"gs of theone purch-ase as compar-edwith th~eother' l For the solution of t-his question other elements are necessary, and these must be considered unuder the next general head, viz: I The following table shows the relative wei.ght and value of the gold coins of Europe, wN-hich most nearly approximate thiose of the, United States: Weight in pure gold. Denomination. Country. U. S. gold. Grains Mletric troy. granimes. Half-eagle-..............IUnited States -......... $5 116. 1 7. 523 Sa~verej-il...............IGreat Britain -......... 4. 8665 113 7. 322 Twenty-five-franc piece -.......F rance-............. 4. 88,.3 112.09 ec 7.258 Twenty-mnark piece -..........Germnany-........... 4. 764 iii). 6:26 7.16ti PRICES OF PROVISIONS, ETC., IN ENGLAND. 371 Prces of provion, groceries, and othr leading articles of consumption, also of house-rent and oard, in the manacturing towns of Great Britain. ENGLAND. ~~~~~Articles. ~1872. 1874. 1872. Birmingham. Bradford. Bradford. IHuddersfield. Floutr: roiim Wheat, superfine —— per bbl $S 50 $8 00 to $8 50 $7 35 $7 98 Wheatextra family —do 9 00 9 00 7 84 8 6t ye —---------—.do........................................ 7 26 Coern-me~al~.........................d 7 84 7 98 Beef: Fresh, roastin-pieces.per lb 21 22to 24 $0 21 to 24 20 Fresh, soup-pieces-do. 12 16 to 18 19 to 21 0 10 to 12 Fresh, rump-steaksdo. 26 28 32 24 to 36 Corned-.......do.. 18.............. 22 16 Veal: Fore-quarters.... 16 17to 21 16 to 18 16 Hind-quarters —1do 8 21 17 to 21 18 Cutlets2.........do. 6 28 24 2 to 24 Mutton: Fore-quarters -.o. 16 18 18 to 20 16 Leg-.... do.- 21 21 24 20 Chops-...do.. 24 24 24 24 Pork: Fresh-do........... 16 13 to 19 18 to 20 16 Corned or salted -....do.15.............. 16 to -20 16 Bacon —-----— 0 14 to 20 16 to 20 20 18 Hams, smoked-d —o 24 20 to 24 24 24 Shoulders-. do. 10 to 12 10 20 20 Sausags —-— do.-. 18 14to 20 16 to 20 16 to 20 Lard. —-do...... 14 to 18 14 to 20 20 12to 18 Codfish, dry-do ——.......... C8 1-2 Mackerel, Pickled ——................................ 08to 12 BRitter -.......do.. 24 to 28 24 to 32 34 to 48 24 to 3-2 Cheese —------- - do.. 18 14 to 20 20 to 24 12to 20 Potatoes-do. —---------— 02- 0o- o (*) ice —-----------— (d. 06 05 to 10 5 to 08 04to 10 Beans —------- per qt............... 08 08............. k-do —------ -. 06 08 08 06...........s.....per doz. 169 t 24 18 24 to 36 l8to 24 GROCERIES, ETC. Tea, Gotong, or other good hiac k —..per lb~ 60 to 7 2 60 36 to s0 64 to 84 Coffee: Rio, green —..............do-. N4 32to 40 l6to 20 30 Th1o, roasted —..............do.. 3 21 3290 t 40 32 to 40 3 Sugar: Good brown —--- --------— do.. 08 08 to 10 07 to 08 08 Yellow C —------------- - do.! 07 08to 1 0......... 09to 10 CoffeeB --------------- - do.. 08 O9to 10- —....... 9to 10 Molasses: -New Orleans ----- -------— do.. 06 05 05 (gallon.) 32 Porto Rico —---- --------— do.. 04 O6to 07 06 (gallon,) 32 Sirup ------------------ d —-- -.......... -....... -........ (gallon,) 7:2 S ap. common —- -.- ------------—.fo. 06 09 08 06 to 09 S!-arch. ---------- ----— a —-— do.- 10 12 to 16 12 12 C oalI.. —--------------— per ton. 4 36 3 26to 4 60 4 38 21 9010o 3 63 Oil, coal -------------— per -all. - Not uasedt... 56............... DOMESTIC DRY GOODS ETC. Shirtings Brown, 4-4, standard quality.....per yd 14 089to 1 8 1290o 16 10 to 141 Bleached, 4-4, standard quality-.....do.. 13 08 to 18 16 to 20 1-21to 16 Sheetillgs: Br'own, 0-8, standard quality - d.....(o.. 14 2-2to 28 42 121 to 16 Bleached, 9-8, stpandard quality -.._do. -17 26 to 84 48 14 to 18 Cotton dlannel, good quality-.......d o - -2........0 to 48 30 to 36 16 to 20 Tichings good quality -......do. 30 24 to 66G 212 28to 32! Prints -d —-.............(o.. 1 3 07to 20 1010o 16 14 M3 ousselrne do laimes -d —------— (o. -21 22~ to 48 16 1290o 18 satirlets, mnediumli quality -.........do - -- ------ 24 to 54 36 to 402 97 to 1 33 B oots, men's heavy.. —------— per pair. +2 tO. 2 90 to 3 87 2 tito 3 84 2 90 to:337 tI0tTSE-RENT. Four-roomqed tenements-......per month........4 64 to 6 0 5 5 76 to 7 20 3 23 to 4 00 Six4oonmcd tenements-..........do-........6 0.5 to 7 66 9 60 to 14 40 4 00 to 5 43 BOARD. For mnen-..............per weelc.........- 2 90to 3 38 26890t 3 60 1 94 to 2 4 2 For women-................do. —-----— I1 45 to 1 94 1 68 to 2 16 1 O9tu 1 94 * Half a cent to four-fifths of a cent. tGas almost universal, 60 cents per- 1,000 feet. +Brogans, elastic hides. 372 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Prices of provisions, groceries, and other leading articles of consumption, 4-c.-Continuod. XXGLAND. Articles. 1872. 1874. 1872. Leeds. Newcastle' otnfan Manchester. Ion-Tyne. -~otnhm Flour: PROVISIONS. Wheat, snperflne -.........per bbl- $7 57 $7 74 $6 17 $7 50 Wheat, extra family.............do.......... 9 00 6 77 8 71 Rye-..................do.......... $ O8 to 6 14 496 4 00 Corn-meal..................do.........3 99 to 4 11 5 08........ Beef: Fresh, roaosting-pieces........per lb 20 22 22 22 Fresh, soup-pieces -...........do......... 10 14 10 Fresh, rump-steaks..........do..- 30 24 24 28 Corned.................do........16 to 18 16 $0 19 to 22 Veal: Fore-quarters.............do......... 17 18 18 Hind-quarters.............do......... 20 20 2-2 Cuatlets................do........ 2- 24 28 Mntton: Fore-quarters.............do.18........i 16 18 Leg..................do.. 18 21 20 2lto 2-2 Chops.................do.. 24 24 22 24 Pox-k: Fresh.................do........ 16 16 18 Corned or salted.............do......... 16 16 18 Bacon..................do........ l12 to 18 18 16 to 20 Hams, smoked.............do. - 22'23 to 28 2.4 24 Shouldeis...............do 1.........I2 16 1 8 Sausa-es................do........16 to 18 18 22 L'ard...................do.. 17 09 to 18 20 10 Codfish, dry................do................08 12 Butter...................do..- 32 20 to 28 $0 24 to 32 24to 34 Cheese..................do.. 18 l6 to 20 18 12 to 20 Potatoes..................do. - 0-2. -.................. (bushel,) 65 Rice....................do........... O4 to 08 04 06 Beans.................per qt................ 08 (Haricot,) 12 M ilk.d..................(o............ O6to 08 08.......... Eggs s.................per doz.. 24 20 to 22 22 30 to 36 GROcERIEs, ETC. Tea, Golong and other good black.... per lb. $0 60 to 88 64 to 97 48 to 72 48 to 96 Coffee: Rio, green...............do.. 32........24 36 Rio, roasted..............do.......... 32 28 40 Sugar: Good brown..............do.. 07 08 07 06 Yellow C................do......... 07 08 07 Coffee B................do.. 09........09........ Molasses: New Orleans..............do.................. (gallon,) 36........ Porto R1ico...............do......... 04 (gallon,) -18........ Sirup...................do......... 06 (gallon,) 60 06 Soap, common...............do.. 08 O6to 08 08 06to 08 Starch...1...............do. -......-10 12 12 C ol. iI.................per ton. 5 14 3 14 to 4 44 484 3 38 to 5 56 Oil, coal................per gall. ()48 48 () DOMESTIC DRY cOOnS, ETC. Slhirtings: Brow~i, 4-4, standard quality....per yd.......... 10 to 17 09 07 to 12 Bleached, 4.4, standard quality.....do......... 10 to 21 16 08 to 13 Sheetings: Brown. 9-8, standard quality.......do......... 19 to 42 18 19 to 42 Bleaehed, 9-8, standard quality.....do.......... 50to 66 2~4 20 to 50 Cotton flann-el, good quality.d......(o......... 3-2to 48 16 19 to 36 Tickings, good quality..........do......... 19 to 33 20 24 to 48 Prints -------------— I...do.......... 09 to 17 14 09 to 15 Mousseijue do laines............do......... 22 24 24 S.9tinets, medium quality.........do......... 1 09 54........ Boots, men's heavy...........per pair..........2 90 to 3 63 3 34 2 42 to 3 63 HOUSE-RENT. Four-roomed tenements......per month. 3 88 4 60 to 4 84 5 00 3 36 to 4 84 Six-roomed tenements...........do...........6 2tito 6 76 7 10 4 84 to 7 24 HOARD. For men...............per week.(........ +.........2 (9Oto 3 39 For women................do............ -....... -....... 1 4510 1 93 *Gas, per 1,000 feet, 84 cents. t Varies much. +Working-classes do not board. PRICES OF PROVISIONS, ETC., IN ENGLAND. 373 Prices of provisions, groceries, and otlher leading articles of consumption, e'c.-Continued. - ENGLAND-Continued. Articles. 187-2. 1874. Sheffield. London. Liverpool. St. Helens. Sunderland. Flour: PROVISIONS. Wheat, superfine...........per bbl. $7 71 to $8 29.......... $ 7 02............ $6 40 Wheat, extra fitraly...........do.- 8 00 to 8 57 ---------- 7 26............ 7 12 Rye............................do.. 5 71 to 6'29 --------—.................. - - - - -- 5 4{ Corn-meal.........................do.. 4 57.................................. 5 04 Beef: Fresh, roasting-pieces.......per lb 20 $0 23 20 $0 2-2 22 Fresh, soup-pieces.............do.. 17 18 16 20 16 Fresh, ruump-steaks............do.. 28 28 22, 22 24 Corned.........................do.. 20 22 17 22 18 Veal: Fore-quarters..................do. 18 22 17 22 20 Hind-quarters.................do.. 18 2'2 19 22' 2 Cutlets........................do.. 24 30 24 22 22 Mutton: Fore-quarters..................(o 16 19 17 20 16 Leg............................do.. 20 to 2t 2-2 18 20 ~2 C hops.........................do.. 20 to 22 28 20 22 24 Pork: Fresh......................... do.. 18 20 18 18 18 Corned or salted...............do. 16 19 16............ 17 Bacon..........................do.. 16 to 20 18 18 20 1J Hams, smoked................ do.- 20 to 24 24 24 24 2.6 Shoulders......................do.. 16 19 18............2 9I Sausages.......................do.. 16 24 16'20 24 Lard..............................do.. 18 23 20 16 20 Codfish, dry.......................do.. 05 to 06 ---------- 06 -. —-------- 07 Maickerel, pickled................. (o- 08..................................0 Butter...............d............o.. 24 to 28 30 34 34 34 Cheese............................do.. 14 to 2) 23'20 20 22 Potatoes..........................do.. *16 to *24.......... (bushel,) 96 01]- 01 Irice..............................d o.. 03 to 06 09 01 06 $0 04 to 12 Beaus..........................per qt. 08 12....................... 09 Milk..............................do.. 06 It 08 08 10 ggs..........................per doz 18 39 29 ----------- 28 GROCERIES, ETC. Tea, Oolong or other good black per lb 60 60 72 76 72 to 94 Coffee: Rio, green.....................do. 24.......... 28 ----------- 24 Rio, roasted....................do.- 28 to 40 30 34 32 36 Sugar: Good brown....................do. I 07 06 06 08 0O Yellow C.......................(o. 08 07............ 06 07 Coffee B........................do.. 08 10............ 04 07 Molasses: New Orleans.................do. - 05 08........................ (gallon,) 46 Port.o Rico......................do. 04 08 (gallon,) 72............ (gallon,) 54 Sirup........do.. 06.......... 07 ----------- 08 Soap. common.....................do. 04 to 08,20 12 08 06 Starch............................ o- 08 to 12` 20 1 12 12 Coal.......................... per ton 314 to 3 87.......... 5 81 3 60 3 84 Oil, coal......................per gall 56 29........................ 48 DOMESTIC DRY GOODS, ETC. Shirtings: Brown, 4-4, standard quality per yd 08 to 12 08 08 14 09 to 12 Bleached, 4-4, standard quality.do 10 to 16 15 15 18 12 to 24 She-tiigs: Brown, 9-8, standard quality... do. 12 to 20 32 25............ 24 to 46 Bleached, 9-8, standard quality do.- 3-2 to 0CO 36 31......... 48 to 84 Cotton-flannel, medium quality....do- 16 to 30 30 27 48 18 to 24 Tickings, good quality............do. 12 to 00 24 21 f84 24 to 64 Prints............................do. 1'2 to 24 20 15 18 10 to 14 Moousseline de laimes..............do. 16 to 3-2 32 17............28 Satinets, rmediru quality.1......do- - 20 75 48............ 1 00 Boots, men's heavy...........per pair 2 42 to 3 75 3 36 3 24............ 2 88 HOUSE-RENT. Fonr-roomed tenements.......per mo 3 36 to 4 32.......... 4 84 3 76 4 80 Six-roomed tenements.............do.. 6 05.......... 6 2-2............ 6 98 BOARD. For mechanics, &c...........per-week. 290 to 363.......... 3 40............ 336 For women employed in factories..do.. 1 45 to 1 93...................... 2 20 *Per stone. t Double width. 374 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERIA. Pirices of provisions, groceries, and other leading articles of consumption, 4c.-Contined. WALES. SCOTLAND. Articles. 1872. Glaow. 1872. Cardiff. Newport. 1873. 1874. Dundee. Leith. PROVISIONS. Flour: Wheat, superfino. per bbl. $747 $8 4 7 $6 48 6 53.49 68 WVheat, extra family - Alo. 7 95 8 71 7 7 6.. Bee': Fresh, roasting-pieces.pr lb 20 20 2 24 20 to $ 2 19 to 20 lrosh, soup-pieces.do. 16 1 t to L o 20 F'rcsh, rump-steaks....do. 21 22 24 24 30 30 {C'orned................do.- 30............ 2 Veal: Fore-quarters......... do. 18 18 14 to 16 15 hild-quarters.........do.. 19 19 20 to 21 16 22 C atlets................ do.. 24 20 3 32 Mutton: Fore-quarters......... do.. 18 18 1 to 16 15 16 Leg............... do. 19 20 ISto 2 19 19 22 Chops................. do. 20 22 20o 24 22 20 24 Pork: Fresh................. do. 18 16 4to ) Corned or salted.......d 14o 1. 16 14 —---- Bacon................. do. $0 17 to 22 1924 RHamns, smoked.........do. 17... 24to 26 25 24to 28 26to 28 Shoulders............do. 17............17 17 14 Sausages....... o. do- 17 16 16 16 Lard.d............. do. 20 120 Codfish, dry..............0do..............0 0....... Butter....................do 27 $0 22 to 26 36 36 28 3 2 Cheese..... o........o.. 14 to 16 2 Potatoes.................do. 02.8 (bush.) 1 93 (bush.) 1 9:1 ice.....................do. 03 to 06 04to 06 04 04 4o 07 05 Milk................... per qt. 07 t2to 1608 01 gs..per o......34 34 24 to 32 2 GROCERIES, ETC. Tea, Oolong or other good black.........perlb. 44 to 97 4810o 92 600o 72 6)5 48 to 84, 48to 85 Coffee: Rio, green.........do.- ------------— 301o 32 31. —----------- Eio, roasted...... d o,.......... 40 2610o 40 38 3-2 to 40 3i Stugar: Good brown.......do_ 08 07 05 05 07 to 08 0 5 Yellow C..........d(o - ----— 0 7o 0 61~ —---- Coffee R....::.o.......do —------ 08 —---- 0710 —— 08 06J 10 New Or-leans......do.- -------------- 04 04 06rk...... Itorto Rico.......do.-. —-----. —-----. —----- 05 06 05 Sirup. —-------— (10 —-------------- 0 On......0..08..06 Snap, common......per lb. 06 to 0 7 0 6 06 to 07 ii 06 to 09 08 to 01) S ta rch...........do- l0 o I 12 10 tob 12 ----- 1to 14 12 to 131 Coal..........per ton 5 60........ 4 tO 3 87 58Oto 600 ~ 62 Oil, coal.........per gall..................................... 40 DOMESTIC DRY GOODS, ETC. Shirtings: Brown, 4-4, stau darfi-per yd. 0910o 13 091to 13 07 to 12 09$-. -10 Bleatched, 4-4, standard. do.. 07 to 17 07 to 17 09 to 18 13$ 16 14 Sheelhius: Brown, 9-8, standard. - do 2400o 30 26to 30 24 24 12i 31 Bleached, 9.8, stanldar d do.- 32 to 42 26 to 36 34 17 32 42 Cotton tflannel, mnedium.. _ do.. 24 2-1........... IS 18 ------ 2-2 Tic~kings, good quality... -do.- - 30 30 36 12 *24 to 28 10 to 17 Prints..... — ----— do.. 1510o 19 15 12....1i 14 Mousseline de lam-es-d....o - 1810o 21 18..........20. —---- Satinets, mediumi quality~do. - 84. 84...........I 338o 1 93....... Boots, men's heavy -.per pair. 3 3910o 4 35 3 39............3 87 to 4 84 3 44 HOUSE-RENT. Four-rooined tenemeut-pr mo 4 84 2 90........... 6 05 3 63 Six-roomed tenements...-do.. 6 78 to 7 26 4 35........... 7 26 5 65 BOARD. For mechiuics, &c..-per week- 2901to 3 39 2 90 3 60 3 63 2 90 to 363 2421to 2 90 For women in fact~ories.-.do.. 1 93.2 65 2 66 1 93 to 218' 1 57 * Linen. PRICES OF PROVISIONS, ETC., IN IRELAND. 373 Prices of provisions, groceries, and other leading articles of consumpiion, 4-c.-Coutinued. IRELAND. - Articles. Belfast. Londonderry. Portlaw. 1874. 187:3. 187:3. 187;4. ~;6" Flour PROVISIONS. Wheat, superfine.....................per bbl $5 81 to $6 78 -------------- $ 7 20 I ~6 33 $7 43 Wheat, extra family.....................$(o.............. — 8 71 9 00 6 82 8 07 Rye......................................do —................ -............. 5 54 Corn-meal..................................do -................1.........4............ 4 1 5 47 Beef: Fi-esh, roasting-pieces.................per lb 14 to 15 20 18 16 1I Fresh, soup-pieces.......................do. 14 to 16 14 14 14 16 Fresh, rump-steaks......................do. 14 to 16 24 19 18 25 Corned..................................do. 15 16........ 14 20 Veal: I Fore-quarters............................do. 22.............. 38 tirud-quarters...........................do. 22 —.............. 20 Cutlets..................................do 2.................. 25 Mutton: Fore-quarters............................do., 12 to 18 20 17 15 17 Leog.....................................do:- 12 to 18 20 18 15 19 Chops....................................do. 12 to 18 24 18 17 2L Pork: Fresh....................................do — 12 to 13.......... 13 16 21 Corned or salted.........................do.- 14 to 16 ----—.....- 12 13 16 Bacon................................(10 18 0 8to 22 24 19 19 Rams smoked...........................do... 24 28 24 124 Shouldlers..................tin. 12 to 18......... 24 18 17 Sus S —----------------------—......do 12to I8...... 16 15 18 Lao'd ---------------------------------------- do. - 1-2 20. 12 12 17 C dry-.................................do.......... 04I 08 07 07:Solakereli pickled...............do............................. 08 Blutter.....................do.- 24 24 2,4 2!8 29' C, utee e d..................................... (lo. 16 20 20 20 19 1,otabfes. —: —-—. ——: —---— (do.] (bushel,) 36 (bushel.) 40 00: 008 88 Rice........................................do.. 04 04 to 08 05 04 06 Beins....................................per..t........ 09 Milk........................................ do.............. o 5 04 04 08 E- 1g's....................................per doz 16 to 24 24 18 24 25 GROCERIES, ETC. T'ea, Oolong or other good black..........per lb 44 to 64 84 72 82 69 Coffee:Rio, green..do 24............................... 28 Elio, iottsted.do. - 34 32 40 37 35 Sugar: Goodl brown. do 05 to 06 07 07 76 87 Yellow Cdo.............................. 7 0 Ct)fl'[OW {J..................................do................................... (}7 03 Coffee 13.d..................06 08 Molasses: New trle:ms........................ per gall.............................. 53 Porto RIico.(t0................. 97 f;0 Sirup -................-....................do............................... 1 46 76 Soap, common............................per lb 07 06 07 08 0. Starch.(....................................do.. 09 09 t',6 08 11 Coal...................................per ton 4 35to 605 5 80 to 720 6 26 5 84 4 78 Oil, coal................................ per gall.............. 32 56...... 46 DOMESTIC DRY GOODS, ETC. Shirtings: Brown, 4-4, standard quality- per yd. 08 to 14 11 0s I Bleached, 4-4, standard quality...........to............... 10 to 20 12 10 14 Sheetings: Brown, 9-8, standard quality.............do................ 36 to 60 it 12 25 Bleached, 9-9, standard q ality...........do............................ 14 16 3. Cotton-fltunnel, medimtn qualitydo 22 to 24 24 2.0 2 27 Tickiugs, good quality....................... (. -24 16 28 Pitints.do.... 11...............................(. do.. 1 15 Mousseline do laimes......................... 24 to 36.... 2.1 Satinets, medium quality....................(o................ 32 to 441 - - -- 82 Boots, men's heavy.....................per pair.............. 2 66 to 6 05 2 18..07' 3 -3 IOUSE.RENT. Fonr-roomed tenements................. per mo 2 00 to 2 50.1 93 2 4:1 4 1,4 Six-roomed tenements..................do.. 3 00 to 4 00.2 4-2 3 41 5 97 BOARD. For mechanics, &c....................per week.2 16 to 3 60 2 92 3 11 For women employed in factories...........do.. 8 to.1 46 1 93 376 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERCA. PRICES OF PROVISIONS, GROCERIES ETC. [From the author's notes.] BIRMINGHAM.-Rent of kitchen and two rooms above, in rear of house,. a week; in firont, 5s. Bread, 8d. for 4-pound loaf. Meat,s.perpound. CheesegoodAerican, 7d. per pound. Rent of three rooms, about 3. d. per week for back and 4s. d. for frout; average, about 4s. House-rent in suburbs, lower than in the ci-4. to 4. d. for house of four rooms; 6s. for six rooms. SHEFFIELD.-Rellnt of rooms, ordinary price, 4s. per week for four rooms, or about s. per room. Good rooms rent for more. A respectable small house may be had for s.a week. Meat in Sheffield is good. Workingmen buy the best, and they can afford it. E'xcellent beef and mutton, 10Od. per pound; good at d. American bacon, 7d. to d. lButter, from Is. to Is. 24. MANCHESTER.-Leg of veal, 9d.; best fillet, d. Leg of mutton, d. Good beef for stevwilg, 7jd.; for roasting, 9d. to 9Od. Tea, very good, 2s. 4d. to d.; best, 3. Good white sugar, 4d.; best, 4~d; brow\n, 3d. to 3d. Flour, 2s. to 2. d. per stone. Bacon, 7d. to 9d. Cheese, 6d. to 8d. Dry goods, low. Rent of rooms, 4. for four rooims. In another part of the city rents are3s. 9d., 4s. d., and 4s. for four roos. Good cheese, 8d., chiefly American, which is very good, and occasionally better than English, at the same price. Good tea, 2s. Sd.; best, 3s. HALIFAX.-Four rooms in upper part of house, from to 9 per yer. Better houses, built by Crossleys, two rooms on a floor, larger frontage, at 10 guineas a Year, and( poorer at lower rates. BUADFORD.-Rent of houses, five or six rooms, for clerks, 18 to 20 per year. NOTTINGrIAM.-Rent of three to four rooms, average 4s. per week. Some nice houses in a good street rent for the same. Within the-,walls of theold town fouirto five rooms, Mncludinlg taxes, 4s. to 4s. Gd. Price of iprovisions inuch the same as in other western towns. Abont 10d. to is. for the best beef; Sd. to l0d. for very good; quite good at 9d. Veal 10d. by the leg; 13d. for cutlets, and much less for the poorer pieces. ITIUDDE.RSFIELD. Price of board, for workmen, l0s.; for -workwomen, 7s. per week. Conm~. (From Mr. Derby's notes.) Pr-ices in a provision store: Beef and mutton, l0d. to is. per pound; pork and bacon, 9d.; corned beef;' 9d.; smoked hams, l0d. to is.; cabbag~es, 1d. each. LONDON WHOLESALE PRICES IN 1872. From the monthly statement of the wholesale prices of the following articles in the London markets during each month of the year 1872, the followinig average, expressed in United States coin, has been computed, and the, average pro-rata price stated per pound: Per cwt. Per lb. Porkc: Has soed6 5 9 ~0 2 3. 7 La~rd —............................... 17 03 15. 2~ Butter. —29 24 26.1t Cheese. —~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~15 98 14. 3 Rice. —-—. —--- ---------- 329' 2. 9 Coffee, Jamaica middling. —-------------------— 25 84 23 Sugar, good brown.-.......................... 5 7 7 7. 9 Molasses, West Indies......................... 3 08 2.7 PRICES OF DRY GOODS IN ENGLAND. 377 The following statement forwarded by Mr. Consul Horan, gives the retail prices of cotton and other goods in Sunderland: Statement shoig the average retail prices of thefollouwing articles of dry goods in Sunderland, supplied by Messrs. Sheraton, drapers, in November, 1874. 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,Articles. PrIe. Articles. Price. Gray shirtings: Cents. Gray sheetings-Coutinued. Cents. ~~3~~~~~~~9 0-inch........................... 6 to 9 0-inh.. 32 to 34 33-inch........ 7 to 11 Double warp, 80-inch. 40 to 54 36-inch-......8 to 14 White sheetings: 40-inch.....10 to 16 72-inch............................. 44 to 60'~~White shirting-~s: 80-inah............................. 54 to 66 ~~~~2Fine make, 36-h.10 to )ouble warp, 90-inch........... 60 to 84 S t make, 36-inch.13 to 29 Ticks: ~~~White flannels: Cotton, 27 to 32 inch........... 18 to 24 Lancashire-...28 to 48 Union, 32-inch..................... 20 to 30 Saxony, finer.28 to 48 Linen: ~~~Fancy flannels: White or brown, 32-inch......... 30 to 36 Unions....... 14 to 30 Prints: All-wool.....36 to 66 30 to 32 inch...................... 9 to 16 ~~~Gray shee~tings: ~Satin cloths, French llamas, and various 72-inch..........24 to 40 other dress-materials................ 20 to 48 WHOLESALE PRICES OF GRAIN. Table showing the verage pice of wheat per imperial quarter* in England and Wrales for the last week ot each monith during ten years, from 1863 to 1872, inclusive, the pound sterling being computed at $4.84. Month. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1 8 67. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. Jannary -......$11 59 $9 84 $9 31 $11 01 $11 04 $17 10 $12 44 $10 32 $12 70 $13 51 February - 112 —-It7 9 80 9 23 10 99 14 49 17 74 11 90 98-2 13 00 13 49 Mlarc h.......- 1 097 9 65 927 I 1086 14 74 1 76-1 1123 10 26 1 335 1 310 Api-il - 1.......I1 05 9 47 9 53 10 99 5 2-2 17 88 10 90 10 30 14 4 1 13 18 Mlay -........1 123 9 53 10 10 1 1 45 15 79 17 48 10 93 10 9)7 14 49 13 97 Jnne-........1123 9 68 9 98 12 31 84-2 16 31 1 169 12 20 14 49 14 31 Jul y —------ I1 111 10 64 1 036 1 258 861 15 18 125-2 1-278 14 03 14 29 Angnst —---- 1 107 10 26 10 97 1-2:30 16 11 13 77 13 10 1 240 1 387 14 39 Septcmhber ---— 10 58 9 90 9 88 1-2 4 4 1 550 1-2 96, 12 22 10 97 13 85 14 31 October ------ 963 9 37 10 24 12 70 17 04 12 80 11 17 it1 73 13 69..... November -..... 9 74 9 35 1t 33 13 91 16 55 12 34 1t 01 12 20 13 51..... ]December —--- 978 9 15 11 35 14 52 16 29 12 24 10 50 12 64 10 97..... Average for each year-........10 77 97-2 10 13 12 17 34 48 15 32 11 65 11 38 13153 13 84 Averna~efor each - year perhbushel.I. 1 34 1 21 1 27 1 52 181 1 91 146 1 42 1 69 1 73 *The, im~perial quiarter (= 8 imperial bushels of British standard) contains 17,745i cubic inches, and is equivalent to t-kstandard bushels of the United States. I The imp~erial bushecl is about 3 per cent. larger than the standard bushel of the UTnited Aates-the former containing-,181 cnhic inches and the latter 2,150.42. The average price of grain per quarter (imperial measure) in England and Wales Lwr the three Ilolnths eIIded Christmas, 1872, was as follows: Wheat, $t33.85; barley, $10..20; oats, $3.52. 378 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. WHOLESALE PRICES OF GRAIN. Statement showing the average price of grain per imperial quarter in England and Wales during thirty-five years, frone 1840 to 1874, inclusive. Period. Wheat. Barley. Rye. Period. Wheat. Barley. Rye. 1840-'44, (five years).. $13 88 7 66 $822 1867................. $15 48 $9 64........ 1845-'49, (five years) 1'2 96 8 26 8 10 1868................. 15 30 10 32....... 1850-'54, (five years). 8 70 6 96 7 60 18169................. 1.1 56 9 46........ 1855-'59, (five years) 13 84 8 86 9 30 1870................. 11 26 8 30........ 1860. —--------------- 12 878 8 70 1871................. 13 60 8 68........ 61-i 8.................. 13 6 8 58 187.2................. 13 68 8 96........ 1862.................. 130 842 872 1873................. 14 08 9 70........ 1863..................- 1 0 74 8 1 4 7 78 1874................. 1338 1078........ 1864.................. 964 71-8 730 1865.................. 10 04 7 14 - - Average for 35 yrs. 13 20 9 14. 1866.................. 11 98 8 98........ The general average of the price of wheat, barley, and oats, in England and Wales for the years 1868, 1869, and 1870, were: Wheat, per quarter, $12.70; barley, $9.36; oats, $6.15. PRICES OF MiEAT AND OTHER PROVISIONS. Prices of beef and mutton in Great ]Britain in the following months of 187'2. Markets. January. April. July. October. Average. London oef.......-per 8 pounds.. -! 21 to $1 41 $1 25 to -I 33 $1 37 to 1t 53 $1 29 to $1 41 $1?S Mutton -----------— do.... i 45 to 1 69 l 21 to 33 1 33 to 1 69 1 45 to 1 61 I 47 Newcastle: B -et......per 14 pouns.. 2 23 to 2 4- 2 17 to 2 29 2 17 to 2 60 2 35 to 2 2:: Mutton -----— per pound.. 18 to 21 21 to 24 16 to 21 17 to 19 19 Edinburgh: Beef.-....per 14 pounds. 2 29 to 2 54 2 17 to 2 29 2 17 to 2 66 2 29 to.2 48 2 43 Mutton -----— per pound. 18 to 21 20 to 22 17 to 20 16 to 1q 19 _Table showing the average price of wheat, meat, and potatoes in each quarter of the five years ending December 31, 1874. 3Meat at the Metropolitau Meat Ya Quarter ending — Beef' Mutton' Per q'rter. Per lb. Per lb. Pr M~archi 31, t8270.............................................../ $1 4~ 1 1.5 I; 4 March31~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t8$10 14 0 11.5 37010 le 5 5' 4 June 30, IS70................................................. 10 72 11. 25 12. 75 30 co September 30, 1870........................................... 12 08, 12 13.' 25 I 8 80' Decemea r 531, 1870........................................... 2 02 12.75 so March 31, 1871............................................... 26 12. 75 13 20 88 JuDe:30, 1~-,71................................................. 14' 34 13 1415 June 53 H71 —~~~~~~~~~~~14 34 133 14 [ 15' September 30,1871........................................... 13 86 13. 5 15 16 32 Deecemeiem 3, 171... 13 50 13 13, 5 [ 2136 March 31, 1A 72............................................... 13?28 12.253 14. 25 24 80 June 30, 1872................................................. 13 60 12. 75 14. 75 32 88 Septembe- 30, 1872........................................... 14 14 13. 25 15. 50 ~S8 56 1)ceme er 31, 1872............................................ 1.13 74 13. 50 o 14. 50 40 80 Maxrch 31, 1873............................................... 13 40 13.50 h 5. 25 49 68 June 30. 1873................................................. 13 54 14. 75 16.25'50 88 September 30, 1873........................................... 14 72 14. 5 I 5. 5 2'2 63 December 31, 1l73........................................... 14 66 I3. 5 14'25 [ 5 t;S March 31, 1874............................................... 14 9'2 1 13.75 1.' 55 June:30, t874.. 14 66 13 13. 25 36 00 S-jptem ber:30, 1l74........................................... I 0 1:3o 25 (3) December 31, 1874............................................ 10 (A 13 1'2.50 20 16 Average....... 1 — 1ll 0-. - 91 PRICES OF PROVISIONS IN TIHE UNITED KINGDOM. 3 79 Wholesaeprices of heat, beef, andnutton, in London and Manchester, for eacch month in the year 1874. Wheat. Bef. ut- Wheat. Beef. Mutton. toil. ~~~~.Date. Date. 4_1~~~ _~~~:. _ Z Janary -................$14 80 $Au1ust 1...............u t $14 32 $1 10 1 10February 1 -... 15 30 1 02 106 September 1.......... 11 94 I (14 1 02 March......1476 90 1 02 October 1........... 11 06 1 18 1 10 April..... 14 46 1 00 104 i Novemberl............. 10 50 1 (06 1 t0 ayI....... 1490 104 104 December1............ 10 72 1 G0 1 08 Jinet.. 1480 96.12 ___ July 1..... 14 56 1 04 100 Average of year... 13 51 1 04 1 07 PRICE OF BUTCHERS' MEAT. erage yearly price of btchers'eat, (per stone of eight pounds, sinking offal,) distinguishivg the aos ki as sod in the Metropotitan Cattle Market, in each of the years 1868, 1869, an d 1 870. Average for the years- Average for the years~~~~~Kind of meat. - - ~Kind of meat. 188. 1869. 1870. 1868. 1869. 1870. ~~~~~Beasts:. 784 Sheep-Continued. uirior.... $0 83 $0 86 Fourth class, SouthSecond class..... 8 98 105 downs......... $1 o20 $1 38 $1 341 Third laS, largepr19 L amb s................. 1 49 1 45 1 64 Fourth clas, Scts. 1 20 1 30 128 Calves: ~~Sheep: ~Coarse............... 1001 1 12 1 01 Iterior..-....... 81 92 84 Small prime.......... 1 17 1 331 1 30 Second cinass...... Ie 1 114 1014 PigTs: Third class, long coarse Largre hogs....... 841 1 03 1 16 wool. —-----— 1 10 1 274 1214 Small neat parkers — 98 1 2 4 1 36J CONTR.ACT PRICE OF PROVISIONS FURNISHED THE ARMY AND NAVY. Tile fo~llowing tables show the contract price at which breadl, meat, and tile otlier- prilleipal articles of pI-ovisiolns were furnished to the troops in Great IBlitailn and lIreland, and al]so for tile use of the RoylNv dtirihg the Years 1-8(58 1869, anld 1870, and indicate to soHIe extellt the p)rices of lood in the Kingdomn: Contract price of bread, meat, and rations supplied to the troops in erach district of Great 1;riaij'jor the first and second halfzyear of 1870O. Bread, price per Meat, prc per Cost of ration of 1 4-pound loaf. pound. pound of meat.n D istricts.- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ First Second First Second F irst Secoed hall'year. half-year. half-year. half-year. half-year. half-year. Qenetc. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cen ts. London.................. 9 121. 3-2 11.96 1~2.02 11. 68 12.08 Aldershot.... —----------- ---------- 1-2. 48 12.0 11.L8 I1.8 11 Coanuel. lslandls.. —---------- 10. 7 10.38 11. 76 13. 64 1-2. 22 1-2.84 N'orthern.. —-------------- 10. 76 10.1-2 13. 02 12. 4 12. 40 11. 82 Rastern.. —-------------- 10.8 9. 44 11. 9 1 1.94 11 46 1 1. s~O SmtlIn-astern.. —------------ 11. 24 11. 50 14. 16 13. 06 13. 44 12. 86'Wooiwich................. 10.1 9.126 11.7-2 1-2. 2 11. 34 11. 44 Chatham ----------------- 11. 58 10. 64 15. 18 12. 42 13. 16 1-2. 48 Southwestern.. —------------ 11. 62 10.6 13.88 13. 10 11. 52 1 1.96 W~estern.................. 10. 6 10. e~6 1 1.8r 1 2. 3-2. 11.52 I 11.6 South W"I"es. —------------- 11. 16 10.8S6 12. 78 12.3-2 1 2. 32 1 1.96 North Britain............... 10.96 11). 7 12). 0 8 12.112 11. 8 11. 8 Averagioe.............. 10. 02 10. 61 12~. 80 12. 51 12. 06 12. G I 380 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Average prices paid for army purreyors' stores in England in the years 1868, 1869, and 1870. Articles. 1868. 1869. 187. Average of 3 years. Tea........................................per pound.. $0 47 $0 46$ $0 50. 8 $0 48.1 Sugar, crushed wet lumps....................per cwt.. 9 67 9 46 10 21 9 78 ];arley, best Scotch..............................do 4. 2 4 22 4 38 4 27 Rlice, cleaned Patna.....................do.... 4 12 3 92 4 31 4 12 Linseed meal.................................. do.... 4 48 4 78 5 47 4 91 Soap, hard, yellow............................do.. 7 26 6 92 7 80 7 33 Porter, imperial pints, per dozen, 8 to gallon......... 80i 79$ 72 77 Ale, imperial pints, 8 to gallon......................... 94 85~ 78 86 lHowls...........................................each.. 53 532 531 53.Milk.......................................per gallon.. 22$ 22 2-5 23'23 Potatoes.....................................per cwt. 1 56 1 48 1 54 1 53 Vegetables, mixed.........................per pound.. 02 02 02 02 Eggs.......................................per dozen.- 22 22 23 022 Contract prices of bread (per 4-pound loaf) suppli(d to the troops in each county qf Ireland in each half of the years of 1868, 1869, and 1870. 1868, half-year 1869, halfyear 1870, half-year to — to- to-.County or station. May 31. Novem- May 31. Novena- May 31. Noveni. Ma y 30' ber 30. y ber 88. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. eats Cents. Antrim............................................. 13..9 9.88 10. 9.44 Armag-h............................................,6 1 1. 0 109s Armagh. 16 15 12.5 10 10 9.5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I1 [1 [1. Buttevant........................................... 14. 5 13. 38 11.36 10.'2 10. 78 9.74 Carlow... 15.5 14.8 13.5 11.8..... Cavan.............................................. 19.98 15.5 14.48 13 1 2. 48 10.'75 Clare............................................... 18.5.17. 7 13. 74 12. 5 13 10 Cork, except Fermoy and Buttevant............ 14.98 12. 98 10. 96 9. 5 10. I2 Fermioy............................................. 14.5 14.2 11.4 10.4 10.9 9 lIown...............................................-16.98 15. 46 11 9. 98 9. 6 9. 94 Fernmnahagh........................................ 17.8 15.5 13.5 11.8 111. 10 ) 5 Galway. 15.96 17 13.5 12 11..5 18. I(erry............................................. 16.4 16 13 11 11.6 10 Kihlare, except Curragh and Newbridge.......... 18 17. 7 15 13 15 1(ilkenny........................................... 14 3.5.12 10 11 ]. 98 Kings County....................................... 17 16.8 13 12 13 19. "I6 Limerick.. 14. 76 13.96 11. 4 10..2 18..66 9. 48 Londonderry........................................ 15.56 14.8 12 11.8 12.5 II. 8 Longford........................................... 17 15.4 1:3.4 1.5 11.5 it Louth............................................... 15.4 14.74 11.9 10.2 19.4 9. 8 Mayo............................................... 18 15.5 12 10.4 9 9 Monaghan.......................................... 19 15 14 11 1 11 Sligo................................................ 17.5 17.5 13 10 10.5 11.5 Tipperary..17.5 15.4 1:3.4 11.4 11.9 9. 8 Waterfird......................... 15.8 15.5 12 10.4 11.[ 9.5 Westmeath.......................................... 17 15.4 12. 8 10.9 11.42 9.8 Wexford........................................... 19.5 19 17 11.4 12 10.4 Average...................................... 58.44 1. 84-i 1 —-. -1.18 11. -0 Kildare, Curragh of....flour per sack of 280 pounds. $12 34 $12 06 $9 42 $8-26 870 $7 0 Dublin...... flour per sack of 2SO pounds. 12 08 11 94 932 7 98 828 7 38 PRICES OF PROVISIONS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 381 Cmotract-prices of fresh meat supplied to the troops in each county of Ireland in each of the half-years oj 1Th68, 1869, and 1870. 1868, half-year 1869, half-year 1870, half-year to- to- toCounties..... May 31. Novem- m. Novem- May31 Novem. b~~~~~~~~~er 36. ~ Ma y 30. bay 31. ber 30. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Antrim.................................... 5 9 10. 36 9. 2 11.56 10. 5 10. 02 Arniagh................................... 10 9 9 8.5 9. 5 11 9.5 BlIutevant.................................. 11.86 10. 74 9.92 9. 5 8.88 8.44 9. 89 Carlow..................................... 11.5 12 11.5 11.94................ 11.73 Cavon...................................... 13 16 15 14 13 12 14 Clare....................................... 9.92 10.5 9.5 9 10.5 8 9. 57 C'ork, except Fermoy and Buttevant........ 12. 5 10. 9-2 10. 4 10. 24 8. 96 9. 8 10. 47 D)own...................................... 9 9 11 10 10. 46 9.5 9.83 1)&blin..................................... 11.48 11.56 11.38 11.4 11.75 11.42 11.5 Fermanagh................................ 9, 5 9.5 10 10 10 9. 5 9. 75 ermony..................................... 1 i 9. 94 9.5 9. 46 11. 38 9. 34 10. 10 Gahvay.................................... 10 8 9 8.5 9. 5 10 9.1J7 Kerry...................................... 13.5 9.5 10 8.5 9.5 9 10 ilh'are, except Currah and Newhridge. 16 12 11.8 11.94 -—..- 12. 5 12. 85 Kildare, Cmrragh of. —-------------- 1-2. 2 112.36 11.8 11.6 11. 75 11. 74 11. 91 Kilke -ny.-....................... —-—...... 7. 48 9. 38 9. 5 8. 92 10. 5 9. 44 9.2 Kings County.............................. 8. 96 8. 4 8. 44 10. 2 11 9. 5 9. 42,imerick............................... 98 7. 7 8.2 7. 76 8. 96 7. 7 8. 22 Loodoiderry............... —...............-10. 4 1 1 11 11 11 11 10.9 =o y od.................................... It 9.5 15 9 5 1.. 0 2 Loerford. 11 9.5 11.5 9.5 10.5 9.5 10. 2 Louth...................................... 9. 92 8. 88 13. 98 9. 4 9. 76 9. 34 10.21 Mayo.. ------------------------------ 8.5 7. 88 9. 5 7. 24 10 11.94 9. 18 ionagl:an.................................. 14 14 11.5 10.5 9. 5 9 11.42 S igo....................................... 13.5 11 12 12.4 13.5 13.5 12. 65 T'ipperary.................................. 10. 84 10 ~ 11 11 10 8.5 10. ~2 Watterlkrd.................................. 8. 8 8. 5 9 8 9 8 8. 55 Wes( oeath................................ 10 9. 5 S. 98 9 9.5 8 9.16 Wexford................................... 12 11.5 11 10 10 9. 5 10.66 Average............................. 10. 91 10. 26 10. 56 9. 95 10. 38 9. 34 10. 27 Average prices ot which. the principal articles of provisions were purchased or manufactured at home./br ile use of the royal navy in the respective years ended March 31, 1868, 1869, and 1870. Articles. 1868. 1869. 1870. Aver. age. Bread............................................... per 100 pounds.. $4 00 $3 80 $3 06 $3 62 Biscait....................................................... do.....- 4 52 414 3 28 3 98 sugar............(........................................... do ------ 5 60 5 84 5 96 5 80 Tea.........................................................-do..... 38 88 40 04 34 38 37 77 raisins...................................................... do......7 22 540 6 70 6 44 Fresh beef................................................. do..... 11 5-2 10 82 11 18 11 17 Vegettables.................................................. do ------ 1 14 120 1 24 1 19 Salt pork.................................................... do...... 13 48 14 40 14 94 14 27 11cice...........................d...................... o......... 4 96 496 3; 6 443 Preserved boiled beef....................................... do...... 21 00 21 60 12 98 18 53 Preserved potatoes.......................................... do...... 8 42 896 7 66 835 Flo.r..do...... 72 452 3 20 4 15 Wheat for conversion............................................. 362 3 18 2 34 305 Oats for conversion......................................... o...... 58 264 2 24 249 Oat-nal.......................................................... 52 454 4 14 440 Cocoa....................................................... do. 13 16 12 22 12 06 12 48 Pepper, raw................................................ do 7 716 7764 8 26 7 69 Fresh beef, for curing and preserving....................... do.. 1. 12 58 13 76 12 76 13 03 Salt beef................................................... do...... 14 84 16 78 15 06 15 56 Salt, white, for curing beef and suet....................... do...... 46 46 50 47 Lime or lemon juice......................................... do...... 62 64 49 24 46 48 52 79 ~inegir..................................................... do..... 258 76 12 56 12 63 Split, pease.................................................. (o...... 26 54 24 62 20 84 24 00 Milk................................................ per 100 quarts. 20 12 16 52........ 18 32 382 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. INCREASE IN THE COST OF LIVING. In the following paper Mr. Jones, United States consul at Newcastleon-Tyne, presents his views in regard to the advance in the cost of provisions in 1872: The cost of living has advanced between 30and 40 per cent. ti year. The price of coal is nearly double what it could be purchased for o the st of January last; flour has risen from 50 cents to 60 cents per 100 pounds; buters' meat is 2 to 4 cents higher; and now that the potato-crop. has failed, not alone in relad, but generally throunghout the United Kingdom, wve are certain to experience a serious advance i what we might term the great staple of the laboring classes. The employers of labor in England reason about s follows: "Let us obtain the necessaries of life for our workmen as cheaply as possible, so as to enable them to render us their services at a low wage; this, together with our cheap money, and natural advantages in mineral resources, in the close proximity of coal and iron, as well as by our favorable geographical position for the international market, will enable us to undersell all others and confine competition to our ow ad. I believe it to be a well-established tenet in political economy, that in proportion to the increase of population the price of animal food will advance in this country. It is true that this principle may occasionally be overruled bysipments of live stock from the continent, yet I apprehend that this can bring about o serious exception to the rule, for upon the first appearance of the rinderpest, the cattle-plague, or kindred diseases, upon the plains of Yorkshire or among the hills of Carnarvon, the importation of cattle will be stopped by order of the privy council; therefore, it is fair to anticipate that a traffic attended by so many difficulties, risks, and uncertainties wi never attain the magnitude necessary to nullitbepriciplelaiddown. Thefarmers of this country must be induced to abandon wheatgrowing and turn their mind and attention to stock-raising, else matters will soon become serious. Employers of labor are not unmindful of the situation. Herculean efforts have been and are still being made to induce the working-classes to adopt the Australian meat as a general article of diet. Capitalists have formed limited-liability companies for the development of this trade. It is permitted to go abroad that Australian eef and mutton are to e found upon the tables of the aristocracy of the country. At a public meetiing held in the adjoining borough of Gateshead, a few months ago, for the agritation of the meat question, t~he mayor of Newcastle asserted by authority that one of the wealthiest men in this district used this class of food twice a week, and preferred it to the meat procured from his regular butcher. This policy) will certainly contribute to wipe away the natural prejudices of the miasses against meat killed, cooked, and canned by unknown hands 15,000 miles away. COST OF CLOTHIHNG. In the foregoing tables the cQst of provisions and of honse-renlt per week has been given, also the price of various articles of dry goods and of boots, thuis furnishing some data for a computation of the cost of livin~g in the United Kingdlom as compared with the United States. W hile, the prices of the principal articles of subsistence are on the whole ais high~ in the former as in the latter country, the rental of rooms and the price of clothing are only about one-half as much as in the United States. From a (careful computation mnade, in. London01. it is believed that clothing can be pnrchascd there, at 50 per cent. of the gold and 56 per cent. of the currency prices in New York. From a tailor in High H1olborn, who makes more clothing for citizens of the United States than. any other in Lo1ndon, the follow'in~g pr-ices were obtained: Good business suits, made to order, of good and fashionable material, cost from) 05S. to G08.; the lowest price of similar quality in. New York, rdeadly made, being $28 to $30. Suits of fine blue cloth, 82s. Gd., ($19.96,) which it is believed could -not be obtained anywhere in the United States for $40. Fine black cloth dress-vests, l0s.; dryess-trousers of best black doe~skin, 30s.; frock-coats of the best black. cloth that could be purchased in) London, silk lined, 8SO., ($19.36;) overcoats from 50s. to 60s., the latter of good beaver-cloth, with silk —velvet collar. PRICES OF CLOTtI1NG IN ENGLAND. 83 ready-made clothing is sold at lower rates. Good-looking trousers were seen at various clothing-stores with the prices of 11s. Gd and 12s. Gd. affixed. Laboring men are not only able to purchase their clothing at about one-half the rates paid in the United States, but are in te habit of wearing at their work fustian or corduroy suits, which are not only cheaper in I)rice but of great durability; so that an English workm S clothing costs but about one-third the price paid by his brother Workman in the United States. It is difficult to present the prices of the cheaper articles of clothing in such a manner as to enable an intelligent opinion to be formed of their cost as compared with similar rticles in this country; but the prices paid for cloth and clothing for the army and for the hospitals, as shown in the following statement, indicate the lowest rate at which woolens can be obtained in England. PRICES OF ARIMY CLOTH AND CLOTHING. The prices paid for cloth and for some of the articles of clothing purchased for the British army, also for one of the hospitals, as given in the following tables, afford some indication of the cost of clothig i England suitable for the working-classes: Pricepaid for army cloth and clothing for the British army in theyears 188, 1869, acd1 Per yard. Per ard Articles. Articles. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1868. 186b 1870. Cloth for infantry: hlifle-Continued. Sergeants' scarlet......... 2 02$- $12 16 $1 87 Tunic and overall, No. 3-...$2 21 $ 1 8 1P 8 8 Privates' red -........1 95 1 87 1 52 1 Tuuic and overall, No. 3_-_2, 01'1 l-" 1 ~_3 -4 Staff-sergeants' gray -.....2 0-2 2 0-2 1 60 Tartan for kilt.~ —----- s' 7 Pri vates' gray -........1 45 1 45 1 22 Tartan for trousers —--- 73 0 41 C loth for rifle: Cavalry eloak cloth: Ser-eants' tunic...........2 20 2 22 1 91 Sergeants' blue tunic —-— 2 5181 30 0 284 Sergeants' trousers-.....2 46 2 46 2 46 Sergeants' blue overall-... 2 )02 12 )Ol 1 8 5 Privates' tunic ------— 2 18' 2 08 1 68 Cavalry cloak cloth-.....201 2 I-) 19 1 S8 Prvts'tosers - 1821 89 2 70 Pivates' blue tunic - 2 —-- 30 2 19 0 19 Tunic and overall, No. I-....3 36 3 36 2 88 Infantry regulation hoots, per Tunic and overall, No. - 2 50 2 44 2 01 pair-............217 2 39 2 4CJ Prices iaid for army clothing in eachi o~f the years 18689, 1869, and 1870. 1868. 1869. 1870. Clothing: Staff-sergeants' tunic. $12 24 $15 15 $11 24 $11 61 $14 541 $5Q 68 $11 301 $13 671 $10 4CJ Staff-sergeants' trowsers 4 53$ 5 46G 5 29 4 56 5 94~1 4 50' 4 46111 5 81) 4 01 Sercieants'tunic-..... 558 5 57$ 5 76 587 700O 5 72 6 021 7 19 5 V Sercreants' trowsers.... 2 77$ 3 88$ 3 03$ 31271 4 431L 3 52 302412 4 817' 3 36 Musicians'tunic - 1.... 02 517 5 44 530 6 02 I 60-2 5 2-2 5 nJ 5 817 Privates' tunic-...... 472 5 01l 4 88$- 4581L 5 29 5 03 4 46 4 98 4 87 Privates' trowsers-.... 2 65k 3 02 2 46 2 611 3 41J 2 571 2 4 Q 3 do'- 2 413 Drummers' or huglers' tunic-.......... 598 6 20 5 48$1 522 68Sq'~ 6 01 5 81 6 421 5 384 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. PRICES OF CLOTHIING. Prices paid for various articles of clothing, 4-c., at Bethlehemnt Hospital, in th7e year 1870. Articles. 1&7. Cloth coats, (various colors)........................................................... each. $6 04 (Cloth waistcoats, (various colors)........................................................ 68 Cloth trousers, (various colors)...................... -............................... -do. — - 3 84 (Coats-do. -. 112 Cloth,~~~~~ ser~ns ll ~itcoa s3.............................................................. d... Cloth, servants' blue Wa ist..o.ts-do... 3 tO ( Trousers....................................................... do... 61 Jackets...................................d (lo... 1 Canvas out of use except for coal-carrying Waistcoats......................... do. Trousers................................. do.. Servants' frocks.......................................................................do 3 Flannel D rawers and waistcoats...................... do.... 9 Petticoat s................................................................... do. 1 Tick feather-beds.....................................................................do.... 13 Tick feather-pillows.................................................................. do.... 2 7-4 Whitney blankets..............................................................per pair. 2 04 S-4 XWhitney blankets................................................................. (to.. 2 9-4 Whitney blanlkets...............................................................do. 3 l I-4 cover lets, white..............................................................per dozen.. 2 Men's stockigs............................................................per dozen pairs.. 4 Women's stockii)s....................................................................do.. 3 Linen handkerchiefs.............................................................per dozen.. 1 Blue ronials..........................................................................do. 1 3 D)owlas, (30 inchles)..............................................................per yard.. Check, (39 incles)- -- -.....................d.....o....._...............................do. Sheets................................................................................ each. 1 44 Cotton prints.....................................................................per yard. List shoes.........................................................................per pair M en's boots............................................................................do.. 2 Men s boots~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~do.... 1 Women's home-made Boots.......................................................... o. 1. Shoes.......................................................... do(.... CO-OPEIRATIVE ASSOCIATIONS. Industrial co-operation having already been briefly alluded to, it my not be improper in this plaice to refer to those co-operative societies for the p)urchase and sale of the necessaries of life, which in England are in nuch favor. Associations somewvhat similar are not unklnown in. this country, especially in N ew England, where, some twenty years ago, they were numerous, and- apparently successful; but for some defect, either of organization or admninistration, they gradually declined in numb~er aind. popularity. In England, however, they have, onl the whole, met with, decided suiccess, there beingf at the present time 1,400 of Suich societies, with a total mnembership of nearly 500,000. Last year they sold domest ic, suplplies to the amount of ~15,000,000. The Itocbdtale, plan of co-operatiou is considered to be the best. The Co-operative News, the org-an. of this movemnent in England, says: By exariiniug the leadlngfeatures of this plano, it wvill he seen to be as simple as it is efflhcaious. Many Of the societieS, now I he inost flourislhici, commenced I h-eir businiess opt-rations with less thlin $20tO Everythliin is p~urchased and sold Ioi ca,,,,h. T1hose Mlim have tried the cietlit s' stein h xxve all fidled. The goods are soid at the orelinai-y pi-ice demanded by the regular dealcrs, no inuore, -no less; bat great care is taken to exclude, all adlnlterated ariI t itls. To) pi cv(t fraud, chemists aI-c employed by somne of the associations, -and shout 1 anv of the conimittees of managemlenl'tsupc an article to be impure, a, saitphe is h-in mmdiitt ly forwa reled for analysis, anai thie goods are not, sold uiitil a report has been ieceivied. Thus, goods sold in co-operative stores have a ju-st reputation for purity. It is cheaper to pamy a fair price for a pnre article than a lower price for in adnltiiated cue. It is believed that co-operative industry will soon control the whole productive and dlistr~ibuti\ve bu~siness of the couintry.'There,are tens ofthouisan~ds ofpeople in Englandl, -who, up to the time they jtiinedl the ca)-operative societies, had never saved a penny, w\ho have now considerfable stnuis accuimiula-teci by this means. The accumulation is effected bay a sort of double-conipouind iiiterest. The average interest is said to be as high as 26 per cent. on the whole shiare and loan capital. CO-OPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS IN ENGLAND. 385 The following is taken from the price-list of the Bold street "6 Household stores" in Liverpool: Statement of the prices of some of the articles of household Use, from the price-list of the Bold street co-operative stores, Liverpool, 1873. Australian meat, without bone: Beef, in packages, per pound................................... $0 14 to $0 15 Beef, corned, in packages, per pound........................... 15, to 17 Beef, spiced, in packages, per pound............................ 15- to 17 Mutton, per pound............................................ 13 to 1.4 Kangaroo venison, in packages, per pound...................... 20 Texas beef, roasts, per pound...................................... 13 to 15 Potted game, per tin.............................................. 20 Salmon, per tin............................................ 20 Lobster, per tin............................................ -9 Anchovy paste, per tin -— 28 1Ham and thicken pat6s, in tins, per dozen.......................... 4 68 Veal and ham patds, in tins, per dozen.............................. 3 72 Liebig's extracts of meats, per pound.............................. 26 Essence of beef, in jars.... 12 Tea, fine Souchong, per pound.-. 54 The society's mixture of finest teas, per pound-.. 60 Coffee: Ceylon, per pound............................................ 31 Finest full-flavored Mocha, per pound.......................... 36 Essence of, per dozen.......................................... 2 28 Chocolate, per pound.............................................. 32 Cocoa, per pound.................................................. 20 Sugar: Demerara, raw................................................. 05 Crushed...................................................... 06 to 07 Crystals...................................................... 07 Fruits: Currants, Zante............................................... 06 Raisins, Valentias............................................. 09 Raisins, Sultanas.............................................. 13 Raisins, Muscatels............................................. 14 Dates, Tafilat................................................. 09 Prunes, French —. 07 Almonds, Valentia.............................................. 24 Preserved oranges............................................. 1 44 Lime-juice, per dozen quarts -— 2 52 American tinned fruitsPeachis, one-pound tins..................................... 21 Pine-apples, one-pound tins.................................. 22 Tomatoes, two-pound tins.................................... 23 Turkey figs, per pound........................................ 10 Olives, French, one-half pints, per dozen - - -2 04 Olives, Spanish, one-half pints, per dozen -...2 16 Capers, pints.........................-......................... 3 12 Arrowroot, one-pound tins......................................... 16 Corn-starch, per pound-.............- —..-.. -.....-............ 11 Sago and tapioca, per pound -— 05 Sago and tapioca, pearl, per pound —. 08 Sago and tapioca, Rio, per pound................................... 15 Macaroni and vermicelli, per pound -— 13 Rice: Patna, two-pound packages.................................... 05 Carolina, two-pound packages -— 07 Soap: Mottled...................................................... 05. Pale wax...................................................... 0S Fine white... 14 Candles: Stearine.... 20 Paraine -..................................................... 24 Spermaceti, best -— 46 Soda, 14 pounds................................................... 24 Starch, per pound0..................................... 0 25 L 386 (LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Spices: Janmaica ginger, per pound....................24 Cloves, per pound........................24 Mace, per ounce.. 06.............. Nutmegs, per ounce........................06 Pepper, black, per ounce................................16 Pepper, white, per ounce..........................3 Pepper, Cayenne, per ounce...............40 Pimento, per ounce.......................12 Vie ear, distilled, per quart...... —16 ITHE M3ANCIHESTER AND SALFORD CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETY. HLaving visited the shops and offices of the above society in Manchester, and made inquiries of the officers in regard to its oerations and success, the author believes that a few items of information in reg(ard to the objects and management of an association which has not (elly been productive of material but of moral benefit to its embers, -jil pirove interestilng. The secretary saidthatthesavinsofthemembers encouraged them in habits of thrift, and that they were not so nuchl given to spenld mnoney in drink s is usual ith other workingoleo. This society was establisled to purchase food, firig, clotbin and ther necessaries at woholesale prices, or to manufacture tle same and retail them; also to purchase, erect', mortgage, sell, and convey, or to hold land and buildings, and to carry on the labor, tradle, or handicraft of builders. The rules of the society declare that the capital of the sae shall be raised in shares of one pound each, one of which shall be transfrable, and te remainder withdrawable. Each member shall hold at least one share, and not ore than two hundred. Any memelber may pay the whole or any part thereof in advance, but not less than tenpenc nzer mouth, or two shillins and sixpence per quarter per share, and, on default, shall be tined threepence per quarter, unless the default is shown to have arisen from sickDess, distress, or Wa it of employment, or anuy other reason satisfactory to the com-mittee of rnanagement; iu which case a written statenment of the cause, of the default shall be sent to- the secretary at the time at which such- payments ought to be made, otherwise the fine shall be enforced. It is further provil,1ed that each member shiall receive quarterly out of the surplus receipts of the society, afctcr providing for the expenses thereof; in each quarter, interest not exceeding 5 per cent. per an~num upon every paid-up share standing to his account in the books of the society; but thie committee shall at any tine have power, with the sanction of an ordinary general mieeting, to alter the rate of interest upon shares. Also, that the net proceeds of all business carried on. by the society, iAter paying for the expenses of management, interest on loans, the proper reduction in value of fixed stock, and the interest upon the subscribed capital, shall from time to time he applied. by direction of the ordinary qnarterly meetings, either to increase the capital or businiess of the society, to the formation of a reserve fund, or to any provident purpose authorized by the laws in force in respect to friendly societies, and the remainder (less ~2 10s. of every ~100 clear profit to lbe set apart for instruction and recreation) shall be divided among the members of the society in proportion to the amount of their purchases at the stores during the quarter. The dividend for the lasQt quarter was is. 6d. on the ~ 1 to members and l0d. to non-members. There is a library with readillg-roomn for members, and a public room for meetings of the society, an,-d for the weekly meetings, of the 14 directors, who receive Is. per weelk for such service. The sales are at the prices charged for the samne qualities at other ShLows. The following were noted: Gfood American cheese, 8 cents per pound, (very much usedl, and said lk-) be feunl better than Egihathe same price.) Very good tea 28. 8d.; the best at 3s. HALIFAX.-The forty-eighth semi-annual repo tu of the Co-operative Society at HaLlifax, which has just been.received, gives its operations EXPENDITURES OF WORKMEN'S FAMILIES. 387 up to December 31 1874 from which the following information is obtained: Thesocietywhich has twenty-three branches, does a business of nearly ~280,000 per anUM, making a net profit of nearly ~30,000 per annum, allowing a dividend to its members aggregating nearly 500 per week. It has an extensive library, and issues to its readers about 500 books per week. The reading-room is supplied with 12 daily papers, 22 weeklies, and 12 quarterly and monthly magazines. The total expenses amount to ls. ld. per ~ of sales. Of a similar society at Edgeworth, near Bolton, the sixtieth quarterly balance-sheet for arch 31, 1875, shows a business in grocery and drapery of ~198 per week. Stocks are turned over in twenty-six dys. They have a small savings-bank and reserve fd, which monts to 8. per of share capital. DIET OF WO-MEN-FAMILY EXPENDITURES. The followin statements of weekly expenditures of the families of some aoring men in Great Britain indicate, to some extent, the kind of food most in use. It will be observed that meat of all kinds, which frms so large a proportion of the cost of food in the United States, constitutes, on an average, less than one-fifth, (19.6 per cent.,) while in Manchester and ud rsleld it is but little over 10 and 14 per cent., respectively. in conversations with wornmen in various manufacturing towns, the author made inquiries in regard to their food anrid mode of living, and the following, selected fro his note-book, are specimens of replies from.'a number of workmen: MANTCHESTERm-Most workingmen. have, bread and bacon, or butter, with tea or coffee for breakfast. Fresh meat of som-e, kind or bacon and bread or vegetables, for dinner. Stipper is light, consisting chiefly of bread. Many, though desiring meat,' cannot afford much of it when. it costs 104. or Is. per pound for steaks. UIALIFAx.-Fcr breakfast, tea, b)read and butter, or bacon, (bacon supplies the place of butter.) For dinner, a chop, with bread or potatoes; sometimes a pudding. For supper, bread with tea. BIRMTN~GITAM.-For break-fast, bread with bacon, and tea. For dinner, usually bacon -with bread or vegetables, fresh meats hemD- high. Vegetables are but little used by workiaginen, being high in price. Cheese is much used, especially American. EXPEINDITURES OF WORKMIEN'S FAMHILIES. A circular, requesting statements of the -weekly expenditures by the families of laboring, men for provisions, house rent, clothing, and other necessaries of life, was to but a limited extent responded to in Great Britain. While all wage-laborers know the amount of their weekly receipts, and are, unfortunately, aware of the fact that usually the whole is expended, yet they keep no account of how much goes for bread, or meat, or the other articles named in the following statements. The few -which have been obtained are here presented: * In relation to this subject an English writer says: "1We know, indeed, that animal food is productive of strength; just as the London beef-fed bricklayer lays 1,000 brickcs a dlay, w~hile his Dorsetshire f~ollow-workman, on half the wages, does only one-fourth as mutch \Yorki." 388 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing the average weekly expenditures of laborers' families in the manufacturing towns of Birmingham, Bradford, Huddersfield, Manchester, and Sheffield, England, with their weekly earnings, in 1872. Birmingham. Bradford. Huddersfield. Manchester. Sheffield. Articles of expenditure. 2 adults and 2 adults and 2 adults and' 2 adults and 2 adults and 5 children. 3 children. 2 children. 5 children. 2 children. Flour and bread ----------- ---- $1 62 e1 02 $0 92 $1 34 $0 84 Meats, fresh and salt.......... 1 30 1 20 84 60 1 93 Lard.......................... 14 18 60 10 6 Butter........................ 25 48 60 16 36 Cheese........................ 10 20 60 10 Sucar and molasses............ 28 50 56 52 30 x1ikk.......................... 27 30 14 36 24 Coffee......................... 7 12 12 8 Tea...........................18 18 20 18 24 Fish, fresh and salt.........................................18 12 Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, &e...................... 16 24 36 16 24 Eggs.......................... 12 12 6 12 4 Potatoes and other vegetables. 44 24 36 24 36 Fruits, green and dried..... 6 16 8 6 Fuel.............. 33 28 3-2 60 32 Oil or other liglrt.............. 11 8 9 12 8 Other articles................. 10 28 12 20 24 Spirits, beer, and tobacco, if any 48.............. 36 60 llouse-rent................. 1 30 1 08 86 1 08 84 For educational, religious, and benevolent objects........... 54 24 36 36 36 Total weekly expenses... 7 37 7 22 7 15 6 88 7 41 Total for 52 weeks............. 380 64 375 44 371 80 357 76 385 32 Clothing per year............. 45 00 120 00 25 00 25 00 48 40 Taxes per year................ 3 15.. 10 00.............. 7 26 Total yearly expenses 428 79 495 44 406 80 382 76 440 98 Weekly earnings of laborers.. 8 37 *14 20 7 20 7 96.............. Yearly earnings, estimating 52 weeks....................... 435 24 530 40 374 40 413 92.............. E Earnings of family. WEEKLY EXPENDITURES. Table showing the average weekly expenditures of laborers' families in the manufacturing towns of Leith and Dandee, Scotland, and Cardiff and Cronebrar, Wyales, with their weekly earnings, in 1872. Leith. Dundee. Cardiff. Cronebrar. ___________ _____ General aver. Articles of expenditure. age in Great 2 adults and 2 adults and 2 adults and 2 adults and Britain. 2 children. 5 children. 5 children. 6 children. Flour and bread -.-. —-------- $0 96 $2 20 $1 21 $1 21 $1 253 Meats, fresh, corned, salted, &c. 1 21 1 50 1 08 1 45 1 231 Lard ------------------------—......... 16 10 10 181 Butter........................ 36 72 42 56 43J Cheese..... —---------------------- 28 32 36 28 Sugar and molasses......... 24 50 36 40 40f Milk.......................... 36 16 14 14 23J Coffee........................ 18 8 16 52 161 Tea........................... 24 30 72 40 291 Fish, fresh and salt..... —---------- 24 24 6 167 Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, &o...................... 14 16 32 15 21i Eggs.......................... 12 36 24 12 141 Potatoes and other vegetables 48'64 36 48 40 Fruits, green and dried....................... 12............ 8 91 Fuel.......................... 36 36 48 36 38 Oil or other light.............. 12 8 12 12 101 Other articles................. 24 24.............. 6 181q Spirits, beer, and tobacco, if any 24 24 48 60 43 'EXPENDITURES OF WORKMEN'S FAMILIES. 389 Table showing the avere weely expenditures of laborers' families, 4-c.-Continued. Leith. DIundee. Cardiff. Cronebrar. General aver~~~~~~~Articles of expenditure. ~age in Great adultsand2 adults and 2 adults and 2 adults and Britain. 2 children. 5 children. 5 children. 6 children. House-rent-$0.......72..f) 80 $1 45 $1 21 $1 03j I'or educational, religious, and benevolent objects 12 24 24 24 30 Total weekly expenses --- 6 09 9 38 8 44 8 62 7 62 ~ ~iTotal for 52 weeks31 68 487 76 438 88 448 24 396 24 Clothing per year- - 38 72 72 60.............. 24 20 31 12J Taxes per year -..............3 3 6 7 246 20 Total yearly expenses 38 76 567 60 438 88 472 44 433 56 Weely earnings of laborers 7 26 *14 00 8 64 8 47 9 21 Yearly earnings, estim~ating 52 weeks-....... 377 52 728 00 449 28 440 44 478 92 Earins of family..-CONDITIN OF THE WORKING-CLASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN. ~~~~Hav~~ing preseted in the foregigpages the earnings of farm-laborers and of ork-people employed in the mines, mills, factories, and other industrial establishments of the United Kingdom; having stated the cost of house-rent, and of provisions, and other articles of prime necessity, it is now proposed to consider the condition of the working-classes of that country. The classes whose condition is to form the subject of investigation are chiefly those engagedi in factory, mechanical, and other skilled industries, and only to a limited extent the farmi-laborers of England. Before entering upon a more extended discussion of the subject in its material and moral aspects, the condition cf the latter class will be cons-idered, and as the author was unable, when in England, to imake such a lpersonal investigation as would coummand full. colifidence, he s1u1)mits data conti-ibuted by others who possessed favorable opportunities for acquiring a(cni~rate knowledge. It is proper to state, however, tilat the opinions expressed in the ibliowing paper, and in others inserted'else-where, are those of their reslpective writers, which opiniol3s are not necessarily concurred in by the author of this report. From an article already referred to, "033n the condition of the working-classes of Englanld," by Mr. J. S. Stanley Jam es, tile following portion only is inserted in this plcace: THlE AGRI1'CULTUTRA1L LAB"O.R'ERS OF ENGLAND. The social position of Gurth, who.,Tithi the badge of serfdom, a brass clollar round. his neck, tended the swine of Cedric the Saxon, was certainly strongly defincd by law and custom. Still, Gurth had certain rights, anti Cedric ack~nowledged obligations to his serf. Inl this ag-e of " contract," it is certain that the emancipated fiarmi-laborer of England has, during the last half century, in a material point of view, been less prosperouisthanbhi~sSaxon forelk,,thers. Iu writinguthis, let itbe clearly understood that tho general condition of the pol~eOl is spoken of. in many places the lot of the farmlab~orer has been palliated by charitable schemes of clergy, or landlord, or squire; but the cause of this charity is, that the laborers have yet been consideredl'vs sort of serfs, whous, however, thlei~r betters were not bound to protect, but treatedI them kindly or 390 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. harshly, as the case might be. England boasts of its wealth and prosperity. The riches of England have increased yearly, but during the present century the condition of the farm-laborers has yearly become more miserable. During the eighteenth century, judging from a material point of view, an agricultural laborer ws not unprosperous. In that time the farmers of England made large profits, and great quantitie of wheat were exported. Then came the great wars afterward t passig of the corn-laws. Year by year, too, the accumulation of real estate increased. The small proprietors, men who owned and farmed their own land, became less and less. The number of land-owners became fewer, but the number of laborers for hire greatly multiplied. Three great causes may be assigned for the present miserable contion of the English farm-laborer: the English land-system; the system of poor-law relief; and the great local increase of population. Until the land-laws and the tenure on which lad is rented in England are altered, the condition of the farm-laborer can never be materially benefited. If they are not much better than serfs, their employers, the tenant-farmers, are but vassals of the owners of the soil. The majority of the farms in Egland are only let on yearly terms, renewable from year to year. The same family may have lived on one farm for generations, paying, out of the reward of their labor, and the labor they have wrung from their hinds, exorbitant rents to the owners of the land. During these years they have not been allowed to carry a gun, to throw a fish-lie, or to snare a rabbit on their farms without the permission of their landlords. They have voted t elections for the nominee of their landlord; they have supplied recruits for the yeomary troop raised on the estate. A day comes, perchance, when a descendant of such ancestors, more intelligent or self-willed refuses to be led by the nose b the steward or bailiff. lie has an opinion of his own, and at the county election votes against my lord's" or "the squire's" candidate. Next rent-day comes, and he whose ancestors have, perhaps, erected every building on the farm, have converted barren wastes into fertile fields, and have paid their landlord a heavy renfor that privilege-why, this ridiculous fellow, who dared to have a will of his own, is turned ut of the home of his faters to seek another as he may. And here I wish it to be clearly understood tht I keep aloof from the political aspect of the question. Whig or tory, liberal or conservative, the great landowners have always had the temptation anid the power to so govern their tenants, and, iiI cases where the landlord himself would be impartial, his subordinates, the agent, steward, or family lavrwyer, take care to use onll their own behalf the power delegated to them. Kept in such a state of vassalage, it is no wonder that, iu their turn, the farmers of England have screwed down and tyrannized over their laborers. In the old time the value of the land itself was nothing; what it would produce was everything. Now the land itself is valued most, and its prodnLce least. The rents paid by the farmers of England are stated to be only from one to three per cent. on the estmaed ale o te lnd and many of them, after keeping their laborers on starvation wages, find it hard work to pay that rent. It is notorious that nowadays farming in Englanad is far less remunerative than any branch of trade or commerce. A young mann fairly educated and a thorough farmer may invest a certain capital on his farm; he may devote time and careful attention to his work; he may pay the lowest rate of wages. In ten years' time he will find himself a far poorer man than his brother, who may have invested the same capital and attention in some business or trade. In too many causes an Einglish farmer finds at the end of ten or twenty years that he has sunk all his capital, and has received no return for it except the maintenance of himself and family. Remember, too, that in such case the laborers have been ground down, as I shall hereafter show. What is the true and logical conclusion to draw? Humboldt says that agriculture is the only true source of wealth. A nation which cannot feed itself has, after all, however rich in other respects, a weak point. In England we are told that farmers, who only pay the landlord from two to three per cent. on the -value of the land, pay their laborers wages which only keep them on the very margin of ex'istence, and yet farming is anunprofitable occuipatio-n. The real truth is, that nearly every farm in England is greatly overrented; that the estimated value of land is fictitious, which fictitious value is kept up by several causes: first, the limited area of Great Britain; second, the great demand for land caused by the absorption of small holdings into large estates. There seems to be an unwritten compact among the land-owners of England to maintain their landed estates and add thereto by every means in their power. Year by year the laud-owners of England get fewer. Even as Ahab coveted Naboth's vineyard, so does a large proprietor eye a small holding which may be adjacent to his estate, and the accumulation of land into the hands of a few goes on yearly. It is true that, when any very large property comes intothe market, it is occasionally purchased by some rich merchant, contractor, or railroad man; but these, wise after their generation, withdraw their money from investments paying 7 to 10I per cent., to buy land which they can let at only 1 or 2 per cent., for the purpose of' being admitted to the class of landed proprietors, who, directly or indirectly, both politically and socially, in senate, court, and camp, rule England. CONDITION OF TE WORKING CLASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 39] So in fact, low wages are, toa certain extent, the result of high rents. In proportiontowhatthesoilproducesteland-owner takes far too large a share, and the laborer far too small a share. The farmer, the middleman, has great cause of complaint, but e is at least well supplied with the necessaries and comforts of life. 1The poor-laws of England are a model of incompetency. According to the system of parochial and non-parocial districts, and the complication of local authorities, the poor are only entitled to relief within the immediate district in which they are born. As the wage of a farm-laborer has always been kept down to the point of bare subsistence for himself and his family, the laying by of any fund for his support when out of work, or in old age, being impossible, he is then compelled to apply for relief. In consequence of these laws, laborers remain all their lives in a district where the laborarket is overstocked and was low; hereditary paupers, they improvidently marry, and bequeath that heritage to their children. The poor-laws of England are, in fact, a puzzle to all, and no one can properly interpret them. Mr. Edward Jenkins, the author, who is also a lawyer of no mean repute, says, respecting one of the codes, that it is "unrivaled by the most malignant ingenuity of former or contemporary nations; a code wherein, by gradual accretion, has been framed a system of relief to poverty and distress so impolitic, so unprincipled, that none but the driest, mustiest, most petrified parish official could be expected to lift up his voice to defend it; so complicated, that no man under heaven knows its length, or breadth, or height, or depth; yet it stands to this hour a monument of English stolidity-a marvel of lazy or ignorant sAatemanship."l9 The third great cause of the miserable condition of the English farm-laborers arises in a great measure out of the second. The operation of the poor-laws has prevented the migration of this class of labor to other parts of England, where it would be better paid. Labor in England is unequally distributed. The farm-labor class is renowned for its supefecundity; these, the very poor, are blessed (?) with more than their share of children. This excess of population over food, of labor over capital, is, in the absence ofa checksuch as war, pestilence, faine, or emigration, an evil impossible to be mitigated-a irrevocable law of ature. In England, the effects of this evil among the farm-labor class is plainly visible; yearly the population is increasing, each unit reducing by his competition the reward of his own labor and that of his fellows. An Elsh village is far more pleasing to the eye than a manufacturing town. An English cottage-the outside, at least-makes a better picture than a tenement-house. A great deal has been written about "Merry England," but the tiuth is that England is not merry, and her laborers have indeed little — cause to be so. The cottages in which they live, which are such a pleasant adIjunct to the landscape, are, in too many instances, hovels, in which the employers would not stable their horses; hovels, without ventilation, drainage, or the surroundhirgs necessary for ordinary decency; hovels, -which have bred a race of men who, from want of domestic conifort, spend every spare hour in the pot-house, and who hiave nothingT to look forward to but to be buried in a panper's gr11ave; hovels, which have bred a r-ace of -women whose maidenly modesty vanishe d unborn in conslequence of the scenes they were obliged to witness through the want of proper skeephingaccommodation. No matter whit wages the men may obtain, their cottage-acconiiodation will keep themn depr'aved and miserable. This want of decent cottauocs throughout England arises in a great iniasure from the law of primogeniture and enitail. The land-owner is only a tenafor life; he may, perchance, like to add to his cst te and power by purchase, beat in too miany cases lie will not spend on6 penny to build decent cottages or to improve- tel.ose al ready on his estate, but will screw dowxn his te.iants, endeavoring by every ale-ains to save money for his younger children. 0f conrse, in many parts of England, th(ere aie decent cottagres, built by charitable lamndloids, but this is tile exception, iton tho, rule, and even then their benevolence h'tals I have in my mind's eye now a model v~illaoe on the estate of a great nobleman, but he will allow no more cotta~ges to be built, and those at present erected are hardly sufficieiit for half the laborers emiploy ed on his estate;- they, in consequence, having to walk miles to and from their work. But then the, pastoral aend select chiaracter of the model village is maintained. In 1871 the average wages of English farmi-laborers were twelve shillings per weekl. In the southern -parts of England the wages were only eight or nine shillings; in the north, about fifteen; but, the average niay be taken as above. On such pay it was impossible for a married man to provide proper food for himself and family; ineat was a, rarity, to be tasted once or twice a year; a little bacon might, perhaps, be indulged in once a week; for the rest of the time dry bread was the chief fare. Such food, and the miserable habitations I have described, have -naturally impaired the efficiency, anld another century of such conditions would cause a woful physical degeneracy of the laborer. But, in spite of all drawbacks, the English farm-laborer is -the most efficient, in his line, in the world, and he is comparatively by far the worst paid. The Einglishi railroad "navvy," a class sprung into existence during the last twenty-five years, recrnited principally from the hardiest of the farm-laborers, is a being who eats and drinks niuch and exacts high wages, hut, according to the,. testimony of the late M11r. 392 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Thomas Brassey, member of Parliament, who during his numerous railway contracts had tried laborers of all nationalities, he is the cheapest laborer in the world. The finest men in the British army are also recruited from the farm-laborers. Bent by toil and exposure and suffering from the want of proper nourishment, the farm-laborer plods through the fields of England, but he only wants proper conditions to become one of the finest physical types and best workers in the world. With such homes as they have, it is not to be wondered that laborers spend whatever little money they can in the village beer-house. Their lives are unlovely; there is no silver lining to the cloud hanging over them. WVhat wonder that they seek their only pleasure in the sensual exaltation of strong drink! Yet the drunkenness among farm-laborers is very slight; the poor fellows cannot, if they would, afford that luxury. Viewed in every relation of his life, the portion of the farm-laborer as been one of toil, poverty and hard living in a degree to which the other workig-classes of England have long been strangers. But the agricultural laborer has ait last taken the matter into his own hands. O a dark, rainy night in February, 1872, Joseph Arch first stood up under the chestnuttree at Wellesbourne, and laid the foundation of that great movement which has since spread over all England. That is not three years ago, yet Joseph Arch at the present moment has undoubtedly more personal power than any other man in England. His record is known wherever the English langu. His work has already brought forth good fruit; the average rates of farm-wages throughout England have since risen, and the hours of labor have been reduced. In the northern counties England 188. a week is now paid for farm-labor; in the midland districts, 16.; and in the southern, 14s. and 12s. There are still parts of England, however, in which men are paid less than the latter sum. But Mr. Arch has experienced the greatest opposition and abuse in consequence of his labors on behalf of the class from which he has rise. John Walter, esq., a member of the British Parliament, and editor of the London Times, in an address which e delivered t a meeting in Berkshire, dwelt upon the condition of the agricultural laborer, and declared that, in spite of all reports to theotrary, it was better than it had been heretofore. He showed by statistics that while the price of food is only a very little higher than it was at the close of the last century, wages are two or three times as mnch as then. Nevertheless, the wages nDow Jpaid are very small, and the average, laborer earns only thirteen or fifteen shillings a week, while the combined earnings of a man and his wife and family dlo not amount to more than twenty shillings a week. And a judicious writer of our own country, commenting on the past aind presenit condition of aigricultural laborers in. England, remarks that the results of the labors of MAr. Arch and his coa djutors are already manifest in a decided rise of the scale of remuneration of Englishi farm* M1\r. Arch has directed h-is attention toward emigration, and recently visited Canada to ascertain - the extent of the demand for labor there, adsewtenoremnt would be givcn him by the Can-,,adia-,n authorities. These haye held out great pecuniary -inducementIs, and uno\- advance nearly all the passage-money of farmi-laborers fromi Englaikl. New Zealand and Australia are also bidding for this valuable labor, and laborers are now taken to those colonies free. The New Zealand government lately voted two million pounds sterling for the purpose of encouraging emigration tram Enoland. It seemis to me apity that theUnited States Governmtrent or theiState aguthorities do not niake some attempt to obtain this valuable contingent of labor. The exodus has begun, and in ten years' time England will be drained of her most valuable laborers. MA4r. Arch proposes returning to America and going, through the States this year, and, as far as he is concerned, I am sure that he will be willing and wvill ad(vise that every English laborer should go toAmerica. But whenuthe New Zealand, Quieensland, and Canadian governments step in and offer to pay the passage, of farm-P borers and their families to the respective colonies -named, it is little wonder that the advocates of emigration to the States find themselves fighting, an unequal battle. However truly the American may point out the glories of his Country, the present advantages, and brilliant future waiting for the laborer, still, when the agent of New Zealdud or Canada points to the free passage, the latter inducement is sure to prevail. It is hoped that when Mr. Arch visits America some arrangements may be, made, either by State authorit or the co-operation of private individuals, by which the passage,-money from. England may be advanced to laborers of this class. CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 393 labor, and in the prospect of a permanent elevation in the condition of the laborer: Five years ago the existence of a National Union of Farm-Laborers would have been thought a perfectly incredible thing. Yet, as the result of less than two years gitation, that union possesses 33 districts, 900 branches, and 100,000 members. A majority of the agricultural laborers of England had, for years, to find food and lothing for themselves and their families on the average wages of nine shillings a week. To a man so situated, meat was an unheard-of luxury, and an occasional winish debauch formed the solitary gleam of what he called the pleasures of existence. Education for his children was out of the question, because, even had schools bee rovided, he had neither the money to buy clothes in which his children could attend school, nor was he able to spare the pittance which they began to earn at an early age y working in the fields. A few weeks ago 200 laborers in the eastern counties of England, whose wages ha last year been advanced from twelve to thirteen shillings a week, demanded a fresh dvance to fourteen shillings. The farmers, who, during the last few years, have combined too, becoming alarmed, locked out some 4,000 men on the simple issue of what hey called resistance to "union dictation." The National Union is able to pay $8,000 a week toward the support of the men who are locked out and who fail to get employment in other quarters. It will probably be able to do so as long as the farmers can afford to hold out. Statistics show, moreover, that during the last ten years the number of agricultural laborers has decreased in England. This is partly due to their absorption into the working-classes of manfacturing towns, and in a less degree to emigration. Both influences are likely to e felt in increased force during the present decade, and thus, on the mere question of alance between supply and demand, the ultimate triumph must rest with the laborers. The present movement will probably produce a more scientific system of culture in England, and a more judicious employment of labor than heretofore. In this way, also, it will indirectly raise the industrial status of the laborer. The New York Journal of Commerce states thatThe British agriculturists, unlike the mechanical and mining trades, which make the most agitation, have real grievances to complain of, and they, certainly as much as the workingruen of that description, need the re)resentation in Parliament for -which the latter are scemeini-g and contriving, not, indeed, without claims that could not in a democratic country he denied. M1r. Willijam Morris, editor of the Swindon Advertiser, in addressing a mneetingf Of agricultural laborers in the west of Englanid, after his return from America, uses this language: England wanted workiers, not paupers. The wage paid the agricultural laborer made him a pauper. In Swindon they had one pauper to every forty-three of the population. In Bishopstone, ten nilles oft; but in the same Poor-Law Union, they had one pauper to every ten of the population. Bishopstone was a purely agricultural village, and the wage paid there made one-tenth of the inhabitants lpaupers, living upon the rates which the men of New Swindon paid. At Swindon, the better wage paid redunced pauperism down to one in forty-three of the population. But the Swindon ratepayer had not only to keep his own poor, but he had to help to keep the poor of Bishopstone also, and it was therefore his bounden duty to see that the pauperism of Bishopstone was not created by a vile and vicious system of paying labor. With the private relations between ma~ster and man they had no business whatever, but -when a, master paid a man an insufficient wage, and sent him on to the public rates for such additional assistance as was necessary to enable him to live, he made his system of paying wvage a public question, and one which all who contributed to the rates were justified in discussing. Mr. Morris having made reference to Canada and America, said ho did -not intend at present calling any mieeting specially to refer to these countries, but hie would be at any time ready a-nd willing to accept the invitation of men wvishingr to hear what he had to say about the groat West, to address meetings called by them. At a meeting of the. Shrivenham branch of the National Union of Agricultural Laborers, Mr. Morris addressed the meetingf: His recent trip across the Atlantic had proved to himi most clearly that if they had any repetition of starvation cases, it would he the laborers' own fault. The great West contained vast tracts of the most bountiful land, lying in sheer waste through want of hands to till it. This land, the richest in. the world, mi ght be had by falrm-laborers of EnglAand on terms they might easily comiply withi, the chief one being that they would bring it into cultivation and make it productive. While the laborer in possession of 394 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. this land was raising himself into the position of a landed proprietor, the State ould care for his children, and give them a thorough, good education free of cost, and thus fit them for any position in life. He, Mr. Morris, was more than ever satisfied that his course in connection with this movement had been the right one, and, let the consequences be what they might to him as an individual, he should go with the men to the end. In England the movement had benefitted the men without injuring the master, for what the employer spent in extra wage he would save in rates, and he would have the advantage of men working for him in the place of paupers. The men knew full well what the union had done for them. As a body they had accomplished more in year than as individuals they could have done in a. life-time, and, in addition to more and better wage, they had already won for themselves a spirit of independence and manly feeling; they were beginning to estimate themselves at more than a pauper's value, and it would not be long before their new position would be recognized throughout England as being infinitely better than that in which they had previously lingered. MIr. Morris, after his return from a visit to the United States, wrote to the author as follows: SWINDON, October 24, 1874. You ask for some details as to how our poor live. I will give you a case that came under my notice the other day. An apparently strong, robust man applied to the poor-law guard s for relief, consequent upon some temporary illness in his family. is own age was thirty-three years and his wife's age thirty years. He had five children, aged respectively eight, six, four, three years, and three months, in all seven souls. The man, when king full time, was receiving 12s. a week wages. Out of this sum he had to pay s..d. a week for ret of his cottage, leaving 10s. 6d. to find food and clothing forseven persons, two of them being adultss in the very prime of life. As you wis see, allowing three meals a ay at a cost of one penny a meal, the full wages, without the deduction for rent, would have been insufficient by 3d. a week; yet a penny would not buy more than 8 ounces of bread at the present cost, or more than about the third o an ounce of uncooked eat. was holding a meeting in the village in which this man lives a few evenings afterward, and I referred publicly to his case. I asked if he had truly represented his case, and the answer was yes. I was also assured that, until the present movement ao thelaborers, more than 1ls. a week had never been paid to such men, the general rate being l0s. Men in such a state as this cannDot tell how they live. It is a mystery to them as well as to every one else. It is a well-ascertained fact that, in districts where these wretched wages are paid, the cost of tillage of the land per acre is much higher than in districts where better wages are, paid; yet we English people are so wedded to old notions that men kick most vigorously against all change. In the same district where these pr-ices obtain there is not an ugricultural laborer to be found who, for an ordinary week's work, receives more than 12s. a week wages. Until very recently, 9s. and l0s. was the rate paid. Can it be wondered at, then, that in the year 18168 our pauperism cost us ~10,4:39,000l Our agricultural poor have never been paid a living wage, and we have had to supplement wag es out of poor's-rate. This is p~roved most clearly by the fact that the recent rise in wages from 9s. and l0s. to u1s, and 12s. per week has decreased our pauperism, between the years 1870 and 1873, no less than 184 per cent. We may well suppose that the minimum cost of feeding human beings has been arrived at in our union work-houses. In my paper for October 13 you will see a report of a case where a man is charged with leaving his wife and family chargeable to the Barton Union. The master of the house, in supporting the case, swears that the cost of five persons in the work-house is ~1 si. per week, or more than double what an ordinary laborer would have to maintain his family with from his wages, when out of the house and in full work. In another number of my paper, that for October 27, you will find the case reported of a man twenty-one years of age, who was a hired servant at 9.s. a week. This man was to have ~5 over at Michaelmas. You ought to understand what this means. It is a common practice in some districts, whnhrn sratb h year, to give so much per week, with so much over at the end of the term. But the payment of this bonus by the master cannot be enforced by the man, aiid for this reason-it is always promised conditionally that the master is perfectly satisfied with the man's work throughout the whole of the year, as well as covering all possible claim for over-time in the harvest and other busy seasonA. This boiius, ini fact, ties a.man down to be used by his master in any and every way he may think fit; if a master calls upon such a man to work from 4 or 5 in the morning until 8 or 9 at night, he must comply under pain of forfeiting this over-money. Practically, therefore, his overmoney, instead of increasing the man's wage, does -no more than meet the extra wear and tear of the man at the busy seasons and at harvest-time. There is oftentimes a great fuss made about the amount laborers earn at piece-w-,ork. It should never be forgotten that the piece-work price is based on the day-work standard. The man working piece-work could -not live on the day-man's wages. To earn the larger sum, CONDITION OF THE WORKING-CLASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 395 e must spend a larger sum for more and better food; therefore I always contend that the ordinary weekly wages should be considered exclusively, when reference is made to the amount paid the laborer. In another paragraph in the same paper you will see how a poor, wretched laborer, out of his poor wages, had managed to save up a large sum of money. I suppose that, in all states and conditions of men, such characters will be met with. I much fear there is little or no difference in the class of food this man used, that he might save money, and that used in the ordinary laborer's family, that they may fill their bellies as best they can and live. If you would like to have them, I will look up a number of statements made by the men themselves at meetings over which I hav presided, where they have told of their struggles to live. I shall ever forget one woman asking permission to speak, and publicly thanking God that her old man, by being put on as milker, and therefore working on the Sunday, was enabled to earn a shilling a week extra, which enabled her to give her children that amount of extra bread to eat.I As to emigration: I believe thousands of our best laborers would gladly leave the coutry; but ow is it possible for them to do so? Now and again they have ianaged to save a few pounds; but where there is one who has done so there are ninety-nine who are over head and ars in debt to the village shopkeeper. For twenty-five years past I have read the history of these people in our policecourts and small-debt courts, as well as at the board of guardians' meetings, and nothing would delight me more than to see some well-devised plan for shipping them off to countries where labor is estimated at a better value and wins a more generous reward. Mr. Morris, on account of a statement published in his paper in relation to a particular case of destitution in his neighborhood, was subjected to a suit at law, for alleged libel affecting the character of an employer, a Mr. Barnes, who felt himself aggrieved by certain allegations therein concernipg the low rate of wages paid by hini to the different members of a laborer's family; the inference from which was that M1r. Barnes had acted oppressively toward the poor. This case had been brought under the notice of Mr. Morris, as a member of the board of guardians of the poor, and he could not justifiably close his eyes to the actual suffering which the case presented. Fo'r this publlication, however, the jury awarded to the complainant the sum of ~50. "AGRICULTURAL LAnORErs'7 NATIONAL UNION." f[From the London Examiner.] The agrents of the National have only been at work in a certain counity since last Chitms and the number in union already exceeds two thousand, while several parishes can he found where every adult and able-bodied laborer acts in combination with his fellowvs. The policy of wholesale discharge has been tried and found wanting. One Berkshire farmer discharged eight of his men at a week's notice for joining the union, nnd before the following week had expired they were one and all placed in situations where they earned 18s. a, week instead of the 11 that had previously formed. the total of their wages. The policy of whiolesale evictionihas shown itself to beequally futile and suicidal. It has been tried at one place, and over forty cottages still remain empty, vainly seeking for fresh tenants. The wages had already been raised a shilling per week; when was it going to Stop? Clearly somiething- must be done, and that without delay. It was obvious that the "1seeds of mischief"1 were sown by the words of the agitators. Stop the meetings, and the, movement would sustain a severe check. Ofcure meetings in the village school-rooms and in the halls of the market-towns, had never been permitted, and if only the waste-lands and open spaces could be saved from the demagogue's unhallowed tread, the kindly feeling between the farmers and the laborers might still be preserved. Such, it would seem, has been the course of their reflections, and the village of Littleworth. was first selected for the opening of this -new campaign against liberty of speech. Seven laborers were summoned before the Farrinugdon bench of magistrates, (one of the justices being Viscount Folkestone, of "1baron of beef" n1otoriety,) and muleted in a penalty and costs for obstructing a footpath, on the evidence of two policemen and a farmer. * The ruling, according to the evidence then produced, appears to have been most extraordinary. The "1footpath," independently of the roadway, was 26 feet in width, which is surely an unusual allowance for a village lane; but, notwithstanding this, and the evidence distinctly denying the existence of any obstutothe justices thought fit to decline granting a case for the higher courts. Moreover, the identical spot on which the laborers' meeting was held is the very ground 39 6 LABOR IN EUROPEAND AMERICA. that has been constantly and habitually used for the past forty years, without let or hinderance, for the holding of Methodist and temperane meetings. This, in itself, proves that the question of obstructing the highway was a mere frivolous subterfuge. This decision naturally caused great indignation in the neighborhood, and a meeting was summoned on the 2Cth instant, to be held in the mrketplace at Farrigdon. The market-place was thronged with between three and four thousand laborersfrom the neighboring villages to listen to the speeches of Mr. Arch and others. The meeting was conducted in the most orderly way, and the laborers, at its conclusion, quietly dispersed to their homes, notwithstanding the great provocation that was offered by the throwing of rotten eggs and stones from the windows of an adjacent house. The police attempted no interference with the throwing Of missiles, but doubtless, in accordance with their instructions, they were not idle on the occasion. Shortly after the commencement of the proceedings, they demanded the removal of the wagon that served as a platform, but eventually contented themselves with taking thenames of the speakers, with a view to the issue of summonses. In the interests of the Union, and for the preservation of invaluable public rights, it is earnestly to be hoped that the Farringdon bench will proceed with their prosecutions. The fining of Joseph Arch, and the strong probability that he would exercise his option of preferring prison to a fine, for the crime of speaking in a country market-place to our poor country serfs, in a district where their wages only just remove them from starvation, would be worth more to the Union than the cheque of a millionaire. Other meetings have been held in this market-place, and standing-room found for wild-beast shows and exhibitions of cattle. But even suppose that the Farrigdo bench should e successful in punishing these speakers, how long will laws st which saction such outrageous decisions? The country should be very grateful to the National Agricultural Laborers' Union for putting these questions to the test. CONDITION OF FACTORY, MECHANICAL, AND OTHER SKILLED WORKEN. 1Having considered the condition of the agricultural laborer, attention is now directed to an inquiry into the condition of British workenemployed in mines, mills, factories. and at mechanical trades. The habits of. the workmen in regard to industry, and if he is unable to perform a full week's work the cause of such inability, and whether. it can be removed; the condition of his home, whether comfortable, aind, if not, whether the discomfort arises from. his improvidence or other fault, or whether it is the fault of his employer, or results fromt the systems or state of society-all these form subjects worthy of careful. andl impartial investigation. It is assumed in the outset that; the evils abo-ve indicated dlo exist; that the average British workman is not in general industrious, but'labors only four or five days per week; that his family lives in discomfort; that the education and training of his children are aln ~ost) wvholly neglected; and that this discomfort and neglect are not necessai-iiy occasioned by insufficient earnings. If the above statement affords a' fair indication of the cocndition of many of the skilled workmen in Great B ritain, especialIly inl thre narunfactnring and mining districts, the question arlises to what ca-use or causes are these results to be ascribed? A reply to this question involves a discussion of THE DRINKING- CUSTOMS OF C-HEAT BRITAIN. The chief cmuse of the evils -which afflict the British workL mu and their families, it is believed, is the excessive use of spirits and beer. Although this report comprises an inquiry in relation to the wages and. condition of the laboring-classes in the United K-ingdom, yet, in regard to the drinking habits of society, the investigation may be profitably extended beyond this limit. These habits of the British people are unfortunately not confined to the working and lower nor even to the mid CONDITION OF THE WORKING-CLASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 397 dke classes, but pervade all ra s, and extend to both sexes and to nearly all ages. ~~~~The fact is not forgotten that ths investigation is made by a citizen of a country which, next to Great Britain, is perhaps most noted for its large consumption of intoxicating beverages-a country which expends over $600, annually in spirituous, vinous, and malt liquors. A citizen of the United States should, therefore, be conscientiously careful in his statements, when he remembers that in this respect the walls of his national house are composed of brittle material without strength to resist the return missiles which an attack on the glass house of England might provoke. Although facts which constantly presented themselves to the author during his stay in Gret Britain afford evidence to his mind of the extent of the drinking habits of its people, and would, if presented, be sufficiently convincing to candid minds, yet preference is given and greater weight should be attached to the testimony of residents of that country who have ad favorable opportunities to ascertain the actual facts, and against whom no imputation of adverse prejudice can be alleged. The first authority cited is the London Times, which in 1872 published the following statement: DRINhKING CUSTOMS OF EGLAND.-Te figures published by the Statistical Society showing the amount of intoxicating fluids annually consumed in this country are certainly large. We drank, it appears, last year, in spirits, malt liquors, wine, cider, &c., more than seventy-two million gallons of pure alcohol, at a cost, in round numbers, of 120000000. It is calculated that at least half of this money is spent by the workg-classes; and as they desire principally strength or quantity in their drink, we shall probably not be wrong in assigning to them very much more than half our entire yearly consumption. There is no more alcohol in a bottle of wine than in half a pint of ardent spirits, and the cost of the one may be a guinea, and of the other ninepence or a shilling. It is clear that if the working-classes have speat their ~60,000,000 in a cheaper form of intoxicating drink, they have got much more for their money, and may probably be debited with fifty million gallons out of the entire seventy-two millions of the year. It will be seen, if the figures are compared with those of 1871, that the total amount of the past year is not only very large in itself, but shows a considerable increase on the year before it. We spent in 1871 only ~108,000,000 on the same objects, and received for our money, in various forms, somewhat less than sixty-five million gallons of alcohol. The rise is certainly considerable. It has been due, probably, to the increased wages of labor, which have allowed the workiugman to indulge himself in m.Qre luxuries. The following, in relation to the same subject, appears in the Times. of N-ovember, 6, 1874: DRUNKENNESS IN E.NGLAND.-The number of persons charged before magistrates in England and Wales in 1873 with being drunk, or drunk and disorderly, namely, 182,941, is very nearly double the number so charged in 1863, in which year it was but 94,745. The increase has been chiefly in the last six of the intervening ten years. In 1867 the number was but 100,357; in 1868 it was but 111,465; in 1869, 122,310; in 1870,131,870; in 1871, 142,343; inl1872, 151,084. In 1873, the first year under thenew intoxicating liquors act, instea~d of the continuance of an increase of 10,000 or 11,000 in a year, the number leaped upto 182,941, anaincrease of 32,000 over the preceding year. There are nomneans of distributing tbe increase among its causes, whether high wages, stricter police Su-. pervision, or other causes; but the -number is remarkable. it is worth notice also that the inctease is more among men than among women. In 1867 the number proceeded against comprised 74,860 men and 25,497 women-three men to one woman, the women being a little above a fourth of the whole number; but in 1873 the numbers were 141,232 men and 41,709 women, the women in 1867 being 400 more than a fourth of the whole number, but in 1873 4,000 less than a fourth of the whole number. The following extract front Fraser's M1agazine, February, 1872, illustrates the evils resulting front the drinking habits of the laborer: DRINK TRAFFIC IN GnFAT B~inTAiN.-The drink-seller in manifold cases knows certaily hatthecustomer is taseritoimo uney which is not morally his own to 398 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. spend. Every married workingman employs hiIn these characteIs she has a righlt towagesfrom himwichmustbepaidbeforeeany right to mere indulgence of the palate. When he has children, they too have a prior right; and the mother, during her times of weakness, ought not to e worked. A laborer who neglects wife and children to gratify his appetite for liquor is morally guilty as though spending the money of another. In proof of the statement heretofore made, that the habit of drinking to excess extends to the middle and upper classes, the testimony of Dr. Anstie is presented. The following appeared in the Practitioner for 1872: We nmust notice the fact that many girls of the wealthy middle and of the upper classes, especially the former, are of late years takig to onsume all kinds of wine, and particularly clhampagne, to an extent whliclusednevertoepermitted. Atmay modern ball suppers champagne flows like water; and the attentive observer will soon perceive that it is not the men, by any means, who do the larger part of the consumption. These stine young ladies who have so freely partaken of c pagne overnight will next (lay at lunch take plenty of bottled beer, or a couple of glasses of sherry. Dinner comes round, and again either champagne or ock or port or sherry is drunk, not less than a couple of glasses being taken. And then the evenigvery often brings a party of some kind with the inevitable champagne or sherry. e are speakig of things,which we have seen when we say that many girls who live amg rich (especially nouvea riche) and gay society are in the habit, during six moths out of the twelve, of taking (in the shape of wine, &c.) a daily average of two, two and a half, or three ounces of absolute alcohol, a quantity which, if expressed in chep beer, would be equal t six or seven pints. The general moral is that light wine gives the taste for strong wine, beer for gin. This is fatally experienced in France, in the United States, in Germany, and in Egland. Our Saturday lReviewer remnarkably comments: "Education an intelligence are rather against a woman than otherwise, for they make her believe that she at least is safe while gradually and unawares imbibing the fatal propensity." In further illustration of the general use of liquors in England, it may be stated, as the result of personal observation, tat ladies of the middle classes, whien visiting any exhibition, are accustomed to partake of winre w~ith their necessary refreshments. In the visits of the author to large industrial establishments in Englmand and Scotland wine was frequently offered-a custom which was in vogue in the United States some forty yer gtertnino -which in Grea,,t Britain is probably due to the intense conservatism of that country. In one instance, where the works were extensive and several hours occupied in their examination, wine -was at several times offered, anld surprise was expressed that Suich fatiguing exertion could be undergon~e wit~hout some stimulus. In various parts of Europe Americans were met at dinner who declined takting wine, but such a refusal on the part of Englishmen* or other Europeans was in no instance observed. In subsequent pages extended articles "1On the condition of the working-classes of Great Britain," prepared especially for. this report, by United States consuls and others, are given in full. Brief extracts from some of these papers, refe~rring to the drinking habits of the people, are presented here. The United States consul at Manchester says: The working-classes consunme an enormous quantity of intoxicating liquors, principally beer, thougrh very many partake largely of spirits and of the cheaper wines. Intemperance seems to be on the increase, especially among the women, not only of the working-classes, but also of the middle and upp~er middle classes. General Fairchild, United States consul at Liverpool, undler d~cite, of November-, 18743, writes: The increase of drunkenness, and all dissipations -which follow idle hours, is alarnmiig. *The author may be pardoned for making a personal reference. An English lady, because one of her guests drank no wine at dinner, also declined to taste the beverage; a marked exception to the g eneral custom. above indicated, and a rare exhibition of true politeiiess. CO ITION OF THE WORKING-CLASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 399 TheWestminster Review of January, 1874, says: Liverpool has the unenviable notoriety of being the most drunken town in the United Kingdom. Dr. Trench, the able and well-informed medical officer of the health department of Liverpool, remarks: The worn-classes of Liverpool are extremely intemperate, even when compared with similar sections of the community in other large towns of Great Britain. His able official report for a previous year contains the following on the same subject: The amount which is spent in drin is astonishing. One or two instances of the worst kind, occurring in the same street, may be cited. A man ears regularly, and spends as regularly 21s. in drink; his four children re in ras. In another instance the wages are 30s, a week regularly; the father and other are th druken, and three children are half starved, and in rags. In another house is a copper-oreworker, earning 27s. a week, all of which is spent in drink by himself and his wife. The children are in rags and filth, and look idiotic. In the same street there are sober menearning only 20s. and 23s. a week, who are living in comfort.*** The landlord of a small bli-house, who had lived for years in the district, and knew timately the habits of the ople, said, "For one man who did not drink, there were fifty who would take their share; they starve their wives and children, and must be-, if they want a bit." Mr. Jnkinson the consul of the United States at Glasgow, in reference to the icrease of intemperance, wrote as follows: That drunk ess prevails to an alrming extent among the working-class cannot be denied; that it has increased as their wages have been increased is also true. Many have, no doubt, been bented by such increase of wages; but most, it seems, outsped their extra earnings in extra quantities of whisky. Dr. Webster, United States consul at Shefield, thus writes, January 22, 18174: From inquiry andl my own observation, I believe theat far the larger part of the loss of time and the reckless waste of money is the result of the drinking habits which prevail so geueraslly. It is painful to see how the weekly wagpes are, squandered by the thousands who throng the drinking places on Saturday, Sunday, (at certain hours,) Monday, and Tuesday, and, indeed, on all the days of the week. There are in S seffield 1,400 public houses, licensed pl ces for the sale of beer and spirits. At each of these, at a low estimate, an average amount of ~10 is spent weekly, making an aggregate of ~14,000 of weekly exjpenditure for a population of 240,000. Mr. Consul Jones, of New Castle-upon-Tyne, in his report oa the moral and social condition of the working classes, says: Many of thers are very improvident and fond of drink; a feast of food and stimulants in the early part of the week, at the expense of an insufficient, supply at the end, is very frequently the case among the sons of toil on the Tyne. Excessive' drinking has undoubtedly increased in this district since the short hours and advanced wages have prevailed. It was said boastingly by English -statesmen that the nation had, drunk itse~f out of the Alabama claims by the increased income.ftoo the tax on intoxicating drinks during the _past year. The following~ extract from a letter addressed to the author by tie righ t honorable the Earl of Shaftesbury, a nobleman -universally regarded as a Christian philanthropist of the highest type, further illustrates this part of the subject: LONDON, Feblruary 12, 1875. SIR: * * * *There are speeches, pamphlets, and treatises in immense abundance on the evils of intemperance. Even our newspapers are beginlug to denounce the sin and call for a remedy. I should weary you by repeating-and, indeed, you must well know them-the numerous and various facts which may be read every dlay and everywhere. There, is very little of all that is said th-at I should not indorse. That the filthy, close, depressing, pestilential state of the, idwellings in scvcrnl large 400 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AERICA towns, and certainly in the metropolis, is a stro( provocation to drink, and specialy to drink ardent spirits, is to my mind simply beyond question. The loss to a country, morally, socially, and financially, by such abits among the people, defies all calculation. With many thanks for your letter, I am, sir, your obedient servant SHAFTESBURY. EDWAPRD YOuNG, Esq., Chief of Unitied Slates B'reeau of Statislics, ashigto, D. C. TI-IE NATIONAL BEVERAGE. In an editorial, discussing the agitation for the repeal of the tax on malt, a tax which its opponents denounce as one that robs the poor man of his beer," the London Daily Telegraph of arch 61874 makes the following remarks: We know all thlat can be said about the "nationabeverage. Terearethosewho believe that it is the "wine of the country;" that, if we ade it cheap and its use uiversal, the consumption of ardent spirits would decrease, and comparative temperance be really promoted; and that-to quote Sir Robert Peel slightly altered-" the laboringman would recruit his exhausted strength with abundat and untaxed beer, no longer leaaened by a sense of injustice." It is quite possible that soe of these brilliant results might be achieved. This belief in the beneficent blessings of the drink is, however, not new. It at one timne dictated a legislative measure, that ws received with hearty and almost universal applause. The beer-act of 1830 was passed in order to encourage everywhere the erection of beer-housesasdistinctfromgin-places. Itwas designed, as its friends said, to "supply a wholesome beverage," or what Lord Brougham, oddly enough, called a "moral species of beverage, distinguished from ru, b)randy, whisky, and gin, which, by implication, e csed of immorality. Men of all parties supporte(l the measure, as conducive tothehealth, the morality, andte sobriety of the laboring-classes, through bringing to their doors cheap and wholes me drink. But the results bitterly disappointed the expectatiosofitsfriends. SidneySithwrote: The new beer bill has bel its operations. Everyody is drunk. Those who are not singing are sprawling. The sovereign people are in a beastly state." We have now given Up the policy Of mul11tiplying beer-houses, in order to bring- hack- the age of gold. The f~irmers tell us we did not go far enough, and tha —t the true "1Paraidise RExgained" is to he found in a homne-brewing people. BREWERIES IN BURTON,-ON'\- TI E NT. Manchester is not mrore celebrated for its manufacture Of cotton, Leeds for its wooleiis, Birmningham for its hardware, and Sheffield for its steel and cutlery, than is Burton for ins aIle. Although, in proportion to the vast product, but few men are employed in its manufacture, and therefore a. knowledge of the rates of wages is comparatively unimportant, y et in consequence of the vast influence which emanates from this uninteresting town, the author took occasion to visit it, and was shown through the extensive brewery of Messrs. Allsopp & Sons. This is the largest single brewery, and makes 2,000 barrels of ale per day. Bass produces a larger quantity, but has three breweries in operation. The va~st extent of the beer-interest in Great Britain may be gathered from the following account of only one establishment ill one of the towns devoted to this manufacture: The town of Burton-o-n-Treat is ahmost wholly given np to the manufacture of beer. Iin fact, the brewveries are the town, anid the interstices between the breweries simply contain some dwelling-houses. The immense breweries of Bass, Allsopp, Inde, Coope, Worthington, Salt, NUnneley, Evershed, and Robinson are all there, besides others of lesser note. Bass alone has three breweries there, covering altogfether a little over 100 acres of ground. Bass used last year 2~67,000 quarters of malt for brewing purposes. If it be reckoned that an acre grows four quarters of barley, 66,750 acres were occupied in growing the malt which Bass used. Of hops his con umpinws2,0 cwt., which engrossed about 2,000 acres of hop-growing country. Iunaalt-tax and license-duty he paid last year ~~200,000. The total brew of Bass during the year CONDITION OF TE WORKING-CLASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 401 amounted to 720,000 barrels, each barrel containing 36 gallons; so that Bass could have served more than half the estimated number of the human race with a glass of beer per head from his brewing of one year. Throughout his Burton premises Bass owns over five miles of private railway, runs five private locomotives, and uses twenty. six steam-engines, with a collectivehorse-power of 436. He employs in Burton over 2,000 persons, and pays more than 2,000 in weekly wages. He used last year 33,300 tons of coal. He has in se 30,000 butts, 144,000 hogsheads, 113,000 barrels, and 249,000 kilderkins; a stock of casks, in all, in store and scattered over the country, exceeding half a million. Mr. Bass is now, and was at the time of the visit, a member of Parliamnt, as are also Mr. Allsopp and some other brewers; but in the House of Commons his name is rarely mentioned. On great financial or educational questions or o measures for the improvement of the condition of the poor, or for the correction of abuses, he rarely, if ever, speaks; in the efforts now making to improve the condition of dwellings of the working-classes, his voice has not been heard supporting the measures so ably urged by Mr. Cross and others. But if, in the House of Commons, his voice is not heard and his influence not felt in behalf of measures for the amelioration of the condition of the lower classes, the influence of Mr. Bass outside of Parliament is potential. Westminster may be the seat of political and financial influence, but the vast power which molds the character, affects the material and moral condition and sways the destinies of the great masses of the English people, has its chief seat at Burton-on-Trent. Nor is this influence confined to the British Islands. Throughout Europe and America, and in countries which the traveler rarely visits, the name of Bass is well known. In places where the immortal works of Shakespeare are unread the products of Bass are familiar; ears which have never heard the classic name of Stratford-upon-Avon, are not unused to Burton-on Trent. It was hoped by an inexperienced American, when leaving Londouwhose placarded houses and walls proclaimed the virtues of the ale or porter of different and rival brewers-that by crossing the Channel h-e would escape fromn the ubiquitous Burton brewer, but the first English words that met his eyes as he sat at breakfast at Dieppe were, "1Bass' ale." At the far East this ale was seen not only in the modern but in the renowned ancient capital of Russia,* and at the great fair at- Nijni Novgorod on the far off Volga, as well as in the nsual routes of travel in Central Europe; at the West, in the floating palaces which traverse the Atlantic, and in New York, Washington, and thronghout the United States, even to the shores of the Pacific, Bass' ale can. be procured. And it may be doubted whether there is any spot npon the globe, where civilized people dwell which is unsupplied with the malt liquors of Bass, t Allsopp, or other English brewer. Although the evils resulting from the continued use of stronlg beer are painfully apparent in Great Britain, yet it does not easily intoxicate. Taken at meals or with bread, forming as it does a chief article of qonsumption, it is apparently harmless; but its excessive and long-continued use, especially -at night. and when. taken by itself, produces most injurious effects. The beer of Germany, especially of Bavaria, which forms a staple article of consumption, must be much lighter, for in that In 1789 a consignment of twenty half hogsheads of ale, containing 789 gallons, was made by a Burton brewer to Saint Petersburg, and in exchange requested the shipment of pipe and hogshead staves. ftMr. Bass, like Mr. Guinness, in Dublin, and the late Mr. Vassar of this country, has distributed large sums in benevolence. A church was pointed out to the writer in Burton, costing some ~25,000, and another situated elsewhere, which were built at his sole expense. Possibly there is some connection, other than alliteration, betwveeu beer and benevolence. 26 L 402 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. country intoxication is infrequent. Indeed, the consul of the nite States at Chemnitz remarked, "Judging from the quantity a native can consume, I apprehend that one will stagger quicker from the weight than the strength of the potion." In England, small or light beer has been in general use for many centuries, and was a common beverage long before the introduction of tea. * Indeed it is a little remarkable that while the use of beer does not diminish, that of " the cup which cheers but not inebriates has greatly increased, until the average consumption, in that country has reached four pounds per capita. f To those who need or think they need some stimulus, the use of malt liquors is far less injurious than spirits. The intemperance which so generally prevails in Liverpool, Glasgow, London, and Antwep, where West India rum and other spirits are largely consumed, attests this fact. HO0MES OF THE WORKING PEOPLE. It has been incontestably shown that the chief cause of the evils that afflict working men and their families arises from the excessive use of spirituous and malt liquors. In making a fll analysis of this subject it becomes necessary to extend the investigation beyond the secondary and search for the primary cause, of which the cause just stated is merely an effect. If the workman indulges in the excessive use of spirits, and beer, which results in decided injury to his family, is he alone responsible The question is pertinent and demands a candid reply. From a careful consideration of the subject it is evident that the intemperate habits of a great mass of British workmen are due to the drinking customs of the classes above them in the social scale, which the facts already presented, and others which are patent in regard to the almost universal use of intoxicants in the upper ranks of society, sufficiently prove. Until those to -whom the working classes look for example feel their responsibility in the premises, so long will the majority expend a portion of their earnings in drink, and suffer their families to remain in poverty, ignorance, and discomfort. The responsibility for, this misery should, it is affirmed, be shared by others. In addition to the drinking customs of society which sh~ould justly be charged with a part of the wrong inflicted on the workmen's families, there is another cause for which others are chiefly responsible, viz, the wretched tenements occupied by the working classes. From the initial stLep in this investigation the author's attention was arrested by observing the miserable apartments in which most of the factory operatives dwell. In Birmingham and Wolverhampton, and in most parts of the "1black country," in parts of nearly all the chief manufacturing cities of England and Scotland, the tenements to which the tired laborers return at night, and where they should have comfort and repose, are in many cases -unfit for human habitation. In some instances these belong to the corporations owning the mills, mines, or works, and were erected in. low grounds destitute of drainage and of proper sanitary regulations. In other places they occupied rooms in poor buildings in the outskirts of town or in the most crowded thoroughfares, redolent of filth and dirt. Confined totwo or three rooms, or as inGlasgow to one, or atmost *Tea was introduced into England before 1657. Beer was used in Germany and Britain in the time of Tacitus.g f In the United States the consumption of tea, which was formerly bnt one pound per capita, has gradually increased unutil now it is -nearly 1-,~ pounds; still it is butb little over one-third of the average consumption in Great Britaiu. CONDITION OF THE WORKING-CLASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 403 to two rooms for a famiy, comfort, cleanliness, and even decency are impossible. What wonder, then, when the husband and father, fatigued with his day's toil, returns home, to partake of his frugal evening meal, finding his wife irritable in consequence of hard work, the care of wayward children, and the deprivation of ordinary comforts, that he visits the alehouse where he and his fellow-toilers, similarly circumstanced, drown their cares in the beer-mug and squander their hard earnings which should have been devoted to the comfort of their families! ~~~In~~d the papers already referred to, on the condition of the working classes, which appear on subsequent pages, ample testimony is afforded of the character of the tenements occupied by the poor. The following facts in regard to that subject are first presented. Mr. Consul Jenkinson, in his report on the condition of the laboring classes of Glasgow, thus writes in regard to the wretched tenements which most of them occupy: HOMES O THE LABORING CLASSES OF GLASGOW. The condition of the laboring men of this city cannot be fully understood without a glance at their homes. In this respect, perhaps, more than in any other, is the greatest contrast presented between the British and Amierican mechanic. Home comforts, in the America sense, are but little known to the laboring man in Glasgow, living for the most part in reat tenement buildings, where ten or a dozen, sometimes twenty or thirty, families occpy a single tenement; each family possessed of but one, or at most two, ill-ventilated, dreary, dirty rooms. The official statistics upon this subject are startling. The city chamberlain, in his report for 1869, says, "It is quite aside from the subject to complain of single apartments being each occupied by a family, for such has always been the case, and apparently will continue to be the case, much as it is to be reretted. The chief evil arises when a dwelling-house becomes subdivided into single apartments, each entering through its neighbor, in place of each opening only upon a well-ventilated staircase or corridor. Some readers may not be prepared to learn that at the census of 1861 more than 28,000 houses in Glasgow were found to consist of but a single apartment, and above 32,000 to consist of two; so that of the whole 82,000 families comprising the city, upwards of 60,000 were housed in dwellings of one and two apartments each." For 1870 the estimated numbers were: Families each occupying a single room, 29,884; those occupying only two rooms, 43,403-showing that more than 73,000 of the 97,000 families comprising the city of Glasgow in 1870 were living in one or two rooms ea~ch. The mere statement of these facts is sufficient to show that few home comforts fall to the lot of the laboring classes of this city, and if I should add a description of the dirt and desolation prevailing in most all of these homes, making them mere nests of disease and suffering, I would even then have only partially detailed their discomforts. And imagine 8,000 of these families congregated on the space of four blocks, as is the case in this city, and can anything more be done to darken the picture? Such miserable dwellings cannot of course command very high rents, and it is not surprising, therefore, to find, from an official report, that during the year just closed (1872,.1) there were in this city more than 74,000 dwelling houses renting at less than $50 each. And, as I find on inquiry that dwellings of two rooms rent for from $40 to $50 each, it is presumable that all of these 74,000 dwellings, each occupied by a family, were of one or two rooms each. In a report prepared for these pages by Mr. Consul W ebster, "1on the condition of the working people of Sheffield,"7 he says: The mother in many cases being away from home at work, consequently neglccts the family. The husband, knowing that there is no comfort for him at home, resorts to the nearest dram-shop for refreshment; the wife, in many cases, doing the same. Hence the sad neglect of the children. * * * * In the matter of their dwellings and furnit~ure, their dress, their sleeping accommodations, and almost everything that goes to make the home, the comfort of the fnmily' is seriously abridged. And yet vast numbers who earn good wages, say thirty, forty, and fifty shillings a week, seem to be satisfied with the scantiest supply of the most; common absolute necessaries of life. In very many cases large families do'live in one and two rooms. This would not be true of a majority, but it is too common. 404 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Mr. Consul Branscomb, in his "report on the condition and habits of the working classes of the Manchester consular district, which appears in full on a subsequent page, thus alludes to the homes of some of the working people: The houses of those persons who squLa,ndersomuchindrink are soqid, wretched, and desolate. In many eases families who can unitedly earn, when they all care to work full time, three, four, five, and even six pounds per week, live in filthy and dilapidated old tenements in the back slums, and sometimes huddle together in one or two rooms, without a bit of decent furniture. MIr. Consul Gould, in his report upon the condition of the workinpeople, which appears on a subsequent page, says: In a large proportion of their homes family comfort is totally unknown. The tenements of the laboring-class are but poor apologies for homes, in multitudes of cases their whole furniture not being worth more than a few shillings. Pawnbrokers do a thriving business, and the only part of the week when comforts are introduced is on Saturday evening and Sunday, after the wages of the week come in. Monday usually begins with the poverty and pawning of the previous week, and thus the perpetual round continues. The tenements are generally small and dirty. The following extract from the Cambrian News shows the uncomfortable lodgings of working-people in Wales: The newly-sappointed inspector of nuisances for the rural district of Aberystwith has made two reports, which reveal an almost inconceivable state of degradation aong the people. A large number of the houses are altogether unfit for habitation, and those hovels are terribly over-crowded, adults of both sexes bei herded promiscuously together. In one case, sixteen men sleep in eight beds in two small rooms; and in another instance four men occupy the beds during the ight and four during the ay, the day-occupants frequently having to wait until the night-men get up. In one place a family lives in a hut, which is also used as, slaughter-house, skin-room, and butcher's shop; and in another, a woman, her grown-up daughter, a cow, a heifer, and nine fowls occupied one room, which has no fire-place, no window, and no light or ventilation beyond that provided by the door. Dr. Griffiths, the medical officer of health for the borough of Sheffield, in his annual report issued in 1874, thus refers to the sanitary condition -of the dwellings of the poor: Many of the dwellings of the poor are unfit for them. One room frequently serves the threefold purpose of bed-room, dwelling-room, and work-room, and the cubic space for air is totally inadequate for the health of the tenants. When to this is added that the windows are generally what are termed Yorkshire lights, or casements, many of which cannot be opened; and that when panes are broken the deficiency is supplied by wood or paper, excluding the light; and that whole families, without regard to sex eor age, the single and married, are promiscously mingled-there need be no surprise at the existence of disease nor at the spread of infection. The following extracts are from a report on the sanitary condition of ILiverpool, made in 1871, by Dr. Parkes and Dr. Sanderson: Within the courts each house usually consists of a room on the ground-floor, a room above this, and a third room in the attic. Most of them have cellars. It very frequently happens that there is a family in each room except the cellar. In many cases t-he staircase forms part of the rooms, and is without any window, so that in fact there is an inevitable mixture of the air contained in all the rooms. Few constructions,could be better adapted for the spread of contagious diseases. * Many of them at once attributed their condition to drink; others owned it on being -pressed on the matter. Several women gave an exact statement of what their husbands earned and what they brought home. Two examples are selected of workmen ~ft whose cases there -was no irregularity of employment. A tin-plate worker in conztant work earns 22s. a week. He has a wife, evidently a careful, respectable woman, and four children. In reply to questions, she said he drank a little, then owned "1he drkank very heavy." Sometimes he brought home 18s., sometimes 168., sometimes 12s.; Z~st week he drank it all. If he would bring 22s. a week, she should be "1happy as the day is long." This family of six persons were living in one back room, for which they paid is. 6d. a week;- it was lO} feet long, 9 feet broad, and 81 feet high; the furniture wa's a bed, table, and two rickety chairs. Two of the four children were sick. In the front room of the same house, the rent of which was 2s. a week, a man and wvife, a &n ghter agcd 17, aand n, son agced 15, lived; the man earned 24s3. a, wee-k, and passed his CONDITION OF THE WORKING-CLASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 405 time in drinking hard, repenting and saving, and then drinking again; the wife drank all she could get." The son and daughter earned next to nothing. * The unhappy people seem to know none of the comforts and few of the decencies of life, and widespread habits of drunkenness, and consequent want of food, aid their wretched homes in destroying their health. It is no doubt partly from the smallness and precariousness of the earnings of unkilled industry, that so many families live in the single rooms of sub-let houses, and thus perpetuate their miserable condition in the training and bringing up of their children. It may be a question whether this condition of their homes promotes the vice of drunk enness, or whether drunkenness itself be the primary and originating cause of that thriftless improvidence which leads to poverty and want. But there is another phase of the habit engendered by the single-room tenements of our sub-let houses, which is not withot interest in all future measures for the education and improvement of the people. In sixty-two instances adult sons and daughters slept in the same room with their parents, and in three instances in the same bed. In one hundred and fifty-two instance adult daughters slept in the same room, and in fifty-six instances in the same bed, wit heir parents. In two hundred and fourteen instances adult sons slept in the same room, and in one hundred and fifty-eight instances in the same bed, with their mothers. In thirty-seven instances adult daughters slept in the same room, and in twenty-seve instances in the same bed, with their fathers. In fifty-nine instances the mother wit her adult sons and daughters slept in the same room, and in twenty-one instances i the same bed, together. In twelve instances the father, with his adult sons and daughters, slept in the same room, and in six instances in the same bed, together. In seve instances a mother, adult son, and a female lodger slept in the same room, and in two instances in the same bed, together. In sixty-four instances a man, his wife, and a female lodger slept in the same room, and in three instances in the same bed. In twelve iustances,a man, wife, and male lodger, slept in the same room. In thirty-nine instances adult brothers and sisters slept in thb same room, and in twenty instances in the same bed. The overcrowding which we find in sub-let houses is generally connected with or caused by these bad arrangements of a family. Thus, for example, in one room of the cubical dimensions of 900 feet, a mother and her two sons, aged eighteen and twenty, were in one bed, and a man, his wife, and his daughter, aged eighteen, in another bed. In another room of the cubical dimensions of 800 feet, there were found sleeping, a father, two sons of eighteen and twenty, a dlaughter of twenty-two, and a female lodger of thirty years of age. In another room of the cubical dimensions of 800 feet, there were found sleeping in one bed on the floor, two brothers of twenty-four and twenty-six, and four sisters of twenty-eight, twenty, eighteen, and sixteen years of age, respectively. The followingc table, from. official sources, shows the crow ded. condition of sonic parts of Edinburgh, and the consequent increase of mortality. Ovcr-crowded ten ceuts and their vital statistics. Population in Mortality 1864. in 1863. Name. - 0 ~~~~t P4 0 4 -1 E -,o a Go-wanloch's Land. -------------------— 292 60 39 109 25 134 2 2 4 8 Cowgralehead-......................365 60 38 155 24 179 4 2 6 Middle Meal-market Stair-................400 59 56 197 51 248 3 5 8 Old Meal-market Stair-...................300 31 22 96 14 110 4 3 7 56 Blackfriars' Wynd-2.................. 050 49 28 103 27 130 1 1 2 23 carrubber's clsose.....................353 45 35 107 28 135 3 2 5 Scot's Land, Cowgate......................250 53 42 128 42 170 6 3 9 Hope's Land, canongate-.................230 36 29 80 23 103 2 1 3 Purves' Land, Canongato-................352 32 29 92 27 119.... 4 4 Burns' Land, Canongate-.................176 25 13 54 14 68.-. I 1 Birtley Buildings, Canon~ato -------------— 254 35 33 101 24 125 1 6 7 Crombie's Land, Westport-................167 27 20 154 1 6 70 1 2 3 3 East Rlichmond street-.................285 56 43 148 29 177 1 2, 3 23 St. James Fstreet-....................438 70 56 168 52 220 3 3 6 It is gratifying to know that the, improvement in dwellin gs for the workinig-classes has engaged the attention of philanthropists in Eng. 406 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. land, and that the subject has received the careful consideration of Parliament, as will be shown on a subsequent page. The London Times, in an article showing the small number of the comfortable, regards those families which pay a rental of less that 20 a year as not among the "comfortable." The writer says: Seven in eight of our population live in "houses of less than 20 a year-that is, are not, in the ordinary sense of that word, comfortable at all, but are, with more or less of content, always struggling to make ends meet, always compelled to think of money, always afiected in the most direct and serious way by a tax, a rise in prices, or a stoppage in the course of trade. It is only to one in eight of our population that a sovereign is not a very serious sum, only to four in a thousand that a five pound note is not an important, most important amount of money." The number of the really comfortable in Britain cannot by possibility exceed 70,000, while it may be very little more than half that amount. As the working-class pays a rental of less than 20 a year, it will be observed that this vast array of work-people are living outside the pale of "comfortable." DEGRADED CONDITION OF THE WORKING-cLASSES. [From the London Daily Telegraph, July 13,1874.] But there are people who are worse off than the mill-hands, whose abiding-places are the slums of Manchester. I should not hav thought it possible, but so it is. There are toilers and sweaters for daily bread whose condition in life is worse even than that of the miner who delves in the bowels of the earth or the smelter of iron who works naked to the waist, and with a leather mask before his face to keep his eyes from being melted in his head, as is the red ore in the melting pot it is his business to feed and keep at a molten simmer. I thought and said so a fortnight since; but at that time I had not visited the potteries, nor passed half a day in Longton, which is the center of the murky region where half the crockery that is used in the world is produced; and I am afraid to say how many times dirtier, smokier, and, to the unaccustomed, more stifling than any other pottery parish round about. The following extract from the report of the Inspector of British factories indicates the degraded condition of the work-people in the fens and at brick-making: I have just received a report from Mr. Lakeman of some work he has done in the'fens of Cambridgeshire: "1I have gone through the center of the fen district, and of all the journeys undertaken by me it was the most tedious and uninteresting, excepting that I have taken note of a type of people seemingly peculiar to the fens, vacant in expression of countenance, ignorant of everything but work. They do not know the names of the localities around them, and never see any one better than themselves, save their employers. I wonder how these poor creatures are to be reached, what is their hope, where their happiness or comfort in life." From another part of the country I have had much the same picture: "A most barbarous. semi-civilized, ignorant set. Men and boys look like red Indians; the isand used in brick-making being burnt red, and with which their bodies are covered, working bareheaded, barefootedl, with exposed breasts, and with wild looks, drinking all day Sunday; Monday and Tuesday dog-fighting and man-fighting. They resume work on Wednesdays, when the poor little unfortunates are made to toil away, stamping and. carrying, and pressing a good fortnight's work into thr ee or four days. One man, who lost week earned in four days 28s., took his wife home a loaf of bread and Gd."1 Not only among the fens and'in the brick-fields of England is this degradation manifest, but in those towns which exhibit the highest type of civilization. In some of the manufacturing towns of England there is a downcast look which indicates hopelessness, if not despair, on the part of the working-classes. They seem to have sunk into a condition of despondency from which nothing can rouse them. No ray of hope glimmers in their pathway, beckoning them to higher position. They seem to regard their social condition as fixed. They -have no hope, and apparently little desire, to rise superior to their present state. What CONDITION OF TE WORKING-CLASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 407 their fathers were they are, and their sons will be. Many of them seem destitute alike of hope for increased happiness here or hereafter. These traits wereoticed by the author more at Wolverhampton, and elsewhere in the Black Country, and at Bradford and other portions of orkshire, and in some localities of Lancashire. The working-classes of England are not possessed of the elasticity of the Irish, and seem more despondent than the people of any class in other countries, except the recently emancipated serfs of Russia. The followi extract from a letter written by Professor Shepard, of Chicago, to the New York Examiner, although perhaps too highly colored for an accurate description of the working-classes in the whole of England, is yet a true as well as graphic presentation of the condition of a portion. of them. THE WORKING-CLASSES OF BRADFORD. Bradford is a thoroughly English manfacturing town. You do not know what faces I saw, if you never saw the faces of the English working-classes. 0, the wretched faces of weary children, the faces lit up with a forced mirth! The faces that have been feeling the grinding and grinding for generations-the inherited faces of the Enlish working-people, men and women and children, father and son, mother and babe. I don't believe there is such a looking lot of people on the face of this earth as the working-classes of England. Just over the Tweed there is relief. Bad enough there, but not to be compared with what you see in the great manufacturing towns of England. I recall Switzerland. But there, with all the appearance of dull uniformity, you see no grindin of the faces of a lower class by the heels of an upper class. The "common people" of that uncommon country have nobody above them and nobody below them. Besidessomeeducationiscompulsoryand some military training. They are picturesque in dress, and free-looking in the face, however addicted to unlovely labor and unaspiri industry-a dead-level people in the most mountainous of countries. Above them only the mountains, below them only the valleys. Perhaps they crouch to the mountains instead of to a class. Perhaps the mountains have oppressed some of the aspiration out of them, as the ravages of adamantihe caste have crushed all the imagination out of the British workman. In the -north of Europe, whatever you see of haggardness and weariness, you see a certain something like contentment, and elasticity, an~d thrifty independence of behavior. Then, as for the south of Europe, the lowest are the happiest. Laborer, beggar, and pauper are jolliest of them all. The destitute are never destitute of sunshine in sky or soul. You do not sympathize, you envy; you do the sighing, not the ragged beggar. So in Ireland. With all his barking and biting at the heels of the "1oppressive"1 old lion, Pat never shows any of the grind in his face. The Irish peasantry are as pleasant a sight as any sight of the sort in the world. In the land of the Celt or the Sonthron you will always tind the veriest squalor touched with nature's brush of the picturesque. But there is nothing to relieve the eye or cheer the imagination in this vast sea of down-turned faces in England. The lower classes there are utterly destitute of anything calculated to break the monotony of their toilsome look. They have no manners, or customs, or costumes; no, games or frolics with which to animate the spectacle they present to the eye of the foreigner. They work and work and work; they drink and drink and drink; they smoke and smoke and smoke. They do as their fathers did; their children do as they do. Father and mother and child go forth to their labor until the evening, and go forth to the beer-shop when the evening comes. That shop, with its blaze of gas, its sparkling brass hoops on. the gin-casks, its burnished ornaments on the beer-fountains,2 its row of tidy tumblers, its clatter of coppers on the counter, its jingle of glasses, its turgid apology for humor, and its ceaseless sound of boozy discontent-that grog-shop contrasts fatally with that workiug-man's, home. That is his only home, indeed-his home and theater, recreation and education, social life, mental life, and animal. life, all in one. Is it any wonder that the one candle-lit, dingy room up the court is unable to hold its own against it! So it is a dead-lift-this effort in behalf of the lower millions of England. They are not attractive; they are horribly unattractive. They repel the imagination. You avert your face; you never smile, because they never smile. * The wicked.' nesses of the low Italian fascinate before you have had time to be on your guard; the goodnesses of the low Briton are, repulsive. There is no spontaneity or enthusiasm, or quickness of humor or brightness, or zeal or snap here. It is all so dogged, and sluggish, and logy. There is an ever and forever ooze, in the way of the Brit'ish'-wNorkman, that sets you almost distracted. It is palling teeth to pull him through.* * 408 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. REPORTS ON THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING-CLASSES OF GREAT BRPITAIN. Having directed attention to the drinking habits of the laboringclasses and the condition of the rooms they occupy, it is now proposed to present, in extenso, the several reports made by consuls of the United States, and others, on the subject under consideration. SHEFFIELD. Letter from (. B. Webster, esq., United States consul. UNITED STATES CONSULATE, Sheffield, August 4, 1872. * * X * * In the great teel-manufactories of Sheffield, mployi, each, several thousands of men, scarcely any work is done on Monday, and very little on Tuesday. I am informed that this is true of a large portionof thelaborigpopulationofthistown. On those days the streets and drinking-places literally swarm with workigmen. Work stops on Saturday at 1 o'clock. The loss of time on Monday is due principally to the drinking habits of the operatives, but in part to the necessity of taking time for repairs of machinery. It has been stated to me as a fact, that, although the rates of wages are advancing the men are earning less money, because they work fewer hours. In estimating the average weekly expenditures of a family of two adults and three children, the fact is to be taken into account that, in a large proportion of families, the wife and some of the children, the latter often as young as twelve years of age, earn considerable amounts ofmoney. This makes it verydifficulttoestimatetheactualearnings and expenditure of the families of the working-people. They expend all they earn, and they earn more than would appear in the report of the amount paid to the man who is supposed to support the family. And here we see the superior condition of the American workman of the same grade, he, by his own earnings, being able to support his family far more comfortably than the English laborer, with the immense added advantages of freedom to the wife to care for the interests of the home, and to the children the privilege of constant attendance at school. The fact of the mother, in many cases, being away from home at work, and consequently neglecting the family, enters as an important element in estimating the moral condition of this class of people. For the husband, knowing there is no comfort for him at home, resorts to the nearest dram-shop for refreshment, the wife in many ca~ses dohing the same. And these shops abound in every neighborhood; hence the sad neg,lect of the children. Whether the practice of drngging mentioned by the H1on. Mr. Mundella, M. P. for this district, exists to any extent in Sheffield, I am not able to say. That it does prevail to a sad degree in some parts of England you will see from the address of Mr. Mundella to his constituents, which is inclosed. But this neglect of the children in their tender years, and the close confinement of the very young of both sexes, will account for the fact that so many dwarfed, crooked-legged, and otherwise deformed peisons are seen in our streets. The fact that young men and young women are employed side by side in the same kind of labor will explain, in part, the low state of morals that prevails. The work is very largely dirty work; and when one sees the -untidy condition of the vast numbers of females that swarm from these great "- works," the conviction will force itself upon the mind that virtue must be in great peril while in constant association with such wanut of cleanliness. This condition of the operatives is somewhat excusable, since there are no free public baths in Sheffield, a town that needs them as much as any in the kingdom. Indeed, there are rno baths of any kind at all sufficient to meet the wants of the people. If any of the gentlemen who have made large fortunes by the aid of the working-people should desire to do some good thing in acknowledgyment, of their prosperity, they could hardly do better than to establish free baths of amp-le accommodation in every ward of this great town. In regard to the health, comfort, morals, and education of the people, the facts in regard to Sheffield will not probably differ essentially from what is true of other large manufacturing towns of England. In the year 1870 there came before the courts 209 cases of bastardy. It is probable that as many more occurred that were not made public, although I have no means of obtaining de-finite information. During the week ending July 27, 1872, there were 654 inmates in the Sheffield Workhouse. There were, also, 5,465 persons receiving " out-relief," making- an aggregate of 6,119 persons more or less dependent upon public charity for support at the best season of the y ear. CONDINION OF THE WORKING-CLASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 409 Letterfrom Mr. Consul Wfebster datedSheffield, January 22, 1874. DA Si: In reply to your inquiries in regard to the condition of the workingmen of Sheffield, especially as to their habits, I have the honor to submit the following, which will be found, I think, to contain definite replies to all your questions. I have endeavored to state the facts as they are, without exaggeration. In order to do so, I have made many inquiries, not merely of employers and employed, but of intelligent, candid, and disinterested persons in all walks of life, especially of those who have the best means of knowing the class in respect to whom you inquire. Yo ask first, are they (the workmen industrious? If a stranger should visit this great town, with its hundreds of tall chimneys, and should go through the extensive works that annually supply the world with such immense quantities of their products, he would be very likely to come to the conclusion that this is a very busy and industrious people. There isno denying the immense results wrought out by the Sheffield workmen. They are a ard-working people-while they do work. But it is true that a very large proportion of them are idle a great many days in the year, when they might and ought to be at work, and when their employers are needing their labor. Every Monday is so generally a holiday, that it has come to be called Saint Monday. The streets are full on that day of men at leisure, and this fact cannot fail to strike a stranger, especially an American, who was not acquainted with the customs of the town. This Monday idleness is, in some cases, enforced by the fact that Monday is the day that is taken for repairs to th machinery in the great steel-works, during which the masses of the men employed in such establishments must necessarily be out of work. But this will account for but a small portion of the idleness on that day. It is, to a great extent, voluntary, and has become a settled habit and custom. And this holiday is, in thousads of instances, protracted through the next day, so that large stopping work on Saturday noon, do not commence again until the following Wednesday. Such men can hardly be called industrious. From inquiry and my own observation, I believe that far the larger part of this loss of time both for employer and employed, and the reckless waste of money consequent upon it, is the result of the drinking habits that prevail so generally. It is painful to see how the weekly wages are squandered by the thousands who throng the drinking places on Saturdays, Sunday at certain hours, Monday, and Tuesday, and, indeed, on all the days of the week. I would not say that Sheffield will compare unfavorably with other large manufacturing towns of England; I presume it would not, although the nature of the labor required here is such as perhaps to lead to geater temptations to drink, and to a fancied greater necessity for it, than in districts where the work is of a much lighter kind. I say fancied necessity, because there does exist here a body of men employed in the most exhausting kind of labor in our great steel-manufactorics, who are total abstainers, and who, to say the least, have proved themselves the equals of any in efficiency and endurance. Another great cause of waste of time and money ought to be mentioned. It is the prevalence of gambling, in the form of rabbit-coursing, handicapping, pigeon-shooting, and the like. This evil has become so great, that a public meeting was called not long since to consider means for suppressing it. I am quite sure that the amount of money spent in the above-mentioned ways has increased with the advance in wages, and that the larger amounts earned by the workingrmen have riot been used, except in comparatively few cases, to increase the comforts of their families. They have always lived well, so far as their food is concerned. They' spend their money freely for meats of the best quality, and the general appearance of the workingmen is that of a, well-n ourished and vigorous people. Th ere are, of course,. many exceptions to this belonging to a class far below, such as can be found in every great town. Respectfully yours, C.WBTR United States Consul. Hon. EDWARD YOUNG, Chief of Bfur~au of Statistics, W~ashington. BIRMINGHAM. Letter from Mfr. Consul Gould onl the condition of the working-classes. BIRMNINGHAM.N, November 12, 1873. SinR: In response-to your inquiries, I beg to say that there is no improvement apparent in the condition of the working-people in consequence of the advance of wages. It was, said boastingly by statesmen a few months since that the nation had drunk itself out of the, Alabama claims by the increased incomte from, the tax on intoxicating drink8 during the past year,. 410 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA The general testimony is that no more comforts go to the family now than formerly. Increased pay means, with the mass of miners and forgemen, an increase of no other luxury than that of drink. In a large proportion of such homes faily comfort is totally unknown. The increased wages also lead to idleness, as they do not care to work more than enough to secure a certain amount, and thus have more time to spend in the public house. Of course there are honorable exceptions, but the papers and general testimony of those familiar with the workigmen of the district go to prove a sad increase of idleness and drunkenness. The tenements of this class are but poor apologies for homes, in multitudes of cases their whole furniture not being worth more thna few shillings, and remaining the same as when wages were low. Pawnbrokerso a thriving business, and the only part of the week when comforts are introduced is on Saturday evening and Sunday, after the wages of the week come in. Monday usually begins with the poverty and pawning of the previous week, and thus the perpetual round continues. The tenements are generally small and dirty, though they might be made much more comfortable and convenient if the women were trained to habits of neatness and understood housekeeping. The families are almost universally large, requiring the manual labor of the mother, and also of the children at an early age. The house is thus left to the smaller chldren, and but little attention is devoted to it. All this might be easily remedied, if the men devoted what they earn for the support of the family, and the women were trained to housekeeping. In a large number of cases the women drink as badly as the men, nd have no ambition to better their condition. Yours, truly, J. B. GOULD, United States Coasul. To Hon. EDWARD YOUNG, Chi(f of United States Bureau of Statistics. MANCHESTER. Report of Mr. Consul Branscomb on the condition and habits of the woing-classe of the Manchester consular district. SI: The working-classes of this consular district are atnall an energetic and industrious people; but they cannot, I regret to add, be said to be very temperate. They consume an enormous quantity of intoxicating liquors, principally beer, though very many partake largely of spirits and of the cheaper wines. Intemperance seems to be on the increase, especially among the women, not only of the working-classes, but also of the middle and upper middle classes.* This is the testimony not only of temperance advocates and missionaries, but also of medical men, Christian ministers, police officers, a ad magistrates. Much working time is lost, and many employers are often sadly harassed, by their work-people going- Off to fuddle. The president of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce, Hugh Mason, esq., J. P., himself a very large employer of labor, in his address to the chamber, delivered this morning, On the state of the labor-market in connection with the cotton trade, made the following remarks: "1They had had to pay a higher price for labor than at any period in the history of the cotton trade. There had been in all departments of the cotton trade a g'eneral -scarcity of labor; and in addition to that, and perhaps as a consequence of that, there had not been that industry and that fair return of labor for wages on the part of a great many of those engaged as cotton operatives which ought to have been the case.'They had taken advantage of their dominant condition; and had disregarded those necessary rules of discipline and subordination, without which no great concern, indeed no small concern, could be carried on with any degree of pleasure, or even of profit. Time, which affected all thin~gs, would undoubtedly change the present state of things." From the foregoing testimony, which could be corroborated to almost any extent, it is obvious that much time is wasted by the work-people Much of their earnings is recklessly squandered by and through their drinDking habits, and, as a natural and inevitable sequence. the home-comforts of the families of these people are very seriously,abridged by the large amount spent by the men, and, in sadly too many instances, by women, and even by youths of 1)0th sexes, in drink. And, as a. further sequence, the * LANICASHIRE DRINK-FACTS.-Lancasliire spent ~13,299,750 directly upon intoxicating liquors in 1869. What did Lancashire get in return? lThe following statistics will show: ~1,113,244 to pay in poor and police rates; 102,694 paupers; 30,000 vagrants, idling as vagahonds about the streets; 4,706 lunatics; 3,749 inquests on deaths; 90,257 persons brought hefore the magistrates and convicted of crime; 5,913 depredators, offenders, and suspected persons, not convicted; 2,749 houses of bad character, brotbels, receivers of stolen goods, &c.; 17,733 public houses and beer-shops; 3,316 policemen employed to protect society from the dangers arising from the drink-shops; 70,392 drunkards, filling multitudes of homes with misery; 7,000,000 or more bushels of grain destroyed in manufacturing the drink, or equal to 105,000,000 4-pound loaves; 5,000 or 6,000 persons employed in the manufacture of the drink. CONDITION OF THE WORKING-CLASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 411 houses of these persons who squander so much on drink, tobacco, and all their brood of other social vices and bad habits, are squalid, wretched, and desolate. In many cases families that can unitedly earn, when they all care to work full time, three, four, five, and even six pounds per week, live in filthy and dilapidated tenements in the back slums, and sometimes huddle together in one or two rooms, without a bit of decent furniture. Toward the end of the week and before the pay-day, they are in debt to the honest hop-keeper, the bulk of what they had earned the previous week having been spent at the beer-shop and the gin-shop. Many poor, hard-working, and sober women often omplain sadly that the increased wages and the curtailed hours of labor, instead of being a boon hare been a curse to the family. Thle men have had more to spend on "fuddle;" while the women have got less for food, clothing, and the house-rent. The evil seems to be growing and spreading in many districts, notwithstanding the earnest efforts of temperance and social reformers, the operations of the newly-formed school-boards, the increased activity and zeal of many of the clergy and dissenting ministers, and he recent amendment of the licensing laws, whereby places where intoxicating liquors re sold have had their hours of sale curtailed. The drinking habits of the people have become so very bad that any slight restriction does not seem to produce an appreciable result, except that the downward tendency is not now so rapid as it was, and as it most probably would have been had there not been some little legislative check,pplied. This report, however, would be incomplete, and would not do justice to the people of this district, if it were not also stated that, side by side with these pernicious and wide-spread drinking habits, and the consequent social vice, misery, and disorder, there is, at the same time, an increasing band of active, zealous, and enthusiastic temperance and social reformers. Total-abstinence societies, Bands of Hope, Good Templar Lodges,'and workmen's clubs, on temperance principles, are being established and carried on as never before. There are also many co-operative societies, in which the working classes, the more sober and industrious portions, are investing their savings, and by means of which they are not only providing more home comforts, but are making provision for times of sickness, and when death shall come, securing some sub-:tantial aid for the bereaved ones. This district is the headquarters of most of these social movements for the promotion of sobriety, thrift, and social progress. The United Kingdom Alliance, which aims at the total legislative suppression of the liquor-traffic, has its central offices in Manchester. There are no figures showing the education of the whole city, bt of 8,868 persons e~ommitted to the Manchester city-jail in 1870, the following is a return of the degree of their instruction Neither write nor rend.....3,459 Read and write iprety5,313 Read and write well............................... 86 Superior instruction............................. 10 I remain, very respectfully, your obedient servant, C. H. BRANSCOMJ3, United States Consul. lion. EDWARD YOUNG, Chief of Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department, Wvashington, D. C. In Manchester the free libraries have proved highly successful. The number of times that persons have availed themselves of the libraries during the year 1871-'72 was 2,2164,688, against 2,112,7900 the previous year. The accessions amount to 14,387 volumes. LIVERPOOL. Letter fromt Dr. Trench on the condition and habits of the laboring classes. MEDICAL OFFICER OF HEALTH DEPARTMENXT, MUNICIPAL OFFICE, DALE STREET, Liverpool, Novemtber 20, 1873. SIR: Your questions are so general that I fear my answers will appear to rest, a good deal more than I like, upon my individual opinion; but such must always be the case where the questions -are not sufficiently definite to admit of statistical replies. With this explanation I will proceed to consider your questions seriatim.* *These questions were prepared by the author of this report and forwardd to the consuls of the'United States at Liverpool and elsewhere in Europe. 412 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. I. Are the laboring classes industrious? I consider that the laboring classes of Liverpool are as a rule wishful for employment, and that laziness or a desire for unoccupied idleness is not one of their vices. All labor which is not in the form of piece-work and not paid for according to results, will be perfunctorily and negligently performed, and hence opinions as to the industry of the people will always vary according to the stand-pit f the master and the servant, the employer and the employed. It is necessary also to remember that the condition of the laboring classes of Liverpool is somewhat peculiar. There is little or no continuous occupation for skilled laborers, either in workshops or factories, as is the case in such towns as Birmingham, Manchester, and Sheffield, and hence, in Liverpool, we have very few classes of workmen receiving high wages with whom it is an objec of trades-unionship to prevent the labor-market being overstocked or the supply being in excess of the demand. We have not in Liverpool any extent of that arranged and planned idleness on special days, (termed in Sheffield saints' days,) when the higly-paid artisans and workmen, in order to keep up the demand, systematically refuse to work, however urgent may be the requirements of trade. There is, however, in Liverpool a great deal of enforced and unavoidable, though comparatively little of voluntary idleness. The chief demand in the labor-market of Liverpool is for unskilled or mere manual work; and as, even in the most prosperous years, when trade is brisk and the shipping fully occupied, the supply of workmen is always larger than the demand it follows as a consequence that large sections of the laboring classes of Liverpool ar obliged to rely upon, and to be content with, casual and uncertain occupation. Therefore, so far from using a combined and voluntary idleness to keep up the price of labor and to regulate its supply and demand in their favor, they are, as a rule, obliged to be content with uncertain and irregular work, given at the option of their employers. The nominal wages of the unskilled day-laborer in Liverpool, such as the dock or cotton porters, is 4s. a day or 24s. per week; but as a result of the competition occasioned by the excess of supply over demand, the average wages of such workmen, even in years of prosperity, do not exceed s., or four days and a half work per week. This average will greatly vary, according to the state of trade. This s markedly seen when a continuance of easterly winds prevents the arrival of sailingvessels, by which hundreds of the laboring classes are at once either totally thrown out of employment or are only able to obtain one or two days' occupation in the Week. Indeed, so varying qre the changes of the labor-market, and with it the wage and income of the laborer, that the list of the numbers receiving out-door relief and the list of sick and dead of typhus cansed by want and overcrowding, can be used as barometers of the state of the trade of the port. One of the great drawbacks of Liverpool, socially, morally, and sanitarily, is this excess of unskilled labor, which originally owed its origin chiefly to the Irish famine-fever of 1847, when thousands of th'e poor people fled to Liverpool and were supported by the rates. Another peculiar feature of the labor-market of Liverpool is that there is no established industrial occupation for young women or for boys and girls, as exists not only in the manufacturing districts of Lancashire and Yorkshire, but everywhere where the textile fabrics are manufactured, and where weavin', spinning, and knitting are carried on as manufactures, The consequence of this is that while in Birmingham a person is struck with the absence from the streets of young people during the workinghonrs of the day, he is equally astonished at the great numbers of the young and active who prowl and lurk about the courts and alleys of Liverpool at all hours. This idleness among the young, in large sections, of the people is very e-ident in Liverpool. It is at first compulsory idleness, occasioned by the absence of occupation or work; it soon demoralizes the child and then degenerates into a habit of vicious idleness. It is among such poor children that industrial schools are wanted; for unless children are taught some kind of industry or trade, we cannot hope to see them make any effort to rise above the wretchedness of their parents. II. Are the laboring classes intempeae III. If so, do they lose much time from labor in consequence? IV. Are the comforts of their families seriously abridged by the amount spen t for drink? I consider that it has been incontestably proved that the working classes of Liverpool are extremely intemperate, even when compared with similar sections of the community in other large towns of Great Britain. I know no stronger or sadder proof of this than the, returns made by the police force, which show that during last year, 1872, 18,810 persons were brought before the j ustices on the charge of drunkenness, and that of this number no less than 7,786 were females. This number, though so large, will only include persons who were obstreperously drunk. It will follow as a corollary from this fact that much time is lost either directly by incapacity for work on account of drink, or indirectly by sickness co-nsequent on the effects of drink, and also that the comforts of the families of the laborer are seriously abridged by the amount spent in drink. CONDITION OF THE WORKING-CLASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 41 The causes which lead to the great intemperance of the laboring classes in Liverpool arel. The number of sailors constantly arriving at the port, who, when on shore, freel spend their money in a reckless and dissipated manner. 2. The uncertain occupation and wages of laborers, among whom want and distress excite the desire and feeling for the stimulus of drinks. 3. The squalor of the homes of the unskilled laborers in contrast with the warmt and glare of the public houses, and the existence of 1,884 public houses and 282 beerouses as temptations to the wretched people. We all acknowledge the vice of drunkenness to be the great moral evil of Liverpool; ut, however we may deplore its existence, no statesman or philanthropist has been able to suggest a practical remedy. The extent of poor-law relief is a very fair test of the physical condition of the people, and as want, to the extent of requiring poor-law relief, is largely due to intemperance, so the number of paupers will be to a certain extent an index of the extent of that vice. The population of the parish of Liverpool at the last census wa 38,411, and we find that during the last seven years, being years of ordinary prosperity the average number of persons at one time within the parish receiving poor-law relief was 15,910; or, in other words, the number of persons receiving parochial relief inluded every sixteenth person within the parish. It is not thereby meant that all paupers are drunkards, but it is implied that drunk enness may be considered to a large extent a motor or cause of such extended pauperism. V. What is the condition of the rooms they occupy? VI. Do many families live in one or two rooms only? The extent of room-occupations by the families of the laboring class may be judged f by the following facts: The total assessments for the year 1873 in the borough of Liverpool are 101,042; of these, 11,572 are for warehouses, shops, sheds, &c., leaving the number of inhabited houses 89,470. We find that 64,903 of these houses are assessed at a rental below ~13 per annum, and 9,528 are assessed at between ~14 and ~20 pounds per annum, leaving 15,039 houses at an assessment above ~20 per annum. It is further known that the houses below ~13 consist merely of three apartments, of an average size of etween 800 to 900 cubic feet for each apartment. All such houses with singularly few exceptions are sublet in single-room occupation. The usual practice is for the landlord's tenant to sublet the middle room to another family; but occasionally, in the Irish quarters of the town, both bedrooms are sublet, and three separate families live and sleep in the same house. Besides the 64,903 houses at a rental below ~13, there are 9,528 houses at a rental between ~14 and ~20 per an-num. These houses contain, on an average, five, or six apartments, namely, a front and back kitchen and four bed-rooms. The average cubical dimensions of the front bed-rooms are from 1,000 to 1,100 feet, and of the back bedrooms from 800 to 900 feet. Such houses are also, as a rule, sublet by the landlord's tenant in single, double, and treble room-occupation. It will be thus seen that 80 per cent. of all the habitable houses of Liverpool are, as a rule, sublet in room-occupation for longer or shorter periods; in fact, sublet is their normal condition. The extent of -subletting of houses., and consequently of room-occupation, i's such a grievous evil in Liverpool, both as respects filth and overcrowding, that Mr. Graves, our late member, introduced into the p~ublic-health act of 1866 a clause enabling local authorities to make regfulations1st. For fixing the number of persons who may occupy a house, or part of a house, -which is let in lodgings- or occupied by members of more than one family. 2d. For the registration of houses thus let or occupied in lodgings. 3d. For the inspection of such houses and the keeping the same in a cleanly and,wholesome state. 4th. For enforcing therein the provision of privy accommodation and other appli-ances and means of cleanliness, &C. 5th. For the cleansing and lime-washing at stated times of such premises. The power thus given by the law was specially meant for Liverpool, and for the rem~edy of an evil which is greater here, among our unskilled and ill-paid workmen, than,it is among the skilled mechanics and factory-operatives of Manchester, Sheffield, and Birmingham. The health committee have enforced the law both as to registration, cubical space in rooms, and periodical inspection, by day and night, among 10,162 of the worst of sub-let houses in Liverpool. It need only be stated that, by~ our by-laws as to sublet houses,2 and by the general provisions of the nusiances-remnoval act, carried into force by thirty inspectors, we are enabled to insure to a tolerable extent the general cleanliness of the rooms of the working-classes as far as regards ceiling, walls, and floor; but no words descriptive of wretchedness would be too strong to picture the squalor of 414 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. houses altogether destitute of furniture, as seen in large districts of the town occupied by the Irish, and occasionally seen even in the districts inhabited by English and Scotch. VII.-Have the recent advances in wages resulted to the advantage of the families Of the workmen, or have they tended to produce greater irregularities? I do not know what may be the case in manufacturing districts, where the custom of strikes for increased wages prevails, where workmen are anded together by unions to maintain high wages and to prevent the supply of labor being equal to the demand, and where the custom of holidays or saint-days has become part of a system of organized arrangement. In such manufacturing towns the charge against the workmen of demoralization consequent on high wages may be true; but of one thing I am perfectly convinced-that the rant about high wages demoralizing the people in Liverpool, and thereby increasing the extent of drunkenness and crime, is utterly false. I can state, from personal observation, that the condition of the people in these last few years has vastly improved. I remain, dear sir, yours, very truly, W. S. TRENCH. To GaENERAL FAIRCHILDp United States Consul. Extract from a letter to the author from the Hon. Lucius Fairchild, United States consul at Liverpool. The almost universal testimony here is to the effect that the recent rise in wag has not contributed, as a general thing, to the greater comfort of the families of the laboring-men. I am told, by every one with whom I have conversed on the subject, that the increase of drunkenness and all dissipations which fllow idle hours is alarming. I believe that it is the opinion of the best informed that the families of the laboring-men are even worse provided for, as a rule, than when wages were less. Under date of November 22, 1873, General Fairchild writes as follows: In my last I gave it as the general opinion here that the laboring-classes had not been substantially benefited by the recent rise in wages, which I meant to more especially apply to those engaged in the coal-mines and factories. You will note that Dr. Trench gives other testimony respecting the influence of such rise on the laboringclasses of this town. ST. JIELEN'S, NEAR LIVERPOOL. Letter from John iliammill, esq., consular agent of the United States. UNITED STATES CONSULATE, St. ilelen's, November 12, 1873. DEAR SIR: In reply to your inquiries in regard to the habits and condition of the working-classes, in this district, I may say that they are very various, as, I suppose, must be the case where there is a. population of 50,000 composed almost solely of them;but I will describe their condition as well as I am able. I will deal with the collie'rs first, as they are a numerous body, and are at the present time attracting the most attenti'on, on account of the enormous price of coal, for which they are in a great measure to blame, as they will not work more than, say, three weeks per month; in consequence of which they get considerably less coal, making it scarce, and therefore dear. They are enabled to afford this waste of time through the extravagant. wages they are now getting, (I believe fully 100 per cent. more than they got two years ago,) but which I am afraid are doing them no good, as when they are not working they are following such objectionable pursuits as drinking, gambling, &c., which, of course, do not improve their condition, nor the condition of their families, as they must spend, or rather waste, a good deal of their money in this way. Their mode of living now is very different from what it was some year or two ago, as then butcher's meat was considered a great luxury, and seldom indulged in, but now, although it is considerably dearer, they not only buy it regularly, but will have nothing but the best joints. I think this remark applies equally to all working-men, but to the colliers in particular. Their morals have improved since the discontinuance of sending women down the pit, but they are not remarkably good yet. They are, as a body, very reckless with their money, squandering it about, a great many of them not even paying their cottagerents, which only average 3s. per week. They marry early, the men from eighteen to twenty-two, and the women from seventeen to twenty. Of course, there are steady,, industrious men among them, and what few of these there are must be living very comfortably and savinig money. CONDITION OF THE WVORKING-CLASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 41 The men employed in the various glass-works are, as far as I am able to judge, a reat contrast to the colliers; at any rate, you do not see them hanging about the streets, drinking and idling all day long, as you do the colliers, but this may be accounted for by their having to work during the day and not having the same opportunity. Be that as it may, they always appear respectable, and work regularly. Women are largely employed in the plate-glass works, and earn from 15s. to 208. per week. The men's wages depend upon the kind of work they do. Some of the glassblowers can earn from ~4 to ~5 per week. On the whole, I think theglass-makers are the most respectable large body of men we have. I now come to the laborers in the hemical yards or works, and I think I should be justified in saying that they were even a worse lot than the colliers, but I conclude it arises in this way, viz: that the work required is, for the most part, dirty and disagreeable, and many men object to it consequently it falls to the least respectable in the community, who in this district are largely composed of Irish, who, in addition to their other vices, are very dirty in their abits and habitations. They live in the lowest part of the town, and, for the most art, half starve their wives and families. I have seen their children running about with bare feet, clothed in rags, and using the most profane language-children whoe ges ranged from eight to fourteen years. There is no doubt that a large percentage f the prisoners at our police courts are supplied from these people. Any epidemic which breaks out in the town is sure either to originate there or to fly there at once. Other workmen, such as joiners and bricklayers, are very ordinary, and I have no remarks to make upon them. I may add that all the workmen live in cottages, the rental of which ranges from 2. to 5s. per week, and that each family have a cottage to' themselves, except in a fe cases, where they take single men in as lodgers. Every able-bodied man, if he will work,, can make a good living, and the scarcity of poor people or beggars is very noticeable. I have said nothing about wages, as it would be almost impossible to give you any exact idea, they are paid so differently by different people. Some men work per hour, some per day, and some do piece-work. Forinstance, take a chemical works. Say they make (as most of them do) salt-cake, black-ash, caustic soda, bleaching-powder, chloate of potash, soda-crystals, &c. Now, each of the men employed in these different manufactures gets differently paid, and the manufacture of glass the same. Yours, obediently, JOHN HAMMILL, United States Consular Agent, St. Helen's. Hon. EDWARD YOUNG, Chief of United State8 Bureau of Statistics, W~ashington, U. S. A. GLASGOW. HABITS OF THE LABORING-cLASSEs. [F rom a report of Mr. Consul Jeukinsonjf If the efforts of laboring-men in this country to increase the wages paid thienm were for the purpose of procuring more comfortable homes, better food, better clothing, better education, pn increase in all the comforts of life, one could heartily wish them success in their efforts. But there are grave reasons to fear an opposite result. That au increase of wages would only bring greater misery and greater vice by the opportunity it would give for greater self-indulgence, especially in drink, is feared by many of the best friends of the working-men of the country. That drunkenness prevails to an alarming extent among this class of the people cannot be denied. That it has increased as their wages have been increased is also true. Many have, -no doubt, been benefitted by such increase of wages, but most, it seems, only spend their extra earnings in extra quantities of whisky. The British board of trade and excise report, just issued, gives some important statistics bearing upon this point, extending, however, to the whole of the United Kingdom. This shows that in this country the consumption of sugar, tea, and coffee has upon the ~vhole decreased during the year, while in nine mouths reported of 1872 the increase of spirits consumed has been over 12 per cent. over the corresponding period of 1871. Commenting on this statement, a leading Scotch paper says: "1For several years past the rate of increase in intoxicants has been growing, while that on the other commodities has been diminishing; and at this moment, while the consumption of intoxicants is increasing more rapidly than ever, that of the other and better commodities has come to a stand." It seems, therefore, that the laboring-classes of this country have little wish to better their condition; that comfortable homes, good and plentiful food and clothing, are all so far above their reach, they will not attempt to secure them, but any wages they receive above the mere pittance to which they have been accustomed is spent in renderin g their condition still. more wretched and possibly still more-vicious. ~416 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. MONEY SPENT AT THE PAWN-SHOPS. A fact of terrible significance was stated recently by a magistrate of Glasgow, Scotland: I have tried," he said, "to come at some sort of estimate of the money spent yearly by the working-classes in pawning, and the result ha been that from 150,000 to~200,00 yearisspent in interest!" In reply to a question, Is not that morethan is spent in all the reliious observances and education of the city? the reply was, "I think it is a great deal more."- English paper. NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE. Report of R. Consul Jones on the moral and social condition of the working-classes. Newastle-upon-Tyn is unfortunately a very unhealthy town. This condition of things is produced by a variety of causes: First, it is situated upon the east coast and where the island is most narrow; hence we are more susceptible to all atmospheric changes than where there is a greater distance from shore to shore; from our easterly position we suffer severely from the bleak, biting east winds, espocially in the spring of the year; and pulmonary diseases, bronchial and throat affections, are very prevalent. Second, the many chemical works in the neighborhood fill th.e air at times with gases injurious to health. And, lastly, by the direct steam-communication with European ports, and the great number of ships arriving from all partA of the world, we are liable to import epidemics such as the small-pox, which wrought great mischief here in 1871 and it is with great difficulty that the small-pox and other contagious diseasescan be eradicated from the narrow, dirty streets to be found along the docks both at Newcastle and Shields. The rate of mortality in the large towns of England, which is published every two weeks, generally places Newcastle in anything but an enviable position, and, as in all crowded cities, the heaviest levies fall upon the poorer classes. Notwithstanding all this, I question if larger, stronger men can be found in England than those to be seen at the various workshops on the Tyne. It is a fact that the champions of nearly all the athletic exercises of England hail from this district. The mode of living among the working-classes is not what could be desired; their breakfasts consist of bread and butter with coffee; dinners of cold meat or meat-pies and bread and water; tea, of bread and butter with tea; and supper, of bread and butter, or bread and cheese, with coffee. Many of them are very improvident and fond of drink; a feast of food and stimulants in the early part of the week, at the expense of an iusufficient supply at the end, is very frequently the case among the sons of toil on the Tyne.Excessive drinking has undoubtedly increased in this district since the short hours and advanced wages have prevailed; and in this opinion I am corroborated by the evidence of several intelligent, discerning workingmen, who would have gladly given a different account of their own class had truth not stood in their way. The new licensing act, I doubt not, will have a most beneficial effect upon people addicted to the excessive use of strong drink. This law provides that all public-houses shall be closed "1on Sunday, Christmas Day, and Good Friday, during the whole day before the hour of half past 12 in the afternoon, and between the hours of half past 2 and 6 in theB afternoon, and after the hour of 10 at night, and on all other days before the hour of six in the morning and after the hour of 11 at night."1 "1Any person who sells or exposes for sale, or opens or keeps open any premises for the sale of intoxicating liquors during the time that such premises are directed to be closed by or in pursuance of this section, or during such time as aforesaid allows any intoxicating liquors to be consumed'on such premises, shall for the first offense be liable to a penalty not exceeding ~,10, and for any subsequent offense not exceeding ~20."1 The benefit that will accyue to the British workman from these prohibitory clauses cannot be overestimated; many of the quarters formerly lost by the engfineer through tarrying at the public-house on his way to the shop in the morning will now be saved. After 11 he must turn his face homeward; the penalty of violating the law is too heavy to be trifled with by the keepers of drinking-saloons. More sleep will thus be afforded toward recuperating the strength of both mind and body. The time for indulging is shortened; may we not hope that the resolution of those prone to the immoderate use of the intoxicating,beverage be strengthened, their ambition rekindled, and their new hopes, their higher aims, bring sunshine to many a hearth now all buat lost in the gloom of despair. The laboring-classes in this district, especially pitmen, are great fanciers of dogs; while others of more refined taste breed birds of various kinds in large numbers; grow flowers of rare beauty, and'under great difficulties, on such a scale as to put the owners of magnificent conservatories to shame. A collier named Thomas Buckham first went CONDITION OF THE WORKING-CLASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 417 down a coal-pit at the age of fourteen; he worked six years as a boy, and has been a hewer for forty years, during which time he has not averaged 208. ($4.84) of a weekly wage; yet this man has competed for prizes at flower-shows for thirty-six years, and has never contested without winning a prize. Last year, fifty prizes, out of fifty-four, were awarded to him at a flower-show held near Newcastle, and this year he carried away forty-nine out of the fifty-four. A large proportion of the laborn-classes of this district are passionately fond of sports, particularly boat-racing. When a contest takes place, between celebrities, on the Tyne, especially if after working-hours, or on Saturday afternoon, numerous steamDers, crowded with anxious spectators, follow the race; while the banks of the river are crowded by thousands of people who have assembled to witness the aquatic strife. Numerous matches for foot-racing, quoit-pitching, bowling, dog-running, shooting, and even singing, come off nearly every week, where the competitors are from the ranks of labor. The masses on the Tyne have a dialect peculiar to this district alone; its most characteristic feature consists of an inability to pronounce the "r" aright. The sound which they give to this consonant is a kind of combination of the "r" and the " ch " of the Welsh or German. A Scotch girl, engaged as a servant in Newcastle, on being asked how she got ag with the language, said that she was enabled to pronounce like the natives by swallowing the r's' and giving them a bit chow i' the middle." This peculiarity is but rarely met among the more educated portion of the inhabitants. A moderate proportion of the workmen and their families attend places of worship on Sunday, a great majority of whom are Wesleyans. The people of Tyneside are gruff, outspoken, and impress the stranger as being uncivil; a long residence in their midst proves them to be equitable, generous, and warm-hearted. EVAN R. JONES, United States Consul. MINERS WITH SCIENTIFIC TASTES. The following notices of some miners in the Northumberland and Durham coal-fields, which have been furnished to the author, will be read with interest: John Simms, West Cranleyton, son of an ihgenious miner who died several years ago; his son John works in West Cranleyton colliery, and has worked there from boyhood; he is about forty years of age; works as a heaver of coal. He has made great progress in the study of the fossil and reptile remains of the north coal-districts, and has a very large and good collection. He also works with the microscope and prepares microscopical objects; his preparations of fish-remains are very good. He is interested in butterflies and moths, and his knowledge of local natural history is very creditable. Joseph Taylor, a workiugman, residing at West Cranleyton, is a relative of Mr. Simms by marriage, and his tastes and capacities very similar to those possessed by his brother-in-law. He has" a good collection of lower coal-measure fossils; he also mounts objects for the microscope, and he and Mr. Simms both supplied Mr. West the slides for his work on coal-measure paleontology. Mr. Taylor is abont forty years of age, and for sev~eral years has devoted his leisure hours to paleontology. John Salt, Newsham colliery, about thirty-three years of age, has made a large collection of coal-measure fishes and labyrinthodont, and has fou~nd the largest and best specime-ns of labyrinthodont that have beenfound in anypart of the world. His collec.tion, gathered by his own, hands, was unique. He also made microscopical sections, and he, and the other miners, Simms and Taylor, first possessed very excellent micro — scopes. They all had good libraries. Mr. Salt has removed to Staffordshire. David Knight, who was killed by an accident in Dudley colliery, Northumberland, about five years ago, was a very ingenious working miner; he collected fossils, butterflies, &c., and constructed a microscope; grounid his own lenses, and fitted up the instrument himself. He also invented a machine for grinding lenses for telescopes and microscopes. He contributed several articles on mathematics to local journals, afid was an ingaenions and industrious man. THE CON-DITIO;N OF THE WORKING-CLASSES OF E.NGLA.ND. By J. S. STANLEY lAmms. In the Old World it is not so very long since, indeed it is still true of many parts, "all were born to a fixed social position, and were mostly kept in it by'law or inter I dicted from any means by which they could emerge from it." Sir Henry Maine says. 27L .418 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. "The movement of the progressive societies has hitherto been a movement from status to contract; that is, from a condition of life in which relations between individuals are determined by membership of families or tribes, or conquering or conquered races, toward a condition of things in which they are dependent upon contracts entered into by individuals." But although society has thus progressed in England, the condition of employer and employed cannot in all cases be fairly called a contract, for the latter is often entirely at the mercy of the former; and in this I must draw the distinction between skilled and unskilled labor, between the farm-laborers of the country and the artisans and mechanics of the town. The condition of the first is dependent upon the laws relating to population and food, and is also considerably affected by the present laws of England; the latter are mostly influeed by the laws of commercial and monetary economy of supply and demand. It will be best, perhaps, to divide th workers of England under several heads. I.-TIIE ENGLISH OPERATIVE. Not unskilled laborers, yet hardly to be called mechanics, the operatives are a class who have sprung into existence during the present century. The agricultural laborer can perform all the ordinary operations about a farm by using the skill which, without any effort on his part, has gradually accumulated upon him fro his boyhood. It has cost him nothing, and all his village companions have about as much of it as he has himself. It is so with laborers in towns; they partake of the stock of common knowledge as they do of light, air, or anything else which is acquired wihoutlabor orthe equivalent of labor. The population of a mining district grows as it were into the knowledge of mining; in sea-ports into dock-porterage; and in textile-fabric districts into a knowledge of ordinary mill-work; these are the operatives. It is but one hundred and five years since Watt's first patent for the steam-engine was granted, and the application of steam to manufactures is of far more recent date, yet already it has spread all over the world. Many trades are now so subdivided by the use of machinery that the utmost degree of simplicity in manipulation is reached. In large manufactories men are but the feeders of the machine. To a certain extent the operative may, in comparison with the farm-laborer, be called a skilled workman, but by the subdivisions of trade and the use of machinery many mechanics are but masters of one branch of a trade, and being dependent upon the steam-egine are reduced to the status of the operative. The most numerous body in England, next to the farm-laborers, the operatives are the most miserable. Crowded together. in huge workshops, their labor is more un-healthy than that of an agriculturist. Their homes in the large cities are often a -disgrace to civilization. If they obtain higher wages than the laborer, the increased'Cost Of living in cities. often counterbalances that apparent advantage, and they can,save little from their wages,. In any case- of slackness of trade they suffer miserably.'The moral condition of factory-operatives -is not. good; the employment of young girls and wome-n-ignorant and uneducated as they are in England-unfits them for the duties of domestic life when they marry. In America a girl works in a factory'and her employment is considered more respectable than that of a domestic servant. In England it is the reverse; a "1factory-girl"1 is a name of contempt, and domestic servants consider themselves far superior to such. But operatives suffer from no evil which may not arise in the United States or in any large cpnter in the world. Whatever discontent they may truly feel arises not from political but purely economic grounds. It is a question of supply and demand, and in every branch of labor in England the supply exceeds the demand. Every, trade is relatively overstocked; like the trees of a too thickly planted forest, the workers isuck the life from each other. The farmi-laborers suffer, as I have shown, from a con-,dition of things the result in a great measure of the laws in respect to the land; the,other workers of England only from the evils insep'arable from the laws regulating,capital and labor. Pages might be written showing the miserable social condition of -the operatives of England, but cui bono? During the last ten-years, however, that con* iinhas become greatly improved, and mainly by the exertions of the workers them-,selves. In many of the large towns, in Lancashire and Yorkshire, the men are joining'together and building and working co-operative factories. The "1Star" mill at Oldhafm, which with the machinery cost over half a million dollars, is owned and worked Jbr the operatives, II.-THlE MINERS AND IRO.N-wORKERS OF ENGLAND. It has been often said, and with much truth, that. England's greatness has been built up by the wealth of her mineral resources; that without her coal and iron she would never have gained her proud position among nations. The -natural advantages of Great Britain as a maritime country are great; her harbors and great rivers placed her in olden time far ahead of any other nation in that respect. But in later days, and especially since the introduction of steam-power into every branch of industry, the possession of The remarks of Mr. Stanley James on agricultural laborers appear on preceding pages. CONDITION OF THE WORKING-CLASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 419 coal and iron has been the cause of England's commercial prosperity. The coal-fields of Egland are the denters of the most dese populations. The greatest manufactures are fostered in the immediate neighborhood of her mineral wealth. In the year 1872 nearly 400,000 males were employed in about 3,000 coal-mines, supporting, it is calculated, one-eighteenth of the total population of Giat Britain by coal-mining, and raising 123,386,758 tons of coal-more than half the coal mined in the world. The miner passes his time far away from the light of day and the pure air of heaven. He endures many perils; is in danger from fallings of earth; from waters, which at any moment may flood the mine and drown the workers; from choke-damp and fire-damp. Thelatter is a foe insidious and deadly, striking without a moment's warning. In some of the old workings in the Black country (the coal-district of Staffordshire) and South Wales, even the most careful precautions known to science and most copious ventilation are useless against this dread foe. The carelessness of the men themselves conduces a great deal to such accidents. A1though naked lights are never carried, the lamp in use being the safety one invented by Sir Humphrey Davy, although their lamps are handed to them locked before they go down themine, yet, after an explosion, an open lamp lying by the body of some miner often tells the tale of folly. The light given by the lamp, screened as they are y wire-gauze, is very dim, and the men, reckless of their lives and those of their comrades, often pick the locks awl work with the naked candles. In 1869, 1,116 lives were lost in coal-mines, being an average of one for every 309 miners and for every 96,777 tons of coal raised. It must be a strong inducement, indeed, to tempt men to a service not only dangerous, but wearisome and disgusting. They work among eteraldampandgloom. Inmayminesthe men work in a regular temperature of eighty degrees; in such the hours of labor areecessarily short. Ini the deepest coal-mine in England, at Rosebridge, in Lancashire, where the shaft has been sunk over 2,400 feet, the temperature of the earth isinety-four degrees Fahrenheit. English miners have always obtained good wages, and they are now earning upwards of ~ 3 a -week. Side by side with the coal-mines of England there will always be found large iron-works. Coal and iron are often found in the same district, but when they are not it is more profitable to transport the iron-ore to the vicinity of the coal-fields than to take the coal to the iron-fields. In the making of iron there is not so much mechanical skill required as strength and power of endurance; machinery does the rest. Iron-workers, like miners, labor hard, ever exposed to great dangers, but win a good reward in the shape of wages. In their social habits I will treat the two as one class. -They are rough, ignorant, much given to the British vice of indulgence in strong drink, and often brutal when in their cups. One cause of intemperance is the heavy burden of care and toil. To earn subsistence for themselves and their families they undergo a degree of labor exhausting to the body and injurious to health; in consequence, relief is sought in stimulants, and these men who have the blood of their Anglo-Saxon forefathers in them, renowned in history and song'as heavy revelers, have not as yet learned to draw the line at moderation. Another cause of intemperance is the want of self-respect which the present state of society in England induces among the poor and laborious. Society has offered no inducements to the laboring classes to higher or more refined tastes; it has, in fact, said to-these men,. "1You are beneath us; in our eyes but little better than brutes." So, still more degraded and robbed of,a powerful protection against low tastes, namely, self-respect, what wonder that these men become brutes in their pleasures. The state, of their homes, too, is not enticing, although they are much better lodged than agricultural laborer s; still, considering the wages they earn, the houses they inhabit are most wretched ones, deficient in accommodations for comfort and decency. These men, therefore, find in the public house attractions superior to those offered by their homes; ignorant as they are, their pleasures are all sensual ones, and the larger part of their income is spent in meat and drinks. Sufficient of strong drink is the miners' or iron-workers' desideratum; when that passion is satisfied the love of sport comes uppermost, and in this, physical action and competition are most desired. The miner takes great delight in his own prowess. Too often it may be that he turns his strength upon his helpmate; but in many mining-districts the females, from working on the "1pit-bank"1 at an early age, are a match for their lords. It may be imagined that the miners become a brutal, depraved set of men. Not altogether so. Hard-drinking, hard-fighting lot as they are, debarred from higher aims or tastes, they have yet in them the blood of heroes, and many noble deeds are done by them. Whenever there is an explosion of "1fire-damp)' there is seldom need to call for volunteers to descend themine. The men are always ready and willing to go to the rescue of their fellows, although they well know that in fifty cases out of a hundred, the first succeeding party will share the same fate. I have myself seen many cases in which the men have sacrificed their own lives to help others. * * * The miners of Cornwall and of North Wales work under a different system and form a distinct class. They are employed on piecework, or, as they express it, "1bargains." Although they do not now obtain the high wages given to the coal-miners, still, on tho 420 LABOR IN EUROP AND AMERICA. whole, they are perhaps more prosperous. Situated, too, as the copper-mines and slatequarries are, in the open country, they obtain purer air and cheaper living; still with these, as with the majority of English workers, drunkenness is a great curse. I do not mean to stigmatize the whole working population as drunkards, but statistics show that far too largeb a proportion of their income is spent on strong drink. While on this subject I may quote the following from Professor Leone Levi's report on Taxation and the Working-Classes of England:" "Of the taxes affecting wealth and industry, the working-classes pay but a small amount. Of the taxes on luxuries, however, theo rg p tion. Two-thirds of the duties on spirits, malt, and tobacco, as well as of the licenseduties for the sale of the same, amount in all to 21000,000, out of a total, including the revenue for wine, of ~33,700,000; and when we come to the taxes upon necessaries, two-thirds of the revenue on tea, the half of that on sugar, and a fair proportion of the taxes on fruit and other custom and excise duties, give a total of 4,250,000 out of a total of ~7,950,000. Altogether, about ~29,200,000 seem to be the proportion of the imperial taxation falling upon the working-classes, and 38,500,000 the proportion of the middle and higher classes. And it is important to notice, that while the latter pay 42 per cent. of their taxes out of duties on articles of consumption, the working-classes pay as much as 96 per cent. of theirs in this form. In addition to the imperial taxation, however, there are the local taxes, which amount in all ro about 25,000,000, a fifth of which may fall on the working-classes, but which, deducting the amount excused, may leave only ~4,250,000 as really paid by them. In the aggregate we may take it, that out of ~90,000,000 of taxes, imperial and local 30,000,000 are paid by the workingclasses, and ~60,000,000 by the middle and higher classes; and for every 1 of taxes the proportion paid by each is about as follows: Falling on the workigclase Fallg on he middle and higer classes. es. Spirits................. 7 5 Local taxesland, houses...... ~0 7 5 Lo10 Malt......................... 0 3 0 Stamps.. 0 3 3 Tobacco....................... 0 3 0 Inc "Local taxes, houses, &c....... 0 2 9 Spirits0 1 10 Tea0 1 5......................... 0 5 Sugar........................0 1 0 Tobacco.0 0 To9'Licenses...................... 0 0 9 Sugar and tea.0 1 0 Othertaxes.0 0 Wine..... 0 ( I -- Others.0 1 0' "To appreciate properly, however, the real burden of taxation, we must take into. account the number and income of the working classes. The relation to their number is easy to calculate, since ~-30,000,000 of taxation among 21,000,000 of persons gives an average of 28s9. 6d. per head, while ~60,000,000 among 11,000,000 of the middle and higher classes gives an average of 109sR. per head.* * The proportion of taxation to expenditure differs enormously with different families and individuals, the provident and the improvident, the temperate and the intemperate, the town laborer and the agricultural laborer paying very different portions of'taxes. But it is important to bear in mind that very few of our workmen save much out of their weekly earnings. Assuming an expenditure of ~400,000,000, the proportion expended on each article by the working-classes- may be approximately stated as follows: Per cent. Amount. Bread............................15 ~60,000,000 Flour............................. 5 20,000,000 Meat............................. J 30,000,000 Butter and cheese....................... 5 20,000, 000 Sugar, tea, and coffee_.6 24,000,000 Other articles of food..6j 26,000, 000 Drink.............................12 48,000, 000 Tobacco............................ 3 12,000,000 Rent and taxes....9 36,000,000 Coal and gas.......................... 6 24,000,000 Clothing............................13 52, 000, 000 Other expenses; education, church or chapel, amusements,,doctors' bills, clubs, furniture, &c................12 48,000,000 Total.~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~100 400,000, 000 Twelve per cent. spent on drink is a large proportion; but from my knowledge of the working-classes of England, I am sure that Professor Levi, if anything, rather underestimates that item of their expenditure. CONDITION OF THE ORKING-CLASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 421 I.-MECHANICS AND SKILLED TRADESMEN. All over the world the mechanic is economically in a different position from the laborer, the miner, or the factory-had." He has been provided with a trade. Either a premium has been paid for teachi him, or he has, as an apprentice, foregone part of his earnings during the period of pupilage. He has bought something which he intends to sell again; his acquired kill being his stock in trade. In England the mechanic, who works both by his ands and his brain, doing that which machinery does not yet do, is intellectually and morally the superior of the other members of the working class. As already indicated, the introduction of machinery has, in many cases, through the subdivisions of manufacture, reduced many mechanics to the level of op1-eratives. They do not require that skill of hand and eye which an apprenticeship gives. But there are still many trades in which this special skill is required, and in which the steam-engine will always be entirely subordinate to that human skill. The Eglish mechanic is the superior of the other workers; but in education and social standing, ow inferior to the American! His intelligence is mostly confined to his trade; apprenticed at an early age, his only education has been that of the workshop. Outside his trade he is too often ignorant of everything. A small proportion of meanismayyearly becomemasters;now and then they become wealthy and enterthe ranks of the aristocracy or gentry. Then this ignorance of which I speak shows itself so plainly, and makes the nouveaux riches of England notorious throughout the world. In this again, as always, let it be understood that I speak generally. I have seen a Manchester mechanic read Newton's Principia" in the original. I know a London mechanic well read in Latin and Greek, and who is learning Itebrew in order that he may study the Scriptures in that tongue. But the general ignorance of the workers of England arises from there not having been, until the last two years, any system of national education. The English mechanics I believe to be unsurpassed in the world, but owing to that want of education and the early age at which they are apprenticed, they are, outside their trades, far inferior to the American. English mechanics do not receive such high wages as miners or iron-workers. Still their work being more regular and there being less risk to life, they are certainly materially better off than any other class of English workers. It would swell this paper to too great alength to go through all the branches of English trades and compare the wages given with those in America. As a rule, however, I find that wages of mechanics in the Eastern States and large cities generally are 100 per cent. higher than in England, and the cost of living does not increase proportionately." This is but a slight sketch of the working-classes of England, but it is drawn from the life, and there is no fact or inference contained therein which is not within my own knowledge. What is the real cause of the poverty and hardships the workers of England endure, and what can be done to alleviate their lot I Socialists attribute this poverty to the constitution of society; political reformers to the form of government; theologians, perchance, as a punishment of original sin. But the real cause is not on the surface. The farm-laborer suffers certainly from a condition of things entailed upon him by the land-laws of England. He shares with the other workers in the want of a good national system of education, and in the hard barriers of class-distinction which, keeping the workingmnan in a subservient position as one of the "lower order,"2 prevents him from. having that personal self-respect which is such a help and safeguard through life. But above all these are the laws of nature and political economy. The population of England has increased faster than its production of food; her laborers faster than her capital. England now shows larger profits, higher wages, more soaring business, and greater luxury among the employers of labor; and yet in spite of higher wages the working-classes can only reach a certain low level of comfort. The competition existing in an overstocked labor-market keeps wages at a certain. limit, and if they have risen, it is mainly owing to the influence of the trades unions, and the cost of living has risen in proportion. But supply and demand rules everything, and the trades unions cannot overcome economic laws. My theory may be objected to by many, but I hold that every trade, business, or profession is lamentably overstocked in England. Where is the outletI But a few miles of water and the United States, the true "1Greater Britain," is reached. America opens her arms to all the world, but should especially welcome those of her kindred, the race of the men who landed on Plymouth Rock and founded the plantations of Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. J. S. STANLEY JAMES. LONDON, January 31, 187-4. *For example, a mechanic in London will receive 30s. a week, (I take a high average.) If a single man he will have to pay at least 15s., one-half his income, for his hoard. In America the same mechanic will receive $15 a week, and will pay for his board $5, one-third of his income, and live twice as well as his English compeer. Throughout all the handicraft trades I find this difference between wages and living in England and America. 422 LABOR IN EUROPE AND,AMERICA. LORD ROSEBERY ON I3IPROVING THE CONDITION OF THE WORKINGCLASSES. At a meeting of the Social Science Congress, held at Glasgow, in tober, 1874, the president, Lord Rosebery, made an extended address in which he directed his remarks almost exclusively to an exposition of what he considered the best means of improving the condition of the working-classes. Foremost among these means he places education. Education and enlightenment, he says, are required to keep pace with the material prosperity of the country. But the education of experience is also valuable-as much so as superior culture. It is requisite that the working-classes should understand the injurious effects of strikes and collisions with their employers, and that employers should recognize the claims~of their workmen to their kindness and forbearance. Be favors compulsory education, also, as a means of lessening habits o drunkenness. The statistics of national thirst are not very attractive topics so long as revenue considerations are suffered to obscure every other, and it is unfortunately true that among a large section of the population increased prosperity seems to mean increased drink, or, as he sarcastically puts it, "the outward signs of our civilization are an extraordinary accumulation of wealth and an extraordinary consumption of alcohol." But an increase of culture by nomeans implies an increase of sobriety. SHe reviews the physical questions which so materially conern the welfare of the working-classes-their dwellings, their hours of labor in factories, especially as regards women and children, and the good aspects of union and co-operation. He says: It is true that unions among work-people, with a view to the artificial raising of their wages, may hamper production, and harshly control freedom of action. On the other hand, they have ofteu been of real service by promoting intelligent communication between work-people in different parts of the country, and in ascertaining the due recompense of labor. Few impartial persons will be disposed to deny that, though it has caused bitter feelings on both sides, as all such revolutions must, the great social movement which has recently united the English peasantry is likely to diffuse enlig"htenment, to encourage independence, and to place wages on a more clear and rational footing. The natural adjustment of the right proportion'between the profits of capital and the wages of labor is a tolerably sure, it may be, but certainly a very slow process, and union among workmen -has had a beneficial effect in hastening it. Strikes, -which. cause so much distress, and which so greatly hinder production, we must lament. But so long as capital and labor continue distinct and opposing interests, is it likely that strikes willibe rare?'Co-operation, indeed, is the obvious remedy for all these troublesbut co-operation can hardly, so far, be considered a success in this country. It appears to require a more general intelligence and a greater accumulation of capital among the working-classes than exists at present. There is so-much to be done; our civilization is so little removed from'barbarism. At this moment there is a daily~column in the newspapers devoted to recording brutal outrages, where human beings have behaved like wild beasts. Every policeman in London is assaulted on an average about once in two years. Within the memory of' living men the workers at the salt-pans of Joppa, only a mile or two from Edinburgh, were serfs-adscripli glebwc-and sold along with the lands on which they dwelt. Neither they nor their children could move from the spot, or could alter their calling. The late lord provost of Edinburgh, who bears the honored name of Chambers, records, his having talked to such men. What a hell, too, was described to Lord Ashley's commission of 1842. In the mines were women and children employed as beasts, dragging trucks on all fours, pursuing in fetid tunnels the degraded tasks which no maere animal could be found to undertake. We know that equal horrors existed in the brick-fields two or three years ago, when there were 30,000 children employed, looking like moving maasses of the clay they bore, whose ages varied-from three and a half years, to seventeen, and when an average case was thus described: "1I had a child weighed very recently, and though he was somewhat over eight years old, he weighed but 521 pounds, and was employed carrying 43 pounds of clay on his head an average distance offifteen. miles daily, and worked seventy-three hours a week. This is only an average CONDITION OF THE WORKING-CLASSES OF IRELAND. 423 case of what many poor children re doing in England at the present time, and we need not wonder at their stunted and haggard appearance, when we take into account the tender age at which they are sent to their Egyptian tasks." Then again: "All goodness and purity seems to become stamped out of these people, and were I to relate," says a witness, who worked himself in the brick-fields, "what could be related, the whole country would become sickened and horrified." IRELANP. Leterfo r. Consul King on the condition of the uworking-people of the Dublin consular district. CONSUILATE OF T:E UNITED STATES, Dublin, November 24, 1873. DEAn SIn: * * * * * o First, as to the condition of the working-people in this district. In all or nearly all branches of labor wages are greatly higher than they formerly were, and I do not think that the cost of living has advanced proportionately. Bread is slightly dearer, but meat, sugar, and tea, and even oatmeal, can be had for nearly the same as before the advance in wages. I have never seen people of the laboring class, or perhaps I shouldsayofthemanual-laboringclass, so badly clothed as here. Even in cases where necessity does not compel such carelessness, ragged or curiously-patched garments are not uncommon, yet clothes are really quite cheap here, even when Compared with prices current ten years ago on the European continent. House-rent is low, and I think has not advanced greatly for some time, but I think the working-people pay more for rents than they formerly did. Dublin is full of fine old houses, formerly the abodes of the courtly or wealthy, but now abandoned by fashion. Until recently, and even still to a certain degree, the better portion of these houses were chiefly occupied by clerks or people of that respectable class with low fixed incomes. Within the past few years, great numbers of small houses have been built on all the outskirts of the city, and have been occupied chiefly by persons of this class, and the apartments formerly used by them have been taken possession of by the manual-laborig class in addition to what they had before, thus greatly improving.the condition of their lodgings. At least this is my opinion, founded partly on isolated instances which have conic under my own observation, but chiefly on the fact that large numbers of new small houses have been built in the city while the population has not increased. I do not think that landlords generally keep their houses in as good condition as they ought, and I have been told that the reason for this is the defective nature of very many Of the titles and consequent dangrer to holders or improvers of city property. The Irish land-act has never been extended to the cities, which I consider it wyould greatly benefit, as it seems to have done the country districts. Secondly, in regard to drunkenness: On this I was unable to give an opinion of any value, and, consequently, appealed to that eminent Irish statistician, Dr. Neilson Hancock, who kindly gave me the benefit of his observations. In his opinion, Irish laborers, when compared with English or Scotch, may be called industrious. In my own opinion an English laborer will get, drunk at night and go to work as usual next day, while the Irishman will not work the day after a debauch. According to Doctor Hancock's statistics drunkenness throughout Ireland is less prevalent than it was ten years- ago; and he thinks there is not more of it here than in England, -though in Ireland the number of arrests is greater, which fact is accounted for, the doctor thinks, by the facts that there are more policemen here, and that they are under governmnent control, while the English police are local, -and, consequently, are more wary when making arrests of tax-payers. I have also received your letter of the 31st ultimo, and, in compliance with your request, have been to see Mr. Pim. I have also again tried to secure some statistics from Mr. Guinness, and have, in both cases, met with courteous promises, but, as yet, nothing, has resulted. WILSON KING, United States Consul. Dr. EDWARD YOUNG, Chief of the Bur-eau of Statistics. ADVANCE OF TEM.,PERANCE PRINCIPLES. On this subject Mr. Consul WNebster, under date of March 26, 1873, writes as follows: The cause of temperanceis, lam quite sure, advancing. The results of the earlier closing of public houses are seen to be good. "1The Good Templars'"I organization is growing 424 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. very rapidly, and is drawing in many who have been hard drinkers. And, moreover, wb are coming to that stage when the better sort of drinkers feel called upon to xcuse themselves by saying that their physician advises it, &c. Sobriety is to be commended and its absence deplored among all classes, especially among Trailroad employs, to whom, the lives of the traveling public are intrusted. But it may be doubted whether much benefit will result from the following instance ofEN'FORCED TEMPERANCE OF RAILROAD EMPLOYS. It is stated that Superintendent Angell, of the European and North American Railway, has sent to all the employe6s of the road a form of pledge for them to Sin, whereby they agree to abstain from using intoxicating liquors as a beverage, and the use of profane or ungentlemanly language. Accompanying the blank pledge is a circular informing the employds that this step is taken in consequence of frequent complaints at the office, and requesting those declining to sign to give notice of their intentions, that their places may be filled by others. A SANITAIRY STRIKE. A strike with a novel object is reported as having occurred at the Trenton collieries, Durham, the miners having struck for water and decency They allege that their sufferings, owing to a want of water both for drinking nd for domestic purposes, have been very considerable, and that their complaints receive no attention. Acts of Parliament and orders of the local government board are stated to be, as far as they are concerned, mere dead letters; and the men, who with their families number about 3,000 persons, refuse to do any more work until they are provided with a proper watersupply, and with decent dwelling accommodation. The neglect which has characterized some of the Durham colliery districts is but too well known, and although in some isolated localities excellent dwelling accommodations and every necessary sanitary requirement are provided for the colliers, there are many places in which such a thing as a closet is unknown, and where none but the filthiest water can be procured unless it is sought at a considerable distance. This strike at least has our sympathy, and we trust that it will teach some of the wealthy colliery-owners a lesson in sanitary administration.-The Sanitary Record. THRIFT AMONG THlE WORKING CLASSES IN THlE TEXTILE DISTRICTS. [From the report of the Inspector of Factories, 1874.] Want of thrift has hitherto been considered one of the great faults of the operative class, and therefore one hails with pleasure any institution which tends to foster among them a more provident and careful character. The establishment of penny-banks as connected with schools and churches in the poorer parts of some of our manufacturing districts, is doing much to promote saving habits among our working classes, and I am glad to find, after making careful inquiry, that such institutions have largely increased of late years, and are msuch patronized by those for whose good they are established. I I annex a deposit-book of one of these institutions situated in a crowded factory district of Manchester; and also a notice which has been circulated in the factories and workshops of the neighborhood. The book gives the rules pertaining to the management of the institution. I am informed that during the past year the number of depositors in this bank was over 400. I should like to see such institutions established in connection with all our large factories and workshops, especially where married women are employed. And I think the following remarks on one I have lately come across will show the good they may produce: Some time since, on going through one of our largest cotton-mills in Salford, I observed by a notice hung on the walls that a penny savings-bank in connection -with the works had been established, where sums of from one penny to ~10 are received from the work-people, and interest at the rate of 5 per cent. given on sums over l0s., the firm having consented to guarantee the amounts invested. The notice went on to say, "1those of our hands that have not begun to save are reminded that although trade is rathir good at present it may not always remain so, and they are earnestly requested to avail themselves of the opportunity to provide for less prosperous times." On making inquiry, I found that this call had been fairly responded to by the hands employed. This mill gives employment to upward of 800 hands, of whom above 500 are femnales. CONDITION OF THE WORKING-CLASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 425 The sums deposited weekly vary from 6d. to 5s. This institution, besides promoting saving habits among the work-people generally, is a great boon to the married women, and is taken much advantage of by them. It acts to them as a kind of lying-in club, where, many months before the birth of her infant, the mother can make a little provision for the event by laying aside a small sum weekly unknown to her husband, and without his being able to meddle with it. This enables her not only to meet the time with more comfort around her, but also does away with the necessity of her returning to her work in the factory so soon after her confinement; thus saving her own health and giving a better chance to the infant of surviving future hardships. The deposits in this factory-bank were in 1873, ~70 4s. 10d.; withdrawals, ~58 4s. id.; number of depositors, 63; accounts open 31st December, 23. HOMES FOR THE POOR. [From the ew York Times, February 2S, 1875.] An interesting debate occurred in the English House of Commons on February 8 upon a subject which is of deep interest to all civilized countries-the improvement of the dwellings of the working classes. Mr. Cross, in behalf of the government, presented a bill which would go far toward remedying the evils resulting from overcrowding in English large towns and cities. In his able speech advocating the bill, he indirectly showed how much has already been accomplished in this great reform. The "Peabody fund" controls a capital of $3,000,000, entirely devoted to building improved dwellings for the poor. Two other societies have expended $1,500,000 each for similar objects; other associations have also accomplished much, so that thirty thousand of the poor of London are now housed in well-ventilated, healthy, and scientificallyarrangedbuildigs. Theremarkable sanitary influence of these "model houses" is shown by the fact that the death-rate in the lowest districts of Manchester, Liverpool, and London will run up to sixty or seventy per thousand, and in one instance has attained the fearful maximum of seven hundred per thousand, while the death-rate in the "model lodging-houses" is never over fifteen per thousand. The effect of these buildings in preserving the lives of ymng children is equally remarkable. Thus, in Liverpool, the annual rate of mortality of children under one year amounts to thirty in one hundred living, while in the model houses it seldom amounts to eighteen. In lone district of Manchester, out of a hundred deaths of persons of all ages, the deaths of children under five years reached the extraordinary rate of 49.7, or nearly one half. Yet in these improved buildings they seldom reach the ratio of twenty. Various cities of England have already had special acts passed to enable them to improve the poor-quarters. Thus, in Liverpool, under these acts, the corporation has demolished 503 houses, and improved 392 "courts," at an expense of $438,000. Edinburgh has also spent a large sum, and cleaned out some 1,400 houses. Many -nests of,crime were broken up, and the police reported a falling off of the number of serious offenses from 670 to 570 in one year. At Glasgow about $9,000,000 was expended, but much of this has been returned to the corporation" from the sale of the property which has been'improved. The experience of all these cities has been that the breaking up of all these fever-nests, and dens of crime produced no hardship to the poor people who were turned out. They always found quarters elsewhere, and many were induced to transfer themselves to the country..- It often happened, too, that where improved buildings were erected more people were accommodated over a given space of ground, but under much better sanitary conditions, so that the same district could accommodate as many poor as before the improvements, and yet save forty or fifty lives among every thousand of the inhabitants. The new law which is proposed in the English Parliament allows the corporations of the large cities to break up poor-quarters, open streets, demolish houses which, have become infected with fever, and make various improvements which have sanitary objects. The secretary of state himself will have the power of urging the "order" necessary through the house of commons, so as to save the town councils much expense. The cost of the improvem snts will, of course, be laid upon the tax-payers. It is not proposed, however, that the town councils should at once build "model lodging-houses," but that they should endeavor to entice the floating capital of the country to investmnents in these improvements. In case, however, the land is left to run to waste, the local authority has the power to build, in special cases, with the consent of the secretary of state. HOUSES FOR THE WORKING-CLASSES. [From a report on the sanitary condition of the city of Edinburgh.] The condition of the poor and their miserable dwellings also engaged the attention of the charitable in Edinburgh, and the movement which originated -in London, for erecting suitable houses for the working-classes, extended to this city. In 1851, the first block of houses was built, and -named Ashley Buildings, after t~he nobleman who 426 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. had taken such a prominent part in the operatiosoftemetropolitanassociation. No better site could have been obtained for the structure in question. It was placed in the town district, in which overcrowding prevails to a great extent, and on all sides it was surrounded by decaying houses, tenanted by the poor. It not only afforded to the industrious workman a greatly-improved habitation, but from its situation formed an example to surrounding proprietors and tenants of the manner in which such houses should be built and kept in a permanent state of cleanliness. To secure a site old property had to be removed, and thus, while benefiting the working-classes, the association directly ameliorated the condition of the old town by the erection of hous in its midst built according to the most approved sanitary plas. A WORKMAN'S TOWN. [Fromn the London Times of August 5,1872.] Lord Shaftesbury recently laid the first stone upon an estate at dswort, called the Shaftesbury Park Estate, which has been acquired by the Artisans, Laborers and General Dwellings' Company, (limited,) and is to be laid out as a workman's city, in 1,200 dwellings. The company was formed in 1867, in consequence of the destruction of houses by railmproadvements, for ther improvem of enabling tworkingmen to erect dwellings combining fitness and economy with the latest sanitary improvements, and to become themselves the owners of these dwellings in the course of a stated number of years by the payment of a small additional rent. On every estate purchased by the company a suitable space will be reserved as a recreation-ground, a co-operative store will be built for the especial benefit of the tenantsand public hous will be absolutelyforbidden. The Shaftesbury Park Estate contains about forty acres, and is situated between the Wandsworth road and the Southwestern Railway, and about half way between the Wandsworth road and the Clapham Junction Stations and a new station on the Lodon, Chatham and Dover Railway forms part of the architect's design for the future buildings, so as to afford to the inhabitants of the projected city all necessary facilities for going to and returning from their lbor. The housesare to be thoroughly drained, constructed on sound principles, and with good materialsand well supplied with water. Ample school accommodations will bprovided, and a all for lectures or public meetings will be built. The houses are to be of three kinds, forthe accommodation not only of artisans, but Also of the "clerk-class;" and each house is to form a distinct and separate tenancy, fitted with. every sanitary and domestic convenience. At the appointed time a large concourse of people had assembled, to witness the ceremony of laying the first or "1memorial" stone. Lord Shaftesbury-arrived punctually at th e time appointed, and Mr. Walton, the chairman of the company, opened the proceedings by some introductory remarks, in the course of which he paid. a warm tribute to Lord Shaftesbury's consisteat endeavors to elevate the working-classes in the scale of civilization and humanity. His lordship then took the -trowel and mallet, and laid the stone with the skill and self-possession of a finished workman. Having pronounced it truly laid, his lordship then addressed the assembly. He s~aid: "MY GOOD FRIE NDS: Having, laid the first stone of this noble experiment,, an experiment which seems to me deserving of the most unqualified success, I cannot separate from you without a few words of thankfulness and congratulation that we have met to-day for such aworthy purpose. We have foundad this day aworkmen's city, and we have founded it upon the very best principles. We have founded it upon the great principle of self-help, and upon the great principle of independence. By independence, I mean without any other assistance than that which ev~ery man has. a. right to receive from his fellow-man, sympathy and kind aid, and that is what every man, either great or small, stands in need of from another. You have -founded the workmen's city upon your own efforts, and by your own contributions, and for the great, and wise purpose of advancing your social position and bodily health, as well as your intellect and gen-.eral prosperity. And most heartily do I say for myself, and I also say it in the, names of hundreds and thousands of your fellow-men, that the blessing of Almighty God will rest upon the good work which you have inaugurated to-day. I like the principles -you have laid down for your guidance. You have shown your wisdom in a moral po)int of view by excluding public houses and, the tap-room; and you have done with them as the people did of old by the lepers, you have put them outside the camp. You have, too, founded the buildings with a due regard to the necessary arrangements. There are schools for the children, and will also be a library and reading-room for yourselves, and a clubroom, where you will have the advantage of indulging in beneficial amusements. I hope, however, you will -not forget the women, who are by far the best part of you, let me tell you. In those intellectual amusements take care that -your good wives and daughters are not excluded, for you will find there is no social progress without the aid of the female sex. If the woman floats, she floats like a cork, and drags the man after her. I am glad-, then, to say that you have inaugurated this workmen's city upon a sound and wise basis, and also that every man shall have his house to himself, so as BENEFICENT MANUFACTURERS. 427 to fulfill the national saying that an Englishman's house should be his castle, and to maintain the great principl that the working-man should be the master of his house, and the happy head of a moral and industrious family. I would urge you most sincerely, as long s you have breath, to old fast to the great social family relations of life. That will be the first step in the prosperity of your city, and it is the grand security of empires. I am delighted, to, to find that you have established a recreationground in the center of your city for the healthy enjoyment of your children; but I would strogly urge you not to devote this space to flower-beds and gravel-walks, but to leave it free for cricket, for foot-ball, and for all those manly and exhilarating games by which the healthy development of the body may be promoted and secured. The schools which will be established I hope will be turned to good account, and thus save your children from the temptation of the pot-house and'penny-gaff.' More mischief is done i London by children frequenting such places than many people are aware of. You cannot do better than look to your children, and see them properly educated, because in early life lasting impressions are made. A child eight years of age will retain early impressions, which will never, while life lasts, be wholly effaced. A good, tender, pious mother will make impressions on her child which may for a time leave it in manhood, but which will sooner or later return." His lordship then alluded to the impressions created by the culture of flowers and window-gardening, and then passed on to picture the wretched and ill-ventilated homes of some of those who were compelled to dwell in the midst of the metropolis. He said: "Imagine a young man, about twenty years of age, in the prime of life, coming up from the country to seek work in London. He may obtain, perhaps, as much as 35s. per week. As a matter of necessity he takes, as it were, the first place he can get. The place is ill-drained and ~~~~~~badly -ventilated. He lives, perhaps, over a pestilential stream, and in a few months he is numbered with the dead, and his wife and family come upon the parish for assistance. There is nothing so economical as humanity. Whatever it may cost at the outset, good air, good water, and no overcrowding in close, noisome rooms, will be found the most economical and best means of developing the physical andmoral energies which God has given to you. The domiciliary condition of the people involves health, comfort, and happiness. It involves also contentment, and people who are ~conten~ted ~alwa~ys trouble than those who are not. When men are contentedtheybecome excessivelyreasonable, and employer and employed find that their interests are identical. They must hold together, and by united action give force to progress. I should like, then, to see, from the Queen upon the throne to the lowest in the land, one feelin of united sympathy of action, and one and all give' a long pull, a strongpull, nd a ulatgte. I can only say that I have been delighted beyond measure at what I have seen to-day. For more than thirty years I have been engaged in advocating improvement in the domiciliary condition of the people, but it is not by charitable means that the work can be effected. It must be done by the exertion of your own hearts and hands. You must say,' We a-re Christians, and will live like maen.' I trust that this will be the commencement of a great work, destinied for the advancement of the social position of the people." In conclusion, his lordship said he felt an honor had been conferred upon him by being invited to attend that highlyinterestiing gathering. He said that a library was to be estabrished in connection with the school; and, as a memorial of the day, he hoped the committee would allow him to be the donor of the first book. The book he should give would be' The Homes without Hands, a wonderfully interesting account of the way in which creatures not provided with hands were enabled, by the instincts which God bad given them, to provide themselves with safe and healthy habitations. He selected it not only for the sake of the information to be derived from it, but also for the sake of the reflections that it was calculated to suggest. He hoped when the city on which they were then engaed ws copleted, when every man was sitting under his own vine and his own figtre, ejoyngthe blessings which God bad given him, that their thoughts would be clle toanoher place, in which he trusted he should some dlay meet them-,to a home without hands, eternal in the heavens." BENEFICE.: T M1ANTUFACTURFRS. In the preceding part of this chapter attention was called to the condition of the tenements occupied by a large portion of the laboringclasses, 9nll the opinion was expressed that the drinking habits so com.mon amaong them were aggravated by the want of comfortable homes. It was alleged, at least by implication, that upon mill and factory owners rested a considerable share of the responsibility for the intemperance and degradation of the working-classes in manufacturing towns. In the early part of this investigation the author discovered the chiel 428 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. cause of this deplorable condition, and suggested a remedy to some of the proprietors of large industrial establishments. On reaching the West Riding of Yorkshire, especially the town of Bradford, he gratifying fact was ascertained that the benevolence of some of the wealthy and large-hearted mill-owners had already been directed into that channel. The most noteworthy instance was that of Sir Titus Salt, whose alpaca-works at Saltaire, as a first-class industrial establishment, deserves especial mention, but whose beneficent and successful enterprise for the welfare of his work-people entites him to a place in the very front rank of philanthropists. In well-directed efforts for the promotion of the best interests of laborers " many have done wisely," but in prac tical benevolence " he has excelled them all." It is eminently proper, therefore, that, in a chapter on the condition of the working-classes of Great Britain, special mention should be made ofSALTAIRE AND ITS FOUNDER. It has already been intimated that no account of the worsted-trade of Bradford would be complete without a notice of Sir Titus Salt, who, if not the first to engage in the production of worsted goods, was the first to manufacture the wool from the alpaca sheep. This beginning, in 1836, proved so successful, that in 1852 the importation of this wool had reached 2,186,480 pounds, and the price consequently advanced from 1Od. per pound in 1836 to 2s. 6d. in 1852. There were in Bradford and its suburbs, in the year 1850, 194 mills. Mr. Salt might have retired from business and enjoyed his well-earned wealth, but he chose to go on, not only to help his large family, but also to improve the condition of the factory operatives. How successfully this determination was carried out, the following statement, condensed from an extended account by a local writer, will prove: Bradford, with its still-increasing manufactures, was becoming overcrowded, dirty, and smoky; its streams and canal were every year becoming more and more sinks of filth and pollution, and hot-beds of foul diseases, adM.Sl ieydtrie ob no party to its further increase. Seeing a better spot on the banks of the river Aire, and puLrchasing a tract of land there, be at once began to erect such a palace of industry as England hadl never seen, with dwellings for the work-people contiguous. In 1,853 these works were opened by a banquet of unusual magnificence, -attended not only by the lord-lieutenant, members of Parliament, magistrates, mayors, and other civic dignitaries, but by the work-people of Mr. Salt, who, to the number of 2,500, marched in procession from his mills to the railway-station at Bradford, and were conveyed by a special train to the works. The mills, warehouses and sheds, dye-houses, and gas-works at Saltaire occupy an area of 91 acres. The principal building, six stories high, distinguished in many respects for architectural elegance above all other works of the kind, is built of lightcolored stone in the Italian style of architecture, and is computed to cover over 9 acres, including the warehouses, stables, and dining-hall, while the floors in the several bnildings cover an extent of 11j acres, or 55,000 yards. The walls of the building are of extraordinary thickness, and, in truth, more resemble the castles of ancient times than a building for the exclusive purposes of peaceful industry. The south front of the mill-545 feet in length and 72 feet above the level of the rails-has a very commanding and beautiful appearance. The floors.are based upon arches of hollow. brick, supported by long rows of highly ornamented cast-iron columns and massive cast-iron beams. The roof is of iron,. and the windows are large and formed of immense, squares of plate-glass, a fact which alone proves that everything -has been done to render the building attractive and comfortable for those employed. )The warehouses, which run northward from the center of the great front line and terminate at the canal, are 330 feet in length. The ground slopes downward to the canal, so that that end of the warehouses rises 90 feet from the level of the water, or 15 feet higher than the principal front. These magnificent sheds are roofed with sloping skylights, through which the light is more directly and uniformly diffused than by side windows. In the western side are also rooms for sorting, washing, and drying wools, and for reeling and packing. Bc BENEFICENT MANUFACTURERS. 429 neath it is an enormous tank orreservoir, and filter, with 500,000 gallons of water, into which, through a number of conduits, the rain is carried, and, when filtered, applied to the process of the manufacture. On the top of the warehouses a large iron tank is placed, capable of holding 70,000 gallons of water, drawn by engine from the river, available in case of fire; though, in truth, as the whole of the buildings are fire-proof and roofed with iron, we trust that, for the latter purpose, it will never be required. The cottages are built of stone, lined with brick-work, and contain a parlor or livingroom, a kitchen, a pantry and cellar, and three bed-rooms. Some of the houses are designed for larger families and others for boarding-houses. Each house has a separate yard, a privy, a coal-place, and ash-pit. These houses are fitted up with all the modern appliances of comfort, are well ventilated, and have small plats of ground for a garden in front, with borders of plants and flower-beds. The baths and wash-houses contain plunge-baths, warm baths, and Turkish and douche baths, washing, rinsing, and steam tubs, drying closets, hydro-extractors, mangles, and other requisites. The charges made are little more than nominal. A literary and philosophical institution, with a museum, lecture-hall, and classrooms, is designed. The almshouses consist of forty-five beautiful buildings, for the accommodation of the aged and infirm of Saltaire, and are capable of holding sixty persons. These almshouses resembling Italian villas, are supplied with everything required by the poor for whom they are intended: ovens, boilers, and pantries. Generally the rooms are on the ground-floor, but some of them have chambers and bed-rooms above. In front are asphalt-walks and green parterres and flower-beds, while underneath the windows are open spaces, where the honeysuckle, the rose, and the sweetbrier may be trained and cultivated. The occupants of the almshouses are men or women, single or married, of good character, destitute of means of support, and incapacitated by reason of age or infirmity so as to be unable to earn their living. Each married occupant shall receive a weekly allowance of ten shillings, and each single person seven shillings and sixpence, in addition to rooms free of rent and taxes, and this allowance to continue after the death of the founder. If any inmate shall marry, or willfullv disobeyv anyv of the rules of the institution, or be guilty of insobriety or immoral conduct, or, by failing to improve in condition, shall have ceased to be a proper beneficiary, the founder or trustees will displace or remove such person. The social and moral condition of the inhabitants of Saltaire is superior. There are, certainly, some improvident families, who never better their condition because they never attempt it. Those who are industrious have their reward in well-furnished and well1-appointed homes, and several have, with their weekly earnings, bought or built cottages. The Saltaire factory-schools, erected by order of Sir Titus, were opened in 1868. Whatever art could invent or money buy has been brought together here, and every possible aid has been employed to promote education. The school-rooms are lofty, -well lighted and ventilated, and the building heated throughout with hot water. The boys' play-ground is provided with gymnastic appliances. 4 In the year 1855-'59 Sir Titus caused a beautiful Congregational church to be erected at his sole expense, which was opened in April, 1839. A neat and chaste little chapel (Wesleyan) has also been built and fitted up with exquisite taste for the use of the'inmates of th6 almshouses. An infiruaary has also been built, where medicine is dispensed, and where any accidents which may happen at the works are attended to by a competent surgeon. The Saltaire park, covering fourteen acres, contains sufficient room and all needful appliances for recreation; and in its arrangement the tastes of all in the way of openair amusements have been carefully consulted, not forgetting provision for boating and for the national game, cricket. Among the regulations made for the government of the park are the following: Intoxicated persons not allowed to remain; children unuder the age of eight years not admitted except in, care of an adult; dogs not admitted unless led; no music, singing, preaching, lecture, or public discussion, and no meeting for the purpose of making any religious or political demonstration, will be allowed without the written sanction of the firm; stone-throwing, disorderly and indecorous conduct, profane and indecent language, gambling, pitch and toss, and soliciting alms are strictly prohibited; no wine, beer, spirits, or intoxicating drinks are to be consumed in the park; smoking is not allowed in the alcoves, nor spitting on the paths; the play-grounds are not to be used on Sundays. 430 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. CROSSLEY ORPHAN HOME AND SCHOOL HALIFAX YORKSHIRE. This orphan asylum, founded by the three brothers, John, Joseph, and Sir Francis Crossley, Bart., M. P., was opened for the reception of children on the 29th of June, 1864, on which day six boys were admitted. The admissions in the early years of the institution were as follows: In 1864, 8; in 1865, 59; in 1866, 67; in 1867, 62; in 1868 10; first half of 1869, 19; in all, 225 children, consisting of 150 boys and 75 girls, of whom 50 were motherless as well as fatherless. The numbers in the Home on the 30th of June, 1869, were 188; of whom 122 were boys and 66 girls. The founders having given a preference to orphans born in the county of York, 128 Yorkshire children have already been admitted, of whom 50 are natives of the parish of Halifax. In the election of children the founders have also given a preference to those belonging to families whose temporal circumstances have been reduced; and it will, doubtless, be interesting to know the profession of some of the parents of the children received: 63 are the children of master tradesmen; 45 of shop-men, mechanics, and others; 26 of ministers and missionaries; 17 of law, bank, and commercial clerks; 11 of civil engineers, architects, and surveyors; 9 of physicians and surgeons; 9 of merchants and commission-agents; 8 of commercial travelers and salesmen; 7 of master mariners, pilots, and fishermen; of railway officials; 5 of farmers; 5 of accountants; 4 of barristers and solicitors; 4 of manufacturers; 4 of school-masters; and 3 of ship-brokers. The applications received on behalf of these children were only entertained after the most careful investigation, and many of the cases were of a peculiarly painful character. The following particulars regarding three of them abundantly illustrate the value and urgent need of, a. Home for Orphan Children:'(A.) The skill and taste of this girl's father (a master cutler) assured every one that in a few years he would be second to no firm in the town. In six years the number of his workmen increased from 3 or 4 to about 200; but in 1862, while attending the Exhibition in London, he was seized with insanity. Shortly after he was removed to an asylum, where he died, leaving a widow and five children.,, (B.) Two boys, the children of a Baptist minister, who died of typhus fever, caught in ministering to a fever patient who had desired his services. These boys have no male relative. (G.) This boy's father was a man of high honor and'great ability. Having spent several years in England and Spain in the pursuit of his profession as civil engineer, he was induced- to assume the heavier responsibilities of a contractor, in which he was for some time very successful. He embarked all his large capital in the cagryin out of a contract for extensive water-works in Ireland, which proved ruinous. Hwe met his death in the prime of life from an accidental fall, leaving a widow and thirteen. -children wholly unprovided for. The education afforded is regulated by the capacities of the children. All the inmates are taught reading, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, and composition, geography, singing, drawing, and the rudiments -of natural science. Those boys who show capacity for such studies are taught Latin and one modern language, also the higher branches of arithmetic, algebra1 and geometry. The girls are taught needle-work and such departments of household service as are, likely to prove useful to them in after life. Both boys and girls are so trained as to fit them for fighting the battle of life courageously. "'In addition to the building and furnishing of the Home, at a cost of ~56,000, the founders have provided an endowment of ~3,000 per annum. toward the cost of maintenanee and education. BENEFICENT MANUFACTURERS. 431 SIR FRANCIS CROSSLEY'S BENEFACTIONS. The eoles par, covering a little over thirteen acres, laid out by Sir Joseph Paxton with fountains, waterfalls, lake, and furnished with nseveral large statues in Carrara marble. Original cost, ~32,000. Ouits completion, in 1857, conveyed to the Halifax corporation as trustees for the town, and subsequently endowed to the extent of ~6,000, thereby meeting the expenses of gardening, repairs, &c., without any charge on the town's rates. Twenty-two a hoses.-Style of building somewhat similar to Mr. Joseph Crossley's almshouses, and the rate of payment to alms-people the same. The endowment by the founder yields ~500 per annum. Assistance to young and needy tradesmen.-Sir Francis conveyed to the corporation a sum of 10,000, to be held in trust, and to be lent out in sums of varying amount to Halifax tradesmen, for a period of years, and repayable without interest. JOSEPH CROSSLEY'S BENEFACTION. orty-eight alshouses, forming, with chapel, three sides of a quadrangle, the center being laid out as a garden. The style of architecture othic, the houses stone-built and pitch-faced. Cost of land and buildings about 25,00. A weekly dole of 10s. is paid to each married alms-man, and 7s. to each unmarried alms-man or alms-woman. The entire charges on the charity are fully provided for by the founder by endowments amounting to 1,275 per annum. SIR JOSEPH WHITWOUTH. The benevolent effort of this eminent engineer has been directed into,another channel-the encouragement of young men who have a taste for mechanical engineering, as appears from the following extract from an English journal: WHITWORTH EXHLIBITIONS. Sir Joseph Whitworth, wishing to encourage young men having a mechanical in1tinet, and who are already possessed of some degree of manual dexterity in the use of tools, proposes to found, in connection with Owen's College, Manchester; King's College, London; and University College, London, a certain number of Whitwortli Exhibitions, in order to fit them better to become candidates for the Whitworth scholarship. The competition for these exhibitions is to be as follows: Candidates, not less than sixteen nor more than. eighteen years of age, pass a. preliminary qualifying examination in English dictation'and composition, arithmetic as far as decimals, and the elements of mechanical drawing, at the commeucement of the academical year of each college; Undergo a practical examination in the use of tools, to be held at each college or elsewhere. This examination is to include at least two of the following handicrafts: filing and fitting, turning, smith's work, pattern-making, and molding. The successful competitors for the exhibitions will be entitled to receive, during the two years next following the examination, instruction in all suach subjects (being part of the course of each college) as sh all better prepare them for the Whitworth Scholarship Examiuation, viz: practical plane and solid geometry, machine-drawing, mathematics, theoretical mechanics, applied mechanics, and freehand drawing, provided always that the right to enjoy the exhibition for the second year shall be contingent on- the candidate's success in the college examinations held at the end of the first year. Sir Joseph Wbitworth will pay each college annually for four years, as a trial of the success of his proposal, the sum of ~ 100 for or toward, at the option of each tollegre, the academical expenses of the competitors. 432 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. [From the report of Inspectors of Factories, 1874.] P:ANIURE WORKS, CARNOUSTIE NEAR DUNDEE. In visiting factories it is always pleasant to notice any efforts made by te ocpier to promote the social well-being and improvement of their work-people. In this respect Messrs. James Smieton & Sons, of the Panmure Works, Carnoustie, afford a praiseworthy example. Their works consist of a power-loom factory for weaving, calendering, and packing jute and linen cloth, giving employment to about five hundred persons. Of this number about seventy are half-timers, attending a school upon th premises, and carefully instructed in the ordinary branches of education by a wellqualified female teacher, holding a first-class government certificate, and two assistants. The girls, who form the greatest number of the half-timers, have the additional advantage of being taught sewing and knitting, and are also instructed in music, according to the tonic sol-fa system, by a master employed for the purpose. Evening classes are open for such of the workers as are employed in the factory during the day. The expense of maintaining these schools is defrayed solely by the Messrs. Smieton. There is also an evening class, during the winter months, for young men connected with the works, where for a merely nominal sum, instruction is given in the higher branches of education, by a highly qualified male teacher. n connection with these works is an elegant and spacious hall, capable of accommodating six hundred persons, and furnished with piano and harmonium. It is used as a school-room during the day, and in the evening is available when required for public meetings, lectures, &c. There is also a reading-room on the premises for the exclusive use of the work-people. Five daily and two weekly newspapers are supplied by the Messrs. Smieton, besides magazines and occasionally other papers considered amusing or instructive. A bagatelle table and chess and draught boards are also placed in this room. A library, containing about a thousand well-selected volumes, has also been established; and a librarian, paid by the firm, attends twice a week for the purpose of giving out books. Commodious cottages have also been built by the Messrs. Smieton for the work-people, and are let at moderate rents, much lower than could be otherwise procured for similar accommodation in or about Carnoustie. The factory and dwelling-houses are situated in an airy and healthy locality, in the immediate sieighborhood of an excellent golf-course, where, during their leisure hours, the male workers may enjloy one of the most exhilarating ontdoor games in the country. It is not asserted that there are'no other wealthy man ufacturers in England whose beneficence has been directed into channels similar to those marked out by the eminent firms of whom mention has just been made. NTo doubt there, are many such, and,, moreover, a much larger number who have devoted munificent sums to varions charitable and religious objects. But the devot-ion, by a manufacturer, of a portion of the wealth he has acquired through the labors of his work-people, to objects especially designed for their benefit, appears to the author to bea disposition of his wealth which is eminently praiseworthy, and which, in effect, is true co-operation, and- conforms to the dictates of natural justice. V~iewed in this light, the' benefactions of Sir Titus Salt are in the highest degree meritorious and worthy of grateful recognition. The author cannot close this part of his report without the remarkthat in the bestowal of baronetcies the advisers of the, Queen have evinced much wisdom in the selection of worthy recipients. Formerly such honors were bestowed chiefly on men eminent for military prowess;, but when on such manufacturers as Sir Titus Salt and Sir Francis. Crossley, such engineers as Sir Joseph Whitworth and Sir William Armstrong, on such a man of enterprise as Sir Samuel Cunard, and suchi a diplomatist as Sir Edward Thornton, these marks of appreciation have been conferred, the wisdom of the selection is apparent, and the fact recognized that eminence in the pursuits of civil life is deserving of at least equal honor to that gained in the profession of arms. LABOR IN FRANCE. 433 LABOR IN FRANCE. In the historical part of this work something has been said in regard to the condition of the working classes, in the territory now known as France, duing the latter years of the Roman Empire and the earlier art of the feudal ages. The facts there presented were, however, given with a view to illustrating, to some extent, the general condition of the same classes in the western provinces of the Roman Empire and in fedal Europe during the periods referred to. A continued history of labor in France would have been interesting and highly instructive, and the materials for such a history, especially for that of the manufactures of this ation so renowned for its varied and highly developed industries, are exceedingly rich and abundant. It would be easy, for instance, to trace the successive improvements in the manufacture of silk from its establishment at Lyons, in the reign of Francis I,* to the present day, from the rude implements first emplloyed to the automatic looms an other machinery which now produce fabrics that challenge the copetition of the world. Many other industries, whose artistic procts ave laced France in this regard far in advance of other nations, ight so be traced from their inception in the middle ages to their culintin in recent years, and such a history of the rise and progress o te industrial arts could not fail to be ilnstructive. To do this exhutively, however, would not only occupy more time than can possibly be doted to this work, but require a volume of still greater bulk. Inded it was not even practicable within these limits to present a history of th okig peoplle of each of the leading nations of Europe, still le1 to gi1e a history of the various industries by which they obtain subsistence The history of the working classes of our mother country has been presented in some detail, but in the case of France, as in that of most ether countries of modern Europe, it mnst su ffice to give such facts and figures as will tend to show the condition of the laborer at the present time, comparing. it in some instances with his condition at a period in time recent past. 1DIPORT S FROM FRANCE. Before entering Upon the consideration of the cost and condition of labor, however, it may be well to consider the extent'and character of the products of French findustry which find a market in the United States. Oif the imports from that country during the fiscal year ended Junie 30,1 1874, amounting to upward of $49,000,000, the value of raw materials and other articles which are adraitted duty free was but $2,684,576. while the balance consisted chiefly of articles of luxury. The, following, statement exhibits the values of the principal articles imported into the United States from France in the fiscal years 1874 -and 1873, and the total value imported in each of the five preceding years.:' The, preparation of silk thread dates back to an earlier P-Rflod-to the time of Kiigr Louis XI, (1461-1483,) who introduced the mannfactnre of silk into Francee. The con-_ structioni of the machines employed at that ear-ly period is unknown; bnt they must 1ha-ve been of the most simple character-. Ini the year 1670, at tile request of the ninnicipal council of Lyons, that astute statesman, M. Colbert, finance, minister of' Louis XIV, sent to Bologne for a mlillwright named Pierre Benay, Nvbo erected near Anlbeinas an establishment for winding and twisting silk, in which the latest improvements invented in Italy were introduced. 28 L 43)4 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Value of imports from France in the seve fiscal years ended June 30, 1874. Principal articles. 1874. 1873. Silk, raw.....................................238 24, 95 Silk, nanufactures of.........................11, 817, 424 5, 15, 40 Wool, manufacetures of.......................270 044 3, 85607 Wines, spirits, and cordials....................5,350,24 5,47, 444 Leather, gloves............................... Le'a(her, glvs.. 3319,293 668,75 other manufactures of................117 1, 851, 71 Cotton manuflactures......................... 2, 300 783 5, 2 Fancy good(1s..................................28 2 WIatches and manufaturtes of gold and silver..1,368900 78 400 Iron and steel, and nanufaetures of — 1, 032, 334 2, 253. 09 ( l icals...................................1,93,294 2 Earthlen, stone, and china ware...............622,046 810 Buttons, all kinds.............................61 480 254 48 Furs, dressed................................593 503 4 Straw and palm-leaf manufactures......................... 606 79 9 Other articles................................7,4563 Paying duty..................................30,92 9 Free of duty................................84,576 3051 2 Total....................................51691896 33,97 00 Total for fiscal year 1872.....-.43,140.6 Total for fiscal year 1871................... 09..9 Total for fiscal year 1870..................... Total for fiscal year 1869..................... Total for fiscal year 1868-25, 315 60) EMIGRATION FROM FRANCE. F rom the above statement it will be observed that the products of the skiflledl induistry of Franc.,e are to, a large extent consumned ini this cou ntry; but few, however, of its skilledl workmen make their home among us. The well-known attachment of the French to their native land, togethier with other causes, renders the emigration from that country quite insigniificant in comparison with that of other Europeans. In the heterogen eons 1population of this country, composed, as it is, of many nationalities, the French element is comparatively small, there being but 115,14() natives of France in tile w" hole country in 1870. And while, Sin.ce 182.0, Germany has sent nis nearly'21,800,000, and~ tile British Isles over 4,000,000, the direct increment to our population fromt France, Up to Junie 30, 1874, has been buit 280.942. IDuring each of tile last five fiscal years the rnioration into tile United States from that country has been as follows: 1870, 4,007; 1871, 3,137; 1872, 9,31 7; 1873, 14,798; a nd 1874, 9,643; total, in fiv e yea rs, 40,902; an average of only 8, 180 a year. From so sparsely settled a country as Norway. during the Samle period, the emigration to this country amounted to 60,642, a yearly aver — age of 12,128. Even after the termination of the Franco-German war, when the indlustries were, paralyzed, and even bigbly-skille(I labor in limited dleitiand, the emig-ration from France to the United States was on~ly 14,798, atf whom but 8,368 were males over fifteen years Of ag"e, showing that the numiiier of artisans who sought a market for their skilled labor in the.New World, was extremely -smnall. LABOR IN FRANCE. 435 INDUSTRIES OF PARIS. In 180 an inquiry into the industries of Paris was instituted by the chamber of commerce, under the direction of MI. Moreno-Henriquis, and the result published in a ponderous folio of 1,088 pages. This volume* gives, in great detail, the history, progress, and present condition of twentygreat groups of industries in that city, and of the numerous subdivisions of each group, with the various rates of wages paid to the eploys distiguishig respectively men, women, boys, girls, and apprentices. The total value of the products of these industries in 1860 amounted to 3,369,092,949 francs, distributed as follows: able oing the aggregate and proportionate value of the products of industry of Paris in 1860. No. Group. Value. Percentage to value.,t the whole. Francs. ~1 Food ~~~~~.............. Fo1,087,904, 367 32.29 2 Building....................... 315,1266, 477 9.36 3 Furniture................... 199, 525,948 5.93 4 Clothing. 454,538, 168 13. 49 S Yarn and woven goods-............. 119,998,751 3.56 6 Steel, iron, copper, &c............. 1(3, 852,428 4.87 7 Gold, silver, platina, &c............ 183,390,55-3 5. 45 8 Chemical and ceramic industry......... 193,616,349 5.75 9 Printing, engraving, and pa per making..... 94, 166,528 2.79 10 Various industries: First division, mathematical instruments and time-pieces-66, 040,'233 1. 96 Second division, skins and leather - 100,881,795 3. 00 Third division, carriages, saddlery, and military equipments-.-93,849,195 2.78 Fourth division, wooden ware, baskets, and brushes.27, 075,323 0.80 Fifth division, articles de Paris - 127,546,540 3. 78 Sixth division, industries not grouped.... 141, 140,294 4. 19 3,369, 09'2,949 100.00 WAGES. The rates of daily wages earned by the 416,811 persons employed in the various industries of Paris-ranging from 1 franc to 20 francs for males, and from 1 franc to 10 francs for females-are given in detail in the table on the following page: Statistique de 1'industrie A Paris resultant de l1enqu61te faite par ha chambre de commerce pour 1'ann6e 1860. Paris, 1864. Table showing tihe various rates of daily wvages of persons employed in each group ofidsrisi atsiah ya 30 D)ESIGNATION OF THE GROUPS OF INDUSTRIES. 4a Cs 0 0 P4 P4~' Ca~. Rlates of wages. a Cd 10 Ce~~~~~~~~~0 - ~~ Q ~~~ ~ ~ Q ~~~Cl Pe C C1 Cd Q I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ From 40 cents to 50 cents - - - 3, 704 1~~~~44A 34P 06 18 12C6 36 3 28Cd P- 16 10 9 7 605 6'H From 50hcnt to2 0 cents - -1......... 7.645 1, 64 562 1, 419 34 3,'25 38 578 305 98 25 —- 210 121 380 554 9366 From 60 cents to 30 cents............ 63,517 0 7-2 71,5 5,4 1,642 13,15 628 41, 4 973 48 45 1 656 408 1 149 2,1942 35:950 From 70 cents to 80 cents - - 2,..7.2.7,.172.2, 85063 94861, 527 2,5409 824,48,32 43007 1 7-10 2 136 7586 1 433 1, 322 3, 5910 From 40 cents to 90 cents - -2.......,7:38 11,44 3486 5 492 2,l 45 14204 1 676 91, 81 12307 1,60 1,08 3 138 989 2,1 46 1 07 49,5710 From 90 cents to $1 —.........1,2176 13,885 4312 3,03 81995,99 1,2 85 76-24 1,605 1,938 2 2,909 314 1,12-2 543 39,7 36 From $1 to $1.10 1 859 16, 981 7, 138 4,689 1, 567 4, 665 2, 658 1, 574 3,114 2 677 960 2, 856 365 1,2718 1,901 54, 1 ) From$60cltsto $1.0. -ns —------- 7316 2,6650 1,637 5 398 1834 1,137 8192-2 48 659 314 398 208 1193 15 2 10,025 0 From $1.0 ctsto $1.0. -- 664........27 3,1777 3, 379 1,221 1 5367 1, 816 1,0 636 589 1, 6829 1,369 3213 216 1, 543 63 61 163 19, 5391 From $1 0 cnsto $9.0... - -......... 250381 9 668 528,9 230 5 36 30 I 282 36 1 825 2 940,69 178 214386989256 -46 78 507 39,2410 From $140 to $ 1. 50............. — 21 5241698 7118 4228 12 56 49-52,566 1504 4871 5397 180 4846 145 13471 13590 54,164 From $t150 to $ 1.60 —........... 756 2 966 1671 498 78 5013 8162 30 416 100 319 62 2 131 75 02 Fr-om $1.60 to $1O.80 -- 92....... 6 3 77 3 161 9504 2345 1136 2876 656- 58 131 259 177 599 3 11- 14 3 621 426 29 711 Fromn$1'S30to 2 -- 61............ ~ 618 121 990 136 42 80 81 941 52 28124 69 Z -- 7 0 324 Fromi $24 to 2.250 -- 83.......... 0 1024 212 1:6 254 422 16 839 83 18S64 6 304 24 135 413 51,614 From $2.20 to $2460...........- - 14 6 7 4 12 21 11516 80 319 — -20 - - - - 22 3 7 14 From $249 to $3160 —........... 26 17 118 10 16 17 37 16 49 48.13 4..... 9..... 380 From $3to A —.............. 10..... 54 19 17 15 6-~2 15 6 10 - - - —................ 8 216 From?I..-.............. 6 ----- 13 3 14 10 ----- 5 6 - - - - - —....................... 57 Total males-............30, 031 740, 243 31, 905 27, 247 10, 490 26, 700 ii, 505 10, 772 13, 834 10, 030 5, 791 15, 980 3, 294 10, 838 12. 099 290, 759 Wages per diem of females.* Less than 020 cents............ 1.5 —-- 8 1,1-88 1287..-... 23 74 37 7 83 10 16 128 490 3, 605, From 20 cents to 30 cents-........2, 189- - - 365 5, 577 2, 515 2!9 119 303 390 45 238 110 68 917 733 13, 598 From 30 cents to 40 cents..........1, 636 16 4-28 -10, 748 4, 525 409 490 1, 015 1,129 137 1414 241 203 2,613 585 24, 366 From 4t0 cents to5O cen]-ts.........- 1, 667 8 1, 461 15, 3 6 4, 435 448 883 1, 170 1, 456 206 21-2 4012 290 4, 077 502 32, 533 F rom 50 cents to 60 cents......... 559 5 640 50, 097 2, 316 69 867 593 889 195 58 643 80 I 2, 624 23 19, 928 From 60 cents to 70 cents............... 178 8 4 276 2, 962 1,100 52 723 202 3e8 121 2 115 92 1, 760 84 7, T)9 From 70 cents to 80 cents............... 39 2 231 851 185 26 277 26 29 30 3 184 7 297 63 2, 250 From 80 cents to 90 cents............... 364 224 165.22.. 51. 36 6 64 271 148 46 1, 264 From 90 cents to $1..................... 9................ 24 16 29 21 1 1 2 -............... 51 24 278 From $1 to $1.20................................. 15 120 30........ 20 4 2....... 47 24 270 From $1.20 to O$l.405............... 97 3........ 1 7 2 1 1.......... 311 18 146 From $1.40 to $........................ 6 33 1............................................................... 5 28 73 Total females..................... 7, 636 35 3, 475 47, 477 15, 637 1, 053 3, 597 3, 433 4, 290 788 749 1, 769 825 12, 676 2, 870 106, 310 Boys.....-......................... 1,183 964 2, 517 498 212 1,108 3, 017 190 1, 224 994 56 834 253 1,106 5 14,16! Girls...............9...... 54 3,155 471 5 612 2 159 16 1 1 18 1, 078..... 5, 581 Total apprentices................. 1 192 964 2, 571 3, 653 683 1,113 3, 629 192 1, 383 1, 010 57 835 271 2,184 5 19, 742 ---— _ _ - -__ I — Males.....- 30, 031 70, 243 31, 905 27, 247 10, 490 26, 700 11, 505 10, 772 13, 834 10, 030 5, 791 15, 980 3, 294 |10, 838 12, 099 290, 759 Females................................ 7, 636 35 3, 475 47, 477 15, 637 1, 053 3, 597 3, 43: 4, 290 788 749 1, 769 825 12, 676 2, 870 106 310 Apprentices............92 964 2, 571 3,.53 68 1, 113 3, 629 192 1, 1383 1,010 57 835 271 2,184 5 19,742 Aggregate number of work.people| 38,859 71,242 37,951 78,377 26,810 28,866 18,731 14, 397 19, 507 11, 828 6, 597 18, 584 | 4,390 25,698 14, 974 416,811 * The average daily wages, as computed from data in the above table, were as follows: males, 88.7 cents; and females, 44.3 cents. NOTE..-Tn the above and in all snhsequent statements, the value of the franc has been computed at 20 cents. This is done chiefly for convenience of computation, the Z more exact equivalent being 19.3 cents, United States coin. 3_ Q ]~Iales...................................[ I 1.-~-~/~ 9-~- ]'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,F [ 0,01 70 433,95 7 ~710 90~6,70 1,0 [1, 72 3 83 1, 3 [5 7115 803 24 083 2,C9 9, 5 438 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. In a note appended to the table on the precedig page the average dlaily wages earned by males and females respectively in the aggregate industries of Paris are shown. The following table exhibits, however, the average rates earned by men, women, and children in each branch of manufacture named below: Table showing the number of work-people and wagfnd children, i the following branches of manufacture in Paiin 186. Wages ofManufactures. Men. Women. Children. Aver- Aver- AverRange ge. Range. ag.ae. Masons....................................... 31,676 $ to$40 085 Machinery and engines....................... 8,0 30 to $050 $034 $040 lteating-apparatns: stoves,furnaces, ovens, &c. 3, 559 50 to 00 }Foundeiies: iron, brass, copper, lead, and zinc. 4,026 50 to 240 91 30 to 60 43 23 Sewing-machines.47........6.0.to.1.80 0 47.70 64 Fire-arms, swords, &c.........................7t 2 103 598 lHardware................................... 297 Boilers and kettles of iron, brass, and copper. 2, 254 50 to 1 60 87 ----- 35 Tin-ware.-5.............2...87.. 1, 53940 Pow'ter-w are, tin-foil, and putty.............. 607 60 to 2 00 92 30 to 50 32 30 Wool-spinning.-........0........ 10........ 575 24 Cotton-spinning................................ 2, 146 40 to 1 20 73 25 to 65 37 16 Shawls: woolen and cashmere-1,930 t 200 75 20 to 90 39 22 Pi inting and figuring woven-fabrics and dressgoods....- — 566..5080.1..20.998. 5660 46 15 Dyeing threads and tissues................... 07 60 to 2 00 83 25 to 70 41. Woven fabrics for dresses, house-furnishing, buttons, vests, &c.-........................ 2, 488 30 to 2 00 86 10 to 70 35 26 Trimmin gs: galloons, buttons, &c............ 8, 426 40 to 00 79 20 to 1 39 19 Artificial flowers............................... 7 t 7, 831 5 Corsets and hoop-skirts....................... 254 60 to 1 20 7 229 to 1 20 35 40 Upholsterers-:.................3, 591 60 to 12 40 1 04 30 to 80 46 -.- -. Tailors-.................... 26, 138 60 to 2 tO 92 20 to 90 42 25 Tanners —--. —-------------— 1, 2.86 50 to 1 80 88 -............. Mor1occo-miakers —-------------- 1, 14-2 70 to 2 00 94 15 to 50 20. —Leather-dressers-................1, 6610 60 to 2 40 99 25 to 50 34 2-2 Boots and shoes................-..18, 082 30 to 2 00 73 15 to 1 20 38 23 Gloves: leather-................ 1,196 60Oto 2 00 93 2080o 80 44 10 Fur goods -......-.............1, 085 50 to 2 00 91 30 to 80 43 2X MKilitary eqnipments -------------- 5, 487 70 to 1 60 93 15 to 80 47 3.3 Hat-making-..................3, 354 40Oto ~220 1 12 2080o 1860 49. 13 Straw-hats.... -.................-. 904 60 to 2 00 1 09 20 to 1 20 45... Coaches and carriages-.............4, 957 50 to 2 40 92 40 to 60 43 30 Fine jewelry-.................5, 0571 60 to 2 40 1 1 1 20 to 1 00 59 23 C"heap jewelry -2 —--------------, 937 30 to 2 00 93 10 to 1 ~20.50 22 Silver-ware —----------------- 694 60 to 2 20 1 17 40 to 80 64Workers in~the precious metals —-----— 1, 240 50 to 2 00 96 40 to 90 50 45 Lapidary work ----------------- 317 60 to -2 40 1 27 40 to 80 51.... Clocks, watches, and watchunalers' materials. 2, 386 60 to- 2 40 1 02 40 to 1 tO 57 20 Mathematical and optical instruments. -....3,108 40 to 2 00 98 30 to 1 20 45~ 27 Furniture: cabinet-ware-............. 7, 951 50 to 2! 40 9-2 35 to 80 47.... Paper-hiangings: wall-paper -..........4, 459 50 to 2 40 1 0:3 20 to 60 28 30 Umabrellas, canjes, whips, &c. -.........2, 222 50 to 2 00 81 15 to tO 41 17 Musical instruments of metal-......... 725 60 to 2 00 1 07- - —.......... 25 Piano-fortes and harps —----------— 2,101 60 to 2 40 1 06-.....- - 60 3.5 lirushes ------------------— 1, 737 50 to 1 60 81 25 to 80 44 16 Matches -.......-............ 7-22 45 to 1 20 63 30 to 1 20 45 2-4 Printers type-.................6,158 50 to 2 40 99 20 to 1 00 42 32 Lithographic printers.-...........3, 219 508 2o~~40 1 02 30 to 1 20 45 19 C'hemicals and coloring matter -------— 1, 749 50 to 2 C0 74 25 to 80 42 12 3 Pharmliacists, druggists, &c —-------— 1, 511 20 to 1 60 56 30 to 80, 41 15 Perfumers-...................1, 4t3 60 to 2 00 73 20 to 90 39 30 The figures given in these columns are the computed averages-not the mean rates. MANUFACTURE OF LEATHER GLOVES. As an illustration of the completeness of the results of the inquiry, al PinDgle branch of industry, the product of which finds its chief market in this country, has been selected, and translations of the letter-prebs and table are presented on the-fol"lowing pag-,es. LABOR IN FRANCE. 439 HISTORY. Before it cae to be an article of the toilette, the glove was made use of to protect kthe hand. From skins and the coarser indls of cloth, mittens were first made, being a kind of sack without division except for the thumb. Afterward, they were cut at the commencement of the joints of the fingers, so as to leave the fingers at liberty. In the sixth century the glove of tick skin began to appear; at a later period thin plates of metal were added, fmig the gauntlet adopted by the chivalry at the coineceinentoftefoortenthcentury. Under the Valois, gloves constituted part of tlhe dress of the lor of the court. Te hosiers made mittens of wool, and the glovers madie gloves of cloth or of' skins. The ost celebrated gloves were those made at Paris and at Vendome; those made at this last-mentioed city were so fine that they could be inclosed in a nut-shell. A practice r a long ie prevailed of perfuming gloves with musk, the essence of lneroli, and of frangipanni. To the loves of in and of wool were added, under Louis XIII, satin and velvet gloves. The oves orn in the time of Louis XIV were generally ornamenuted with ribbons, laces d fringes of gold and silver. During the long ei of this king many cities besides Paris and Vendome acquired a just renown by the perfection of their products. At this period is dated the reputation of te gloves of Grenoble, D Blois, Luneville, Niort, and B6ziers. Hlami lproduced the gloves known a doskin gloves. In the last cenItury French industry lha(ld. contrbuted a large quantity of gloves to the trade of Holland, England, and even Flaners and Italy, while we were indebted to those countries for certain other kinds. The anu turers of gloves formed an important community, which received its first corporate authority in the time of Philip Auguistus, in 1190; these enlactm.ents, confirme in the reign of subsequent monarchs, were renewed in 1656, by Louis XIV. In 77 the gloves, already united to the perinmers and powder-makers, were joined to the wig bag-akers and he girdle-makers. They had at that time the exclusive uright to make all sorts of gloves, mittens, and other covering for the hands, to double, to line Ornament, and erich them ith embroideries and lace, with gold and silver, ure or imitated, with silk and all other ornaments, and to wash and per'fune therm. They were obliged to ke their gloves of good skins or other material, with the ends of the fingers well secured, being of correct proportions, and bound and edged with the sae material as the rest of the glove, throughout their whole length, and doubled and stitched ite accordance with the rules of the -art. Gloves were sold by the merchants and small dealers as well as by the miaster-glovers, hut the manufacturing of th em was prohibited to the former. Accordingy to an ancient proverb, in order to furnish a complete glove, it was -neceseary that three kingdomis should furnish each its quota of handicraft to the work; Spain, the preparation of the skin; France, the cutting; England, the mnaking of the seam. The dlexterity wvhich our workmen have attained in each of these three operations has rendered this -adagre obsolete, and French products possess now a, superiority which is aekuowvle ged by our rivals themselves. I It was afttr the Rt' volition tlhat, the rise of gloves of skins, and the making of them, became, an oltject ot speci 4 iiidostry. The progress made by the glove-inaking industry for the paist tw cittlf vie y( ais has been very considerable. This is to be attributed in part to the quadity ot the skins tanned in France. Annonay, Prins, Gu tiolle, Romnans, and (>ha~unont prepare kid-skins andi lambskins suit ible for the m'iniwc of smiooth-finished gYloves, andi Milhau furnishes the skins in considJerilule quatitity tom the making of lanuib -and castor gloves. As to the cut ot -loves 7 (reat improvem-ents ha~ve been made of late years, the most important of wxhich ame clure to Xavier Jouvin. Tke cut called " 1'emporte piece," amnd the systeni of umeasni in" invented by this mianufacturer in 1835, has resulted iii giving to the glove-moannimetuime,' a maliematical precision. Besidesi the s mining ot the gloves has gained in elegance and siumplicity. This result has lt( en attained by the issistance of a little mechanical instroment in the. form of a vise which. makes the work more regular. Also by the use of stronger silk, an d by the more, gvereu use of the puncturing instrunments. The sexxi,,( of the gdoves is ordinarily (lome at the establishuients where the business is ctiri ed on. The iinutu itmnrers oif Paris employ very generally the workmen of tile:neighboriDno towns Of Veiidoie, 7Mortagne, Verucuil, Mitry, Tremblay, and other com11u1ntIs ot Oise and Seine-et-Oise. Paris niakes the finest quality of gloves. Grenoble makes the kid gloves of secondaroy quality; Cliumnont and Lutieville make principally for exportation; _Milhnmm, Niort Vendome, and Saint Jimilien prefer the manufiacture, of lamnb,. doe-skin, and castor gloves. Then the Swvedish glove, which is madeo of the refuse of the tanned skins turned, that is to say, the hair-side ine, are tnanmiatieured everywhere where r uioothfinished gloves are iiiade. Paris andl Grenoble tire the 6nly markets for the salec of glovxes. Manunfacturers of other cities do not self at honme, they have depots aud agenits, at Paris. 440 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The gloves of France are so highly appreciated abroad, that the manufacturers of other countries, to facilitate the sale of their products, do ot scruple to counterfeit our marks. So confident were the Irench manufacturers in the superiority of their goods, that at the time of the investigation relative to the commercial treaty with England, they asked for the free admission of foreign gloves into France. Moreoverthe exportation statistics clearly show the prosperity of this industry. The exportation of gloves which amounted in 1827 to a value of only 5,516,600 francs, reached 25,000,000 in 1849, and 30,998,000 in 1853. NUMBER OF MANUFACTURERS. In 1849 there were at Paris 185 glove-makers; in 1860 there were found to beEmploying more than 10 workmen.......4 Employing from 2 to 10 workmen.............79 Employing I workman, or working alone.....21 Total..................................154 Of which 10 carry on another trade. The census shows, besides these, 129 fashioners.* THE MAGNITUDE OF THE GLOVE MANUFACTURE. With 1,196 workmen the glove-makers manufacturedin 1860 toteamount of 14987,400 francs. The average for each establishment, 97,320 francs; and for each workman, 12,531 francs. If we add to the number of workmen the 129 fasioners, working with 15 persons, the number will be raised to 1,340, and the average redced to 11,184 francs. With 26 workmen borne upon their lists, the 129 fashioners have manufactured to the amount of 170,185 francs over and above that of the glove-makers; average for each, 1, 319 francs. RENTS. The rents of the 154 establishments amount to the sum of 290645 francs; average for each establishment, 1,887 francs. Amon, the fasioners, 9 are concierges," (doorkeepers.) The united rents of the remaining- 120 amount to 19, 585 francs; average for each, 163 francs. WORKMEN. Number on the census of 1860: Men, 7d47; women, 422; children under 16 years of,age, (including 26 apprentices,) 27, of which 25 are boys. and 2 girls. Total, 1,196 workpeople, classified as follows: Dressers, cutters, and "1doleurs; " splitters, puneturers, embroiderers, sewers, and claspers. In 1849, the glove-makers employed 1,950 workmen. The decrease of 754 is explained by the employment of a greater number of workmen in the departments where handwork is less expensive than in Paris. WAGES. M1en.-146 work hy the day, and 601 by the piece; 9 earn less than 3 francs each per day; 33 earn. 3 francs each per day; 303 earn 3.25 francs each per day; 14 earn 3.50 francs enen per (lay; 8 earn 3.75 francs each per day; 145 earn 4 francs each per day; 127 earn 4.50 f-ancs each per day; 284 earn 5 francs each per day; 13 earn 5.50 francs each per (lay; 68 earn 6'francs eachl per dlay; 9 earn 8 francs each per day; 4 earn 10 francs each per day. The workmen earning less than 3 francs are generally hoardled by the emp)loyer. Those wvho earn more than 6 francs are the chiefs of shops or skillful cutters working by the piece. Wonten.-95 are lpaid by the day, and 3271 by the piece. 45 earn 1 franc each per day; 45 earn 1.50 francs each per day; 2~9 earn 1.75 frances each per day; 49 earn 2 frances each per day; 39 earn 2.215 francs each per dlay; 152 ea rn 2.50 francs each per dlay; 41 earn 3 francs each per day; 11 earn 3.25 francs each per day; 9 earn 3.50 francs each per day; 2 earn 4 -francs each per day. Children, -A young girl under 16 years of age earns 50 centimnes per day as assistant. Apprentices.-Of 26 apprentices, 11 have naeither salary nor gratuity: 3 receive an un~certain. gratuity; 12 receive from 50 centimes to 1 franc per day; 3 of them are boarded by the employer. HOURS OF LABOR. The working-day consists generally of twelve hours; from 7 to 7 in summer, and fromi 8 to 8 in winter, of which two hours are taken for meals. *The " fashioners " (fa~onniers) appear to be small manufacturers or contractors. LABOR IN FRANCE. 441 DEAD SEASON.? Seventy-six glove-makers report no dead season. As for the others the season contiues three and one-half moths in June, July, August, and September. MANNERS AND HABITS. odgings with the proprietor; 571 furnish their own lodgings; 167 lodge in furnished apartments; 571 are well behaved, (un6 conduite bonne;) 38 doubtful; 138 bad; w how to read and write; 59 know how to read only; 25 neither read nor write; 76 keep holiday every Monday. Wonen.-Of 422 workwomen, 3 have lodgings with the proprietor; 389 furnish their own lodgings; 30 lodge in furnished apartments; 397 are well behaved; 10 doubtful; 15 ad; 35 can read and write; 15 can read; 49 can neither read nor write; 29 often keep holiday on Monday. Children-The young girl lodges with her parents, and can read and write. Apprentie1-Of 26 apprentices, oly is a girl. Boy.-3 lodge with the proprietor; the rest with their parents; 18 read and write; 2 read only; 5 neither read nor write; 1 only is the son of the proprietor; 1 is a ward of the city of Paris, on account of merit in the schools; the others are placed at this business by their parents; 3 are egaged by contract, and 22 without contract; 7 are engaged for two years; 4 for three years; and 14 for four years. 1 pays 200 francs for the period of his apprenticeship. The ale apprentice is placed in the establishment by her parents, with whom she lodges, and is under contract for two years; can neither read nor write. MOTIVE POWER. A steam-engine of 4 horse-power is employed at the glove-making works, and is used in the process of splitting the leather. DESTINATION OF THE PRODUCTS. Franes. Marketed in France..............................7,061,900 Exported to the United Stts4,313, 000 Exported to England-.....................1,353, 800 Exported to Russia......................548,000 -Exported to Gray185; 500 Exported to Holland......................... 90, 000 Exported to Sweden...................... 60, 000 Exported to other countries..................1,375,200 7, 925, 500 Total value............................14, 987,400 TABULAR STATEMENT. The numlier and classification. of manufacturing establishments in Paris in 1860, by wards, (arrondissements,) with the value of the, annual product and the amount of rent in each; the number of men, womlen, children, and apprentices employed, distinguishing the men aiid women paid by the day from those engaged on piece-work, are given in the table which appears on the following page:, FOURTH GROUP-CLOTHING. No. 16.-Gloves of skin or leather. Number of manufacturers- Working population in 1860. Number ofq) Employing- Resident work-people, (residing constantly at Paris) —' Men paid- Women - c__ ~paid0 n ~ Mon- Women- Children under = ~ Arrondissements.. sixteen years of C' Working- Working- tho shop. 4 0 4~ 5'5 0 eP4 P5 ) 0 5 4.6 55' H4 5).- -..6.60 55 ~~~~~~~~~ +~~~~~~c I- +51~ I.............. 9 12 4 25 $317,900 $9,340 148 1 7 165 31 2 0 54 --- -------- 219 --— 219.... 29 136 46 8 2 —--------- 32 2 1 5 58 1,305,600 25:312 278 75 353 4:3 74 117 8...... 8 478 --- - 478 8 87 266 35 812 3............... 2 1 0 3I 15 86, 900 3, 418S 8 16:24 10 9 1 9.... 1 1 44 ---- 44 1 7 17 6 133 t4 -.......... 2 2 ii 5 7-2, 680 1,914 17 ---- 17 7.15 22 10..... 10 49 ---- 49 10 1 16 2 20 5.............. 1 3 ---- 4. 22,800 556 11.... 11 5 ---- 5-1........ I6 ---- 16.... 2 9 ---- 5 6............-... 5 2~ 7 2~5,1 00 1,598 4 4 8.... 7 7 2. 2 1 7 1 7 2 2 6 7 7 —--------- 2 2 ii 5 34, 800 9:30 7 3 10 1 1 0 1 1 ----------- 21 2 1 1 9 1 1 0 8 —----------— 6....-6 6 24, 200 1,720 9 2 1 1 —-- 15 1 5. —--------- 26 --- 26 --- 2 9 --—. 1 5 9.......... 3 1 4 3 20 574, 00910, 177 5 0 1 8 76 90 9 99 1.... 1 176 --— 176 1 9 67 2 97 It0 —-—...... 2 2 1 5 104,690 1, 7550 28 -!626 --- 25 ----------- 5t...... 25-51 - 51 -. 3 23 4 21 ---------—. —- j... 1 5,000 160 2....- 2-................... 2 - 2..... 2-2 1.................. 171............................. — - 1- 1,0-20 —--- 19-.............. I. 1 2, 700 54... --— 1............... - 1 -- Total...... 54 -79 21 1 -54 2, 997, 480 58, 129 609, 138 747 245 177 422 25 2 2-7 1, 186 ---— 1,196 26 146 601 1 96 327 LABOR IN FRANCE. 443 In the volume from which the foregoing extracts have been mnade, each subdivision of all the great groups of industries is, like the foregoing, fully and exhaustively presented. Although the period in wvhich this inquiry was made is not recent enough to furnish with sufficient exactness the rates of wages now ruling, yet if the investigation had extended to all the chief manufacturing towns, more copious extracts would have been made. CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES OF FRANCE. When the author of this Report visited France in the summer of 172 the termination of the Franco-German war was so recent, and all branches of industry in such a prostrate and unsettled condition, that he did not deem it expedient to make a personal investigation into the cost and condition Of labor in that country as he had done in Great Britain, Belgium, Prussia, and Saxony. Industry not having resumed its regular channels, it was impossible to obtain such data in relation to w es as would indicate, with sufficient accuracy for publication in a eranent form, the earnings of the work-people. Unable to present accurate information on the subject of labor in a country so justly noted for its manufactures, and unwilling to omit its consideration altogether from this volume, resort has been had to the ublished results of investigations made by others at a comparatively recent perio. A circular dispatch was issued by the British foreign offe on June 7, 1870, to the secretaries of legations and Consuls, instructing them to report upon the condition of the industrial classes in foreign counties. From the reports of the British diplomatic and consular aents in France copious extracts have been made, which appear in the following pages: Eixtract from the report made to the British government on the con dition of the working classes of France, by Lord Brabazon, dated Paris, Se~ptemtber 20, 1871. There are 9,000,000 families in Franice, 1,000,000 of which are in easy circumstances. Of the 8,000,000 belonging to the industrial or working, classes, 3,000,000 are inhabitants of towns; while in England the town population is computed at iour-fifths of the -whole, in France it is about two-fifths. Land is.very equally distribnted anionig the bulk of the polpulation, and the samne is the case with personal property. IaI 1846, the population of France was distributed as follows: Rural, 75.58 per cent.; urban, 24.42 per cent. In 1861 the population was rural, 711.14 per cent.; urbanl, 28.86 per cent. The decrease of the rural and increase of town population has continued since 1861 at an -augmented rate. The amount of general education of the French people miay b)e judged to some extent from the military statistics. The number of conscripts unable to read amounts to 30 out of every 100 for the whole of France. The degree of education, however, varies greatly in diffe~rent parts of the country, instruction beingy far more general in the eastern and northern th'an. in the southern districts.1 Amiongn the 89 departments there are 14 in which, out of every 100 conscripts, from 90 to 96 can read. As the working population of all countries may be divided into two sections, the agricultural,and the mechanical, and as the condition of the former is not subject to as ninany changes and variations as that of' the latter, it wvili be more convenient to give separately a general description of the agricultural class throughout France, before proceeding to consider the Luestions regardingr the artisans. AGRICULTURAL LABORERS. Agrrienitur~al laborers are divided into two classes; those who are engraged by the year and live onl the farm, and thocse who work by the day. Farm laborers who live in the farmn-buildings receive, in addition to food and lodging, wages partly paid in. mo(ney ("and partly in kind. The averagre,amount of money-wagges earned by farmlaboreirs is 145 francs ($2,9) a year. ~444 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. In some departments, such as l'Aisne. l'Aube, les Bouches du Rh6ne, and a ct d'or laborer earn over 200 francs ($40) in the year. In others, such s l'Avie, Corrze, les Co6tes du Nord, la Finist6rre, la Haute-Garonne, they do not receive more than 100 francs ($20.) The additional amount of wages received in kind throughout Franc is calculated to be about 26 francs ($5.20.) Bu; there is a much greater difrence in lie ount paid in kind than in money. In the departments Bonches du Rhe, Gar, d Gironde, it is not customary to pay in kind. In some this description of payment Ldoes not amount to more than 10 francs, ($2;) in some it surpasses in vae the amount ofte money payment (in Aisne, Aude, Hdrault.) By adding together both descriptions of payment it will be found that the average amount of wages received by a farmlaborer in France is 171 francs ($34.20) a year. If to this be added the value of food consumed by the laborer, which may be computed at about 10 cents a day, it will be found that the maintenance of a farm-laborer costs his employer, on an average, about 354 francs ($70.80) per annum. The wages of day-laborers vary, according as they are fed or not. In order to facilitate comparison, we will only take into consideration the day-laborer who is not fed by his employer. * * * From a table presented to the Emperor by the minister of the interior in 1858, it appears that the average daily pay of a day-laborer in France was 1 franc 75 centies, (35 cents.) The highest is 2 francs 50 centimes, (50 cents,) in the departent of the Seine, and the lowest 1 franc 13 centimes, (22, cents,) in the C~tes du Nord. According to the "Statistique Agricole Officielle," the daily pay of a woman in the agricultural districts was 85 centirnmes, (17 cents,) and that of children 63 centimes (12 cents.) The same document shows that the male agricultural laborer works, on an average, 200 days in the year, women 120, and children 80. If the above figures be correct the day-laborer earns on an average $70, a woman $0.40, and a child $10. The same publication gives the following calculations on the annual expenses of day-laborers, single and married:.Average expenditure of a single man. Francs. Lodging...................................................40 Food -.... -.........20 46........................................00 Clothing........ 45 9 00 Total............................. 302 60 40 Deducting this from the amount which it was calculated he earned in the year, $70, only $9.00 remain for other expenses or for investment. Avexage expenditure of a married day-laborer-'s family, consistiag of father, mother, and children. Items of ependiture.In French In United Items of expenditure. currency. States gold. Fr. C. Lodging.......................... 42 0 $8 40 Bread............................ 235 0 47 00 Vegetables.36 0 741 20 Meat........................... 42 0 8 40 Milk............................ 24 0 4 80 Wine, beer, and cider.................... 34 0 6 80 Salt............................ 7 50 1 50 Clothing._91 0 18 20 Firing........................... 32 0 6 40 Taxes........................... 5 45 1 09 Other expenses.. 32 0 6 40 Total........................ 581 45 116 29 The foregoing is, of course, calculated to meet the requirements of a French, and not of an English laboring-man. For a family consisting of five persons to be able to afford the above expenses, they must all work, and even then the united wages leave but a small margin. LABOR IN FRANCE. 445 In French In United currency. States, gold. Fr. C. Man's wages............................................. 350 0 $70 00 Woman's wages.......................................... 102 0 20 40 Three children, at 50 francs a year......................... 150 0 30 00 Total.............................................. 602 0 120 40 The married workman is, therefo)re, according to this calculation, and under very favorable circumstances, still worse off than his single neighbor, for while the latter may, if he is economical, lay by about 48 francs, ($9.60,) the other will have but a balance of 21 francs ($4.20) at the end of the year. But it must be here remarked that among agricultural laborers in France, there are a certain number who supplement their resources by the prosecution of an accessory industry, such as weaving, wood-cuttinog, sawing, wooden-shoe-making, cask-making, and buildfingr. Such an accessory industry may increase a single man's wages bV about 190 francs a year, ($38,) but it is probable that those who carry on a trade in addition to their agricultural labor, cannot work as many dlays in the year at agriculture and consequently earn less than the pFareiy aglicultural laborer. It is calculated that about 8 per cent. of the agricultural laborers are engaged in some trade. * * In order to form a just appreciation of the in'terial condition of a working-man, it is not sutlfficient to have a knowledge of the average amount of wages he earns in the year; we rlust also klinow how much is to be deducted fromn this sum to defray the necessary expenses of lodging and food. FOOD. The food of the French workman is, as a general rule, substantially inferior to that to which the Englishman is accuxtomed. Many a French factory-hand never has anything better for his breakfast than a large slice of common sour bread rubbed over with an onion to give it a flavor. For dinner, some soup, potatoes or carrots, and sometimes a small piece of pork, which costs about 10 cents a pound; and for their last meal they eat the meat of which their soup was composed. With this frugal fare some drink only water, others half a bottle of cider, beer, or wine. Bread, vegetables, andl fruit, are generally to be obtained in France both cheap and good; bult meat is bad and (lear. The following is the present price of food in a "cuisine ouvrihre" frequented by none but factory-hands at Rouen: Bill of fare.-A dish of meat and vegetables, 6 cents; bread ad libitum, 3 cents; onehalf litre, or ~ of a pint of "1cidre coulp6,"1 or eider and water, 2 cents-li cents a meai, of a pint of pure ecider, 3 cents; a basin. of soup, 4 cents-7 cents. In the north of France an Englishmian need make no difference in the amount or the inature of thiediet towhiichhe is accustomedl. As he approaches,lhowever, thesouthern districts he should diminish the amount of animal food and substitute for it breadaand. -vegetables. Bread is an article which is always to be obtained of good quality in France,,and F'renchmien consumneit in muich larger quantities than we do. It forms the "1pihe-e do r6sistance" at every French workman's meal; and all other articles of feed are regarded as accessories to what, in France is literally the "staff of lie. The F-rench ha,,vealways be~en renowned f'or their culinary skill. It is atalent pecuiliarto the whole nation. The very poorest classes possess it. A French man orwomianiwill. manufacture a lpalatable meal out of the very coarsest, and what, to ouir ideas, may appear evemnimost, repulsive materials. The "1soupe,"1 wh ich is to be met with on every French workman's table, is infinitely preferable to the concoction of hot water, pepper, and gravy which t he richest millionaire ine England isobliged to put uip with, if he has to dine at an ordinary English provincial hotel, or even at many an establishment in the mietropolisc:alling itself first-cla~ss. And yet it wouild)beinjudi~icious sornetimesto look too close!,,lyt~othe ~comiposition of the Frenchi dish. Thieresuiltof this isthata Frech fwork~mian can live, even luxuriously, -where an Englishman would starve. As regards beverage, beer and[ wine are good, wholesome, anti cheap. Within the last few years the consnuiption of hoer has increased enormously among all classes. Formerly it was ahuost uinknown iii France; now it is' the common restaurant beverag(e of the Parisian middle-class. T1'le workmen, however, s'dl cling to their wine; the beverage com.mi~only coisuime(l by all classes at home. Thiel)eer principally drutnk is the light Strasburg, which still bears its German name of "h ock," though it is of a mumch umilder niature than the original. The French are very much addicted to the use, of the deleterious spirit called "1ab-F sinthe,") which has a miost injurious effect on their health. The, Englishman is at all times too prone to indulg-e freely in. drink, buit if he has any regard for his health he 446 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. will becareful to avoid dram-drinking, (the "petit verree," composed of all sorts of noxious spirits;) for, in addition to the adulterated character of these spirituous liquors, the dry climate of France will not permit men to take with impunity the aount of spirit which they could, perhaps, drink in England without any positively ijrious effect. According to Dr. Cenveilb]hier the populationof France is not sfficiently well nourished. He calculates the daily consumption of alimentary matter by a strong, healthy man to be, at present, from 46 to 49 ounces, viz, 28 ounce water, 14 ounces carbon an 7 ounces azote or nitrogen. In order, he says, tat the matterliiated should beregularly replaced, there ought to be an excess of carbon anditroen. A healthy man ought, therefore, to consume daily 31 ounces of dry food, or 6 cwt. 1 qr. 14297 bs. annally. The rations of the French soldier have been fixed upon this calculation. It is, however, proved that the average daily consumption of the whole population is only 4 cwt. 1 qr. 9.017 lbs., instead of 6 cwt. 1 qr. 14.297 lbs. per man aually; but, if the number of children under five years of age be deducted, the consumption will be 4 cwt. 2 qrs. 3.63 lbs., a difference of from 1 ct. 3 qrs. 2416 lbs. to 1 w. 3 qrs. 13.439 lbs., or 29 per cent. This consumption, which corresponds to44 gallons wheat, 2-2 gallons of barley or rye, 75.018 pounds of meat, and 80.377 pounds of potatoes, is, according to the doctor, much above the average of the last century, but is, e considers, still insufficient. This must be very much below the average wants of a large portion of the population, because it must be borne in mind that the general consumption is relatively greater among the upper classes and in towns, than among the poorer classes and in the country. As regards the consumption of wheat alone, the average is stated to have been 33 gallons per man in 1821, and 63 gallons per man in 18. The consumption of meat per head since the year 1812 is shown by the following table, in pounds: Years. Sheep, pigs; Oxen. Cows, Total. Years.gots goats. calves. 1812....... 4,409 2,205 15,432 22,046 1830.. ~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~ ~~11,023 4,409 17,637 33,069 1840..17,637 4, 409 17,637 39,683 1852.. 17,637 4,409 24,251 46,297 1862............... 22,046 6,614 24,251 52,711 Taking into consideration the increase of population, the consumption per head for 1871 wonld be over 72~ pounds. In 1862, 1,900,000,000 pounds of meat were consumed in France, (reckoning- the kilogramnme- at 2 pounds English;) 48 per cent. were oxen, 40 per cent. pigs, 12 per cent. sheep and goats; in all, 16,O000,00(0 of animals were slaughtered. The following table will show the price of provisions in France during a period of thirty-two years: Half a kilo, i. 1-10 of a pound. Ordinarv-sized bird. Hal doe l bnh kilo. 1 oe.els. Average period of 8 years. a - 1804-1833.......$0. 7 1.51$0. 7 35 $0. 07 3-5 $0. 08 3-5 $0. 16 2.5 $0. 49 4.5 $0. 72 2-5 0. 14 i.5.$0. 08 1-, $0. 572 5 1834-$1843...... 7 45 8 1-15 8 9 i-5 17 3.5 52 3-5 78 2-5 15 8 3-5 63 2-5 1844-1853...... 8i-5 8 4-5 8 3-5 10 19 3-5 57 3.5 84 16 9-~2.5 8155.5 1854........ 92-5 10 1-5 9 4-5 121-5 24 67 2-5 1 0i1-5 18 10 4-5 i 23 1855.........1012.5 11 1-51 10 4-5 13 1-5 272.5 73 1-5 1 06i1-5 19 3.5 1i3-5 i 34 3.5 Avnnual increase, per cent. From 1804 1833 to ____ __-__ —_ _-__ 1 - 1834 1843 ---— $0. 16 3-5 $0. 15 4-5 $0. 10 3-5 $0. 14 $0. 14 3.5 $0. 11 1-5 $0. 16 3.5 $0. 11 1-5,; 0. 09 4.S5 $0. 2.1 From 1834 1843 to 184415 ------ 112-5 1 43- 5 15 17 2-5 2124-5 19 14 1-5 13 2-5 -103-5 68 1-5 From 1844-1853 to 185. ~ —------- 583-5 63 3-5 55 4-5 88 89 4-5 68 79 1-5 50 59 3-5 181I 3.5 Froni 18P4 to 1855 2 12 4-5 196 204 164 2832-5 17-2 119 4-5 177 4.5 148 1-5 17 8 185.......... 3 151 6!-5 32-51 4 5 13 1 36.1 54 1 91 _.145 103 2-5 LABOR IN FRANCE. 447 CLOTHING. The Frenchl workman wears a blue linen blouse and tronsers. The sulit costs 10s. $. 42,) and one will last from on6 to two years. The only difference made ill winter is to put on two extra shirtlls, a woolen one over a cotton. Cloth clothing is more expensive ill France than in England; and as there is no occasion for an Eniiglishman wx ho) has emigrated to the north of France to make any change, it rests with himi to noe whether it would not be mnore economnical for him to adopt the cheaper, but less (tliurlde, dress of the country. In either ease, he will probably find that clthling costs lmneV iln France than ill England. In tilhe soth of France, however, an English work1:tn oghit certainly to adopt the blotise, which is infinitely cooler and pleasanter than his own dlress, when there is great heat. IThe following prices are those at present charged by a firm in Paris, whose principal dlealings are with the working-class: Francs. U. S. gold dollars. Complete suit....................................... 25 0 to 52 0 5 00 to 10 40 Paletot..... —-................-......... 19 0 to 38 0 3 80 to 7 (0 (1Coat.................................. — 35 0 to 52 0 7 00 to 10 Li0 Trousers and waistcoat.............................. 19 0 to 30 0 3 80 to 6 00 Trousers.............. 12 0 to 32 0 2 40 to 6 40 (Great-coat................... --'25 0 to 39 0 5 00 to 7 80 A coat, a pair of tronsers, a waistcoat, a hat, a shirt, The whole for a pair of gloves and a cravat................... 70 frcs. 14 00 Working-dress. Overalls........................................ 1 60 to 2 75 30 to 55 l;iolses.......... —----------------—....................... 1 90 to 4 25 18 to ~5 Shirts, apiece-.... 25 to 5 50 45 +o 1 10 Boots.......... 4 0 to 15 0 t) t o0 3 00 LODGINGS. Speaking generally, bhome-comforts are nTot to be met with in thle dwellings of lthe F!'rin(el workmen. Their houses in the smiall towns and in the colintiry r mlere lt it-h and plaster (rec(tiois, ill-calenlated to resist either the heat of thle iikiii ( tie coldl of winter. No do( bti thiere are many exceptions to this rile, as in the case of the "Cii6s Ouilbvres," which have been built in Paris, Marlaseilles, Amiens, and other fo t.x llus. Manu y eiplovers haxe -also followed the good example tlms set them,.and have b1uilt as g(odl houses for their wi ork-people( ais can be met with in the best parts f'Englad. Inl larg-e towns the artisanis usually lix i in apartnielnts in flats, iwhichi ae apt to be overcrowded, and, as a ril(, dirty. Workmnen do not appear to have much difficulty in findling, lo1rgings neair lhcir work; but this does not apply to Paris, on account of the local separation Of clisses. Thle "Cites Oovrieres," already mentionedl, are not all built on thle samie plan. Soime are large barraclks under regulation, in which apartments are let out at- a chbap rate to th.e.worlki-*. clisses. Altlionoh these huillin'- s hav..e been erectel with... every regard for the Coimf ort of thie -workini nani, and the regoulations are mnade as, little, (inpressive. —si oiipatitl~e with the ordcr mld reguli-ity xw lich are e sse-ti il tor i tdividuial happun ss w here laBrige iiisse s of iieii are taono-lit to -ether unaier the stint irof, still they liax,( ienever been potielar'iniono the classes for wxhost btm fit, tiny wtrex (ii citttd The lii neli wolvmnian11 olpects to siipeex,isien. On his rettrii homie lie xwi-dies to be ai fr ee eaandl to he inaster of lis ot\ ii l~omel"old -amid the conseonellce is ft-at for lack of a Itio inc-o orurmnapiat ni mny (if the mapaitiuents in thn ii bufildiirare let to a class for xxwloo they werci inxver intenldod The CitC, Onvritre at~ Marsoilles mnany be( taken as a sptcimein of this~ el ss of bnilding. It is lmiult on the sidt of tf( llknw hill Wjj liii h oxTelookcs M-mrseilles, -..d xxwinch issurmoiinte 1 li thin little, S I`e), I,sand contains leO roomis op~ening Onl to hong cor-riclors. The rooma- are let for`8Oc. to,~` aInd 4.2 a mtonth. The farnitare consists of an iron becdstlead, a table, two chairs, a cuitboard and a looking-glass. Only mnen are admuitted. The -workmiein hav\e the ase of a large restaurant in the hionse at very moderate prices. A phy-%sician attends and giaves medicine gratis. Hot-baths are prnepared every Sunday, anid cost 5 cents. 448 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The Citd Onvrihre, in Paris, in the Rue Rocheoartotains7dwellisbesides a salle d'asile and a small establishment of baths. Furniture is not provided. The rooms are lbetter than can be obtained by worken i the neighborhood, and the pric abont the same. The Citd Napoleon was the first Cit Ouvrire erected in Paris, ad is composed of 15 houses, 929 dwellings for married workmen, and 604 rooms for bachelors. Rent for workmen, $13.40 to $50 a year; for employs or clerks, $59 to $79. The furliished rooms are let for $1.60 a nmouth. At Amens, similar erections have been made. Rent for family, from $15.60 to $25.20. The system, which has really been a perfect uccess,istataoptedatMlouse. T workmen's dwellings consist of rows of two-storied houses, each with a garden attached, and the coidition of the lease is such that a workmanafteracertainmerof can obtain the freehold of his house. This has an immense moral influence on th population. There is no irritating system of supervision. The workman feels that is the possessor of a real home, that in a few years he will become a proprietor; ad thus the whole character of the man is chaned. i self-respect inreases, lie feels himself a mtember of the body-lpolitic, and his interests enlist him on the side of order. The following passages are extracted from a sanitary report on the codition of Lille which was drawn up and presented to the municipality of that twn in 1832. Great improvements have been effected since that date, and several ew quarters for t working-classes have been erected; but if the misery is no less now than in 132, there is still enough left to afford ample scope for improvement: "It is impossible to imagine the dwellings of our working-classes without seei them. Through the state of indifflrence and demoralization in which they live, tey bring themselves into a condition of dreadful and deadly misery. In their dak, underground dens, in their rooms, which might be taken for cellars, the atmospere, however loathsome, is never changed. The walls are covered with filth. The beds, when there are any, consist of dirty pllanks, Thecoaere sheet, the color and material of which is hidden under a layer of dirt, resembles alsieve in texture. "The filrniture is mildewed, bedanbed, and broken. The windows, always closed, are pasted up with paper so blackened and smoked that the light is uable to etrate. In somne cases the windows are nailed pbyteproprietortopreeittpas of glass from being broken by opening. The floor is worse than all, strewed with rbbish, filt, cinders, and remnants of vegetables picked up in the streets, and infected with vermin of all kinds. The air is unfit to be breathed,"1 &C. Al. Blanqui has thus described the workmen's, habitations at Rouen "The entrance is often by a low, dark, and narrow passage, where a man can hardly stand upt-ight. These passages are the bed of a fetid stream issuling( from. the different stories and apartments, arid which runs into the small court-yard and there stagnates. The staircases are spiral, without light or bannisters, bristling with hardeiied filth, arid by them are reached dismal low dens, with windows and doors which scarcely open or shuit, and with little or no furniture. The youngest children sleep on a bag of Cinders; the rest of the fhmily, father and mother, brothers and sisters, are all huddled together on a miseralble lit ter."y Great efforts have been made to ameliorate the condition of these wretched classes, and niuch has been effected since the above was written, but the amount of poverty tlm'at prevails renders it difficult to keep pace with it. M. Jules Simon remarks, in speakingr of the wretched condition of the -workingclasses in the French towns, that luckily they are not aware of the extent of their nimsery, and in proof of this he quotes an old woman lying on1 Some Wretched straw in a (lamip cellar, who, pointirg to her neighbor on the wet, bare floor, said, "I am not rich, but, tha uk God, I have my pallet of straw." WAGES AND QUALITY OF WORK. There can be n~o doubt that the trustworthiness of the workinin has an influence in most trades on his rate of wages. Of' course, in somac mechanical employments, where, the workman is buat a machine, and where there is n:o scope for the quality of honesty or dishonesty to make its influence apparen~t, the former may not be remunerated ass it should be; but, on. the other hand, in sonte tradles, such as the jeweler's, honesty fetches a high price. The persistent abstraction of an infinitesimal portion of the silk given to the Lyons workmen to manufacture has always weighed heavily on the trade of that city. The workman forgets that tf lDie fect of this petty fraud is to increase the cost of lprodluction, first, by loss of material; second, by imicreased expenditure in supervision. lie forgets flint the manufacturer has to contend wvith competition; that his competitor ar foeiner, woperhaps, are not so heavily weighted in the race, wvorking, probably, uender more favorable circumustauices, anid where, a stricter code of morals pievails. Onl this subject, M. P. Beaulien, in his "1Populations Ouvri~res," says: "1The LABOR IN FRANCE. 449 manufacturer who is the victim of petty larceny is obliged to sell his goods at the same rate as foreign manufacturers, although the cost of production is greater in his case, owing to the frauds to which he is subject. To meet this he has but one resource, viz the diminution of the rate of wages. Either the factory or work-shop must be closed or wages must be lowered. There is no middle course, and in either case the workman is the sufferer." In 1856 the French government, alive to the economical consequences of the dearth of 1853, instituted inquiries on the influence which the increased price of food had exercised on the rate of wages, with the following results: ate of wages in the principal departmental towns (Paris excepted) during the years 1853 and 1857. DAILY WAGES OF A WORKING-MAN WHEN BOARDED. 1853. 1857. Increase ~Ordinary pay~.................... $0 19 $0 21j- $0 02A Maximum................... 244 28 03Minimum pay......................... 14 17 02D WHEN NOT BOARDED. 1853. 1857. n crease. Ordinary pay...................0 37 $037 42i0 o0 05 Maximum pay........................ 47 54 07 ~~...Minimum py301 35 04J Fro the above tablit would appear that wages, taken en gros, increased between 1853 and 1857 at the rate of about 14 per cent., or one-seventh. But the most important point to ascertain is the ordinary daily rate of wages of workmen not'boarded, who compos'e by fiar the largest portion of working-men, and formmthe real laboring class. Under this category it was foundthat ornamenital workiers in stone attained to the highest rate of wages, viz: 68 cents in 1853, and S0 cents in 1857. Some of the more experienced workmen in the same profession received even ais much as 94cents in 1853 and $1.14 in185-'7. After themcam~e theworker~sin jewelryanld precious stones, who received 55 cents in 1853, and 59 cents in 1857. The wigf-makers received the lowest wages, 27 cents in 1853, and 33 cents in 1857; and the we-avers 2i8j cents in 1853, and 311 cents in 1857. Among women the artificial-flower makers obtained the highest rate of wages. From 261 cents their wages rose witbin the five years to 30 cents. The worst paid were the slop-makers, 19 cents in 1853, and 25 cents in 1857; the stay-makers, the embroiderers, and the seamstresses, who- received from 19'- cents to 193 cents in 1853, and 221-!; cents to 23 cents in 1857. In 1.854 and 1855 the following were the rates of wages of workmen cngaffed in the house-building, trade in the principal departmental towns:.Average daily rate of wages obtained by a good workman in the building-trade. Mason: In 1854., 43 cents; in 1855, 441 cents. Carpenter: In 1854, 46 cents; in 18155, 471 cents. Joiner: In 1854, 46 cents; in 18505, 48 cents. Locksmith: In 1854, 471 cents; in 1855, 49 cents. The quality of the work executed by French workmen is, as a general rule, good. They have much more taste than the English workmen; they consequently excel in the manufacture of all articles of luxury where refinement and a correct eye for the artistic are necessary; but where solidity or accurate finish is required, especially in ironandstel wrkthe Engltishmian is superior. COTTON MANUFACTURE. The manufacture of cotton, -which now occupies so prominent a position among the industries of the world, was not introduced into France until about the middle of the, seventeenth century. In 181.6 the French nmanufactories were employed on more than 1),000,000 kilog~rammes (11,810 tons) per annum. 29 L 450 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The cotton industry in France has from its very commencement adopted as its specialite the manufacture of fine texture, while England on the other hand has principahy aimed at the production of coarse articlesatacheaprate. TheFrenchtextres, in consequence of their fineness and elegance, have. always sold for higher ies than the English, but the proportion between the two prices has always remained about the sf ine. The average wages of cotton-spinners are from 30 cents to 40 cents; 40 cents is paid for spinning two sides and 30 cents for spinning one side. The hours of work at Rouen fbornerly were from 6 a. m. to 7 p.. They are now reduced friom 6 a. in. to 6.15 p. in., andl in some esonly fro 6 a. in. to 5.15 p. mi.; but the employers state that they are afraid they will not be able permanently to adhlere to this reduction on account of the loss which this diminution of labor entails. The following shows the difference in the wages of the workers in cotton in 1860 and 1870: PIECE-WORK.-Average salarieser day of good wore. 1860. 1870. Spinners.....................................0 32 0 39 Weavers......................... 74. Carders.... —. —. —. —.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-. — Winders, (men or women)....................39 Children.....................................25 Average............................... 7 This augmentation of wages is at the rate of 30 per cent. in ten years. The proportion between the Imen, women, and children from twelve to sixteen years of age employed in the cotton-factories of France, is 50 per cent. men, 25 per cent. women, and 25 per cent. children. In somie manufactories a good weaver, employed at piece-work, can gain as much as $1.19 a day, but this is an exception. In the Vosges wages are a little lower than those already quoted, but the augmentation during the last ten years has followed the same ratio. Daily wages in the cotton-frade at Amiens..Wages in U. S. geld. Hecklers.-$0 40 to'0 60 Preparers. --------------------------------- 30 to 40 Spinners —30 to 50 Reclers - — 0 to 5")0 Doffers -------------------------------- 12 to 45 Weavers-_-40 to 80 Mcechanics —------------------------------ coto 1 00 Foremen -------------------------------- 80 to 2 40 The houses built for their work-people by the ComPagnie Anon yme consist of fo ur romwithb a coal-shed and a small gTarden. The rent before the war was 50 cents, which has now been rednced to 25 cents. The houses of the same cla.ss in the neigrhborhood arc let at from 50 cents to 55 cents. Elbamff-Tbhis town, which holds such a prominent place in the manufacture of clotki, contains,, from 9,000 to 10,000 workmen permanently residing within. its limits; about 20.000 altogether, counting the floating population. The value of the manufactures of this town amounted in 1858 to 85,006,000 francs, ($17,000,000.) Thc fact that the number ot workmien employed for the last half century has not altered, is worthy of notice, althongh the prodiietion has so enormously increased. Thus if we take, for the sake of comparison, the years 1804 and 1853, that is'to say, a year in which all the work was executed by hand, and a year in which niachinery was emiployed, it will be found that the same nnmber of men were employed, notwithstanding the'dillerence in the amount produced. In 1804, 15,500 pieces, of cloth were manufactured,' while in 1853 82,000 pieces were, made. In 1804 three kinds of cloth were made, the average price pf which. was 24 frances the metre. In 1853 the action of machinery had reduced the average Iprice to 1~2 francs the nietre. The cloth nianufactured in 1853 for 12 francs was superior to the cloth which in 1804 sold for 20 francs. Trhewag-es of the workmen in 1804'crc 24 cents a day; women, 15 cents; cbildren 4 to 6 cents. In 1853 the average had risen to 55 cents for amen, 35 cents for Women, and in cents for children. * * * * * LABOR IN FRANCE. 451 Lile.-TlThis is a very large center of industry, the cotton-spinners alone amounting to 7,000 or 8,000 in number. The population of the town is over 154,000, and the inhabitants are chiefly engaged in the manufacture of lace, tulle, and cotton fabrics. The climate, like that of Calais and Dunkirk, is very similar to that of England. Mlen earn from 50 to 65 cents a day, and the women 50 cents, working twelve hours. In the cotton-mills wages average from 44 cents to sometinmes, but rarely, 70 cents a day. * * * * * Oissel.-The wages here are: men, from 60 cents to $1; women, firom 30 cents to 60 cents; youths and girls, from 25 cents to 55 cents; and children, fi'rom 15 to 20 cents. * * * * * * Rouen.-The cost of provisions at Rouen is as follows: meat, 20 cents a pound milk, 2 cents the litre; bread 4 cents a pound. * * The rate of wages is as Iollows: Fitters in engineering works get 871 cents to $1.18 a dlay; turners the same; smiths working steani-hammers, $1.50 a day; iron-molders, from, $1 to. $1.25 a day; "mionteurs," being better educated and of rather a superior class, get 14 to 16 cents per hour. * * * The want of the system of apprenticeship here tends to inferior workmanship; and the employers dlo not speak very highly of the amount of talent shown by their men, nor of their evincing much pride in thneir work. The hours of work vary from eleven to twelve hours in the town; in the country they are nearly always twelve. In Paris alone they are ten, but they are scarcely ever ten elsewhere, except in cases where the business is in the hands of a company who are spending money which is not their own. All tirms who work for thenmselves work for eleven or, more generally, twelve hours. At the manufkcturing town of Bolbec, in the neighborhood, where there are several large capitalists, the men work for eleven hours only; and the system adopted there by these employers, who are endeavoring to better the condition of their workmen seems to have resulted in making them more settled, and to have improved the whole tone of their character; they evince more pride in their work, and thus repay their employer by attending to his interests, while their whole morale is raised; but this would hardly be possible in a large town where the proprietors did not all agree to act in concert in the mnatter. Valenciennes has almost entirely ceased to produce the lace which bears its name. The workmnen who make the real Valenciennes lace earn 26 cents a day; those who make the imitation, as it is made in Belgium, earn 1 franc, 50 centimes, (30 cents) for twelve hours' work. The workers in coarse lace earn 25 cents. The la!ge coal-fields in the neighborhood, in what is called the Bassin de Valenciennes, supply three-fourths of the coal obtained in the whole of France, and concentrate in this district a large mining population, which numbered in 1864 nearly 17,000 hands. The yield the year before was over 3,000,000 tons of coal. - * Chalons-Sur-Marne. —With the exception of a glass manufactory and two stocking manuftactories, which employ a number of women, there are no great industrial establishments here. The h:dnien get from 50 cents to 60 cents a (day. The last prices are the same as in the spinning factories in the little town of Suippes, twenty kilometres trom Chalons. Unfortunately the lodgings are of a very low character, damp, anl unhealthy. They cost, unfurnished, from $30 to $40 a year for a fiamily of foimr persons. The climhate is healthy. The average temperature varies between 90~ Falirenheit, in the suimer, and 15~ Fahrenheit, in the winter, the average lying between 50~ Fahrenheit anl 60~ Fahrenheit. Coal costs 80 cents to 90 cents the 100 kilog(rammes, (1 cwt. 3 qrs. 24 lbs. 7 oz;) bread, per pound, 4 cents; meat, per pound, 18 cents; butter, per pound, 28 cents; eggs, each, 2 cents; potatoes, per pound, 5 cents; bacon, per pound, 18 cents; wine, per pint, 5~ cents; beer, per pint, 3 cents. Lons le Saildier.-Cheese and wine are the staple products of this district. A saltmnine, enmploying 150 hands, gives work to the population. A mechanic, in proportion to his skill and strength, can earn from 45 cents to 70 cents a day. Masons, carpenters, blacksmiths, &c., receive about 4 francs or 5 francs (80 cents or $1) for a day's woik of twelve hours. Lodgings, consisting of single rooms, cost from $10 to $13. Workmen sometimes live in boarding-houses for $8 to $10 a month; but nmany find it cheaper to live at home. The climate is a temperate one. Xancy.-The wages here are very low and workmen are obliged to live with the greatest economy. Mechanics, for instance, who are the nmost numerous class here, only receive from 39 cents to 50 cents a day. The best only get from 60 cents to 80 cents. The skilled workman only receives 80 cents per diem. Beyond these, higlier wages are only given for piece-work to workmen employed in special branch:es of industry in large establishments. These can live well on their earnings. Miners puddlers, plate-rollers, casters, and mechanics can gret on, and even live well, if they are sensible men and economically disposed. The eimbroiderers and the lace-workers of Mirecourt, who number, the former about 40,000 workmen, the second about 25,000, are very badly paid. In 1852, the lace-workers of Mirecourt complained that their daily labor of twenty hours only produced 35 centimes to 40 centimes (7 to 8 cents) while formerly they received from 141 centimes to 19 centimes. * * * * 452 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Uheines is indebted to the manufacture of wool for its important industrial position. It holds the first rank in the amount of prodction, 30,000 to 40,000 workmen being elnployed in this branch of industry. Since the introduction of steam-carding the workmen employed in this department have suffered considerably. While an idustrious workmnan requires an assistant to enable him to card by and, in the year, 715 to 770 pounds, the machine can prepare 33,000 pounds to 45,000 ponds in the same time. Formierly a carder could earn 300 francs ($60) a year, a sum insufficient to support i comfortably, but now he cannot earn even that. Taking the average of all the industries in Rheims by hand as well as by machinery the income of the artisan in 1860 was $100. If we separate those who work by hand from those who work with the aid of machinery, it will be found that the former earned,80 per year, and the latter $120. St. Etienne.-The following table gives the prices of provisions at St. Etienne in 1871: Articles. f. c Wheat.........per 100 kilogranmes, 220 pounds.. 6 50 $5 30 lRye................................per 100 kilogrammes 18 00 3 60 Barleyper 100 ilogames.......... 50 4 10per Oats..................................... pe r rmes - 20 50 4 10 Pease.................................... per40 Lentils...................................per50 00 10 00 Beans.................................... per5 00 Potatoes................................. per 100 kiogrmes 6 50 1 30 Flour per 100 kilograumies -40 00 8 00 Bread, whiteper 100 kilograimes...... 50 00 10 r Bread, brown............................ per45 00 9 Bread, black.per 10) kilogrammes. 34 00 6 80 Beef. - ----------------------.per kilogramme._ 1 90 *18 Veal.........................per kilogramnme. - 1 80 *17k Mutton-....................per kilogramame. - 1 90 *18 Pork-.................... e kilogrramme._ 1 60 *151k *Per pound. Lyons contains about 300 manufactories of silk, and as several are in the hands of partners, the manufacturers number from about 450 to 500. About thiree-fifths of the production is fbr the foreign market. There are 70,000 looms at work, employingf 175,000 hands. In 1860 the wages paid were at the rate of 13j cents per yard. The -weaver can make a little more than 4 metres (41- yards) a day, working- fromt 5 in the morning until 10 at night, which brought in 70 cents. Thirty-five cents out of the ab~ove sum wvent to the owner of the loom, and 35 cents to the workman. Some are better paid, but the average is 36 cents per day. The majority of the Lyons workmen occupy large houses of five or six stories, built e-xpressly for them. The rooms are made sufficiently lofty to take in a Jacquard loom, and are let separately. The largest part of the room is devoted to the looms, the numbers of which vary from twvo to six, while the remainder of the space, forming akind of alcove, lgtdsmtmsb a inow idvde-thanks to the height of thieroom-into two divisions, one above the other. The upper part is reserved for the children and assistants; the lower half serves as kitchen, sitting-room, and bed-room fo)r the owner of the looms. The staircases are large and airy. The healthiness of the m,,odern lodgings and the assistance of machinery in weaving have had a marked effect on, the health and physique of the population. * * * The French law for the protection of children is -not so stringent as the law in England. Children from eig-ht to twelve years of age may work, in France eight hours out of the twenty-four, that is one and a half hours longer than, in England. There is also no effoctive system of supervision. The French law only applies to maunfactories and establishments in which machinery moved by mechanical power is used, or in workshIops containiiigmore than tvenit~yworkmien. The Lyontsworkshopsineverbhold more than six workmen, and the government has never used the power conferred on it by this law to extend the prohibition. It is, therefore, a dead letter as far as the silk manufacture is concerned. LABOR IN FRANCE. 453 Market and retail pices of provisions at Lyons in September, 1871. Market. Bter, per kilogramme, 2 pounds 3.................................. -0 4 Eggs, per* 100....................................................... 1 43 ~Cheese, per o........................................ 27 Fresh sea-fish-Ist quality, per kilogram me ------- (A hne...............:......... (:i4 resh sea-ish-2d quaity, pme................................... Fresh-water fish-carp, per kilogramme --------------------------------- --- 129 Fresh-water fish-teach, per kilog-ramme- ------------------------------------ 4 6 Fresh-water fish, pike, pe..................................... 8 Retail. Mlarket. ~Bread, per kh~ilogra........m.....m.8.................. 8 C. 7c. eef, per kilogramme.........................2.. 27 7 ~~~~..Veal, per kilogram..-...............,37 34 M.....tton, per kilogramme..-....... 37 34 in ordinaire or wine of the country, 7 cents to 12 cents per litre.-(1$ pints.' arseills.-Nothing is manufactured here on a large scale but soap, for which the-c are lar works, with corresondi ills for crushing oilseeds, and one or two la;'gc catu-igi~necr ~ nwgnes rtablismng fro 62 cents to ecinl w esranefro 6 daiy, ace(orito the qualityof work. The prices of house renllt, labtor, ftod, and clothing a re it} i, 1 or 2 per cent. the same as at ris; bread, meat, vegetables, clothing, and frnitu:ir areihtly (earer house rent, frit, ad wine are cheaper. Mos;t things are biron ii; fromP-i~swhichcconts forthehighprices. It would seem that living at, aitir eill; costs more th in London, or any other large town in England. i' " orcax he purchase-power of nioney at Bordeaux as regards absolute necessaries of life suich as food, clothin-, and lodgig slesta in E-aid ~ P~o dging, is less than in England. The light wines of th coutry are drunk in rerence to beer, and are m1ore suited to -ihe ci im~ate, especially in summer. The drainage at ordeaux, fo the porous.iture of... soil, is natuhdlly vcry good; workmen. can obtain lodgings n war their ivork,,and dio uot tifer romovecrodin. Inthe manufacture of small articles, Frenchlv(r — 1iln ship is nearly alwa ys better as regards finish, but it is not of so 01lid mad strong~ a ciiaracter as thel EnrliSh. lW'es in manuflacturing establishments vary froiar betaveeu 0t' cents to 6'1l 20 for men, from 40 cents to 60 cents for women and grown lads, and firont 20o cents, to 40 cents for ouils. The Eno-lish workman cannot live, -is well at Lorde -i-, us in Enehu no-r i alnsasget Rn ftnsed lodgings is from $t3 to $3. 62 anmonth. F aolcostss lS to $9rton. leait 20 -,ents the English pouind\ Vegetables, giocelies, and clothino, are ill delarer than in a towin of the sane1" size ii EnT uid. lhe IEughlismain being accustonued to mernial food, wixich rs li wice as dear as bread -aid vcetablies, (upon wixhch the nlative thrix es,) can ~-,t fed liiiself for less than 3 fiaucs (he) cents) a day; the same sum sutficinog to cover all tie ex~pe~ises of the IFreuich we kmaew. lioiitcnbaa.The climate is very heaulhy mad mnild, and epdmcs mkown. Tle tenipe rature in wiinter rarely goes belowv 240 1. and( tIat o nix for a fewx oa',s. A wii - ter suit of clothes can he gilt cOmplete for fiom ~~G to $i0 suuiier ores f~oni cl4!~ - I~O w~Aiorkman can get good headlivy lodlgingS Of tWO loI'01S, fo fio i121'~10 to ~t3 10 r1 mouth. Food is plentiful and cheap. F os cost I ient api oce Chickenus 410 cents to 40 cents uipiece. Iutebers' mneat andl ven-tables are ciheap, is is ialso fruit XX Winc co st a ceiits to 6 cents for tl iniperuil lpiut TLie industry of the place coiirists ki. the anicni,,cture of coause woolein goods'ael secrges, ((Ccais (le jloitcebcu,) in spinniiio' s-fl, an-i in nikiiior furnitu-re. rie cliariacter of the people is so~incxw at indolent, m 6in iaioht, if they chose to be miore active, easily dunblie their averagre earrnings, which'ir,, mome 40 ceiits to $1 a day for aen an -m 10 to 20 cents foir viomen. Cliatcccroiix.-Ihere are two manufactories here; one of -tobacco, in which the men] earn about 30 cents; and oiie of cloth, iii which 54 cents is the average of wages. Miechianics earn from 40 to 80 cents in founderies, &c. The ordin. ary workman earns frorri1 34 to 68 cents a dlay. In dress-making estabhlishments, where womien are employed, wages vary from 25 to 30 cents. The average time they work is ten hours. Food i.'s ivholesome and abundant. Meat costs fiom35 to42 ceutsper kilogranume, (~2ponils (1:>) ounces.) Turikeys cost $2~-.40 to $3 the pa-ir. Fowvis, fi~om- 58 c-ents to $1.18 apair. Brea-d is at 9$, cents per kilogramme, (about 4$, cents per poundt,) for the first quality. Tihe seconad costs about 3$, cents per pound. ** * 45 4 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. PRICES OF PROVISIONS IN PARIS, IN 1871. Articles. In French In United currency. States gold. C. read, first quality ----------------— per ~ kilogrammne. 0 45 $0 09) bread, second quality................ per ~ kilogramme. 0 25 05 MIcat: Beef, first quality.................. per 1 kilogramme.. 2 00 40 Beef, second quality..............- per 1 kilograrnmme. 1 70 34 Beef, tlhird quality................. per 1 kilogramnme.. 1 50 30 Veal, first qualit................-..per 1 kilogramme.- 2 60 52 Veal, second quality...............- per 1 kilograume.. 2 20 44 Veal, third quality................per 1 kilogramime.. 2 00 40 Mutton, first quality.-.............. per 1 kilogrammne.. 2 20 44 Atuttoi, seco(nd quality.-...... per 1 kilooramme.- 1 70 34 MIutton, third quality.............. per 1 kilogramme. 1 40 28 Fillet of eef.p..............per 1 kilorammie.. 5 00 1 00 Ruimp-steak...........-....... per 1 kilograime..- 3 00 60 Butter, first quality.................. per ~ kilogranmme. 2 50 50 Butter, second quality.._-_ - per kilogramnme.. 2 20 44 Butter, third quality.................per kilogramme._ 1 70 34 Butter, fourth quality............... per ~ kilogramme - 1 35 27 Milk......p..............er litre -.. 0 40 03 Cream..................... per litre. 1 00 20 Sugtar, first quality............- -per ~ kilogramimne 0 80 16 Sugar, second(l quality-p........per i kilogram.nni. 0 75 15 SugLar, third quality.................. per kilogrammnie. 0 70 14 Coffee, first quality..-.......... per ~ kilooranime 2 40 48 Coffee, second quality......... per kilogramme.. 2 20 44 Coffee, third quality-......... per, kiloograime.- 2 00 40 Coffee, fourth quality........p........per kiltorramme. 1 80 36 Tea, first quality.-......... per'kilogranmne. 8 00 1 60 T''ea, second quality..................p- -. kiloorramme.- 6 00 1 20 Tea, third quality..-........ per ~ kilogramme. 4 00 30 Canidles, first quality................. - er ~ kilogramie..- 1 50 30 Candles, second quality.-....... — per ~ kilogramme..- 1 40 23 Candles, third quality....per kilogramme.. 1 30 26 Candles, fourth quality.per J kilogramme.. 1 25 25 Lamp-oil, first quality-..per - kilogramme.. 1 80 3 Lamp-oil, second quality.-...... per kilogramme.- 1 60 32 Fire-wood -... per 1,000 kilogrammes.. 70 00 14 0) Coal-...p.....er 1,000 kilogrammnes. 60 00 12 00 Coke-..-.per 1,000 k ihogrammes.. 60 00 12 00 Wine.......per litre.. 50c. to 70c. 10c. to 14c. FROM REPORTS OF BPRITISH CONSULS. BOULOGNE CONSULAR ]DISTRICT. The following is the price of labor for the (lay of 10 hoirs: a mason, 70 cenlts; a slater, 90 cents; a carpenter, 80 cents; a joiner, 68 cents; a locksmith, 70 cents; a painter, 54 to 62 cents; an ordinary laborer, 54 cents. In the boot trade a workman earns from 60 cents lo 70 cents a day by piece-work. In the pen manufactory wages are about $3.75 a week, the day's work being from 8 a. nm. to 7 p. mu. with the intervfli of an hour; the women employed on piece-work probably receive as much. In the cement-works where not niuch skill is required, the wages are 56 cents a day. In the iron-works the ordinary laborer is paid from 50 to 56 cents, while the sklilled workman receives as much as $1 a day. In the carriage manuifactory, which is a very important Iusiness, the wages range firom 50 cents to $1.25 a day, according to the degree of skill ii the workman. The following are the prices of provisions in the town of Boulogne: Wheat bread, first quality, 4 cents per pound; beef, ordinary quality, 22 cents per pound; mutton, ordinary quality, 20 cents per pound; veal, ordinary quality, 20 cents per pound; pork, ordinary quality, 18 cents per pound; butter for the table, 32 cents per pound; butter for the kitchen, 25 cents per pound coffee firom 40 to 45 cents per pound; sugar, white, 17 cents per pound; sugar, brown, 13 to 15 cents per pound; coals are froum $6 to $6.50 per ton. LABOR IN FRANCE. 450 CALAIS CONSULA.R DISTRICT. Lodginlgs.-In the neighborhood of Calais the lodgilngs are tolerably good and healthy, and conveniently situated as regards distance ifrom work. In the Lille district there are a few unhealthy lodgings, but such cases are rare. In Saint Valery-sur-Somme lodgingos for working-men are very scarce. Laborers employed on public works, such as the ermbankments, reside generally at a distance of from three to live miles from the town, and have to come to and from their work, according, to the state of the tide. Mr. D'Arcy adds, that " healthy premises are very difficult to find, a:nd that the smaIll ill-ventilalted cabins, in which the laboring classes reside, in the villages around S:lit Valery, are in somne cases, very unwholesome and dirty, in some places dunghilts and cessp)ools being co-ntiguous to their very doors." I would here observe that there are no timctories in the immedliate neighborhood of Saint Valery, the district beih, purely agricultural. As regards this p)art of France there is no special risk for any one livingc temperately; on the contrary, in the Calais district especially, the people are clean and healthy, and many of them very lono-lived. * * Quality of work.-The English workmen in the lace trade are decidedly competent, and take a pride in their work. I should say the same of the French workmen in this particular branch of industry, Mr. Wils(on reports that, with the exception of the weavers, the workmen in his district are not good, and, being bnladly paid, tlhey take no pride in their work. As regards the question whether there is any class of artisans whose work can be depended upon as good from the sense of honor they have in executing it, I shoul say, with, perhaps, the exception of the lace tradle, they are governed not by a sense of honor, but by interest. The same renmark is made as regards the weavers in the Lille district. As to the skill of the workmen influencing the rate of wages, those employed in the lace-trade are paid according to the quality of their work and steadiness in thleir business, carleless or unscrupulous workmen rarely remaining in their situations. Skill and trustworthiness must, therefore, influence the rate of wages. The rate of wages in the tulle trade varies as much as fronl $6 to,14 per week, and is regulated entirely by work done. The hours, too, vary considerably. When the trade is active, the machines are at work day and night; in average seasons, during'the day only; and at certain tinmes, known as the "merte saison," i.e., (luring the autumn. they are at work only during p)art of the day. * * * In the Lille district the men earn froni 50 cents to 65 cents per day, and the women 50 cents, working 72 hours per week; and in the cotton-mills they earn from 40 cents to 70 cents per day, the latter sum, however, very rarely. * * * * HIAYRE CONSULAR DISTRICT. Piorchase-power of money.-It is not very easy to give the absolute rate of wages paid in the Havre district to the different classes of workmen, as it varies, as dlo the prices of provisions, and house-rent in the different localities being higher at Havre than in the interior. I have, however, endeavored to give the mean of the different rates. Average daily wages. Hours of la. Occupations. hebor, excludFrench cur- United States in mes ilog meals. rency. goid. Fr. c. Carpenters and locksmiths.............. 4 00 $0 80 9-11 Stone-umasons. —-------—... 4 75 95 9-11 Mechanics............................ 4 50 90 1 1 Bricklayers. 4 00 80 9-11 House-painters............. 4 50 90 9-11 Smiths................................ 4 50 90 9-1 l Shipwrights............. 4 75 95 9-11 Laborers, ordlinary..................... 3 00 60 9-11 Dock-lalorers......................... 5 00 1 00 9 —11 Cottonl-sinners............... 5 00 1 00 11 —12 Cottoln-weavers, (principally women.... 2 50 50 11-1;2 Calico printers and dyers............... 4 25 85 1-12 IFlax-spinners —............. 4 00 50 12Bleachers -3 00 60 11 —P2 Tanners -- 4 00 50s-1 Eng-ine-drivers, four classes, average.... 7 350 1 47 No fixed time. Stokers, two classes, average - - 4 50 90 (10. 456 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. AGRICULTURAL LABORERS. o Average wages. 0 Occupation. | o - Observations. United States | Currency. gold. = By the year:.Frs. Plowman............... 400-450 $80 00 to $90 15 Board and washing found. Ordinary laborer....... 275-325 55 00 to 65 15 Meal-times included. Women.............. 223-275 44 60 to 55 15 By the d(lay: Men, with food......... 1 50 30 13 MIeal-times included. Women, with food...... 1 00 20 13 Men, without food...... 3 00 60 13 Women, without food.. 1 75 35 13 PRICES OF PROVISIONS. Average price. Articles. United States Currency. gold. Fr. c. Bread, second quality...................... per 4 pounds. 0 80 $0 16 Butter, fresh............................. per pound.. 1 50 30 Butter, lt.......................... per pound.. 1 40 28 Potatoes....................... per pound.. 0 07d 1} Bacon................................ per pound.. 1 15 23 Beef, second quality.................p........ per pound.. 0 93 18 Mutton..................................... per pound.. 0 93 18 Pork...................................... per pound.. 0 93 18 Lard....................................... per pound.. 1 00 20 Sugar, moist.............. per pound.. 0 66 13 Coffee................................... perpound.. 2 00 40 Tea -......................per pound.. 4 50 90 Milk........................... per quart.. 0 15 03 Eggs..-.-.................... each.. 0 10 02 Soap, whitd................................. per pound.. 0 73 14-} Soap, yellow............................ per pound.. 0 73 143 Soap, soft........................ per pound.. 0 40 08 Cider................ per quart.. 0 20 04 Beer, common.............................. per quart.. 0 25 05 Wine, common.............................. per quart.. 0 66 13 Brandy...................................... per quart.. 2 50 50 LABOR IN FRANCE. 457 PRICES OF RENT, FUEL, LIGHTS, CTOTHING. Average price. Articles. Currency. U. S. gold. Fr. c. Rent of rooms.........................per week.. 3 00 $0 60 Coals............................ per ton.. 40 00 8 00 Lights.................................................... Candles per pound.. 0 76 15 Petroleum...................................... per quart.. 0 82 16G Clothing.................................................. Tweeds.......................................... per yard.. 8 00 1 60 Fustians.... —....-...................... per yard -- 4 50 90 Flannels........................................ per yard-. 3 50 70 Linen (coarse)...................... per yard.. 1 25 25 Calico.......................................... per yard.. 0 80 16 Prints........................ per yard.. 1 00 20 Merino..........................per yard.. 2 00 40 Stockings....................................... per pair.. 1 50 30 Shoes, men's.....................................per pair.. 12 00 2 40 Shoes, women's................................. per pair.. 8 00 1 60 Shoes, children's............. per pair..- 5 00 1 00 Shoes, (sabots)..................................per pair.. 1 00 20 Hats, silk.......................................... each.. 12 00 2 40 Hats, felt.......................................... each.. 4 00 s0 Caps............................................... each. 3 50 70 MARSEILLES CONSULAR DISTRICT. Considering the severe disorganization the country has undergone since July, 1870, it is not surprising that the normal scale of wages given to artisans and laborers should have undergone many changes, and it is really difficult, at present, to say what may be considered the standard of wages. In the large engineering establishments in Marseilles the ordinary laborers are paid at the rate of 70 cents a day, and the skilled workmen earn $1 to $1.20. In the large soap-works, and in the mills for crushing oil-seeds, the same rates prevail. The porters and laborers employed in loading and discharging, vessels, and in the work at the docks and warehouses about the port, are mostly paid at the rate of $1 a day, or they manage to earn that amount at piece-w6rk. Shipcarpenters, calkers, and blacksmiths are likewise paid at the rate of $1.20. These are more or less the prevailing rates of wages in this and other large towns, artisans and laborers receiving about 10 per cent. less in the smaller towns in the south of France. Agricultural laborers are paid, on the average, from 40 to 50 cents a day. The foregoing rates of wages sufficed, previously to the war, to keep all the available laborers occupied, and many of them were even enabled to save small sums of money. The savings-banks' returns show that, in Marseilles alone, there were 27,288 depositors in 1864, and 35,966 in 1869. Two-thirds of these, at least, were artisans and laborers. In the former year their average savings amounted to $70.30 per head, and in 1869 to $71.10. * * ~* s* * * * There has been a falling off in the savings-banks since the outbreak of the war to the extent of 15 per cent. Considerable sums of money are likewise invested in government stocks, and all sorts of French and foreign securities, by the artisans and laboring-classes. The rate of wages which are thus stated enable the artisans and laborers to obtain the necessary aliments and clothing, as well as to meet their other necessary expenses, house-rent, &c., to about the same degree as the artisans and laborers in England. A great advantage, however, possessed by the working-classes in the south of France is the climate, which is usually so bright and cheering. With the exception of fiuit and wine, provisions are not cheaper than in England. Bread, meat, fish, and vegetables are not to be obtained in the south of France below English rates; fuel is dearer than in England, but. the winter being shorter in France than in that 458 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. country, the annual expenditure thereon amouts to about the same in both countrie. House-rent in the large towns is highelr, proportionately, th in England. In the south of France the standard of health is very good; the cliate is fine and enjoyable throughout the year, and a fair amount of longevity is not watig. The summers are warm, but the heat does not prevent the artisans and laborers from carrying out their occupIations, whether indoors or out in the open air and the field-laborers are not prevented thereby from performing their work. The laboring classes in these parts are frugal and abstemious i matters of t. This consists princip)ally of bread and wine, and, of late years, the taste for animal food hleas increased with the growing prosperity of the contry. In the towns, escially, the taste for meat is fairly established, and sucessfl work-people live as those in England. The inhabitants, taken altogether, are betteround in clothing ta in most countries. The articles of wvhich their clothing is composed are ot altogether so good or so substantial as those in general use in England; ut the Frenchman is more carefl aboutt his clothing, and his garments look better and last longer in this fine ry climat than those usually worn by English artisans an laborers. Warm clothing is absolutely requisite in the south of France, as much so as i England, the changes of temperature teing very ral)id, and (dry, cuttin winds whic ri rendering to use proper precautions for the preservation of health. Much progress has been made of late years i securing proper lodgings for the working-classes. All the large towns are being reblt, and much attention is being paid to the proper ventilation and drainage of the houses. In Marseilles, Lyons, and other larg(e towns inll the south of France the worklg-classes ca now nd proper and healthy lodgings not too far renmoved firom their work. * * * - * The workmen generally employed in the various trades and occupations in the south of France are every way most comp)etent in the respective pursuits when it suits their fancy to display their sJill; but as a rule they do not work steadily. There is much instability in their manner of working, and slovenly workashi is uncomonly seen. They waste much tinme about their work, and cosiderig the altogether, they do not take much pride in their work, or put their character into it. NANTES. Wages may he fixed at an. average of 80 cents per day. The Parisian workman is paid by the week or fortnight, deducting, of course, the holidays. The mecan pay ma-,y, thus be estiniatedl at $20O per month, about $240 a year, but one mnst not, lose sight of the stoppages, ("1 rnorte saisons,") which, in different trades, vary hetween two and four mouths in the year. In short, the Parisian workman cannot be said to surpass $;,260 yearly. It would he difficult to say whether this sum, is sufficient for his mainitenlance. **** The existence of the Parisian workman is at best a wretched one, and this is, therefoevery probably the reason why chanige is so popular. The general wish appears to be in fa vor of the eight-hour legal-labor system, the supplementary hours of work to 1)0 paid according to the present custom. This would not, however, benefit all the working-classes. The dlay's labor of glaziers and house-painters, for instance, varies accordiong to the seasons. They are not p~aid uniformly by the day, but according to its length; having full (lays in the height, of summer, arid nothing to do in winter; their day's labor increasing progressively in. spri-ng to decline with the autumn, the, pay ranlging from 50 to 80 cents, $1, and $1.20 per day. * Food.-Workmen. find inl Paris good and abundant food at moderate prices, though perhaps not very much cheaper than in London. Again, it umust be taken into con1sidleration whether the operative be single or m-arried. If the latter, there ale mianly possibilities of obtaining food at more moderate prices, especially if living in theecen ter of Paris. The central markets offer, between four and eight o'clock inl time morning, all kinds of food sold first, hand. With a little advance, or by clubbing together, a basket of fruit, or a quantity of vegetables may be bought at a tenth of the price asked for the samne articles a few hours later. The poorer classes of workmen purchase time broken victuals from restaurants and large private houses. If the workman be nmartied, his food is usually prepared at home, and even if working a few miles off, lie carries with him. his breakfast in a tin box which can. stand the hreat, and which he will perhaps wvarm. when he takes his wine. If single, he will repair to sonme "1marchand de viae" or some cooking, establishment, wvlere regular workmen's meals are prepared -whenever any number are labOring, in the neighbor~hood. The pork-hatcher's shop is likewise a favorite -resort, from whence, after buying cooked meat, sausages, black pnilding(S, sardines in oil, or hard egg,(s a~nd bread, they proceed to the, "mrchead de vi " to complete their breakfast. Tfhe suinge man will dine as he, has breakfasted, -while the inarried miam returns to dinner at 7 or 8 o'clock, according to the nature of his labor or to the distance.* ** LABOR IN FRANCE. 459 The Parisian workman is highly imbued with professional pride. One constantly sees workmen refusing better-paid work, and preferring to it a less remunerative one in which they excel. Great emulation is to be found among thenm in this respect. Unfortunately, it is confined to the quality, and not to the quantity; highly honorable and praiseworthy, no doubt, but neither lucrative nor practical, and assuredly inverting the general order of things. Masters eagerly seek out exceptionally clever workmen. Some of them earn as much as $5 a day, but success, self-love, ostentation, and the tastes and vices inherent in the Parisian character, often reduce these very clever artificers to positions less fortunate than those of their humble brethren, earning only 80 cents or $1 per day. * * I Rooms in the old houses, many not very healthily situated, are to be had for moderate rents; dwellings containing two or three moderately-sized rooms varying fromnt $26 to $28, $30, and $40 a year, exclusive of taxes. Single rooms are comparatively dear; one room, without proper ventilation or light, emphatically called un trou, (a den,) will cost $12. DAILY WAGES IN NANTES. Occupation. French cur- U.S. gold. - ~~~~~~~~rency. Sugar-refiners...................................... 2 00 to 3 00 $0 40 to$0 CO0 Cotton-spinners.................................... 50 to 3 00 0 50 to 0 60 Wool-spinners................................... 3 00 to 4 00 0 60 to 0 80 \Veavers........................................... 2 50 to 3 50 0 50 to 0 70 Mechanics.................................... 4 00 to 6 00 0 80 to 1 20 Workmen in porcelain and china.................... 10 00 to 15 00 2 00 to 3 00 Smiths, strikers, and riveters -. —------------ 4 00 to 6 00 0 80 to 1 20 Ship-carpenters, sail-makers, riggers, and calkers. 5 00 to 6 00 1 00 to 1 20 Joiners............................................ 2 50 to 3 50 0 50 to 0 70 Carpenters....................................- 4 00 to 5 00 0 80 to I 00 Rope-makers....................................... 2 23 to 3 00 0 45 to 0 60 Coopers................................. 4 00 to 10 00 0 80 to 2 00 House-painters..................................... 4 00 to - 0 80 Masons............................................. 3 50 to 4 00 0 70 to 0 80 Plumbers and glaziers.............................. 4 00 to - 0 80 Laborers.....-.......... —-- ----------- -..... 2 50 to 0 50 Scavengers and street-sweepers..-............ 2 25 to 2 50 0 45 to 0 50 Agricultural laborers, with food.-............. 1 25 to 0 25 Female workers in the field, with food............... 0 30 to 0 40 0 06 to 0 08 II short, men's wages in town rarely descend below 45 cents; soneic earn, as may be seen, 80 cents, $1, andl $1.20, according to their abilities; the latter price is the general pay of foremen. Here, as in Paris, exceptionally clever workmen receive pay beyond the gel)eral tariff; those on piece-work may earn $2 to $3, nay, even $4 per diem in some branches. These, however, are rare exceptions. The general price paid to workwomen is 15 cents and food, whether for dressmaking, plain work, mending, or ironing. In the manufactories they get 25 cents, without food; many prefer it, nevertheless; they find there cheerfulness, company, (seldom good, it is tM be feared,) and regular work. The length of their day's work is from 8 a. m. to 8 p. mi.; subtracting two hours for meals, it leaves ten hours lal)or; and so a woman, who has employed three years of her existence in acquiring a certain dexterity, ends by earning lj cents an hour to the end of her existence. * * NICE. At Nice,'t good carpenter, working by the day, or at piece-work, will earn on an average about 65) cents, the tools which he uses beingo found by the master-carpenter; as a generdl rule, the workman is idle during four months of the year, including Sundays and holida~ys, so that the annual produce of his work will thus be about 100. Ifihe is u11nmarried he can make that sumt suffice for his wantsbuifaredndwt a faunily, this result seems very doubtful. -s u fmridadwt There are one hundred and twenty master-carpenters, who each employ two or three hands; but who, at tiumes-, having, no work, can scarcely provide for their own wants. There are about forty masters, who iucy he said to employ'a certain number of hands (luringrsix or ei-ht mouthi of the year. Let us take the case of a workshop of the former category, and suppose that the 4G0 LABOR IN EUJROPE AND AMERICA. workshop contains three benches, each one of which with its tools is worth about $20; other tools, such as presses, screws, ogive planes, saws, &c in common to thewhole workshop, are worth about $50; in all $110. This capital, which is absolutely necessary, can only be obtained by one workman in four hundred, by seven or eight years of labor and economy. Let us now consider his expenses: Rlent of workshop............................60 00 Insurance, (obligatory)....50................... Rent of lodging..............................00 Setting, &c., and replacing tools..............00 Glue, light, and incidental expenses..........00 Patent or permit, (obligatory)................00 Interest on capital, and on, say, $50 worth of wood, &c., in store2 0 157 60 These amounts are given with the strictest care, as they are the result of iquiries made from a large number of masters of this class. Now, as to the produce. Let us take one of this class of masters in the most favorable circumstances, and suppose that he employs three workmen during six months of the year, and that he gains on the daily wages of each one 15 cents, (and this is a very favorable view of the case,) this will give him about$82.50. As he is obliged to devote mruch of his own time for work in obtaiig orders, drawing plans on the wood, directing and overlooking his e, putting p his work when finished, buying wood, and getting in hLis bills, &c., he cannot work regularly at his own bench, so that his own actual work will scarcely be worth to him 48 cents a day for 185 days, say $90. To go further and suppose that he is fortunate enough to have sufficient work to enable him to employ one man during two of the summer months, on whose labors he will gain about $8.50, and if during that time he himself may be able to do work worth $60; add to this a profit, of $60, whiich he may be supposed to gain on the wood used by him and his workmen during 600 days, assuming that to be 10 cents per day; this, with $18 profit on the wood used durin~g the summer, will give him. a total gain of $319. From this is to he deducted the expense of his -workshop, as stated before, $157; thle remainder is the profit that a master-carpenter of this class may couLnt upon earninMr in fhvorable years at Nice, $102; as nearly as possible what one of his workmen will gain in the samie time. The average annual gain of one of tile forty master-carpenters employing al lar r inumiber of workmen may be from $QOO0to $400. This resuilt islittle calcula-ted to induce English artisans of this class to establish themselves in this dis trict. It must be said, however, that thle amount of work effected here by one man is certainly not two-thirds of that( done by an average English workman in one day. Tl:0 wNork itself, with rare exceptions, performed by all classes, is ill-conditioned and slov — enly, and would not pass inspection in England. Little or no pride is taken by the, artisan in his work, and I doubt if any wiorkman in the district would he iinfluencd by a sense of honor to produce work of a high standard; nDeitther do masters care to pay at a higher rate for work of a higher class, that produced being sufficiently geoo~ for the wants and for the knowledge nof the employers, householders, and proprietors of the district. As has already been said, the daily wages of the artisan are low;'but, as the amount of work he performs in a day is small, and1 much less than an En-lish worj~man wonlld accomplish, the final cost of the matlerial on which his labor has been expended is really as dear as in England. Hlours of labor are from or soon after sunrise to sunset, with one hour for breakfast at ten and two hours for dinner at one o'clock. LABOR IN FRANCE. 461 oPurchase-poer of money. Local United States currency. gold. ~~~~~~WAGES. Fir. C...Stone-cutter ---- --—..... 4 00 $0 80 Mason__-. 3 25 65.Carpenter —----—............ 3 25 65..Blacksmith —---—. —-. 4 00 80..Laborer- ------—.....- 2 00 40 Porter —-------------—..... 1 50 30.Cabinet-maker- ----- -....... 5 to 8 1 00 to 1 60 Wheelwrigh...... 3 25 65 Baker —------—............ 3 00 60 Butcher —.... ---—....... 3 00 60 PRIOVISIONS. Beef —------------- -... per pound. 1 00 20 Mutton-.-... per pound. 0 90 18 Pork~... per pound 1 00 20 ~~.Bread --- - -- - -- -per kilogrammle. 0 45 09 Sugar-............ per pound. 1 00 20 Ptts —--------—..... per pound. 0 15 03 Coff~ee-............. per pound. 1 80:16.T.a. per pound. 6 00 1 20..ine.. per quart. 0 40 03 WAGES AND PRICES IN PARIS. The foregoing extracts from the diplomatic and consular reports to the British govern ient during 1871, and the first quarter 6f 1872, furnish as accurate information in regard to wages and prices of provisions as could thien be easily obtained. Through the kind offices of General Jobii M~eredith Ieead, then consul-general at Paris, (now our minister to Greece,) an article was prepare(1 for this work by Pr-ofessor George IRenaud, a member of the Institute of France, on prices and wages in Paris, (Pr-ix et salaires'a Par-is, in 1870 et 1872,) a translation of which is here presented: I.-EXPENSES OF A WORKING-MAN'S FAMILY. The averag-e -number of persons composing a household in Paris, since the census of 1872,~ is represented by the co-efficieut 2.63; *but the unmarried represent each a distinct household, and this explains why it is that in 682,110 households there are only 379,317 coinpreheridiug 1)0th husband and wife. There exist also 150,435 widowers or widows; there are therefore 152,358 celibate households. The, normal population of Paris of 1,799,250 inhabitants, diminished by theso 152,358 cellibates, is consequently comprised in 529,752 households con1sisting Of husband and wife, and widowers and widows, which gives as the average of persons of which. each of these households is composed the number of 3.11. One can easily estimnate at 4 the, number of persons in each household when both parents are living. But this average is calculated upon the total number of the middle and working classes, and it is a notable fact that these classes generally have the most children. It may consequently be affirmied without exaggeration that a working family in Paris com.lprises iive persons. How do these five persons live? The husband and wife work; sometimes the children also; the appellation "1child" is applied to all individuals under fifteen. years of age, but in Paris thiu last fact is exceptional. As a general rule the child goes to school or is apprenticed to a trade. Moreover, the average income of the workman, taking into account the taxes on income, and the frequency of these taxes, was *This co-efficient ha:s been obtained, by dividing the normal or rnunieipal population, 1,799,250, by the number of households, leaving out the garrisons, inmates of prisons, &c. 462 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. but about 4 francs 19 centimes (84 cents) in 1860; that of his wife 2 francs 2 centimes (40i cents.) The woman (loes not live upon thefactoryorkaloeoften having also to work as housekeeper. She earns ordinarily 3j cents per hour; thus making every dlay of six hours about 21 cents. Account must be taken of idle time, which so much reduces the wages of operatives, but has no influence upon that of the housekeeper. Conseqently i follows that there must be a deduction made for fifty-two Sundays, and very often Mondays also; but let us not overlook this abnormal respite. The interruption of Sunday leaves to the man only 714 cents (3.59 francs) perdayforfood, andto thewoman 34 — (1.73 francs.) There is, moreover, a respite, owing to the regular suspension of work. It lasts generally a quarter of a year, and affects only a third part of the industies. Thus the general average of wages is not reduced beyond one-twelfth, which leaves to a an for his expenses of livin)g but 65- cents (3.29 francs) per day, ad for a woman only 31 cents, (1.59 francs.) Moreover, it may be stated that these figures almost sin by exees. They go back to 1860. In 1870 all wages experiencedaninreasofaboveone-tenth. Ufortunately, the events of 1870-'71 threw a general perturbation into business. There have been terrible stoppages, which are far from diminii notwithstding the resumption of business; consequently, though workmen are scarce, the population of Paris has remained, within about 5,000 inhabitants, the same as in 1866, the city having lost by the insurrection more than 30,000 workmenexlusiveof 30,00Gerasexpelled. Wages, too, have a tendency to remain what they were in 1870. They have not risen, on account of the necessity to which the workman found himself subjected to work in order to overcome the loss experienced during the siege and insurrection. We estimate, then, the average earnings of a worki- t present at 65 cents, plus -6, equal to 72 cents; and that of a woman at 35. The hoe workman, whose children do not earn any wages, must live on cents, (3.62 francs,) plus 35 cents (1.75 francs,) equal to $1.07-4 (5.37 fracs) per day, or 392.44 1,962.73 francs) per year.,In what manner was this sum of 5 francs 37 centimes (.7-) expeded in August, 1872? The following table gives the reply: Per dlay. Per year. Cents. 6 pounds of bread, at..................................25- $93 44 1 pound meat, fish, eggs, &c....12 43...... 50 Fat substance for seasoning...3 11 94 Lard, about 1 pint...........................2A- S 7 6 Milk, per litre, (nearly a quart).....................6 21 90 Cheese, I pound..............................5 18 2 S;ugar.................................1I0 5 84 Coffee, 1 ounce..3 10 95 Salt... —- - - - -- - - -- - - - -- - - - -- - -2 — - - -- - — 19 Pepper -....73 Vinegar................................ 7:3 Soap, 5 pounds per month....................... 1 -ZI 4 38 Potatoes, 1 litre per day........................3 10 95 Lentils, -white haricots, jkilogramme per day.. -.1 3 65 Green vegetables...2 73:0 Fruits................................. T1- 2 19 Fuel.. —-- - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- 2 7 30 Lights................................. _l 2 92 Wine, I litre... 10 36 59 Brandy, 1 small glass every morning...................2 7 3,I0 Tobacco —3 10 9 5 R~ent, 2 rooms..9 302 9 0 Instruction, education *....................... Linen clothing... 29 20 Direct tax: (the city of Paris receives the taxes on apartments renting at less than 400 francs, $80.) Medical assistance is furnished him gratuitously hy the administration of public assistanice. Occasion is taken to keepsan. account of expenditures in taverns, -which are madle chiefly every Sunday and Monday, and which are at least 40 cents per week on an,verage. Aniong" the regristered workmen. this sum may represent the average of earnings retilized. and placed in) savings bank say, per day, 26 centimes (5- 2 cents;) per year 96.70 Crancs, ($19.34.) Total, francs, 1,962.10 (,9292.42.) Many modifications may have to he The primary sceools in Paris are free, and regarding religious culture, the Parisian,workman is too indifferent to impose charges of this nature upon himself. LABOR IN FRANCE. 463 made in the proportion of these different expenditures; here are given only the,approxiate averages, ut approaching truth, we believe as nearly as it is possible to expect. The condition of the Parisian workman, though poor on the whole, is still superior to that of a working-man in the departments, or in the country, in regard to morality as well as to instruction. The industries of art aid munnch in this amelioration of his condition. Paris produces chiefly for exportation, and it is the superiority of taste aifested in the work which secures a regular market for his products. They are sold to foreign countries at a ood price, though scarcely remunerative for workmen eve of the est. Tere is still mch to be accomplished, for 60,000 workmen earn les tan 3 francs each per ay; and the wages of women are lamentably small..-PICES OF PROVISIONS, GROCERIES, CLOTHING, ETC. It is difficult to compare the rices of the various articles of merchandise before and after the events which so cruelly afflicted the French capital in 1870 and 1871. The greater portion of these prices have not been inserted in public papers or documents of any kind; we have ad to depend on the memory of the parties, that is to say te information in question has but a strictly relative value, though it has been col~~~~~~~lecte~d with the most scrupulous care and attention. The following prices of various aticles of merchandise were obtained either from merchants themselves or from the weekly mercuriales (assembly of French parliament held weekly, after vacation,) in regard to provisions exposed for sale in the market: In 1870, before In August the war. 1872. Bread, per kilogramme,....................... $0 10 $0 09 Wheat-lour the ordinary kind, per 157 kilogrammes, (346 pounds) —---—........................ 11 29 13 10 Wheat-flour, superior, per 157 kilogrammes, (346 pounds)...... 11 66 13 40 Wheat-flour, best, per 157 kilogrames, (346 pounds). —-- 11 99 13 90 Re in the grain, per 5 kilogrammes, (253 pounds)......... 4 32 3 57 Barley, inthe grain, per 100 kilogrammes, (220pounds) -—. 3 70 3 00...Oxen, on the hoof, per kilogramme. 32 Cows, on the hoof, per kilogratmme -- 26 30 CalIves, on the hoof, per kilogramme -- 30 4 utton, on the hoof, per kilogramme.................... 296 3 6 Pork, on the hoof, per kilogramme -------------- ------------- 32 32 T'eef, hind quarter, per kilogramme —---------- --—...... 291 t39N Bet fr uarter, per kilogrammie -- 26' 28;1 Beet; loin, per kilogramme —.................. 261 38 Beef, neck, per kilogrammie —---------------- 15 14 Veal, first quality, per kilogramme -- 36.36 Veal, second quality, per kilogranme. --------- ---------. Z. 30~:304 Vea~l, third quality, per kilogramme n- 8......... 2.. Mu tton, fi rst qu al ity, per kilogramme -- 301- 34j Mutton, second quality, per kilogramme —--------- - 27i 31 Mutton, third quality, per kilogramme -- 23)- 28 Leg of mutton, per kilogramme —-41 Pork, entire or -half, per kilogramme -- 301- 291 Pork, in quarter, per kilogramme —-31 Pork, salt, per kilogramme --—...................... 21)Lard, per kilogramme ---- ~~~~~~~~~36 Codfish, dry, per kilogramme --—..................... 26 Mackerel, fresh, (each) -------------------- - -11 Butter, per kilowramme -------------------- 65 66)Cheese, per kilogrammle — 28) 40 Rice, (East Indies) per 100 kilogrammes, (220 pouinds) 8 70 7 45 Rice, (Piedmont) per 100 kilogramme, (220 pounds).- - 9 75 10 50 Rice, (of Java) per 100 kilograiumes, (220 pounds)-__- 16 00 Beaus, per litre —....................... 10 8 Mffilk, per litre —......................4 6 Egg(s, per dozen —....................... 19 22 Groceries: Tea, price extremely variable, according to quality, per pound, from $0 78 to $0 80 Coffee, roasted, per kilogramme --- -. —..80 88 Sugar, white, per kilogramme —~~~ ~~~~26 36 *This low price is due to the promise of a rich crop in 13972, which promise has been realized. fThe rise in price indicates that France, consequent upon the war requisitions and ravages hy time cattle, pest, had lost over a million of cattle in one year. 464 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Sugar, cane or moist, per kilogramme..........................2 to $0.24 Molasses, per kilogramme.....................14 14 Soap, common................................. 4 Starch...-...........321 32.... Sirup, first-class, white, crystal, 100 kilogramme 15 20 Sirup, thick, 40 degrees, 100 kilogrammes...11 10 Sirup, liquid, 33 degrees, 100 kilogrammes.....30 Coal, semi-size, ton........................... 5 Coal, small-size, ton..................................00 7 Coal, quite fresh, ton......................... 4 90 Wood, hard, oak, &c.........................3900 Wood, pilne,...... Burning-fluid, per kilogramme................30 Petroleum, litre..............................16 Since August, 1872, the price of bread in Paris as fallen. In Mar, 1873, it was for 2 kilogrammes 80 centimes, (15.6 cents, gold, United States.) The price of 85 centimes (16.57 cents, gold, United States) is still paid inmanyqarters. Inbread-marketsand depots bread can be purchased for 15 cents, which, without being of first qality, is equally nourishing. At this price the working-classes, if they ad regular work, Would not suffer; but it is the absence or illnsllfficiency of work that produces sufferi, the progress of which becomes every day more perceptible. Add to this the inordinate rise in the price of meat, and you have an idea of the cruel privations which weigh upon a portion of the population. The consumption of meat has suffered reduction duri tis winter, which proves more than any reasoning the constraint f the population. In consulting the tables of the imports into the market of La Violette we find that the average number of sheep offered for sale, which varied from 15,000 to 17,000, has fallen to 10,000 or 11,000. The number of calves has diminished by half. Oxen and cows show a reduction of one-third. Pigs alone show nonoticeable differee, but they have reached prices no longer accessible to small purses. It would be difficult to draw scientific conclusions from thse data. Thesefigures have been collected after a certain joint course, during the two years 1871and 1872. They are not rigorously-calculated averages, but only simple indications to serve as basis for much larger and more probable estimates. But certain anomalies are observe therein, rare indeed, but which may be due to accidental and isolated influences, aving acted upon the markets, which have been here selected at hazard without any poss~ibility of tracing,back to thepertuirbating cause. This is notably observedaus (,regards calves of a much higher price in 1870 than in 1872, as the jucrease duringT the first of these two years had reached to one of the mnost serious crises. It should be -noted that outside of merchandise which has a regular course at the market, (halle,) the prices of alimientary articles are not absolutely the same in all quarters of Paris. Following the general economic law the most populous quarters are always best provisioned, anid consequently the cheapest place for provisions; such are the quarter of the Temnple, St. Denis street, the markets, &c. The peddlers prefer to go to these quarters, assurted that there they will dispose of their merchandise. The shop-keepers always sell a lit,tle highler, when thecomipeting-peddler does not oblige them tolower their prices. Still, the prices of shop-keepers in populous quarters are less than those in the old communes, -annexed to the, capital in 1860, such as Batignolles, Montmartre, &c., and especially at those of.the elegant and rich quarters, but with extremely scattered population, such as Thassy, Cheteil, les Champs Elysees, &c., the difference is about one-tenth. It is much the same as regards vegetables. -On the whole, the price Of living has increased since, the war, while wages have remained stationary, in consequence of the too long idle time imposed on workmen by the circumstances, and by the loss of a certain number of markets taken away from the Parisian industry by the enemy. The opening of new centers of sale on the one part, the activity of French agriculture on the other, the perfection Of industry on the third; finally, the increase in wages, brought about by the increase- of production, will not delay the disappearance of this temporary perturbation. As regards the price of clothing, this has been modified but little. The stuck has long ago been re-supplied, and even the activity of the fa:-~tories tends more to produce lower prices than higher. The following are the pr-ices of some goods in common use: Linen, unbleached, for shirts, good quality, 1 franc 10 centimes per metre, per Sgld yard-.................................. $0 22 Linen, white, 1 franc 73 centimes...................... 35 Linen, unlbleached, bedding, 1 franc 90 centimes................3 8 Linen, white, bedding, 4 francs 25 centimnes.................... 45 Flannel, cotton, medium, 1 franc 20 centuimes. - -2 4 Linen for mattresses, good quality, I franc 50 centimes.............. 36 Cal-ico, 1 franc 10 centimes —22 LABOR IN FRANCE. 465 U. S. Gold...Muslin de la..e, 1 franc 45 centimes ----—. — $0 29 Satinet, (nidienne,) medium quality, franc 20 centimes....... 24 Large boots, 15 francs to 18 francs per pair -.. —-----—........ $3 to 3 60 Robes, called fatigue robes, tissue of wool, 61 centimetres wide, 1 franc 45 ~~~~~~~~.centimes per metre. per yard- 29 Scotch cassimere, in a the new colors, 1 franc 65 centimes.. 33 nScotch cassimere, of 6295 centimetres, 1 frac centies to 2 francs 25 centimes, 39 to 44 Poplins, taffetas, striped,. franc 40 centimes... 28 Mohairs, blue or rose, 1 franc..... 25 centimes25 Foulard, 1 franc 40 centimes,,,28 Grenadines, black,................................... 35 Grenadines, striped, 3 francs 60 centimes-72 Ds...................... 7'2 The workman has great facilities for clothing himself in Paris. The extraordinary improvements that have been made in the manufacture and organization of Paris manufacturers has greatly cheapened the work. If they could improve the quality lwhile keeping the low price they wod do all that should be expected. Since the factories of Vienna and Carcassone produce cloths at the low prices of 2,3, and 4 francs per metre, the Paris clothiers furnish to the workman a complete suit, (pantaloons, Lwaistcoat, and frock-coat,) for 39, 41, and 45 francs, ($7.80, $8.20, and $9.) I.-RENT OF DWELLINGS. The price of rent varies according to the quarters, the situation of dwellings, the elevation of rooms, their interior arrangements, whether they front on a street or a boulevard, toward a garden or an interior court-yard. The price for single rooms is ver i. Thus, for example, in the center of Paris, Canmartin street, near the station of Saint Lazare and the Madelaine, one room, on the seventh story, quite small, pays 220 francs. At Batignolles one only rents for 80 to 100 francs. In workmen s quarters, like the quarter Saint Anthony, the place du Fr6ne Menimonlart, Belleville, Grenelle the competition of renters, also the risk of non-payment,very frequent in these places, cause the rents to advance. These little lodgings are often ~~t~~~~the only revenue of houses of which they form a part. The proprietor is sometimes obliged to put the tenant out of the house by force, or be deprived of all profits from his property. He loses every year a certain number of payments. To make up for these losses he raises by so much, the price demanded from his tenants. Often, through revenge on the, part of renters thus expelled, he is menaced, and even maltreated. These are facts common to all large cities, and all working populations in France, England, and Ireland, America, and Prussia. The same facts are found also to exist, more forcibly perhaps, in London, Liverpool, Dublin, New York, and Berlin. Be it as it may, all these risks increase the price, and raise so much more the taxes of small renters. One single room is rented in these quarters for $20, $24, and even $628; for example, in the n~eighborhood of the City-hall, or on St. Antoine street, two connected chambers cost $50, $56, and $60, and even $90 or $100 on the side of the Madelaine or the great boulevards. If there is added a vestibule, an ante-room, a cooler, giving some variety to the two apartments, it costs $120 and $140 on the boulevard Saint Michael near the Luxemburg, on the boulevard'Sebastopol, Plivoli street, or in the neighborhood of the Madelaine; a similar one pays $60 and $70 at Batignolles or Passy. Suites of three'rooms are likewise extremely dear; less in old houses, badly managed, than in new ones, generally better arranged; the former suiting the small purses of the middle classes, but these are, the most numerous, and the demolitions in Paris have greatly reduced the number of small tenements. The raising of prices is attended with unlimited speculations, which have beyond measure pushed forward the works of Paris to so great an extent during the last years of the empire. The large apartments, too numerous and too finely furnish~d, created with a view to attract t~he stranger to Paris, and to enconrage the development of luxury, excluding therefrom systematically the industrial classes, -vecry well conducted and very skillfully decorated, rise now to $800, $1,000, $1,200 and $J1,400, in the sixth story, for example in the Chiamps Elysees, on the Boulevard Malesherbes, in the street Lafayette. On the second story certain of these apartments in Rivoli'street, on the boulevard Montmartre, rent for $2,000,$3,000, and$4,000. The metre of grotnudhas sold as high as $500; this undoulbtedly is not as high as at Liverpool, where one metre of land reaches as high as $1,'200, but still it is considerable for Paris, W~hich does, relatively, much less business than the English port. one very curious economical fact is that of the prodigious increase in the value of landed property in Paris within a few years; the 7,802 hectares of surface of the capital, -equivalent in value as well as in revenue to one-tenth of the total suriace, of the country. The revenue of the ground of Paris is -nearly twenty times the,revenue of land elsewhere, Pamely, $38800 the average tax is 6j per cent., w~hich gives an aggregate value of the real estate of Paris of 4 milliards 144 millions of francs, $828,88200,00. 30 L 466 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. As regards the gross revenue from nouses, aceordig to information collected in 1868 in 374 public sales, it varies, by one-seventh between 4 and 6 per cent., more than half of them between 6 and 8 per cent.; finally as to one-third between 9 and 10 per cent., and even more; and, strange to say, the revenue of houses in the neighboring arrondissements is generally much higher than tat of houses in old Paris, because the proprietor exonerates himself as much as he can from the expenses for the preservation of health and the security of his tenants. As regards the net revenue, it aonts to about one-tenth of the value. To judge of it by the results of sales during the last months of 1871, it appears that the value of houses has not been sensibly affected by the war and the insurrection. Nevertheless, in regard to the renters, a perceptible decrease has taken place; this is easily understood. Beore 1870 there were 19000 vacant lodings, while in August, 1871, the number of vacancies amounted to 54,500 on a total of 650,631 apartments. The price of building-ground in the interior of Paris has likewise decreased. Speculation had caused it to rise beyond all measure. Thus it has been seen in 1869, when the metre of ground rose to $294 at the corner of Rambulea and Pierre Lescot streets; to $260 on the Theatre-Franais place; to $360 between Voisine and the Fourth of September street; finally to $500 on the new Opera Place. From 1825 to 1870 the price of ground has risen on Saint Lazare street from $1140 to $140; on Saint George's street from $15.80 to $120; on La Ferenes-des-Yatumin from $42 to 230; on Albosy street from $8.40 to $78; on Pascal street from $4.80 to $15; Quarter Francis I, from $8 to $50 per square metre. Put the situation seems to have changed in anotable manner. Mr. D Lubey, at the nteeting of the Politico-Economical Society in July, 1872, mentioned the case of a building constructed in Paris before the war aving cost, for ground and erection, $70,000, which was placed under adjudication at the price of $50000, then at $40,000 anld $30,000, without finding any bidders. Regarding occupied lodgings, they yield a revenue of 40,980,000 for 66,000 houses in Paris, an average of $6'21 instead of $470 in the year 1825. This revenue is thus distributed: $7,770,000 for 259,604dgigs, at less than $50; $13,7270,000 for 153,346 lodgings, at less than $100; $6,840,000 for 38,125 lodgings, at less than $200; $3,600,000 for 11,866 lodgings, at less than $300; $9,000,000 for 17,81 lodgings, of over $300. It has been attempted of late to remedy the high prices of lodgings by buildig houses especially for mechanics and small retail shop-keepers. Up to the present time nothing has been so successful as the houses on Arras street, No. 3, by the society of masons and stone-cutters, for co-operative society l'ep~argne immobiliere, (real-estate savings society.) The ground contained a surface of 715 metres, of which 624 are built upon, and 91 are in litigation. The buildings are of two kinds-those intended for dwellings and stores and those designed for public meetings. The first contains on the ground floor five shops with floor-room 180 metres each; in the second story, two rooms to be divisible according to the needs of the shop-keeper or other occupant; in the third, fourth, and fifth together, 40 lodgings. All lodgings are remarkablo for their excellent distribution, for their good arrangement, and for the comforts they unite. The kitchen is no longer used, and has been replaced by a heating-stove put into the interior of the principal room. This apparatus will gfive as much heat as is ineeded in the room in which it is placed, and is so contrived that no culinary vapors are perceptible, in the room. They allow the tenants to cook while going on with their own work, which, as the workers earn but little, is a great advantage. In all thmese lodgings there are arrangements made for lighting and heating with gas. In all the stories there are city water, w ash-tubs, and water-closet on the closed system. The bed-rooms are parquetted and ornamented with looking-glasses. These lodgments rent at $20- to $79.120, a really moderate price. Such advantages have been readily appr-eciated by the public; for 40 lodgings there were 10 renters before the work was completed. The second building combines a large hail with 1,200 seats, and will accommodate 1,5(10 persons. It is well lighted and consequently meetings held in the day-time have no expense for light. The price of seats is much less than in other halls in Paris. Besides this large hall there are in this same building small meeting-rooms which can hold eighty persons at very moderate rents, also for the accommodatioa of the public whenever required. All these buildings are perfectly healthy, being of brick and iron, and very solid. The real-estate savings society deserves commendation for carrying out this project, which, in addition to its philanthropic purposes, has achieved a remarkable financial success. In Paris a furnished room rents very high. Miserable chambers cost 400 and 420 francs. It is by no means a rare thing to have to pay $10 or $12 per month for one furnished room. The price of large apartments furnished in proportion very much greater. The events of 1870-'71 have brought about a decline in rents, but only in high rents. Reg~arding the low rents, they have only had the effect to suspend the rise. The emi LABOR IN FRANCE. 467 gration of strangers and even of provincials, frightened beyond measure by the excitement of the capital, has been considerable. The insurrection has depopulated a good part of the city, as much by the deaths in the civil war as by deportation and emigration of a large part of the inhabitants. Besides, the population of Paris, which, according to its normal rate of increase, would. from 1866 to 1872, have been augmented by about 200,000, has increased only about 5,000 or 6,000. It is difficult to foresee how the crisis will end, which was caused by the non-occupancy of large tenement-houses. Several building societies have already failed. The grounds were bought at too high a price; the cost of the labor and material was very high. It is difficult, therefore, to lower the price. These apartments cannot be transformed into small lodgings. Tranquillity only can furnish a remedy, by encouraging e return of strangers and citizens from the departments to Paris. In the quarters of Pssy and Ateil, placed directly under the fire of the batteries during the second siee, the houses have been greatly damaged; quite a number of the tenants have aandoned them, and the proprietors sell them at prices exceptionally low. This, however, will last but a little while. Persons of the middle classes, working-people, widows, journalists, men of letters, as well as some capitalists, have a desire to enjoy the verdure and the pure air in the neighborhood of the woods of Boulogne. The construction of new railroads and tramways will hasten the repeopling of these quarters. IV.-PRCE OF PROVISIONS. I have already referred to the prices of various articles of food. The daily expense for food varies according to usage, abits, taste, and, taking a basis of comparison, people practicing economy intelligentlymay supplythemselves with sufficient for their daily wants at a cost of 40 cents, or even 35 cents, each. A woman, who, in her employment, expends less of muscular force, may sustain herself with an expenditure of 20 or 22 cents. Many expend less, but in such case no doubt the health is injured and the strength declines. This is ow a large number of working-men live: Two meals per day, at 11 and 6 o'clock. At 11 o'clock, or noon, an ordinary, sometimes meat, half ration, 6 cents; at 6 o'clock, soup, 4 cents, half a ration of meat, 6 cents, a dish of vegetables or a piece of cheese, 4 cents, a chop, 6 cents; besides the bread which a laborer carries ordinarily with him from reasons of economy, and of which he consmes about two pounds, say 9 cents. This gives for the day a sum of 35 cents. In a family the individual expense is notably reduced, thanks to the advantages of living in common, which diminishes proportionally the sum of general expense. Before the war, some boarding-houses were found that -furnished passable fare for about 35 cent, per day, in the quarter "des Ecules;" they had two meals: soup and a plate of meat de resistance, moreover a dessert and wine, in the morning; soup, two plates of meat, vegetables, a dessert and wine, for supper. Now, since the war all prices have augmented at least one-fourth. There were also, before the siege, restaurants where one could diino at 16 cents, and breakfast for 14 cents. This was neither luxurious nor of superior quality, but one could feel satisfied. All these establishments have disappeared or have advanced their lowest prices to 36 cents. The bouillon establishment of Duval, which served portions of meat at 5 and 7 cents, has raised its price to 10, 12, and*15 cents. The price of fruits has likewise increased in these establishments, as well as that of wines; and most restaurants have followed this example. It. may be said that the price of restaurant living has risen one-fifth at least, since the late events which have delugfed our country in blood.. For workwonmen, the quantity of indispensable nourishmnent is less. They eat less bread and drink less wine than laborers do grenewally. They prepare at least one meal at their homes; they can also live at 22 cents, 20 cents, and even less. The woman herself plans, and, thanks to a spirit of economy truly admirable, almost miraculous, does most honor to thebhousehold affairs With very little. There is certainly in amajority of women more morality resignation, courage, and less wants than in man. It would be desirable, however, that the limit of remuneration for women's work be extended, -and the only way to do this is to give it a higher value by more instruction, greater skill, fewer hours of work in the day, anj better pay for the work. Thus the wages will be raised and women will be enabled to procure for themnselves the necessary supplies of food for their sustenance and comfort. This is a question of life and death, and it is the key to the future of all that portion of the French people who constitute the bulk of the, population of the large cities. GEORGE RIENAUD. SILK INDUSTRIES OF LYONS. the following information in regard to the industries of Lyons was obtained for the author of this work and forwarded by the United States consul of that district. 468 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The translation from the French and the valuable explanatory notes were supplied by a practical silk manufacturer, Mr. T. Nelson Dalejr., of Paterson, New Jersey. Answers to questions concerning the industries of Lyons (France) submied to the "onsel de Prudhommes " for the silk industry of Lyons, September, 1872. S I. GREAT INDUSTRIES. I. What are the great industries of the department? The chief and by far the most important within the jurisdiction of the council is the silk manufacture with its numerous auxiliaries. This industry includes, aside fromn the raising of silk-worms, cocoon-windig, silkthrowing, branches which, with a few exceptions, are prosecuted within the Lyons district: 1st. The dyeing of thrown and spun silk, worsted and cotton yarns, the dyeing and printing of piece-goods, designing and the engraving of rollers for the same. 2d. The weaving of plain and figured goods, taffetas, satins, velvets, foulards, lam pas,"t materials for ecclesiastical and upholstery purposes. 3d. The making upt and winding of trams and, orgazines; warping, beaming, miounting, and starting of looms; l the making of headles with or without ails; and the stamping of pattern cards.~ 4th. The shearing of velvets, watering, embossing, finishing, and sizing of piece goods, and the cleansing of pieces soiled in process of manufacture. And, finally, operations connected with weaving and embroidering in gold and the manufacture of trimmings, comprisi the drawing thof gold, silver, and brass into threads and strips; the covering of silk and cotton threads with strips of foil; ornamental trimming, embroidering, the manufacture of bindings, hat bands, chenille, goods with raveled edges and fringes, &c. Tulles; hosiery and gloves of silk, cotton, and worsted; plain and figured laces of silk and cotton; * stocking-knitting and crochet-work. The manufacture of felt, with plush, straw, and cloth hats. II. What is the condition of the operatives in these industries? There are two classes of weavers-master weavers, who own the machinery; and journeymen weavers, working under the former for half the price paid for the weaving. tt The works It- generally contain from one to four looms-rarely more. The gross earnings of the master vary from 4 to 6 francs, (80 cents to $1.20;) those of the journeymen, from 2 to 3 francs per day, (40 to 60 cents.) All extra expenses are defrayed by the master. Journeymen dyers, work by the day or hour, according to the custom of the employer, ten hours constituting a working day. Most of the men earn front 4 to 5 francs, (80 cents to $1;) a few as much as 5.50, ($1.10,) per day. In addition to the journeymen, laborers are used for work -which does not require special sk~ill. They work 11 hours, and earn from 3 to 4 francs, (60 to 80 cents,) averagring 3.50, (70 cents.) Seine of the manipulations before and after the dyeing, such as the undoing and mnaking( u p of sil k,~ require fem ale h1b~or, which is paid at the rate of from 2.25 francs (45 cents) to 2.50 (50 cents) per day of 11 hours. Overtime is paid 50 to 60 centuimes (10 to 12 cents) per hour for men, and 30 (16 cents) for women and apprentices. From these rates a deduction should be made for loss-time. "Council of selectmen for the silk industry; a committee composed of both employers ard opera. tives, for the amicable settle out of controversies, established by law in 1806, as a court of arbitration. f R1ich silks with satin ground and large taffeta figures in relief. The reverse of damask. Rolling together a number of skeins into a hank~, and then knotting it to prevent the silk from getting snarled. This is done both before and after dyeing. ~ Moontiug: Passing the warp through reed and harness. Starting: Regulating the number of shots, of shuttle per inch Of fabric, also the tension of warp, &c., to make the required quality of goods. 11Some headles are made merely with a ioop for the warp-threads, others are provided with small steel or brass rings. IT The design is first made on paper, then the cards for the loom are stamped accordingly. **The silk belongs to the manufaeturer. ile sends it out from his office to the dyer, winder, weaver &c., and pays them per weight or length for their labor. tt These " works"1 consist sinxipl~y of a large room of sufficient size to accommodate the looms, and of a small adjoining, bedroom and kitchen combined, for the weaver and his family. ++ I aei teeaenwosd Iles or laces, as the original seems to imply. ~~Organzines andI trains come from the spinner (throwster) done up in knotted rolls. The dyer has to undo these, straighten out the, skzeins, count them, and mark them -with variously knotte strings, so as to distinguish thie lets. After the dyeing, the silk is made up into rolls again. LABOR IN FRANCE. 469 The moral influence of loss-time is at least as bad as its material result. Operatives without work live on credit at first, run in debt, become discouraged, are reduced to poverty, and poverty is a bad adviser. In Lyons, two-thirds of the hands employed in dyeing lose on an average 20 days a. year, and the other third as much as 40 or 50 days. Hiher wages are paid for the weaving of silk trimming than gold trimmings; but, owing to the little loss-time made in weaving the latter, the workmen of both trades earn the same in amount, an average of 3.25 francs (65 cents) per day. The manufacture of trimmings by hand furnishes occupation to about 400 women and 100 men, at the rate of 1.75 francs (35 cents) per day; but this kind of work is gradually being replaced by loom-work. In both of these industries the master weaver, who furnishes the looms, makes a net profit of 1 franc (20 cents) a day per loom. Om. Te earnins of the master metallic-thread makers5 at piece-work cannot be readily estiated; workmen earn about 3.60 francs (72 cents) per day of 11 hours, and women 2..50 francs, (50 cents.) In gold-thread drawing, men earn 3 francs, (60 cents,) and women 2.25, (45 cents.) Masters work under the same conditions as master metallic-thread makers; ten hours constitute a working day. Embroiderig and fancy trimming are done almost exclusively by women; they earn on an average 1.75 francs (35 cents) per day. Tulle-makers on piece-work receive 1 centimes per 100 threads,t for plain goods and at that rate earn, on an average, from 3 to 4 francs (60 to 80 cents) per day. In the hat manufacture the operatives are generally on piece-work, and earn-men, 325 francs (65 cents,) women, 1.37 francs (28 cents) on an average, loss-time deducted.. Are there a great number of hands employed in these industries? Estimate the number of men, women,. and children in each. The number of men and women employed in weaving amount to about 115,000; 35000 of whom live in Lyons and vicinity, and the remaining 80,000 inhabit the department of the Rhone and the neighboring departments of the Ain, the Islre, and the ~~~~~Loi~~re, where there are large manufactures of woven goods, as well as many private rons. looms, worked for manufacturers in Lyons. This number (115,000) is composed of 56,350 men, equal to 49 per cent.; 50,635 women, equal to 44 per cent.; 8,015 children, equal to 7 per cent. There are two classes of dyers-color-dyers and black-dyers, numbering together from 3,500 to 4,000, proportioned as follows: Men, 75 per cent.; apprentices, from 13 to 18 years -of age, 10 per cent.; women, 15 per cent. The manufacture of gold and silk trimmings furnishes occupation to about 1,000 men and 500 women; metallic-thread making to only 100 men and 600 women; gold-thread drawing, to 150 men and 300 women; embroidery, to 200 women; fancy trimming, to 500 women. There are about 4,000 persons engaged in the manufacture of tulles in Lyons and its suburbs, viz: 2,500 men, (overseers included), 1,000 women, and 500 children. The number is much larger in the places about Lyons where the tulle embroiderers (women) live. There are two'kinds of hat-makers: I1st. Fullers and finishers, (or cleanersl) numbering about 1,500 men. 2d. Those employed in trimming hats, in pulling out the coarse hairs from the fur, and in cutting the fur from the skin for making'felt, numbering some 800 women. The winding of thrown and spun silk, worsted and cotton, is done entirely by women operatives, apprentices, and overseers. One winder should be reckoned for every five weavers, making 23,000 winders for the 115,000 weavers in Lyons. The overseers (women) earn on an average from 3 to 4 francs per day. Each "1winding-shop"~ contains from one to four winding-frames4t which are the property of the overseer a-lone. The hands are generally engaged by the, year, at the rate of from 150 to 250 franc~, board, washing, and lodging included. Warping is done on the same plan. There are about 3,000 warpers, earning on an average from 4 to 5 francs per day. The hands are engaged on the same terms as the winders, with this exception, that they receive a bonus of 30 francs a year. i. a., winding or coiling a narrow, thin strip of metal, gold, silver, or brass, spirally around a thread or number of threads of cotton or sil"k, so as entirely to cover up the cotton or silk. The metalijo thread thus made is used in the manufacture of military trimmings, &C., &C. tiPS0 threads one metre long, (39 inches.) +These frames are circular and rotary, operated by foot. The operative, remaining seated, causes the Portion of the frame which carries the skeins to revolve past her, and regulates each skein in turn. 4Z0 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. IV. YT hat is the general character of the relations existing between employers and operatives In the weaving and in the tulle industries,instability is their principal feature. Employers and operatives are entirely independent of each other. They make and close engagements with each other with the greatest facility. The question of interest is the ruling one. The workman works for his employer, and the employer pays him for it. In this, as well as in the other industries within the jurisdiction of the council, the relations between employers and operatives are generally amicable. Measures calculated to reconcile the different interests have been carried into effect by the efforts of the " council" during the last few years, and have produced the happiest results. Among gold-weavers and trimming-makers, differences arising out of the question of salary have created a certain uneasiness in the relations of employer and operatives, especially since 1869. Before that time the situation was more satisfactory. V. Give an account of the institutionsfor the improveent of the condition of operatives. Operative weavers have established, with the consent of the government, a jointstock company for the manufacture and sale of silk goods. They have also formed a "protective and industrial societ for the purpose of resisting a reduction of wages, and furnishing themembers with information on all matters related to their work. There are a number of co-operative stores in different parts of the city for the sale of groceries at retail. Some of them have added to their business the sale of bread, charcoal,* and sausage-meats. It is desirable that these societies should grow, extend, and multiply themselves, so as to popularize, in their eperintal stage, the various kinds of co operative societies for purposes of production, credit, and consumption. There is a loan board in Lyons established by government for the purpose of affording relief to master workmen ii distress (for want of orders.) Those provided with good recommendations can borrow a sum not exceeding 40 francs ($S) for each of their looms for plain goods, and 50 francs (10) for each one for figured goods. The rate of interest is 5 per cent. If the loan is not returned when due, the company is re-imbursed by a retention of wages to the extent of. As regards the dyeing industry, somine employers have endeavored to better te condition of the workmen by assisting them by means of voluntary contributions in becoming interested in the "Imiutual-aid societies" and "1pension banks," or by giving them, in the way of a premium, a share in the profits of the establishment, or eleb providing them with a physician in case of sickness., leb The workmen have formed a "1mutual society," which is at present in a flourishing condition. Employers are admitted as honorary members. A few journeymen dyers belong to the "1mutual-loan societies" and "1co-operative stores" of the place. In 1863 some journeymen dyers formed themselves into a "1co-operative joint-stock company, with a variable amount of capital." Twenty men are employed in the works. The dyers have also established a "1protective and industrial society" to oppose a reduction of wages and afford relief to the victims of accidents (members only) and to those who have been rejected by the mutual societies. Members pay 50 centimes (10 cents) a month. H-atters have five "1mutual-aid societies" in the department, including the women. hat-trimmters' society. In the tulle and trimming industry there are no such organizations. VI. Has there been an increase in wvages in the department? The question of wages is a vital one, especially in commerce and the more important manufactures. It is one of the most formidable problems of modern society. For several years wages have been gradually and regularly increasing with a corresponding increase in the prices of the various articles manufactured. Thus, the price of velvets has increased 50 to 60 per cent.; "1patterns,"t figured and fancy goods, 30 to 40 per cent.; taffetas and plain goods, 15 to 20 per cent.; dyeing (during the last 2 years alone,) 10 to 12 per cent. In the tulles manufacture, the rates of wages remain oni an average nearly stationary, following the fluctuations Of supply and demand. Men earn 4 francs, (80 cents,) and women 2.5`0 (50 cents,) and women embroiderers working at home in the country earn from 601 centimes (12 cents) to 1.50 francs (30 cents.) In the batters' trade there has been a reduction of 30 per cent. in all hand work for which machine work has been substituted. The price of" brushedlhats, Flemish style, 74 has increased 120 per cent. In gold-weaving, &c., the rates have increased 20 per cent., and in the manufacture of trimmings, 17 per cent. *Charcoal is e.xtensively used in France for cooking and beating purposes. tGoods in which there is any variety in the play of the threads, (as serges.) simple designs, but not flowers, figures, &c. +Hats with a lang silk pluah. LABOR IN FRANCE. 471 oVII. Has there been an increa8e in the C8t f the necessaries of life? Yes, to a remarkable extent. The price of articles of food has risen from 30 to 40 per cent. The price of meat, especially, has increased to such an extent during the last few years as to make the condition of the working classes worse and worse. VII. Under what conditions are agricultural and industrial pursuits combined? The population of the Lyons district is engaged almost exclusively in manufactures; that of the neighboring departments is engaged in both agriculture and manufactures, pursuing them alternately, according to the season. Those who are thus employed are weavers, batters, embroiderers, &c. Their lot is, in general, preferable to that of the city operatives, who receive higher wages, but whose expenses are greater and heavier, who are subject to more lossime and whose occupation is more uncertain. IX. What is the state of education among the operatives? Do the children attend school? After considering the material wants of the workman, if you inquire into his real condition, it will have to be acknowledged with regret that not only is his education very limited, but in some cases entirely neglected. Parents pressed by straitened circumstances only send their children to school up to their twelfth year. The knowledge wich they acquire there is very elementary and soon forgotten in the midst of surroundigs so unfavorable to its retention and so much more unfavorable to its cultivation. There are indications of progress in the education of tlme laboring-classes, but there is much wanting. The native Lyonnese can generally read and write. Parents are usually willing to send their children to school, and the attendance is pretty regular; but the number of schools is far from sufficient in many districts of the city, and in some there are none at all. In the trimming industry operatives have about the amount of education necessary for their occupation, and their children generally attend school. X. Has n society been established within the department for the purpose of enabling workmen to be e owners of real estate? What is the status of these societies-chartered or independent? What share have employers had in them? What have been the results? What is te number of the mutual aid societies?" There is no institution with such an object in view; but manufacturers cheerfully make advances toward the purchase of a loum, to any one of their workmen whose work has wVon their approval. In this way workmen become master-weavers. The loan is refunded by retaining one-eighth of the wages. Ten per cent. of the present master-weavers began in this way. The "mutuial aid societie~s" are very numerouis. They embrace nearl~yall theiindustries represented in the council. There are many societies of this kind, with a large number of participating and honorary members.* Especially worthy of menltion is the great -weavers' society of.Lyons, under the patronage of the chamber of commerce. Its ntemlbers number 5,000, viz, 1,600 men and 3,400 women. The former pay 2 francs (40 cents) a mnonth; the latter 1.50, (30 cents.) In ease of sickness, the society provides its members gratuitously with medicines, the attendance of its physician, and a subsidy of 2 francs (40 cents) and 1.50 francs (30 cents) per day for men and womien respectively.t An additional charge of 6 centimes is made on every kilogramme, of silk (a trifle over cent a pound) -weighed at the "1public silk-conditioning office," tfor the benefit of this society. The amount received annually from this source, 100,000 francs, ($20,000,) is set aside for the purpose of duplicating the deposits of the members of the, society at the "1pension bank." The trimming-makers have a "mutual aid society," to which nearly all the employers belong as honorary members. *In 1S57 there were in France 3,86C of these societies, with a "participating " membership of 450,0C. Inl18CCthe number of the societies had increased to 4,410. Some of them are under government supervision. tSomec, if not all, of these societies defray also the funeral expenses of members. tAs silkabsorbs moisture very readily, its weigrht varies according to thedamp-ness of the atmosphere. To secure dealers and buyers ag ainst losses arisiDng fromn variations in the weather and from fraudulent moisteuiug, public offices for ascertaining the amozunt of moisture in silk have been opened in all cities where silk is largely used for manutaeturing purposes. A sample of each hale is carefully weigmed, then perfectly dried in a heated metallic bome and weighed again. 11 per cent, is added to the weight dry, which is considered as representing the amount of moisture absorbed by silk from the atmosphere on an av~erag)e day of the year. Silk ran absorb as much as 31 per cent. All ra-w silks pass throuo~lithese offices. Duly rogister-ed andsignedcerttificates of testsare furnished, not only of tho amount of dampness, but also of that of gum and fboreign substances in raw and thrown silks, and of tihe average size, strength, elasticity, and of the twist and general nature of silk fibers, all of which may be of consequence to the manufacturer. ~ An institution under the control of a government commission, hb ving for its object the assurance or annuities to the superannuated railroad companies, omnibus lines, and other corporations, sometimes miakes depositsd in this bank for pensioning off its employds when they become tee old to work. The number of policy~holders in 1838 was 10,331, of whom 3,692 were operatives. 472 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. XI. Do joint-stockc societies tend to supplant private manuaring-enterrises By no means. Several unfortunate attempts have been made by workmen in that direction, but they aeem to have abandoned the idea. There are no such efforts to report on the part of manufacturers. XII. Are there any instances within the district of large manufacturing-enterprie being co ducted by a company or society of workmen? There are none, except that of the weavers' society and that formed by a few jour neymen dyers, which are still in operation. ~ II.-MINOR INDUSTRES. I. What are the minor industries of the departmel importance? In the silk manufacture the minor industries are pasteboard-box-makin, making packing-cases, headle-making, twisting and drawing in, beaming, warping, reeding, pattern-card-stamping, the manufacture of Jacquard machines, shuttles, reeds, and other weavers' implements, and the construction of looms. There are also minor industries connected with dyeing, as the dyeing and cleansing of piece-goods soiled in process of manufacture, (and garments.) A very moderate investment suffices for a small business which is sustained by local wants. The owner does the work himself, and in busy times employs one or more assistants. The laundry business should also be mentioned, which is moving from the city to the country. It is becoming quite extensive, and even sustains some large establishments. II. Are the minor industries inclined to maintain or extend themselves, or become absorbed by the great ones? III. If they are becoming absorbed, state the most a cause of it. They are rather inclined to maintain themselves, because of the cheapness and simplicity of the necessary machinery and implements. There is no danger of absorption, either at present or in the future. IV. Are theme any minor manufactures in the department carried on by a company or society of workmen? None. V. Has there been an increase in the rates of wages in these industries? Have theprices of the necessaries of life increasedI The same answers are given as to questions V and VI, under the head "Great industries." The increase in wagres is, on an average, only from 20 to 30 per cent. LETTER FROME THE IJIITED STATES CONSUL AT LYONS. The following letter from the consul of the United States at Lyons gives some additional facts in regard to the cost and condition of labor in that seat of the silk industry: UNITED STATES CONSULATE,.Lyons, France, November 7, 1873. DEAR SIR:*** ** On the whole there is a very great difference in the nature of work and the mode of livinug of the workmen in this country and in the United States, and in my opinion. it is almost impossible to judge of the relative agreeableness of the work and the, wellbeing of the laborer by placing the kind of the former and the cost of the various articles of food, clothing, and of house-rent in the two countries into a comparative position with, the ear-nings in wages. The labor market of the Lyons region is governed and absorbed to the greatest extent by the manufacture of silks. Tfhis complicated industry divides itself into a great number of separate manipulations, so much so that-a few cases excepted-the manufacturers cannot keep the progress of their work under their direct control. Their business consists principally in distributing the materials as they advance to the different degrees of perfection, amo ng the various sections of their workmen. These take the materials to their homes, and there perform the task as signed to them. In this way it happens that a lot of silk, after being spun and dyed to be made into a -piece of dressgoods, passes eight or nine times through the manufacturer's office before the piece arrives finally on his shelves, ready for sale. 4Twisting and drawing in; i. e., attaching the threads of a new warp, one by one, to the thrums or ends of a warp which has just been woven out, and then drawing the new warp by meanisof the thrums through the harness and reed. In case the harness and reed are used for the first time, the threads have to be passed through both by means of hooks. LABOR IN FRANCE. 473 This mode of proceeding and the nature of the work admit the employment of all male and female members of a family above the age of twelve years. By thus accumulating the wages, a famil earns sufficient to meet all its wants, and, besides, a surplus for times of sickness or want of employment, although the daily wages appear to be very moderate. The earnigs of an adult in the various kinds of labor connected with the silk industry are from 2 to 5 fracs (40 cents to $1) a day. A single person may have good board for $1.75 to $2 a week; lodging for 50 to 75 cents a week. A family of two adults ad one child of about fourteen years earns not less than $10 a week; they may live comparatively well in expending from $3 to $4 in the same time, while they can rent an appartenent, containing roomns for their utensils, (looms, &c.,) one or two bedrooms, and kitchen for from $60 to $80 a year, or about $1.25 or $1.50 a week. ~~~~~~~Th~e classes of eople in question live principally on soup, cooked with vegetables, meat, bread, and light red wine; the latter article is used by everybody and by both sexes, and forms an essential portion of the daily food. Coffee is comparatively neglected, and replaced by a thick and very substantial broth. Tea is used only in case of sickness. Of bread, only white (wheaten) bread, and of meat, fresh beef and mutton, have the preference; occasionally smoked ham and sausages come in by way of variation. All French men, as well as women, are perfect cooks, and understand how to prepare with theabove main ingredients most excellent and healthy dishes. The light red wine taken with their meals costs from 24 to 40 cents a gallon. The silk industry employs som 0,000, perhaps 100,000, looms, demanding with the auxiliarymaipulationsabout2, hands. All other labor is necessarily influenced by such an army as regards wages and conditions. After these few rearks, respectfully made, and intended for the easier appreciation of the situation of the French laborer in and about Lyons, I have the honor to return the inclosed blanks, fied up as far as the case admits. I am, sir, &C., P. J. OSTERHAUS. H ~ury Deartment, shingon, D..EDWARD YOUNG, Chief of Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department, Washington, D. C. WOMEN WORKERS IN PARIS. The following extract shows the number of women emplo yed in various branches of industry in Paris: In Paris alone above 178,000 females earn their livelihood in some department of trade, 161,795 being bona-fide workwomen; and of these, half are encraged in trades having to do with dress, the grand total of 130, 625 being divided among twenty-two occupations in the accompanying proportions. Seamstresses number 51,169; bleachers, 20,896; shirt and linen makers,!20,579; artificial flower and feather makers, 71,432; milliner s, 6,453; boot and shoe makers, 6,284; tailoresses, 4,619; hat and cap makers,. 3,138; glove, breeches, and dress-makers, 2,479; embroiderers, (of women's attire,) 2,353; button-makers, 801; cane and umbrella makers, 529; comb, brush, and dressingcase makers, 625; dyers, 484; embroiderers in silver and gold, 463; perfumers, 392; straw-hat makers, 261; furriers, 250; stocking-makers, 138; barbers,lhair-dressers, and wig-makers, 126; gaiter-miakers, 110; calenderers, 87; wooden-shoe makers, 16. Under the somewhat pretentious division of "1Science, letters, and art," we find enumerated 2,554 book-binders; 779 employed in printing, engraving, and lithography; 380 iu paper-making; 93 in the manufacture of musical instruments; 91 in making various necessities for the writing-table; 25 in type-founding; 73 engaged at theaters and concerts; 78 on newspapers and reviews, and. 67 editors of books and music, (actresses, singers, and newspaper editresses are classified with the followers of liberal p~rofessions.) Among 7,788 ministers to luxury and amusement are 2156 makers of toys and playingf-cards; 261 producers of works of art; 5,666 workers in gilding, jewelry, and allied calliugfs; and 1,443 xx omen employed in tobacco-manuflictories. Of 1,589 workwomen connected with the conmuissariat, 258 are engaged at restaurants, taverns, and such places of entertainment; and precisely the same number are set down as bakers.'The preparation of ice, chocolate, and cream occupies 210, and 78 are employed by pastry-cooks. One only figures among the millers, two among sugar-refiners, and five among the brewers. Then there are 133 findlug work as preserve-makers; II as potted-meat makers; and 17 in the concoction of preserved vegetables. The dairywomen number 13, the "roasters " 6, water-carriers 8, and the butchers-yes, the butchers-140; while 18 strong-minded dames earn their bread in the slaughter-houses. After that we are not surprised to learn Paris boasts 9 female, boat-builders, and 245 "1wheelwrights, carriag-e-makers, farriers, and saddlers."1 Military equipments afford employment To 291 females; 40 help to produce fire-arms 474 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. and ammunition, and 3 to make swords and bayonets. Eight thousand seven hundred and ninety-three workwomen are employed in the manufacture of textilefabrics, and 2,859 in the production of articles of furniture; 782 of these being catalogued as cabinetmakers, 1,123 as upholsterers, 758 as bedding-makers, and 39 as looking-glass makers. Connected with building, we are astonished to see 3 architects, 8 sawyes, 46 carpenters and joiners, 8 masons and slaters, 99 marble and stone cutters, 7 chiney-makers and sweeps, and 1 plumber; then come 75 paperhangers, 89 painters, glaziers, plasterers, and decorators, and 10 ornamental-decorators. Ceremie manufctories afford employment to 146 women, chemical works to 376, candle-factories to 53; 12 are engaged in the making of gas, 445 in various methods of manipulating leather, 299 in metal and hardware work, 225 in turning, box-making, and oter trades comin nder the heading of wood, and 37 are employed in the manufacture of cast iron, stel, copper, and other metals. With the exception of the milliners, who are boarded by their employers, and receive an annual salary, embroiderers appear to be the best paid, since they can depend upon earning from 14 to 17 shillings a week all the year round; while 2 shillings a day represents the income of the ordinary good workomen in most other trades. THE WORKING WOMIEN OF FRANCE. A series of articles under the above caption, translated from the French of M. Jules Simon, which tecently appeared in the New York Evening Post, are of such interest that copious extracts are here presented: ARTIFICIAL FLOwE. The best Parisian artificial flowers may well dispute the palm in point of freshness of appearance with those which bloom in gardens. The lovely women of both worlds buy at Paris the flowers with which they dress their hair. Italy formerly stood first in the manufacture of flowers, silks, and laces; subsequently Lyons was celebrated for its flowers. At present Paris stands pre-eminent. Nearly five thousand women are engaged in this branch of trade. The most skillful are artists who study natural flowers with real enthusiasm, and imitate them with greater fidelity than the best painters. Their receipts sometimes amount to three francs for a days work of eleven hours. A fleutriste can live very comfortably, if she is not seized with a desire to deck her own person with the wreaths she makes and exhibit them at the Mabille. CUTTERS OF PRECIOUS STONES. Every one -understands why Paris should be the center of flower-making, but'by what strange and inexplicable anomaly has the cutting of precious stones been established on the summit of one of the Jura Mountains? IDiamonds are cut at Amsterdam; but rubies, sapphires, aquamarines, amethysts, and opals are all cut and polished in the heart of the mountains. These rude children of the Jura remain faithful to the occupations and customs of their fathers, and all the riches which pass through their hands do not make -their cottages appear colder or their bread harder. They have lately,made some advances in analogous branches of trade. The women make false stones with a skill which is unequaled.'They pierce rubies as pivots for watches, and even begin to make mosaics with stones sent from Florence. Their work-tables are placed near the wfindows of their cottages, and there father, mother, and children work all day, when household cares, preparation for meals, cutting wood in the mountains, or the sowing of some poor piece of ground does not call them away. The women who cut rubies often earn tolerably good wages, yet, notwithstanding this, wages of one franc fifty centimes (30 cents) are the exception. The average is seventy-five centimes, (15 cents.) STRAW-HAT BRAIDERS. Quite an important branch of trade, and one which has to do with the feminine toilet, is the manufacture of straw hats. Nancy is one of the great centers of this industry, and, if the merchants are to be believed, they export hats even to America. Most of the men's so-called straw hats are really made of the bark of the catanier, or Bourbon palm. The Nancy manufacturer buys the bark, has it dressed and torn into long strips with a, sort of metal comb, and then sends it to be braided and made up. The maker is paid -fifty centimes (10 cents) for a hat. It is necessary to work all day, and to he far more skillful than the generality of workwomen, in order to finish two. Panama hats, and those made of finely-sewn plaits, are made in France, the first from the leaves of the ypyppa, which come from Panama, and-the second with pla~its bought at Florence, and charged with an exorbitant duty. It is this duty, and, in a few instances, the fine quality of the raw material, which explains the enormous cost of some hats. A Panama, hat which cost two thousand francs was on exhibition some years ago at a Paris store. the Nancy manufacturer had sold it for sixty franics, and he had probably paid three francs to the woman who braided it. LABOR IN FRANCE. 475 TOY-MAKERS. Toy-making gives employment to a large number of poor women. There are some women whose work consists in pasting colored paper on myriads of tiny toys. A very few of the best workers earn excellent wages; the others vegetate during the good season, and are subjected to long periods of forced idleness. In November and December there are not enough women to dress the dolls and ornament the bonbons. Those who work have to sit up all night and strain every nerve. To this activity succeed, without the slightest transition, long months of forced idleness. GLASS-CUTTING. Glass-cutting comprises four different operations: smoothing down, which is done on an iron wheel, with pure, fine, damp sand; the first polish done on a fine wheel, the second polish done on a wooden wheel, with powdered pumice-stone, dampened, and the final polish done on a cork wheel, with dry powdered tin. If glass is to be eng(raved, recourse is had either to a diamond point, or to a process which is quite complicated, and consists in covering all the surface with a slight varnish of wax and turpentine, drawing the design on the wax and pouring fiuor-hydric acid on the parts laid bare by the burin. The business of cutting is generally intrusted to women in the factories. They do it marvellously well, as it requires only patience and skill. Unfortunately, it is a very unhealthy trade, as the necessity of bending over the wheel and having their hands in water call day, exposes them to dangerous pulmonary affections. Women are employed, in considerable number, at the cigar trade, at which they make very fair wages. OTHER TRADES. Women are to be found also in stone-cutters' shops. There are some among gilders, bronze-mounters,.bronze-varnishers, pewterers, engravers, manufacturers of polishedmetal plates, jewelers, gold-beaters, &c. Most of the women employed in these trades are burnishers, polishers, and borers. It is not at all fatiguing work, and pays well. A skilled workwoman can earn four francs a day and more. Her wages (lepend on the rapidity with which sbe works. Many of the women do not earn more than one franc; they then become discouraged and seek some other trade. The borers put the fiinishing touches on carvings of copper, bronze, and even more precious metals. Fewer ornaments of bronze and copper are now made than in the early part of this century, and for three months of every year the borers work only two days in the week. Women are very successful in boring. The work, which requires assiduity, precision, and a light, skillfuil hand, seems to be made expressly for them. The few women who have devoted themselves to wood engraving easily earn five francs a day. In 1860, a course of instruction in this art was opened at the School of Design, and the experiment wrought excellent results. The want of a good education or apprenticeship reduces a great number of women and young girls to trades which scarcely suffice to support themn, such as basket-making, esparto work, straw-mat, broom, and feather-duster making, and stuffing chairs. The poor women who make wreaths of immorte]les and shavings of ox-horns earn barely enough to buy bread with. In general, talent only is well paid. Persons who are endowed neither with talent nor physical strength, can find profitable employment nowhere but in factories. Women find employment also in stationers'and booksellers' shops as folders, gatbherers and stitchers. Their wages vary as they do everywhere from one franc, (,20 cents) to two francs fifty centiues (45 cents) a day, but rarely fall below two francs,(40 cents.) They are beginning in printing establishments to employ women to set type. They compose very well, nothing but exactness and perseverance being generally necessary. It is always hard labor, as it obliges them to stand up all the time, and is very fatigruing to the eyes. It often requires, also, a good elementary education, which is not within the reach of all young girls. The last-named trades are carried on in enormous workshops. This is the case, too, with glass-cutting. Every one is aware of the difference between cut and pressed glass. In order to give the glass those clean edges which so enhance its value it is necessary to subject it to the action of several grindstones; for, glass is a dry, brittle substance, which cannot be cut like wood, stone, or metals. FACTORY-LIFE. The women employed in the factories where woolen fabrics are nade, have also a hard lot. There are always cleaners, packers, and rattacheures, as wool necessitates divers operations of division, greasing, and again removing the grease. Nevertheless it produces less dust than cotton, and has not the same disadvantage of poisoning the air and adhering to the hair and clothes of the operatives. The odor of the oil which is applied to the.wool for the purpose lubricating it, and facilitating the operations of carding and combing, is only disagreeable to visitors; the women employed do not notice it. In general wool-spinning is less troublesome and dangerous than cottonspi ning. Several wool-spinning factories are remarkable for their neatness and ele 476 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. gance. Preparations of hemp, flax, and above all of tow, emit, on the contrary, quaAtities of very unwholesome dust. It is impossible to card. and spin them, except in very hot rooms, and with the aid of abundance of water. Few sights are more unpleasant than a badly kept flax-spinning establishment. The water floods the brick floors, and the smell of the flax in the heated atmosphere produces sometimes an intolerable stench. The greater part of the workwomen are obliged to la aside most of their clothes, are crowded together in this pestilent atmosphere, and stand all day long perspiring, and with naked feet, the water often reaching their ankles. When, after twelve hours' hard work, they leave the factory for their homes, the wraps with which they cover themselves barely afford an adequate protection against the cold and damp. THE WAGES. The health of a woman has a great deal to do with the question of her receipts; the will, perhaps, still more, since energy and resolution can triumph over a weak body and exhausted powers. The most favorable estimates do ot fixthemean of the feale weaver's daily receipts at more than one franc fifty centimes. Let us, in order to make the best of it, state the average of her salary to be 1.75 francs, (35 cents,) which would be 525 francs a year for 300 ays of hard work. With 1.75 francs a day it is possible indeed to live, but to live very poorly. If francs (20 centimes a day) are not deducted from the year's income for a lodging, the lodgingmust be a mere shed. If more than 150 francs are not deducted for washing, shoes, and clothes, the Lyons workwomen will scarcely be able to get more than what is absolutely necessary. There remain then something like 80 centimes a day for food and other expenses. Most of these women take their meals at the master weaver's. This arrangement, though not always practicable, is much the best. Although women are naturally sober, and generally less in need of strong food than men, we should remember that these women work at a fatiguing trade, which requires a certain deree of strength, if only to accomplish a good day's work. To be miserably lodged, clothed, and fed, and with all this to be obliged to work, at the very least, twelve hours a day, is the fate of a female weaver, as favorably sitated as possible. WEA.VERS AND LACE-MAKERS W.e should form a very mistaken idea of the trade of spinning and weaving did we suppose that it had completely done away with manual labor. The old-fashioned loom is still encountered everywhere, in cellars and cottages. After visiting one of those vast factories where five hundred looms are working together with a deafening clatter, it produces a singular effect to cross the street, descend'a few steps, and suddenly find oneself in the workshop of a weaver of the old school..The cellar is lighted, as all cellars are, by a trap-door. The atmosphere is damp enough to prevent the thread from breaking, but not so dlamp as to injure it. Sometimes, often indeed, the loom completely fills the cellar, and the weaver is obliged to creep under the frame, and squeeze himself between the levers, in order to tie the broken threads. The large, heavy, rough-hewn posts, the warp moving with a creaking noise, the cords grating in the pulleys-the primitive simplicity of all these accessories contrasts strangely with the elegant little machine which is driven by steam with such rapidity. The old-fashioned weavers usually work alone. Sometimes they have two looms in one room, rarely mnore. When they spend their days thus, seated on their stools, their feet on the levers, and their hands on the battants, they might easily imagine that there have been no revolutions either in society or in trade, and that the steam-engine is still an invention of the future. Cotton is woven by machinery in Alsace, Normandy, and the north of France. Handlooms are there the exception, arid their number is daily diminishing. Some old houses have retained them because they involve no expense, and patterns can be varied on them with more facility than on power-looms. Here and there, to be sure, may be seen a hand-loom;- but it is a family heritage, and the children continue their father's trade with their father's implements. The knitting-loom, such a source of revenue to country-women, does not suffice for the support of a Parisian workwoman. This is the case also with regard to another branch of industry, lace-making, the products of which are priceless, and the labor miserably paid. At Paris, where living is expensive, lace has rarely or never been made, for the gold and silver lace manlufactured in Paris ranks properly among passementerie. For the same reason, very little of the so-called Valenciennes lace is made at Valenciennes, It it difficuilt work, requires a long apprenticeship, absorbs all of the maker's time, and is so miserably paid for that the wor-kingpopulation of the north find more lucrative employment. As it takes several mionths, and sometimes- even a year, to make a coupon three yards in length, and as it is impossible for the lace-maker to wait so long a time for her wages, it is the custom to pay by bande8, there being three bande8 in yad an.wlei opn The result of this is that the employer incurs both risk and expense, as'he is obliged to furnish the thread andI pay almost the whole amount due the maker a long time before lie receives the work. At the present time there are bat three lace-makers at Valenciennes, earning from one franc thirty centimes to one franc fifty centimes for twelve hours' work. What is known as Valenciennes lace is made extensively at LABORIN FRANCE. 477 Ypr, Courtray, Ghent, Bruges, and in almost all parts of Flanders. The price of a lace-maker's cushion varies from eight to ten francs, the patterns from seventy-five centimes to one franc. Beside this the woman is obliged to provide her pins and spindles, and rarely are less than four hundred spindles and fifteen hundred pins used in making a coupon of Valenciennes lace. Point d'Alenon is made in a very different manner from Valenciennes. In the latter instance the same person makes the net and the flowers; but the women who make Point dAlenon are divided into several classes-the traceuses, the reseleuses, who make the lacer net, the bourreus, who do the heavy embroidery, the modeuses, who do the open work, and the brode, who make the border destined to surround and support the pattern. An apprenticeship of three months is sufficient, and if they do not injure their ands by doing heavy work, they can attend to all their household duties. They can begin a piece of lace, leave it and take it up again, as they could knitting or embroidery. They earn on an average one franc a day. NEEDLE-WOMEN. Itappearstattwentyyearsagooutof 112,000 workwomen mentioned by the commissioners of exaination, at least 60,000 supported themselves by various kinds of needle-work. This estimate incdes only those regularly hired. There are a large number of others who work alone. The hihest wages paid before the war were five francs daily for milliners and embroiderers, four francs fifty centimes for the seamstresses employed by tailors, four francs for regular seamstresses, corset-nakers, and the women who work for the lhngerie. The reprieures and the seamstresses who work for shoemakers and upholsterers earn three francs fifty centimes. On the other hand, wages sometimes fell as low as seventy-five centimes for workers on tapestry, kid gloves, and old clothes; fifty centies for dressmakers, vest-makers, corset-makers, cap-makers, and embroiderers; forty centimes for the women employed by shoemakers and those who stitched cloth lgloves, and fifteen centimes for those employed in the li genies. The general average of salaries earned by Parisian workwomen in 1847 was about one franc sixty-three centimes. Nine hundred and fifty women earned less than sixty centimes; one hundred thousand and fifty from sixty centimes to three francs; and six hundred and twenty-six more than three francs. Seamstresses who worked at home earned on an averae one franc forty-two centimes, and those in the shops about two centimes. These rates have doubled since that time. A good Parisian work-woman's, in a certain sense, an artist. It is natural that she should be much sought after and well paid. As wages have gradually risen, only women endowed with an exceptional degree of talent have profited by the change, while the increasing competition, the new commercial organization, and the dissemination. of the sewing-machine have combined to lower the value of mere manna1 labor. Tailors who make to order pay a woman from four to six francs for making a vest. She is obliged to furnish her own sewing-silk, &c., the expense amounting to about fifty centimes, and, if a good worker, she can make a -vest a day. The merchants, however, who furnish ready-made clothing to the Parisian shops pay a woman only one franc fifty centimes to two francs fifty centimes for the same labor. There, then, may be two women, both following the same trade, one of whom will earn five francs fifty ceutimes a day, and the other only one franc twenty-five centimes. The exportingr merchants pay their women from sevenlty-five centimes to One franc twenty-five centimies; the thread and other materials which must be supplied will cost, say, twenty centimes. If they can make three plain vests in two days, they will have a profit of about eighty-five centimes a day. Ladies'- cloaks and mantillas are always given by large houses to women who superintend the work dlone by their hired hands, and who themselves (10 everything requirin'- taste and discrimination. The workwomien do nothinga but sew. They earn two francs or two francs fifty centinies for twelve hours' work, out of which one hour is allotted for rest and meals. Wholesale ready-made clothing establishments manage things very differently. The house will order, for example, three dozen paletots at one shop. These paletots cost two francs apiece, of which the mistress of the shop deducts fifty centuimes. The woman who sews spends fifteen centimes on her thread, and her profits amount to only one franc thirty-five centimes. By working from 7 in the, morning till S in thg, eveningr, and scarcely taking time for her meals, a skillful workwoman can make three pDaletots in two days. To accomplish this she must sew steadily for thirteen hours without one instant's pause or rest. To this gloomy picture we must add cold feet in winter, and six hours' work by dim candle-light. It is under such circumstances that a seamstress -who is more than ordinarily clever can earn two francs. Linen drapery, or lingerie, comprises a great variety of articles, from sheets and the aprons worn by valets de charnbre to ladies' morninlg-caps finished in the most dainty style. A clever workwoman, who is able to cut and finish a fine cap, can earn from five to six francs a day. Generally, these are women who have small shops, and make this their peculiar branch of trade. 478 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Among the regular workwomen, a few of the best earn three francs, and almost all earn two francs, or two francs fifty centimes, for thirteen hours' work. The easiest work falls below this estimate; for example, eighty centimes are paid for one dozen ficha bodies, and a very good seamstress can make two dozen in thirteen hours. Sheets, towels, and napkins rarely bring the needlewoan more than one franc a day, or seventv-five centimes when she works for large establishments. They are the resource of most women when work is slack. Upholsterers employ a great many seamstresses. The commissioners counted two thousand, and, with the increase of population and the rapid increase of luxurious habits, undoubtedly a much larger number are now engaged in this trade. They invariably receive one franc seventy-five centimes a day, unless they are doublets, in which case they receive two francs, as they are obliged to stand up all the time. Their day's work lasts in winter from 8 in the morning till half past 6 in the evening, with an hour's intermission; and in summer from 7 in the morning till half-past 6 in the evening. Extra work is paid at the rate of twenty-five centimes until midnight, and fifty centimes from midnight until 6 in the morning. GLOVE-MAKERS. Not less than 12,000 women are employed in the glove-trade in the department of the Loire alone. In the Grenoble factory there are 1,200 who cut the gloves, aking on an average four hundred and fifty dozen a year. A single house at Chaumont (Haute Marne) employs 2,051 stitchers. There are three separate kinds of work in glove-making-cutting, stitcig, and finishing. Men usually do the cutting; but lately they have employed at the Grenoble manufactories four or five hundred women, who place the leather upon the iron hand, cut it with the aid of a balancier, and prepare it for sewing. It is not very ard work, and the women receive twenty centimes a day. They can earn from forty-five to seventy francs a month.' This depends, of course, upon their skill, and the time they have to give to the work. The stitchers are paid for one dozen single-buttoned ladies' gloves four francs fifty centimes, and for two-buttoned gloves four francs sevety-fve centirnes. The mistress deducts fifty centimes, and the workwoman is obliged to furnish the silk, at a cost of about forty centimes; three francs thirty centimes remain for one dozen pairs, or thirty centimes aL pair. A good worker can make at most four pairs a day, but the majority of women do not make more than two and a half. Glove-stitching requires the most exquisite neatness. The stained gloves are not only left on the workw-oman's hands, but she is obliged to pay for the material. Four pairs a day would amount to one franc twenty centimes. In the Haute Vienne, where gloves are made of lambskin, in l'Aveyron, in the Haute Marne, and even in 1'Isere, the price of a dozen often falls as low as three francs. The workwoman's receipts are then reduced almost to nothing..The following extract froin the Paris correspondence of the, C'hicago Tribune, supposed to be from the pen. of the editor, Mr. Mvedill, affords additional information of an interesting character in regard to the employmeilt of women in France: Women seem almost to monopolize every avocation in the cities for which they possess the requisite physical strength. They constitute the great bulk of the vaisible shop-keeping, class. Male clerks are scarce iu France; the women having taken their places. The hotels and boarding-houses are managred by females. All the lighter mechanical trades are largely filled with women, whio manufacture most of the clothingr, head-gear, slippers, dolls, toys, and a thousand articles of commerce, with which the French supply the markets of the world. In the country, all French women work out of doors, on the farms, side by side with their male relatives. It would he a safe estimate to state that half the productive industry of France is the result of female labor. But that in which the French more particularly excel is economy. They live upon just about one-half what the Americans do. The wife in every French family knows to a nicety what quantity of each kind of food is the least that will suffice to make a comfortable meal, and not a particle more than that is ever cooked or served. Servants are never permitted to waste or steal food. The lady of the house looks after her marketing, her kitchen, and her pantry, with sharp eyes and unflagging care. In the matter of clothing, also, the same economy prevails, and yet they all seem. to be neatly, cleanly, and comfortably dressed. There is no vast element of indigent, ragged, miserable paupers, living on public charity. Every one appears to be self-supporting. LABOR IN FRANCE. 479 CONDITION OF LABORERS' DWELLINGS. M. Jules Simon, from whose interesting account of labor in France copious extracts have been presented on the preceding pages, has also investigated the condition of the working-classes. In regard to their wretched abodes, the colection of rents, and the hours of labor, he says: It is not an uncommon ting to find workmen who have inhabited the same room for a number of years, not because they are comfortable, but simply because they are there, and have no idea of looking elsewhere for a home. The most striking examples of this indifference is in the case of two old people who lived some years ago in a small house in the Rue du Miline, in the parish of St. Germain. When interviewed the husband was eighty-three and the wife eighty-two years old. They had been married sixty-three years, and ad lived in this lodging fifty-seven years, almost suffocated with smoke when they made a fire, chilled by the wind which whistled through the badly-joined panels of the door, and overflowed by the water of the drain. This Quartier de la Veilliere is a gloomy abode. It seems to be asleep, and is a sickening sigt, for it is old without being venerable. Among other proofs of abject misery there is a ground-floor lodging there, comprising two small rooms, badly'paved with small stones, and the inner room, having no windows, is in constant darkness. It also joins a bone depository, belonging to the neighboring house, and which diffuses so horrible an odor that it is impossible to bear it for more than a few moments. The man who, with his wife, inhabits this wretched dwelling, is employed in a neighboring factory; they have a daughter twenty years old, and five other children of tender years. Amiens is, notwithstanding all this, a fair, smiling city, with superb boulevards, long and well-built streets, a magnificent promenade, and one of the finest catedrals in the world. It olyremains for the inhabitants to believe that misery does not exist at all, that the workmen have food and fuel, and that no old man is in want of a bed on which to repose his wearied limbs. The contrast is, perhaps, more striking at Rheims, because trade is more animated there. That marvelous cathedral, those galleries in the open air which call to mind the covered bridges at Lucerne, the Rheims Mountain, which lifts its smiling vine-wreathed summits against the horizon, the well-aired, well-furnished shops from -which issue constantly mountains of spun wool, heaps of flannel, avalanches of cotton and woolen cloths, scarcely permit us to suspect the existence of the misery which is concealed not two steps off. THE HOMNES OF FAMINE AND'RUIN. Yet there stands a row of houses built at the foot of the ancient ramparts, the floors of which are washed away by floods of rain in the winter; there are lodgings, too, in the Cour Jenetus, the Cour St. Joseph, the Place St. Miaise, the Cemetery of la Madeleine, and the Rue du Barbatre, more desolate and abandoned than dungeons; long, lines of roor~s where the water drips through the dilapidated roofs, where space, air, and light are wanting, yet where people live, buried in cellars, perched in garrets, crowded, pressed, crammed one against the other in damp and choking alleys, the fearful abodes of famine, sickness, and debauchery. There still remains in the Cour No. 136, on the Boulevard Conis, a closet under a staircase, some two yards long by one and a half wide; it is impossible to stand upright in it, even at the highest part of the staircase. There is no window, and in order to have a little light and air it is necessary to leave the door open. It is no longer anything but a bake-house, but a paralytic woman once lived there, if it could be called living, two years and a half. * * * With the single exception of Mulhouse, equally wretched abodes manr be found in every manufacturing town throughout France. COLLECTING RENTS. Some landlords collect their rents themselves, and have no other business. One round is scarcely completed before they have to begin anther, op vr no ore will readily perceive that all rents are not pai-d at the first demand, and that it is necessary to return on Monday, Tuesday, and sometimes on Wednesday. A landlord who is resolved to be paid at any hazard allows of no arrears. It is possible with great difficulty to get 1 franc or 1 franc 50 centimes at a time, but 4 or 5 francs are an impossibility. The woman who cannot pay her rent on Monday is obliged to take her children and seek admittance at some other door. When there are no vacant lodgings to be had the tenants refuse to move, and it is hard enough to get them to go away. The most severe method consists in removing the doox; and windows. A few years ago there was a landlord at Lille who left his house in the morning drawing a little 480 LABOR IN FRANCE. hand-car. When a tenant refused to pay he took away his door and windows with his own hands. This worthy individual always returned home at night with large receipts, and yet he did not die a millionaire. HOURS OF LABOR. In 1836 the workman's day was fifteen hours long at Mulhouse, Dornach, and Lille, and sixteen at Bischerville. A report made befor the Industrial Society at Muhouse in 1837 stated that it was eighteen hours long in many French manufactories. Adults are now limited by law to twelve hours' labor per day. Adding to this the hour and a half usually allowed for rest and meals, it makes the absence of a mother from her family thirteen and a half hours. This is in case, we suppose, her house is near the factory, which it rarely is. Generally, it takes an hour to go and return which makes altogether an absence of fourteen or fifteen hours for the mother, and of solitude for the children. It is clear that, under such conditions, the room must be neglected; it is neither washed nor swept, nor put in order. Yet no one can have the heart to reproach for this the unhappy creature who, when she returns from the shop, has barely strength enough to prepare supper and put her children to bed. It is, then, impossible for a woman employed in a factory to perform her duty to her children. During her absence the visitor will not unfrequently find the children gathered around the fireless stove, sad and motionless. Their weakness rather than their mother's injunctions keeps them at home. The first idea which occurs to us on seeing them is that they have never smiled. There is another difficulty about schooling. It is necessary to be rich in order to go to the free school. A child of six years can wind; at eight he can enter a manufactory. Supposing that there are two or three children between the ages of six and twelve years, how is it possible to support them on the wages of one man? They must do their week's work as well as their father and mother. With what impatience do the peasants await the age fixed for entering the factory! Is it because they undervalue education? No, it is because they dread starvation. LABOR IN FRENCH PRISONS. According to M. Simon, there are three classes of prisons in France, the central prisons, the department prisons, and the houses of correction. In the first are confined all women condemned to hard labor, as are also some men condemned to a like punishment; all persons condemned to solitary confinement, and all persons condemned to more than one year of imprisonment. The prisoners usually remain about three years. There are twenty-five, of this kind of prisons, and they are the only ones where the work is properly regulated, or is of any importance. There are not less than fifty-four trades carried on in these central prisons. A contractor-general buys the hands of the prisoners, and lets them to subcontractors. The tariff of wages fixed by the governienet, and accepted by the contractor, is precisely the same as that of free workmen. The contractors supply food'and clothing for the prisoners, and a debit and credit account is kept between the State and the contractor-general, an account which,.on the side of the State, always ends in debit. The lprisoner is lodged, clothed, fed, warmed, anid has his washing done, gratuitously. He has no family-at least he may be considered as having none, since, he cannot support it. He is never in want of work. If he is ill he is not obliged to pay for medical attendance. Finally, it is out of his power to spend either time or money in the pursuit of pleasure. If; therefore, he be as well paid as a free laborer he ought to stave a great deal of money. He really does, since he receives a certain number of tenths, not of the real price of the day's work paid by the subcontractor, but of the price named in the tariffi, and accepted by the contractor-general as his base of operation and as equivalent to the day's wages of a free laborer. This sum is always reduced by one-fifth, which is deducted by the contractor-general in payment of the inaterials and tools with which he furnishes the prisoner. ****** LABOR IN FRANCE. 481 PRODUCTION OF IRON AND STEEL IN 1873. The following statement of the production of iron, and of iron and steel rails in France, during the year 1873, will be read with interest: The total make of pig-iron in France in 1873 was 1,381,000 tons, being only 17 000 tons less than that of 1869; the largest that was ever reached having been 1,39a,000. Coulpared with 1872, the increase has not been less than 200,695 tons. The total out-put of manufactured iron in 1873 amounted to 906,745 tons against 883,079 tons in 1872, showing an increase of 23,666 tons. There is a fallingff off, however, of 126,000 tolns conpared with the extraordinary make of 1869. The total production of steel during( tah year reached 167,677 tons against 138,552 tons in 1872, or an increase of 29,125 tons. Since 1867 the steel manufacture in France has increased tenfold, and the upward movement is likely to continue. The sum total of iron and steel rails which the sundry railway companies ordered from the home works during 1873 is 1S,815 tons, of which 124,717 tons were of iron and 64,098 tons of steel. The Paris-Lyon-Mediterranean Railway alone consumed during the year 32,5,00 tons of steel rails; the Nord, 14,625 tons; the West, 9,871 tons. Compared with 1872, the consumption of iron rails increased 20,750 tons, and that of steel rails 11,903 tons. Adding to the above figures 8,544 tons of iron rails and 2,000 tons of steel rails imported during the year, it is found that there has been a consumption, by all the French railways, of 133,261 tons iron rails and 66,098 tons of steel rails, or an aggregate of 199,359 tons. STEEL-WVORKS AT LE CREUSOT. Having, at a later period, visited the renowned steel-works of Mr. Krupp, at Essen, in Westphalia, an extended notice of which appears on subsequent pages, the author more keenly regrets that he did not extend his journey from Paris to Le Creusot, where the celebrated works of Mr. Schneider are situated. The following communication, which appeared in the American Manufacturer, of Pittsburgh, Pa., gives an interesting account of the extent and production of the works, but makes no reference to the earnings of the workmen: I have just returned from a visit to Le Creusot, the largest works I have cver visited I spenL four days there, and am under many obligations to Mr. Schneider, the owner of three-fourths of these magnificent works, for the very kindest of attention shown mc during mny visit. I had the pleasure of inspecting the works under the personal guidance of Mr. Schneider, who has a warm feeling for Americans, as several Amnerican iron-men can testify. There are employed at these works 15,000 workmen, who turn out a daily product of 500 tons of iron and steel. The building of the rolling-mills is 1,318 feet long and 360 feet wide, under a succession of spans, four in numlber, all of iron. They have twelve sheet and plate mills lhere, and are putting in the three high Lauth. They have ten blast-furnaces, which produce 500 tons of pig-iron per day. Have four converters, (Bessemer,) and make 200 tons per day. They have also the Siemens-Martin process at work. Mr. Schneider informed me that they do not have any difficulty in making a uniform article of steel. I can say I want steel soft to-morrow, hard the next day, medium the next, and alm sure to get it, as he says there is no trouble with steel, but with iron there is. They use the African ore mostly. Mr. Schneider assisted a company with their mines, and in return they agreed to deliver him 130,000 tons of ore per year. This agreemnent is to last for the next fifteen years. He gets it very cheap. They make all kinds of machinery, from a marine-engine down. Are b-miidling- the engines for the steamer Lafayette, to run between HIavre and New York. They build one hundred locomotives per annum. All the principal parts are made of steel, and have a splendid finish. Thirty large steam-haimmers axe constantly at work on their forgings. I saw a drill-press bore thirty-five holes at the same time. They have a steam-riveter to make boilers. The boiler is suspended over the machine, and in tw o blows the rivet is in its place finished. The company have iron-mines of their own, and four collieries with veins in a kind of pockets, 30 feet thick, and nearly vertical. They tookl out 700,000 tons last year, and expect to run over a million tons this year. They have eighteen locomotives and eight hundred cars for their own use, besides what they use of the railroad company. Their pumpihng-engine is of the Wolf system, compound; capacity, 135,000 cubic feet per stroke. Mr. Schneider is erecting an iron building 1,500 feet long and 160 feet wide, in which to manufacture steel and axles for railways, and expects to make eighty thousand wheels and forty thousand axles for the American and Russian markets. This company bring their water four miles now, and must go twenty for more, as they have not enough. The population of Le Creusot is about 25,000. Mr. Schneider has four schools, that he pays for himself, for the education of his workmen's childreu 31 L 482 LABOR IN' EUROPE AND AMERICA. INDUSTRIAL PRODU(CTION IN FRANCE. On a previous page the value of the industrial products of Paris in 1860 was stated at 3,369,092,949 francs; the following table shows the value of products of industry in each of the eighty-nine departments of France, in a subsequent year, the aggregate amount of which reaches the sum of 97755,030(Y,000 francs. Table showing the total value of industrial production in the several departments of France in theyear 1871. Dprmts Vau Departments. Value of proDue duct. Fras Francs. Seine.. —-- - 1,989, 698,733 Sarthe.... 48,902,7 Nord..-........... 799, 834,160 Nivre..48, 807,410 Rh6ne.. —-- ---—. 600,556,819 Manche.. 48306,390 Seine-Inf6rienre.-..... 440,333,034 Meuse46219433 Bouches-dui-RhOue. —- 271,854, 370 Deux-Svres..45793220 Loire.-..........224, 338, 675 Haute ienne..44 355,855 Eure.o..- -2-...... 213,136,049 Var 44,260,885 Haut-Rhin.... 196,258,280 Aveyron..43,,723 Aisne... —------ 184, 935,418 Charete43,337,065 Somnme.-......... 176,525,707 Eure-et-Loir42,385,500 Marne.-. —------------- 161,907,783 Indre-et-Loire41,746,860 Loire-Inf6rieure..... 161,040, 884 Haute-Sane40606370 Ardennes ------—. 160,144,314 Vede39611836 Pas-de-Calais. — -—. 158, 081,790 Cher.39, 609,850 Bas-Rhin.......... 148, 484,655 Jura.39,4900 Ardbche.............. 144, 259, 135 Charente-friure 35,563,842 lle-et-Vilaine. - - - 143, 813,200 Morbihan.35,512,975 Oise —---------- 131,3-29,920 Aude........... 34,931,083 Mosel!e —..... 124, 000, 280 Allier. -32, 667,841 Gironde ---------- 12-2,432, 060 Haute-Maine....... 32,) 364, 382 Is?~re —--- ------- 116,235,728 Yonne........... 31,701,983 Gard ----------- 115, 608, 116 Gers. —--------- 30, 896, 530 S0eine-et-0ise -------- - 109, 640,500 Vienne.28, 603, 925 Vosg'es -- 104, 172,915 Mayenne - -. —. —- -- 26,720,520 Vaucl.use - ------ ----- 101,780,500 Loir-et-Cher. 26, 516,225 Haute-Garonne ----- ---- 99, 241, 062 Landes -..26, 115, 075 Calvados -. 97, 361,8-20 Haute-Loire -....... 25,726,270 Hdrault —----- ----- 94, 458,470 Tarn-et-Garonne..... 25,544,'940 Seine-et-Maine —- ----- 88, 782,,550 C~tes-du-Nord. —---- 24,832,331 Ore ------------ 82, 061,16-23 Aridge. —---- --- 22,906,650 Sa~ne-et-Ldire-...... 78, 1041,635 Lot - -20,228,960 Finist~ce - --------- 76, 326, 020 Basses-Pyr~n6es...... 19,583,936 Cote d'Or --------- 75,019,6-20 Hautes-Pyrdn6es..... 19, 174,619 Maine-ct-Loire —- ----- 71,300,800 Pyrdndes-Orieutales 15,984,975 Aube —--- ------- 66,9-20, 930 Alpes-Maritimes..... 15,675, 110 Doubs -- ----------- 65, 618,510 Corse.......... 14,147, 300 Drome.1 ----------- -65,438,010 Basses-Alpes....... 14,7019,480 Taru ------- - ---- --- 60, 164, 337 Creuse-.......... 13,742, 300 Lot-et-Garonne.. —---- 57,17O,944 Ilautes-Alpes....... 11,828,968 Ain —---------- h2,677,7470 Savoie. —------- 9,351,2-20 Puy-de-Dorrne. ----- ---- 52, 424,952 Haute-Savoie....... 6,963,700 Indre ----- ------- 50, 038, 208 Loz'bre. —-------- 6, 087,675 Meurthe —------- - 49,833, 456 Corrzeke-......... 5,713,940 Loiret -. - 49, 197, 500 Cantal.......... 3,567,458 Dordogne......... 48,958,818 Total value of product in francs, 9,755,030,000. Total value in dollars, 1,900,461,808.* Total value of products of industry in the United States of America in 1800, $~1,885,861, 676, gold; in 1870 $4,232, 325,442, currency. *Computing the franc, in this instance only, at 19.3 cents, gold. LABOR IN FRANCE. 483 MANUFACTORIES IN THE BOUCHES-DU-RH6NE. In the department of the Bouches-du-Rhobne there were in 1872, as stated by Mr. Consul Osterhaus, the following manufacturing establishments: Manufactories of soap, 37; oil, 54; tobacco, 1; matches, 12; awnings, 3; billiards 4; corks, 12; canudles, 5; bricks, 2; caramel, 2; cards, 3; book-binding, 10; hats, 15; shoes, 17; shirts, 10; wax, 5; safes, 4; cream of tartar, 1; vegetable hair, 6; ink, 4; manure, 6; tin in sheets, 2; crockery, 3; paper, 9; metal founderies, 13; Italian pates, 4; pianos, 3; pipes, 3; shot, 5; pens, 1; saddles and carriages, 2; semoule, 1; sirups, 3; silks, 6; sulphur, 4; water-proof cloth, 2; sugar, 2; bags and bagging, 4; linen, 7; tubes and pipes, 3; coral, 1; vermuth, 5; glassware, 3; vinegar, 1; wooden shoes, 1; vermicelli, 3; ceruse, 1; molds, 7; cotton, 1; lime, 5; machines, 1; capers, 1; brooms, 2; Indian goods, 3; almond candy, 1; pottery, 4; liquors, 1; chemicals, 5; resin, 1; brandy, 1; cords, 1; woolen-factory, 1; and sausages, 3. PROPORTION OF TIHE INDUSTRIAL TO OTHER CLASSES. The following table gives the absolute and relative number of persons who, in 1866, were supported directly or indirectly by the occupations and professions mentioned: Proportion Employments. Males. Females. Total. to 10,000 inhabitants. Agriculture.-..................... 9,737,295 9, 860, 820 19,598,115 5,194 Industry......................... 5,574,818 5, 384, 273 10,959, 091 2, 879 Commerce.-.............. 737,675 779,483 1,517,158 399 Professions connected with agriculture, industry, and commerce. —- 607,491 488,296 1, 095,787 287 Various professions............... 89, 885 108,754 198, 639 52 Liberal professions, and persons living on their own means.-..... 1,782,089 1, 825,206 3, 607, 295 948 Various occupations............288, 077 276,264 564,341 147 Professions unknown.............. 196, 749 329, 889 526, 638 139 Total equaling the population.- 19,014,079 19, 052,985 38, 067,064 10, 000 It will be noticed from the above table that there were supported by various industrial occupations, exclusive of agriculture, 10,959,091 persons, or nearly 27 per cent. of the whole population. 484 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. PRICES OF FARM AND MECHANICAL LABOR IN 1873. The following rates of wages paid for farm-laborers and for skilled workmen in the places mentioned were furnished by the consuls of the United States: Table showing the rates of wages paid for farm and mechanical labor in the Department of Loire Inferieure, and in Xice, Lyons, and Marseilles, in 1873. Department of Loire Inf6ri- Nice. Lyons. Marseilles. eure. Occupation. Monthly Daily wages, Daily wages, wages, Daily wages, without board. without board.* with without board. Daily wages. board. FARM-LABORERS. Experienced hands in summer............... $0 40 $0 57 $11 40 $0 60 $0 25 Experienced hands in winter...30 57140 winter.. -....: -------- 30 57 11 40................................... Ordinary hands in summer. ----- 25 42 690................ 20 Ordinary hands in winter —. —--------— 20 42 6 90.................................. Common laborers at other than farm-work....... 20 42 6 90................ 18 Female servants......... 30 38 5 70 $4 to $5 per mo.. SKILLED WORKMEN. Blacksmiths........- -. $0 40 to 80 76 I —- 1 00 89 Brick-layers or masons - - 50 to 80 $0 76 to 95........ $0 80 to 1 00 I 00 Cabinet-makers......... 40 to 100 0...................................... 80so Carpenters.......... 60 to 1 00 76........ 80 to 1 00 1 20 Coopers........... 40 to 80 76.......... 80 to 1 00 89 Miners........................... 1 52 -......... 1 00 to 1 25 o80 Machinists -............. 60 to 1 00 2 28 to 3 04....- 1 00 to 1 25 89 Painters................. 70 to 1 00 57..........80 to 1 00 80 Plasterers........ 60 to 1 00 95.......... 80 to 1 00 89 Shoemakers.......o8066. 60 to 0 66. 80 to 1 00 $0 t60 to 1 20 Stone-cutters.... o. 60 to 1 00 66 1 00 to 1 25 t80 to 1 00 Tailors............. —- 60 to 1 00 57 to 95.. 50 to 80 1 20 Tanners................. 40 to 80 95....... 80 to 1 00 t70 to 1 00 Tinsmiths....... 30 to 60 76.......... 80 to 1 00 189 to 1 10 Wheelwrights........... 40 to 80 85.6- - 80 to 1 00 89 * Price of board for workmen during month of October, 1873, $1.75 per week; for workwomen, $1.55. t On piece-work. LABOR IN FRANCE. 485 RICES OF PROVISIONS GROCERIES, HOUSE-RENT, ETC. Prices o provisions, groceries, and other leading articles of consumption, also of board and house-rent, in the manufacturing to s of Lyons, _Nice, Marseilles, and Nantes, Vrance. Retail prices in 1874. A rticles.- _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ Lyons. Nice. Marseilles. Nantes. raoVISIONS. Flour, wheat, superfineper barrel $ 00.............. 4 c. per lb. 5 c. per lb. extrafail —---------— d.-.............. 41c. per lb........... rye................................-do... 02..............4cperlband. ~.. 4 c per lo.{.......... Corn meal —---— perpound. 04.............. 3c. per lb........... Bee fresh, roasting-pieces..... 18 $0 19.......... sonp.pieces.. o... 18 09 16.......... rump-steaks..... 18 i.........21. corneddo........ d... 18 19............. Veal, forequarters..... 18 19..........hind-quarters - do... 18 24.. ~Veal-cutlets ~d~o......18 4 22.... Mutto, fore-quartersdo... 18 19....... o.... 18 24. lop..s...................... do.... 18 24...........' ops............................... 2 4........... ~~~~oPork, fresh..... 20 19 19.......... corned or salted........................ do.... 24. o... 18 30............. bacon..................do.. - 30 20. hams, smoked.... 18 30.............. shoulders.d.....................o..... 18 30. osausaged.... o... 10o 24 22.......... Lard.........do.... 10 19 25 $0 15 ~~~oCod-fish, dry..... 10 15 09 12 Mackerel, pickled................. o. — 20.. o.. 20.. 25....... oButter............do.. 30 $0 35 to 40 28 25 Cheese —----- -o.... 25 30 2 22 Potatoes............per bushel 27 1 ct. per lb. 1 ct. per lb. 32 Rice........ per pound. 07 /0 06 to s 05.......... Beans...................per quart.- 08 03 $0 04 to 05...... Milk.,_....................do.... 09 06 071 0 9 Eggs...................per dozen. 24 18 23...... tGROCE RIES, ETC. Tea, Golong, or other good black.....per pound. 80 95 to 1 2 0 1 00 1 60 Coffee, Rio, green...............do.-.. -24 43 38 40 roasted..............do.... 28 50 50...... Sugar, good brown...............do.... 20 14 14...... yellow C................do.... 16 10 15. —---- coffee B................do.... 18 18 16...... Molasses --------------— per gallon.- 09........ 06...... Sirup -------------------— do.-.. 07........ 00...... Soap, common ------------— pier pound. 04 11 08...... Starch.....................do.... 10 09 09. —--- Fuel, coal.. —--------------— per ton. $4 60 to 0 00 $8 50 to 10 00 6 20 8 00 wood, hard ------------— per cord. - ---------.500............ pine...............do.......... 450............ Oil, coal..................per gallon.......... 95 1 12 1 00 DOMESTIC DRY-GOODS, ETC. Shirtings, brown, 4-4, standard quality.- _ per yard. 10 124 15...... rbleached, 4-4, standard quality -_..do.- 15 28 to 47 16...... Sheetings, brown, 9-8, standard quality --— do. -. 23 28 25...... bleached, 9- 8, standard quality....d - do.... 28 38 30...... Cotton flannel, medium quality ------— do.... 31 42 35...... Tickings, good quality.............do.. —. 25 28 25 to 40...... -Mouseline do laines.d.............(o ---------- 28 to 47 25...... Satinets, medium quality...........do...50 45 to 1 20. —---------- Boots, men's, heavy.............per pair- 4 00 1 912 to 2 30 4 40...... HOUSE RENT. Four-roomed tenements.........per month. - --. —---- -28 to 320 5 00 $25 to $40* Six-roomed tenements —---------— do..........3 10 to 4 10 7 00...... BOARD. For men, (mechanics or other -workmen)..per week-.........1 75 to 2 20 2 80...... For -women employed in factories -----— do..- ------— 1 55 to 2 00. ---—. -- * Per annum. 486 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. EXPENDITURES OF WORKMEN'S FAMILIES. The circular requesting statements of the weekly outlay by the families of laboring men for provisions and other necessary articles of subsistence, and for house-rent, clothing, &c., met with but few responses from France; there being but one from Nice and two from Marseilles. NICE. Average weekly expenditures of a family consisting of two adults and three children. Bread$................... $2 50 Fruits, (green or dried).......... $0 15 Fresh meats.................. 65 Fuel........................... 25 Butter.......................... 15 Oil or other light............... 25 Cheese.......... —------ 15 Other articles................... 25 Sugar........................... 18 Spirits, beer, and tobacco........ 1 00 Milk...................8.......... 18 House-rent.................... 35 Coffee.. —--------—. 19 Fish.... 10 7 23 Soap, starch, salt, &c. -... —- - 35 Clothing per year............... 50 46 Egs -- 18 Taxes per year.-1 90 E.........." 18 Taxes peryear.................. 1 90 Potatoes and other vegetables.. 35 MARSEILLES. Mr. Consul Price, in transmitting a statement of the weekly earnings and expenditures of the families of two laboring men in Marseilles, makes the following explanation: The following table represents, as exactly as possible, the average wages and expenses of a family of working people of two classes, between which there exists a hardly appreciable difference. It results from these figures that the laborer earning the least wages saves the most atbte end of the year, because he is more sober. Spirituous liquors do not figure in the table of expenses because they are not consumed in the family, but only at the saloon or caf6 The item of light is insignificant, for the reas6n that the hearth-fire suffices to light the living-room, and the laborer goes to bed early and rarely lights a lamp. The item of combustibles can only be estimated; for, in general, the laborers collect and gather up in the factories the debris of wood, charcoal, and coke, which serves them for fuel. tAverage weekly earnings and expendittres of the families of two laboring men, each family consisting of two adalts and two children. Earnings: No. 1. No. 2. Man per week................................................. -..-... $3 30 $4 80 His wife........................................................... 90 90 Total weekly earnings................................. 4 20 5 70 Expenditures: Bread, 23 pounds................................................... $1 00 $1 00 Wine, 6 quarts...................................................... 35 42 Fresh meats, 2t pounds............................... —.............. 30 80 Lard and oil....................................................... 16 20 Cheese............................................................ 20 12 Sugar............................................................. 10 14 Milk............................................................... 07 12 Coffee.............................................. 05 10 Soap and starch -..........-....... 19 30 Sal$t and pepper.................................................... 03 08 Potatoes and other vegetables....................................... 21 29 Light.............................................................. 04 09 Tobaceo, spirits, &c................................................ 14 20 Rent............................................................... 20 30 Educational and religious purposes.................................. 06 16 Total expenses per week...................................... 3 10 4 32 LABOR IN FRANCE. 487 Result:.52 weeks' expenses, at $3.................. $161 20 at $4.$2 $224 64 Clothing for one year.................. 24 00 50 00 185 20 274 64 52 weeks' earnins at $4.20................. 218 40 at $5.70 296 40.Balance, saved i. one year. 33 20 21 74 EDUCATION AND CRIME IN MARSEILLES. In reference to education and to penal offenses in Marseilles, Mr. Consul Osterhaus writes as follows: ITS' Education.-There is, perhaps, no better way of giving a proximate idea of the educational advantages and condtion of this people than by giving the statistics of populatio, umber of schools of primary instruction, and the number of scholars. There are in this department three arrondissements, which, according to the census of 1872 contain a population as follows: Arrondissement of Marseilles, 352,280; of Aix, 114,038; of Ares, 88,407. This number is composed as follows:.Of boys and unmarried men...................... 157, 352.Of married men —------—.................... 106, 612 ~~~~~Of girls.................................... 132, 245.Of married women —-----—..................... 107,618 ~~,Of widows —------—.......................... 29, 764 Total. — - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---- - - - -- - - - 554, 725 Of this number 514,169 are French and 40,556 are foreigners. From the report of the superintendent of primary instruction, it appears that there are in this department 742 primary schools, dlivided as follows: 171 public schlools for boys, 131 public schools for girls, 128 free schools for boys, 287 free schools for girls, and 21 mixed schools of all kinds. The 171 public schools for boys receive tog(ether 23,340 children. One hundred and twenty-three schools, containing 11,473 scholars, are directed by lay-teachers; and 48 schools, with 11,867 scholars, are sectarian. The 131 public schools for girls receive together 14,976 scholars, of which 2,2219 are taught by lay-teachers, and 12,547 are unuder the direction of sectarian teachers. The whole number of scholars who frequent the primary schools of the department is 59,478, and classified as follows: Scholars. Public schools for boys. —-----------------------— 23, 340 Public schools for girls............................14,976 Free schools for boys. —-------------------------- 6,623 Free schools for girls. —------------------------— 13, 130 Mixed schools................................ 1, 409 The Protestaut and Jewish sects have several schools in the department, an'd in sufficient number to respond to the needs of those different sects for religions teaching.4 Penal off'enses3 -During the year 1872 the courts of Aix have rendered 1 160 decisions; the court of assizes of the department has tried 136 prisoners, of whom 34 have been acquitted, 54 condemned to infamous penalties, and 48 sentenced to correctional punishment. The tribunal correctional of Marseilles has, in17,jde 262pioes of whom 321 were acquitted; and the correctional tribunals of Aix. and Tarascon. have tried 729 prisoners. 488 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. LABOR IN GERMANY. If, instead of a report on the cost and condition of labor, this volume were a history of the various industries of Europe, it would be interesting to ascertain the origin and to trace the development of the principal manufihctures of those states which now compose the German Empire. The woolen goods of Rhenish Prussia and Saxon the linens of Sesia and Westphalia, the cottons of Alsace and Berlin the leather of the R.hine country, the steel of Essen, the bronzes of Berlin and Munich, the toys of Nuremberg and Sonneberg, the carved work of the Hartz Mountains, the philosophical instruments of Berlin and Cassel, to say nothing of the numerous peculiar industries of Berlin, Chemnitz, Frankfort, Stuttgart, Cologne, and Elberfeld-all of which find extensive markets in the United States-would form rich subjects for historical investigation, and the publication of the results prove highly instructive. On somne other person with more leisure, and ith equal sympathy for the industrial classes, must this pleasant work be devolved. IMPORTS FROM GERMANY. The products of German industry, which comprise the principal imports from that country during the last two fiscal years as well as the total annual value of our imports since 1868, are shown in the following table: ValuLe of imports. A rticles.__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1874. 1873. Cloth and cassimeres —----------------- - $3,216, 305 $4, 758,363 Dress-goods — 1,016, 384 1,360,576 Other MaUnfactlureS Of Wool. ---------------- - *2,011,025 2635, 365 Silk manufactures —-------------- - ------ 5,644, 936 13, 118,480 Cotton hosiery ------------- - --------- 2,964, 863 3, 660, 602 Other manufactures of cotton - —............. 3,263, 436 4, 451, 022 Fancy goods —------------ - --------- 1,520, 910 1, 909, 751 Leather, anid manufactures of, except gloves - - 1,360,724 2, 154,940 Gloves ------------------------- - 990,261 1,469,620 Buttons. —----------------------- - 841, 013 1,149,123 Jewelry and watches....................... 1,210, 835 2,618, 692 Precious stones —------------ - -------- 380, 249 692, 980 Furs, dressed —------------- - -------- 585,816 931, 009 Glass and glassware....... - -................. 1,588,623 1, 962, 956 Iron and steel, and manufactures of - —........... 1, 47-8,877 1, 836, 158 Pig-lead - ------------------------- 896,478 962,736 Books, pamphlets, maps, &c —-------- - ------ 851,536 916, 007 Chemicals - ------------------------ - 1,011,062 1, 158, 155 Wines, spirits, and cordials -.................. 252,262 449,203 All other merchandise — 12, 824,257 1:3,206,018 Total imports of merchandise.-.......43,909,852 61, 401, 756 Total in 1872..-............................$46,243, 748 Total in 1871-.............................. 25,093,635 Total in 1870................................ 27,015.321 Total in 1869...................-............25,087,987 LABOR IN GERMANY. 489 IMMIGRATION INTO TIlE UNITED STATES FROM GERMANY. Unlike France, from which we receive the products of the labor of her skilled artisans, but not the artisans themselves, Germany has contributed not only her workmanship, but her workmen. Our annual receipts of her products, as appears from the foregoing statement, average in value over $33,000,000, while of her sons and daughters, embracing a large number of skilled workmen as well as men of talent and enterprise, we received in a single year, 1854, the large number of 206,054, whose material value at the average stated in another work * by the author of this report, viz, $800, reaches nearly $165,000,000. The immigration into this country from Germany during the fifty-four years, from 1820 to 1874, was as follows: 1820-230............................. 7, 729 1831-'40............................ 152, 454 1841-'50...................... *............... -434, 626 1851-'60......................- v951 667 1861-'70, (closing with December)......................... 822, 007 1871.................................................. -107, 201 1872................................................... 155, 595 1873.................................................... 1337 141 1874................................................... 56, 927 Aggregate.-........................... 2, 821, 347 This large addition to our population in a little over half a century has furnished, at the rate above indicated, an increment to our material wealth of $2,257,077,600. The census of 1870 shows that of the various nationalities which compose our foreign-born population no less than 1,690,533 were natives of Germany; while of the cities of New York, Chicago, Saint Louis, and Cincinnati from 16 to 20 per cent. of the whole population were of German birth. New York City contained in 1870 more native Germans than the two manufacturing towns of Barmen and Chemnitz; Saint Louis more than the city of Brunswick, and Chicago more than Metz.t * Special Report on Immigration, accompanying Information for Immigrants, by Edward Young, Ph. D. Government Printing-Office, Washington, 1871. t The large German population of several cities of the United. States, as compared with the whole population of cities and towns of Germany, will be best illustrated by the following statement: German population of United States cities Aggregate population of German cities in in 1870. 1871. New York...................... 151,206 Munich....- -.............-... 169,612 Saint Louis..... -.. - - -........... 59, 040 Barmen and Elderfeld........... 146,849 Chicago...... —-....-...... 52,316 Cologne.-..-..... - --—. 129,251 Philadelphia................... 50,746 Leipsic........................ 102, 575 Cincinnati................-..... 49,448 Frankfort-on-the-Main... -.....90,748 Brooklyn..........-. 36,769 Bremen........................ 82; 990 Baltimore.- -...32.............. 32,276 Aix-la-Chapelle................. 73, 722 Milwaukee..................... 22,599 Dusseldorf........ 69, 462 Buffalo, N. Y --- -................ 22, 249 Chemnitz.... 68,150 Newark, N. J........- -.......... 15,873 Brunswick..................... 57, 380 Cleveland........- -.......... 15,856 Essen.......................... 51,768 New Orleans. -15,239 Metz................... 51,707 490 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. COST OF LABOR AND OF SUBSISTENCE IN LOWER SILESIA IN 1868. Before presenting detailed statements showing the results of personal inquiry into the cost and conditions of labor in Germany in 18727 it may be well to submit the rates of wages existing before the advance in price which followed the termination of the Franco-German war. A work, published by Mr. Jacobi, on the rates of wages and the material condition of the working-classes in Lower Silesia during the years 1867 and 1868, affords information of great value, especially in regard to factory-operatives at that period. From the numerous and detailed statements only a few have been selected, translations of which are here presented. Table showing the rates of wages paid for factory and other labor in Lower Silesia during the year 1868. [Rates expressed in lUnited States coin.] Wages per day. Branches and occupations. Males. Females. Children. Bleachers: Cents. Cents. Cents. Ordinary hands.......................... 18 to 36 14j to 18............ Bleachers.... 2........................... 27 to 33........................ Manglers................................. 36 to 42........................ Foremen -. —----------------------------- 48 to 60....................... Bookbinders..32 to 58.... Brewers — 24 to 36 Brickyards: Ordinary work...........2................ 0 to 24......................... Molders -29 to 39........................ Chamotte-molders............... 33 to 48........................ On contract-work................ 36 to 60 14 to 20 10 to 17 Average summer wages............. 24 to 42 16 to 18 10 to 18 Cane-factories: Turners -36 to 66........................ Engravers ------------------------------- 36 to 60 Joiners ---------------------- - ----------- 48 ----------—............. Laborers................................ 28 to 42........................ Chemical-works: Average,wages ------------------ - -------- 311.............. Fireworks............................... 24 to 36 8 to 15 4 to 6 Cigar-factories: Strippers -------------------------------—....... — - - - 16 to 18 6 to 10 Skilled hands..$................ 1 to $2 24 to 40 Wrappers --- —..... —-------- 18 to 24 Rollers.................................. 24 to 72........................ Assorters................................ 72 to $1 08........................ Packers................................. 36 to 48 -........... Foremen................................ $1 50 -.-. —------ -.- - - Distillers -.. —. —----------- ----------------- 8 to 36................... Earthenware, glassware, &c.: Pottery, molders. 60 to 72. on ordinary work... 24 to 60 14 to 22.............. Stoneware, ordinary work................ 18 to 24............. turners.............................. 24 to 48 painters............................. 24 to 42 Porcelain, glazing-makers.....- - 30 to 36 18 to 24............ burners.............................. 30 to 42 gilders ----------- - - 36 to 42 12 to 18 potter-turners........... - -48........................ foremen............................. 96............. LABOR IN GERMANY. 491 Rates of wages paid for factory and other labor in Lower Silesia-Contd. Wages per day. Branches and occupations. Males. Females. Children. Cents. Cents. Cents. Glass-works, polishers.. 10 to 24............ melters..-........................... 60 painters and gilders.................. 40 to 72 18 to 36.. skilled hands ------------------------ 60 to 96........................ bottle-makers ------------------------ 48 to 60 -.... ordinary hands...................... 24 to 36 12 to 18 12 Flour-mills: Laborers ------------------ - ------------- 22 to 29.. Assistant millers -------------- - ---------- 36 to 60............ -............ Firemen................................. 24 to 29........................ Machinists ----------------------- - ------- 33 ----------—............. Foremen................................ 72........................ Gas-works, laborers.......................... 24 to 36........................ Hatters: Ordinary hands --------------- - ---------- 48 to $1 24 to 36 Skilled hands............................ $1 66 to $2........................ Iron-works: Laborers 18to28......................... Locksmiths.............................. 24 to 60 Machine-builders ------------------------- 60 to $1 08...... Molders................................. 42 to 72 12 to 20 Turners --------------------—....... 52........................ Machinists............................... 40 to 72........................ Watchmen..... 48....... Enamelers............................... 36 to 72........................ Cutters.................................. 60 to 72............. Lime-kilns: Laborers, in winter...................... 20 to 30........................ summer..................... 24 to 26................ Mining: Ordinary labor........................... 18 to 24 12 16 to 20 Miners.................................. 48 to 60............. Drivers.... 36........................ Oil-refiners.................................. 18 to 42 16.......... Paper-mills: Ordinary laborers........................ 21 to 48 10 to 24 8 to 16 Cutters ------------------------- - -------- 24........................ Holland miller.... 30........................ Machinists............................... 36............ Printers ---------------------- - -------------- 42 to 48 12 to 24 Railroad-car shop: Smiths...................... —............-40 to 72........................ Locksmiths.............................. 36 to 96...................... Turners................................. 42 to $1 08........................ Screw-cutters............................ 30 to 60 -..-.................... Tinners.................................. 42 to 60........................ File-cutters............................. 48 to 72.. Wheelwrights........................... 48 to 96........................ Carpenters.............................. 42 to 66 Painters................................. 48 to 66 Upholsterers.......................... 36 to 60... Laborers.................... 34 Starch-factories.............................. 18 to 36 12 to 17 Silversmiths................................. 60 to 84 24 to 60 12 to 15 Saw-mills: Laborers.26 to 48 Machinists............................... 36 to 60 Foremen.48........ Spinning flax.24 to 42 12 to 30 12 to 24 cotton. —- 20 to 42 12 to 18 9 to 12 wool............................... 18 to 48 14 to 24 6 to IS 492 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Rates of wages paid for factory and other labor i Lower Silesia-Contd. Wages per day. Branches and occupations. Males. Females. Children. Cents, Cents. Cents. Sugar-refiners-14 to 36 9.......................to 15....... Tanners............................to 60 12 to 15. Toy-factories: Ordinary laborers........................ to 36 10 to 24 Turners.................................. Sculptors ------------ -36 to $1 08.. Watch-factory workmen24 to.............7 Woolen-factories: Carders.................................20 to 54 14 to 18 Fullers.-...... —----------- -- 24 15............Shearers..29 to 36.... Foremen............................... 08 The regular wages of workingmen average, in summer and winter, from 16.8 cents to 24 cents (gold) per day; of females, from 8.4 to 14.4 cents per day, more nearly appreaching the higher rate. During the short winter days workigmen receive, for eight hours' labor, from 10 to 14.4 cents; the females, 7.2 cents while in summer, for twelve to thirteen hours' labor the relative wages are from 19.2 to 28.8 cents, and from 14.4 to 19.2 cents, respectively. The wages of those working in the royal forests are so regulated as to average 24 centper day for males, and 14.4 cents per day for females; in some mountain countries the latter receive but 1 cents. In larger cities wages rise above these rates, especially for skilled labor. Men working on railroads receive in summer from 28.8 to 36 cents per day; and women from 16.8 to 26.4 cents. In the larger cities ordinary female help in house-keeping is paid from 24 to 26.4 cents. Work done by the piece, or by contract, is paid about one-third more than the customary wages. A common laborer expects, in contract work, from 36 to 48 cents; at railroad work, even more,. When work is scarce the wages, often fall to about 16.8 cents per day for males, and 9.6 cents for females. Labor is often paid by the hour, at from 1.4 to 3 cents for males, and 0.4 to 2 cents for females; 2.4 cents per hour are the wages of an able field laborer in the mountain S. During the summer especially, opportunities for work are offered to children, who receive from 6.11 to 7.2 cents per day, and in winter about 4.8 cents. W~herever the work rises above mere manual labor in a trade or factory, the daily wages of men are from 30 to 48 cents, and often rise to 60 cents. Miners at tunneling are frequently paid 72 cents, (1 thaler;) in the district of G~rlitz, a brick-maker, aided by his wife, averages 80 cents per day; in the district of Janer from $5.76 to 67.20 per week. Sk-illed workmen of large experience receive from $360 to $432 per anunum. The wages of the molders and enamielers in iron-founderies, of the locksmiths and joiners in machine-works, in piano factories, amount to from 72 cents to $1.08, per day; the same in manufactories of glass, silver-ware, and watches, and hat-factories. The highest wages paid to a very skillful joiner in a piano-forte factory were $12.24 per week. Wages for female labor are more uniform throughout; 18 cents per day can be earned by a skillful band; 24 cents per day very rarely. Juvenile laborers in factories begin with wages of 48 cents per week, for 10 hours' work daily, and rise to 72 cents per week. The law prohibits the employment of children -under twelve years of agge; from twelve to fourteen years it permits 6 hours, and from fourteen to sixteen year's, 10 hours daily. The general average of daily wages is as follows: Males, for 12 hours' work per day, in the country, 19.2 cents; in cities, 24 cents; h arder labor, 30 cents; in cities, 36 cents; skilled labor, 60 cents.arnoiclddn-tebvevrg, The wages of master-workmen, overseers, &C., aenticue nVeaoeaeae but are at least $172 per annum. In regard to the time, of work, laborers in factories are employed 1 1 to 12 hours per day, (exclusive of time for meals;) where work is continued day and night, the hours for the day a-re from 6 to 12 n. m., and 1 to 7 p. in.; for the night, from 7 p. M. to 6 a. mn., with J hour recess; in a few districts 10, hours constitute a day's work. In many cloth-factories and wool-spinneries, males and females work 12 to 13 hours, and some even 16 hours per day. As an exampDle, a cloth-factory employs firemen and machinists 16 hours, spinners and dyers 14 hours, all others 12 hours, exclusive of time for meals. LABOR IN GERMANY. 493 In glass-works, the nature of the work requires from 16 to 18 hours for melters, 13 to 15 hours for blowers; but then one party rests while the other works. The wages of journeymen in the following trades, including board and lodging, are as follows: Per week. ~Bakers ---- $ ~....................................... $0 92 Butchers ---------------------------------- - - - 72 Smiths --— 1 08 Tinners —-----------------—................. - - -2 52 Wheewrihts.......................................... 2 16....Furriers ——.. 2 16 Saddlers —-------------------------------- - - - 72 Locksmiths --—.............................................................. 252 Tailors ----- 2 52 Shoemakers ---------—........................ 144 Fresco-pai ters............... *...3 — - -342 Cabinet-makers- -- - - - - -$-2 —-------—............ $2 88 to 3 60 Cloth-weaers -—. - —...........1........-.... 1 44 to 2 16 From the reports of the chambers of commerce of Germany the following labor statistics are collected: In the coal-ies of Rhenish Prussia, average daily wages of 3,661 laborers, with.families of 8,572 persons, mles................... $0 64 Iron-foundery, (Duisbrg,) average wages per day, founders. $0 65 to 72 Other skilledwr n- -—............................. 54 Laborers —------ -.-...-........................ 43.Machinists andlok ih —--................. 58 Intwoiro-founderiessamedistritaverage daily wages, respectively. —- 58 and 65 I.ron-bridg.e establishment. -....-................ 55...Safe-fa...tory, average yearly earnings —... --- ----.. -. 182 80 Zinc establishments, average wages first-class hands -—............ —........ 94 second-class hands.-..-...-..... —-.. 72 other laborers........................... 53 Cotton-factories, average wages per hand, including children.................. 41 Cotton-spinning, average wages per hand, (mostly young persons). 36 Average weekly wages paid in the coal-mines of Fla!en, (Saxony): To miners, $3.10; to laliorers, $1.98; and to boys, 40 cents. WAGE'S AND COST OF LIVING IN DIFFERENT DISTRICTS OF LOWER SILESIA. 1. District of Bolkenhain. The annual expenses of a family of about- five persons, (three children,) belonging to the working class, were as follows: Provisions, (per day, 14.4 to 16.8 cents,) per year —----- --------— $60 00 Rent, (8 thalers) —----------------------------- 576 Fuel.-3 60 Clothing, linen, &c —---------------------------— 14 40 Furniture, tools, &c —---------------------------- 720 Taxes: State, 0.72; church, 12; commune, 36 ------------— $1 20 School for two children -2 —---------------—' 50 ___ 3 70 Total -------------------------------— 94 66 The expenses of a laborer's family being 24 to 26.4 cents per day, the earnin gs shoulId be 28 to 30.8 cents per day, which the head of the family cannot earn. XWhile his earnings are fromt 17 to 19 tents, the wife earns S to 10 cents, and the children must help as soon as old enough. Miners in this district have 24 to 29 cents daily wages; factorymen from 19 to 29 cents; mechanics receive 48 to 54 cents per week, besides board; male house-servants $17 to $30, and females $12 per annum, exclusive of board and lodging. 0 ~~~~~~~2. District of Landshut. Expenses of a family: ~In the country. In a city. Rent, per annum -----------------— 5 76 --- -----— $10 72 Provisions, (per week, 90 cents,) per annum -......46 80 (per week, $1.08) 56 10 Fuel and light, per anu 14 40 —-- -----— 16 42 Taxes, &e.,I per annum. —------------— 3 60 —......... 432 Clothing, &c., per annum. —-----------— 8 56 -- 10 00 Other expenses, per annum-.7 20 -- 857 Total-.....................86 32 106 13 494 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The income of laborers' (weavers') families does not generally reach these amounts. Many are permitted to gather their wood from the royal forests, ad spend little for clothing, which they beg from charitable neighbors. A weaver earns here from 48 to 72 cents, $1 and $1.50 per week; most weavers have two looms in operation, and together with their wives earn from $1.50 to $2.16 per week. The average earningsof weavers are given at 96 cents per week, or abot $50 per annum. 3. District of Hirschberg. The lowest cost of living for a laborer's family is given at $64.80 to $72 per annum, of which are expended for provisions, $43.30; for clothing, $17; taxes, $3.16; fuel, $3.60; rent, $4, &c. In the summer the wages for 12 hors' daily work, for males, are from 15 to 39 cents; for females, 5 to 17 cents per day; in winter from 3 to 7 cents less. A male farm-hand receives $12 to $22 per year; a boy, $9 to 14; a maid-servant, $12 to $18 per annum with board. The annual expenses of a laborer's family, living in a comfortable manner, without luxuries, would be nearly double the amount actually expended above. The following is an estimate: Rent, (one room, alcove and bed-room).......$8 64 Fuel and lig(ht14 40 Provisions, (breakfast, coffee; at noon, potatoes, dumpling- cents; evening, bread, a little brandy-5 cents; supper, soup, bread, vegetables-6 cents) 75 00 Clothing, (husband, $6.48; wife, $5.76; children, $7.20, soap, 72 cents)20 16 Taxes, &c...................16 Schooling of children, (2~ cents per week per child)3 60 School-books................................72 To lay by for sickness, &c........................58 Unforeseen expenses......................... Total.................................84 4. District of Schnau. The ordinary yearly wages, in addition to board, paid to servants in this rural district, were as follows: Man-servant, $14.40 to $21.60; boys, $8.64 to $12.96; maidservants, $8.64 to $17.28; child's nurses, $5.76 to $12.96. During the harvest the daily wages frfourteen hours' work are as follows: Mowerst from 19.2{ to 28.8 cents; laborers, (males,) from 19.2 to 24 cents; females, from 14.4 to 17 cents. In other seasons males receive, for ten honrs' daily labor, from 14.4 to 19.2 cents, and females 12 to 14.4 cents per day; and in winter males receive 12 cents, and females 7.4 to 9.6 cents. A laborer in the cities receives from 24 to 28.8 cents per day; the "1fellows" (journeymen) of trades receive from 60 cents to $1.20 per week, and board. A laborer's family of five persons reqnires for its subsistence during the year the following amount: For provisions, $72 to $85.72; rent of one room and three bedrooms, $4.32; clothing, &c., j~10.80; fuel, &c., $3.60; taxes, &c., $3.60. Total, $108.04. 5. District of Goldberg. The cost of living( of a laborer's family (husband, wife, and two children) in this district is thus given: Provisions, $75.60; rent, $4.32; fuiel, $7.20; clothing, $10.02; furniture, tools, &c., 7~2 cents; taxes, &e., $2.28. Total, $100.14. In less expensive times provisions have been estimated at'20 less. In the rural portion men receive 21.6 cents, women 14.4 cents for a day's work; this averagre includes higher wages for skilled labor. On a flarm a mnan-servant receives $17.20 per year, in addition to board, &C., which may be, estimated at $113.20; a maid-servant receives $14.40, besides board. Laborers in stone-q uarries earn from 24 to 43-2 cents per day; in cloth factories, 1.8 to 2.2 cents per hour, while the daily wages of carpenters are from 33.6 to 38.4 cents; masons, 33.6 to 45.6 cents; roof-slaters, 331.6 to 45.6. bsdsterbadadldig Shoemakers and tailors receive from 9 to 10 cents, bsdsterbadadldig which is valued at 12 cents. 6. District of Ldweanberg. The yearly expenses of a family with three children are estimated at from $93.60 to $108, namely: City. Country. Rent —----------------------------— $10 60 $4 32 Provisions, ($1.20 per week) -------------------— 62 40 55 72 Fuel and lights-..........................12 66 10 80 Taxes, school, &c —......................... 360 3 60 Clothing, &c.............................12 85 12 85 Other expenses-.......................... 5 76 5 76 Total.............................107 87 93 05 LABOR IN GERMANY. 495 Wages are as follows: Men, day-laborers, from 14.4 to 28.8 cents per day; women, 12 to 18 cents per day; men, with board, 9.6 to 14.4 cents per day; women, with board, 7.2 to 12 cents per day. From ten to fourteen hours constitute a day's labor; more hours and harder work secure higher wages. Male servants per year, $14.40 to $36, and board; female, per year, $8.57 to $21.60, and board. Journeymen in trades obtain the following: In cities. In the country. Wages per week with board and lodging. Minimum. Maximum. Minimum. Maximum. Smiths -...$............ $0 54 $0 72 $0 42 O$0 72 Wheelwrights............ 54 72 42 72 Shoemakers....... —-—. 54 60 42 72 Tailors ------- - - 54 72 30 60 Cabinet-makers..-..... - -- -54 72 42 72 7. City of Greifenberg. The subsistence of a workingman's family, consisting of five-man, wife, and three children-is thus given: INCOME. A mason receives 33.6 cents per day, regular work, thirty-two weeks in the year..-.. —-----—. —-----—.... ---—.... —-.... —-.. ——. —.. ——.- $64 52 Weaving or other work, four months, at 48 to 60 cents per week, say...... 8 00 Yearly earnings of wife.-................................................ 7 20 Total................ 79 72 A day-laborer receives 24 cents per day, or $1.44 per week, regular work, forty weeks..-.............................. $57 60 During the rest of the year he and his wife may earn........................ 14 40 Total....-.............................. 72 00 A carpenter earns a little more than a mason, his chances for winter-labor being better. A weaver, working at home, makes less than the day-laborer; those in the factory earn per year, $72. EXPENSES OF A FAMILY. Rent, $8.64; clothing, $14.40, (shoes being a large item;) light, $1.44; fuel, $5.04; repairing tools, 72 cents; taxes, $1.44; school for three children, $1.44. Total, $33.12. Provisions.-The meals consist of potatoes and bread, their means not being sufficient to allow meat: Potatoes, twenty bushels, $10.08; bread, (6 cents per day,) $21.90; coffee, (chiccory, four pounds per week,) $2.88; butter, (one-half pound per week,) lard, herring, salt, (24 cents per week,) $12.48. Total, $47.26. Aggregate expenses, $80.38. NOTE.-If the work is not regular, the demands of the family must be curtailed, and suffering often takes place. 8. District of G6rlitz. Here the condition of the laborer appears more comfortable, since work can be found throughout the year. Masons and carpenters earn 36 to 43.4 cents per day; railroad-laborers, 26.4 to 28.8; field-laborers, 21.6 to 28.8, and females, 14.5 to 24. The lowest expenses for a family consisting of four or five persons are thus computed: Provisions ----------------------—.-$57 60 to $85 72 Rent, lights, and fuel............................. —-—..... 11 52 to 21 10 Clothing......-.................................. 13 57 to 18 00 Tools, &c.....-....-................................. 1 44 to 2 88 School.-........................................... 1 44 to 2 88 Taxes.................................................. 72 to 1 44 Total................................................... 86 29 to 132 02 ~496 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. By careful inquiries it has been ascertained that a family can earn from $93.60 to $144 a year, so that some lay up small savings. For the city of Gvrlitz the average income of a laborer's family is estimated at $95 to 144 a year; the expenses for four or five persons, from $115 to $172.80, namely: Rent, lhts, and fuel............................................ $22 72 to 15 Clothin &....-............-................ 14 40 to 21 6 Tools, furniture, &e....-....__.._...__............_-...... 1 44 to 5 76.School-................ 4 32 to 504 Provisions ----- ----------------- 72 00 to 108 25 Total..-..........-........................ 114 88 to 172 80 9. District of Glogau. Farm-laborers' income: Males: 6 weeks in harvest, at 30 cents per day...... $10 80 14 weeks, (sowing and haymaking,) at 24 cents per day........ 20 16 5 weeks, fall and spring, at 18 cents per day................. 16 20 5 weeks, winter, at 14.4 cents per day........................ 12 96 Total, 50 weeks......................................................... Females: 6 weeks, at 12 cents per day, (5 days per week)............- $3 60 14 weeks, at 9.6 cents per day............6 72 15 weeks, at 8.4 cents per day......................-........ 6 3 15 weeks, at 7.2 cents per day.....................-...... 5 40 Total, 50 weeks...................................................... 02 Grand total........................................................ 14 Expenses of a family of three children: 16 sheffels rye, at $1.32................................................... 1 2 sheffels wheat, at $1.80.................................................. 3 60 2 sheffel's barley, at $1.20-2 40 2 sheffels peas, at $1.44 — - 88 2 sheffeis millet, at $1.44-_.. 2 8I 24 bags puta-Loes, at 38.4 cents..9 2 2 52 pounds butter, at 19.2 cents —— 9 98 183 quarts mla24cns-4 40 Mea t, (2 quarters mutton, $3.60; 1 pig, $10.80) -- 14 40 52 pounds salt, at.024 —. 1 25 Rent,$3.76; lht1. —7 28 Fuel, (wood, $`9.72; coal,..1)-12 90 Clothing —-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~18 72 Taxes, and other expenses —- 8 00 Total...119 03 As, according to these statistics, a man and wife can earn but $8-2.14 per year, a deficiencv of $36.89 must be made up by the work of the children, or by extra labor in the summer, especially at harvest-time. 10. District of Liegnitz. Expenses of a family with three children: Provisions-bread, I pound of flour per head, daily-..............$26 52 potatoes, -I bng, or 75 pounds per week, at 18 cents -........ 9 36 barley, 2 sheflels, at 96 cents-................... 96 peas, 1 sheffel, at $1.08 ---------------------- 1 08 butter, 1 to 1-1 pounds per week, 71J pounds per year, at 19 cents- 13 73 milk, 4 quarts daily, at 4 cents- 5 84 meat, 1 swine for fatteningr, or 1 pound per week --------- 5 56 salt, 1 pound per week, at 2.4 cents. —------------- 1 25 coffee, chiccory, sugar ---------------------- 4 32 -wheat flour for cake on holidays-................. 1 32 beer-90 70 84 *1 sheffel equals 1.56 bushels, -United States. LABOR IN GERMANY. 49 7 Rent for a room, a garret-room, and small space, per annum...................$7 20 Light, oil for 36 to 39 weeks, to pound, at 6 cents.......................... 2 34 Fuel, during 6 winter-months, 20 cents; summer, 10 cents per week........... 8 00 Clothing-husband, 2 shirts, at 72 cents $1 44 1 --- o-...................... 2 88 pantaloons, (three pairs in two years)...... 72 coat, &C-7................................. 72 5 76 ife-2 chemises................................ 1 44.....1 pair of shoes........... 1 20 dressy &c —-------—................... 2 64 - 5 28 s each.................. 2 16 clren-6 shirts,.......................... 2 16 3 pairs of shoes. ------------------- -2 16 clothing................................ 2 16 6 48 ~...Soap, for washing1............... 20 ~~~~~.Tools, for repair of...................... 1 44 Taxes-income, 72 cents; communal, 38.4 cents; school, including books, $2.556. 3 60 -Total expenses. - --- ---- I —----...................-............ 112 14 Income of a family with two children: ~ Husband averages 305 ays, at 21.................................... )5 88 Wife averages 250 days, at 10.04 cents.. — 26 00 Oldest child averages 60 days,................................... 4 32 Every married woman receives1 sheffel wheat ---- ---................ t....... - 0 2 ~sheffels rye-21.........................6..... 2 16 2 sbeff,61, barley............ se-s bal 1 9-2 ~1 shefiel, peas-1.................................. 1 08 6 96 He can raise on a patch of land 10 as potatoes, valued at.................. 2 88 And glean at harvest ley............................... 3.06....For extra work through the year...... - 7... 8 64 For a fat pig-................................................................ 5 76 123 50 In the city of Liegnitz the average expense of a laborer's family is estimated at $141.84 per year. WVAGES IN GE RMANY IN 1870. The following, information, in regard to the rates of wagess paid in other parts of Germany in the year 1870, was obtained from another source: Goat-mines in Hanover, Deister River.-Workmeti employed, 502; average annual earnings, $135.53. Coal-mines at Kniggenbrileke.-Workmen employed, 141; average monthly earnings, $10.08 to $12.24. Turkish-carpet fiactory in iSilesia.-Mlales, $1.80 to $2.88 per week; females $1.08 to $2.16 per week. &Slk-manufactures in Crefeld.-Employed in 1867: masters, fellows, and apprentices, 20,449; total wages paid, $2,591,387; average per capita, $126.70. lin 1870, masters, fellows, and apprentices, 28,213; total wages paid, $3,820,711; average per capita, $1315.45. The wages of carpenters and builders increased 15 to 20 per cent. in 1870. Weaving in Osterode.-Weavers and spinners, per day, 30 to 306 cents; children, per d-ay, 12 to 18 and 24 cents. Iron-mines near Duisbtirg.-Employed in 1870, 694 miners, &C.; wages, $184,400;- annual average, $150.43. Hands, furnaces, &C., ei ployed, 305; wages, $56,903; average, $186.56. Iron-works, "Vulcan." —Melters, per dlay, 72 cents; job-workers, 53 cents; contract-workers, 63 cents; ordinary hands, 46 cents. 32 Td 198 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Manufactory of crucibles, retorts, &c.- ands employed, 159; wages, $33,409.44; average, $210.12. Wharves at Ruhrort.-Laborers, in summer, 72 cents per day; in winter, 48 cents per day. Iron-works at Borbeck-Employ 237 men, at average daily wages of 53 cents. Zinc-works at Borbeck-Employ 295 men; total wages for the year, $65,900.16; average, $223.40. Iron-works at Kupfurdrew-Employ, in mines, 226 men, at average daily wages of 57 cents; in near furnaces, 181 men, at average daily vwages of 52 cents. First-celass melters, per day, 99 cents; second-class melters. per day, 76 cents; third-class melters, per day, 62 cents; firemen, per day, 99 cents; laborers, per day, 51 cents. Sa&t-works at Lueneburg-Employ 120 men; total wages, $14,356.80; alverage, $119.64. iron-works at Lueneburg-Employ 290 men; total wages, $40,521.60; av(eage, 9139.73. Uypsum:factory at Lueneburg-Employs 46 men; total wages, $3,272.40; average, $71.14. Manure-factory at Luencburg-Employs 70 men; total wages, $5400; average, $77.14. Cooper-shop at Ltenelurg-Employs34 men; total wages, $5,703.84; average, $167.76. Coat-mines near Lauban.-ITewers, per day, 46 to 53 cents; drawers, per day, 30 to 44 cents; ordinary laborers, per day, 11 cents. Railrocad-works near Lautban- Employ 175 hands; total wages, $33,336; a'verage, $190.49. FACTORY-LABOR IN 1871. The following statement of the rates paid for factory-la~bor has been prepared from the Annual Report of the Chamber of Commerce of Plauen, Sax ony, for 1871: Occupations. Weekly wages. Iron-founderies: Pattern-mnakers —$-2 88 Locksmiths --—.........................2 16 Laborers —--------------------- - ----— 1 44 Apprentices --—.........................1 o6 In the Upper Erz Mountains: Molders —--------------------------— $2 88 to 5 04 Molders' apprentices ----------------------— 2 16 to 3 60 Carpenters —------- 3 60 Polishers_-2 88 to 3 60 Blacksmiths —2 88 to 3 60 In fouuderies at Crimmit-schau: Foreman.. - -7 20 to 10 30 Molders. —.. -2 88 to 5 04 Joiners..............................3 60 Apprentices -------------------------- - 2 16 to 3 60 Smiths-................................2 88 to 3 96 Iron-founderies at Reichenbach: M olders.. -............................3 60 Apprentices —......................... 72 to 2 52 Other hands -—.........................1 80 to 2 16 Mach~ine-works: Turners —..........................3 60Oto 8 64 Locksmiths -—.........................2 88 to 4 32 Joiners ---...2 88to 5a04 Ot-her mechanics.........................2 16 to 2 88 Apprentices... ~~~~~~~~~~~72 to 2 16 LABOR IN GERMANY. 499 Machine-works at Werdan: Workmen.....................................................$2 16 to $3 60 Machine-works at Zurckau: Locksmiths, turners, &c................... -3 24 to 4 32 Other mechanics - - -2 42 to 2 88 Apprentices — 72 to 2 16 Machine-works at Reicherbach: Smiths............................................... — — I 4 32 Turners and joiners............................................ 3 60 Locksmiths ----------------------------------------- - --------- 3 25 Apprentices — 72 to 2 88 Machine-works at Plauen: Locksmiths................................................... 2 88 Turners....................................................... 2 88 to 3 60 Smiths -------------------------------------------------------- 3 24 to 3 60 Joiners....................................................... 2 88 to 3 24 Apprentices --- 72 Laborers...................................................... 2 42 Machine-works at Lower Schlema: Turners....................................................... 2 16 to 3 44 Locksmiths................................................... 2 52 to 4 32 Joiners....................................................... 2 64 to 4 32 Blacksmiths -----------------------—.-............- - - -------- 2 88 Apprentices...................... 1 06 Machine-works at Aue: Turners, locksmiths, &c -------------------------------------- - 1 80 to 2 88 Founders -------------------------------- --------------------- 2 16 to 2 88 Musical-instrument factories: Average...................................................... 3 10 Some as high as -------------------------------------- - -------- 5 42 Violin-string makers. —-------------------------------- - — S —-- 8 04 Other factories pay, average wages............................. 2 16 to 3 24 the best hands -— 5 04 Clock and watch factories: Superintending the erection of large clocks, per day -----—.$1.80 Watch-makers-per week.. —- - 2..-. 2 16 to 2 88 Clock-makers.................................................. 2 52 Apprentices -................................. - 96 Case-makers........ 2 40 Joiners....................................................... 2 88 Sign-painters --------------------------—.- - ------------------ 2 16 to 2 88 Chain-makers................................................. 1 44 Other workmen............................................... 1 80 to 2 16 Tin-ware factory: Tinsmiths..................................................... 2 16 to 3 60 Silver-ware: Workmen...................................................-. l 20 to 2 16 Spoon-factories: Cutters, polishers, &c............................... 8..... 0 to 3 60 Overseer...................................................... 4 32 Silver-ware works at Reichenbach: Workmen..................................................... 2 16 to 3 60 Boys --------------------------—.-. —---------------------—.. 72 to 1 08 Sand-paper factories: Workmen, with board ----------------------------------------- 2 52 to 2 88 Boys........................................................... 1 08 to 1 44 Glass-works: Laborers -1 —--------- I 44 to 3 60 Dye-stuff amnd varnish factories: Males. 41c. to 60c. per day-. 2 46 to 3 60 Females -24c. to 39c. per day.. 1 44 to 2 34 Confectioners: Males....-.................................................... 3 55 to 5 40 Females -.....................................................1 i25 Textile factories: Yarn-spinning, girls (over 14 years)-1 44 to 1 66 Wool-sorters 3 06 Washers...................................................... 2 16 to 3 06 Cleaners............................-.......................... 2 10 500 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA Textile factories: At spreading-machines, (girls)... -..83 Spinners...............................42 to 3 12 Packers-..........................2 Overseer.....6......0.............. Spinning-master....3.........2 Ordinary hands..................20 to 1 80 Females, (at combing)...5.......... Other females............................ 06 to 1 44 Highest wages2 88 to 4 32....................... Rope-makers: Best hands.-.3..........to 42 Boys, (15 to 17 years of age). —..-144 Cotton factories, (power-looms:) Cotton-weavers-.........to312 Cotton-weavers, girls, maximum ---—....... ---- - — 3 46 Cotton-weavers, males, maximum..5 51 Another establishment gives the average earnings ofMales..................................2 64 Fermales..3.......4............. Maximum rates.......................32 to 5 04 Woolen-cloth weavers are generally paid according to the number of threads per inch, and ordinarily earn -.. — - -1 80 to 2 16 Shearers females................1 44 to 1 80.. Weavers on steam-power looms,. females......1 80 to 2 52 Chain-spoolers.....................4..4........ Bleaching, males -----— 2 70 to 2 88.. Maxiltm......... — — 4 32 Dyeing,, males...............52 to 2 8....... Cloths, cassimeres, &c.: Walker...............................6to 5 04 Rou-ber —-------------------------— 2 52 to 3 24 sliate n tirl, -1 44 to 2 32 Card-clear..............................1 44 to 1 68 Boys gir —------------------------- -- -1 20 IDyers —----------------------------— 1 68 Embroiderers, females......... — 5 36 to 7 56 Embroiderers on linen, jaconet, &c., net frAn $113.76to $13750 per year. Drawers of dsg - — 2'88 to 5 04 Lace-weavers and knitters, womien —..................1 25 to 2 16 Girls —------------------------------ 72 to 1 32 Stocking-weavers -------------------------— 1 08 to 1 44 And exceptionally. -— 1 50 to 2 16 Tanners, males-........................... 2 88 to 5 04 Kid-glove makers: C utters —10 80 to 21 60 Sewers, females -— 2 16 Dyers --- 2 88 Glo'~e-sewers, per dozen, 67c. to $1.08. Brush-makers: Males__.- -2 16 to 4 32 Females —~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 O0 to 2 16 Joiners and polishers —2 88 to 5 04 Wood sawyers: By hand..-..........................2 16 to 2 88 In steani saw-mill —.......................3 60 to 3 96G Shoe-last-factory hands.-2 16 to 2 8'~ Basket-makers............1 32 to 2 88 Book-binders: Men —-2 88 to 43'2'Women —............................1 44 to 2 88 Earnings of coal-miners and turf-diggers: Coal-min~ers, average earnings per years, in 1862 -......$121 60 " 1868 -......154 18 " 1871 -......187 92 Turf-diggers, per 1,000, from 60 to 70 cents. Turf-cutters, per 1,000, from 18 to 20 cents. LABOR IN GERMANY. 501 FACTORY LABOR IN 1872. In the months of August and September,.1872, the author of this report personally visited the principal manufacturing towns in Germany, especially those in Saxony and Rhenish Prussia, for the purpose of obtaining information in regard to the cost of labor, the condition of the workmen and their families, and the cost of provisions and other articles of domestic consumption. In the prosecution of the inquiry he was aided by the United States consuls, and particularly by the agents of a well-known mercantile firm in New York,* who, at the request of their principals, obtained from the manufacturers from whom they make extensive purchases, statements of the prices paid in each establishment for the various kinds of labor. In submitting the information thus obtained by himself and others,teauthorexrsshicov~hers the author expresses his convictio that the utmost confidence can be placed in the accuracy of the fures contained in the following statements:.-RATES OF WAGES IN GERMANY. Statements shoing the rates of wages paid by manufacturing establishments in Germany in tje year 1872. [Prussian thaler computed at 72 cents United States gold coin.] Occupations. Men. Women. Children. COTTON MANUFACTORIES. MIanufachtre of whtite cotton goods and emabroiderie8 in iPiauen, Saxony. Machine-loom, weaivers, (12 hours per Per week. Per wceek. Per week. day) —--------- --— $2 8 to $3 060-............. Machine-loomu, spoolers, (12 hours per day) --- -------------- 186 --------------- Machine-loomi, fore~men, (12 hours perI day)-................4 32................ Hand-loom, weavers, (11 hours per day) 2 16 to 2 52 1 —. —----------- Spoolers and cutters —..........$........1 68 to$1 80........ Cleaners and winders.- 2 16 to 2 42........ Finishers-................4 32 to 5 76 - Weavers, (chiefly piece-work) ----— 2 88 to 4 3-2 Machine-emnbroiderers paid by the number of stitches ~ ----------— 4 302to 7 20j. Needle-threaders of ciubroidering-machines —~~~~~~~~~~~1 S0to 2 16 -. —---- Quilters —---------------------— 1 50 to 2 16 -........ Mull-weavers —.....................2 16 to 2 52 -........ Auerbach, Saxony. Quilters —...............I....... 44 to 2 16. Threaders, at machines —------- - --—.....1 44 to 1 80.- -------- Threaders, at machines, children, (halftimiers)-......................... -....... 72 to 84 Machine-embroiderers-..........2 88 to 5 04 - Eibenstock, Saxony. Machine-embroiderers..-.. —. — 4 32 to 5 04 - —.......-........ Yarn-threaders --- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~72 to 96 Machine-tender -- 2 04 to 2 16- - (Hours of labor, 10 to 12 per day.) *Messrs. A. T. Stewart & Co. 502 LABOR-IN-EUROPE AND AMERICA. Rates of wages paid by manufacturing establishments in Germany-Cont'd. $ Occupations. Men. Women. Children. Employe's working mostly at home: Per day. Per day Per day. Sewers or embroiderers.-.............................. 0 30 to $0 60.............. Ironers, quilters, &c.................................. 24 to 30.............. Machine-embroiderers................................ 72to 1 08. Lace-makers......................................... 29 to 36. —---- Corset-sewers, cutters............................ 24 to 30.............. Glove-cutters.......................... $0 72 to $0 96....................... Leather-dyers.......................... 48 to 54....t"4... Glove-sewers.................................. 36 to 42......... (Hours of labor, 11 to 12 per day.) Johanngeorgenstadt, Saxony. Ribbon-purlers 12 to 14.............. Ribbon-quilters...................................... 24 to 36......... Embroiderers of table-covers, &c...... - ---—. 36 to 60.... Sewers of kid gloves..- -..................2-.4 to 30. Cutters of kid gloves...................- 1 08 to 1 44.. Fancy-box joiners...................... 48 to 60Per week. Per week. Per week. Assistants.......1............ 1 80 to 2 16................ Baerenwalde, Saxong. Lace-factory......................................... 1 44 to 2 16.............. Embroiderers.-. -....1 80 to 2 16................ Finishers........2................... Chantillv-lace workers........................... 1 44 to 2 16........... (Hours of labor, 12 per day.) Crefeld, Prussia. Silk-velvet factory: Weavers-.................. 4 32to 5 04............. W/arpers.......-.....-............... 2 88to 3 24 2 88to 3 24.......... Spoolers............ —-................................. $1 44to $1 80 Dressers-........................ 3 60to 4 32.-............... (Hours of labor, 60 per week.) Bheydt, Prussia. Silk-velvet factory: Weavers.......................... 3 60 to 4 68 -.. Warpers.......................... 2 16 to 3 24 2 16to 3 24 Spoolers.............................- - - 1 32to 1 80 1 32to 1 80 Dressers........................... 2 52to 3 24............... Day-laborers....................... 1 44 to 2 16............................. (Hours of labor, 60 per week.) Viersen, Prussia. Silk-velvet factory: Weavers.-.....-...... 3 60to 5 04.............. Warpers........................... 2 88 to 3 24 2 88 to 3 24. Spoolers......................................... 1 44 to 1 68 1 44to 1 68 Dressers........................... 2 88to 3 60............................. (Hours of labor, 60 per week.) Crefeld, Prussia. Piece-silks: Dyers.......... 24to 432................... 3 24 to 4 3- -..t' Spoolers....1.......... 44 to 1 80 1 44to 1 80 LABOR IN GERMANY. 503 Rates of wages paid by manufacturing establishments in Germnany-Cout'd. Occupations. Men. Women. Children. Piece-silks-Continued. Per week. Per week. Per wreek.............; i~ 1C.............. ~ ~............................. Weavers, on ordinary taffeta silk - 2 83. Weavers, on medium taffta silk.. 3 60......... Weavers heavy taffeta silk3 60 to $4 32... Weavers, satin, cotton woof2 88 to 3 60........... Weavers, Turquoise, cotton woof —- 3 60 to 4 32...........Weavers, reps, cotton woof2 88 to 3 60............... Weavers, dressers — 3 24 to 4 32.......... (1hours of labor, 10 to 12 per day.) JRieydt, Prussia. Piece-silks: Weavers, silk. 2 16 to 5 0........... Weavers, satins.... 2 88 to 5 04. Spoolers, silk. $t 44 to 2 16 $1 44 to $2 16 Spoolers, cotto.......... 1 15 to 1 68..............Warpers.. —-----— ] —- - -- I 80 to 2 16.............. ]Dressers —--—.. —------ 2, 8 to 3 60............................ (Hours of labor, 10 per dlay.) Silk ribbons, Wermelskirchen, Prussia, work eop.le. 2 s ~to 4 32 1 80 to 2 88............ Silk ribbons, Langenberg, Prussia 2 88 to 7 20 1 44 to 3 60......... Ahnabeorg, Saxovy. Fringe-factory: Weavers workinig on looms, fine work...............3 G0to 432. Weavers, ordinary work.. _ -— _.2 16................ Fringe-makers...................2 16. Sewers of loop-lace and other ornaments......................1 68 to 2 16........ (Hours of work, 10 to 11 per day.) Bttchholz, Saxony. Fringe-factory: Silk-fringe weavers.. 2 16 to 2 88............... Cotton-fringe weavers. 1 44 to 2 16. —----- ------- Sewers, oni trimmings, &c............. 1 80 -to 2 16 - -... ----- (Hours of labor, 10 per day.) Buehholz Saxony. Fringe-factory: Hafsland silk fringres, loomwork. —-----------— 1 S0to 252............... Half silk, and silk fringfes, handwork. —- -- ---- ---- ------ -- -- 1 44 to 2 16. —- -- -- Half silk, and cotton trimmings, &c -1 44 to 2 16 - Woolen lace.1 O8 to 1 80... Silk guipure-lace. -------— 1 20 to 1 44... (.Hours of labor, 12 per day.) ilhenstein, Saxony. Cotton hosiery: Workmen at Pagret machine. 2 64 to 3 60............... Edgers...............2 8S8to 3 60. —----- ------- Workers on round looms...............1 20 to 1 44. Formers.......................1 O8 to 1 44. —----- 504 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA..Rates of wages paid by manufacturing establishments in Germnany-Cont'd. Occupations. Men. Women. Children. Cottoll hosiery-Continued. Per week. Per week. Per week. Finishers................0 96 to $1 0..............$0 96to$1 2 Press-hands.. $2 52 to $2 88............................ Packers.......2...... 2 88.............. Hands on sewing-machines. -........... 1 20 to 1 44 -....... (Hours of labor, 10 to 10- per day.) Lichtenstein, Saxony. Yarn-spoolers.1 44.............. Hands on machines.............................. 1 44 to 1 80 Finishers............-.......... 2 88to 3 60 1 44 to 1 80. HIands on round machines.......... 2 16 to 2 52 1 44 to 1 80. Hands on Paget machines.......... 3 24 to 3 60 2 52...... -lands on edging machines..........- 4 32........... (Hours of labor, 12 per day.) Hartmannsdorf, Saxony. Paget-loom makers.-............... 2 88 to 5 04...... Foreman, exclusive of free rent and fuel,....................... 5 76................. Firemen, exclusive of free rent and fuel............................. 2 88................ Packer............... 3 60................... 4polda, Saxony. Manufacture of woolen hosiery: Smooth work on round looms, according to power of machine, per zollpfund-................ 06 to 14 Catching machine, round loom...... 04 to 0S................ Chain, power-loom 06 to 36...........-........ Articles of English yarn, up to No. 14 9........................ Articles of fine yarn, according as the pattern is more or less difficult.... 12 to 1 08......................... Articles of, on covering machines.'.. 24 to 72........................... Articles of stitching.............. 36 to 1 08................... Articles of catching machines, (hand loom)........................... 12 to 29...................... Stocking-weavers, according to ability and kind of work.............. 2 88 to 5 04........................ Hands on machines........................ 1 80 to 2 88......... Packers and other common laborers - 2 16 to 2 88............ Sewers..........-...........1.................. 1 44to 2 16.............. (Hours of labor, 10 per day.) Linmbach, Saxony. Round-loom makers.............. 2 88 to 3 60................. Packers....-........... 2 88 Sto 3 60 1 44to 1 8: —:-0.. Sewers....... 1 80 to 2 16.............. (Hours of labor, 12 per day.) Oberlungwitz, Saxony. Weavers, ordinary goods............... 1 44............................ Weavers, middling goods............... 2 10..... Weavers, fine goods.................... 2 88............ Weavers, best workers........ 3 60............................ *Zollpfund=1.102 pound, United States. LABOR IN GERMANY. 505 Rates of wages paid by manufacturing establishments in Germany —Cont'd. Occupations. Men. Women. Children. Hohenstein, Saxony. Per week. Per week. Per week. Weavers, average.................... $1 80 to $3 24............. Schinau, Saxony. Hands on machines.................... 2 52 to 3 24............................ Finishers.............................. 4 32 —......... - -......Press-hands............................ 3 24... Finishers............................................ $1 20 to $1 63............. (Hours of labor, 11 per day; overwork paid per hour at the same rate.) Greiz, Saxony. Hand-loomns for mnerinos................ 2 42............................ Hand-looms for cashmeres2............................ Hand-looms for reps.................... 3 84............................ In very few cases only Thibets, or mnerinos and cashmeres, are woven upon hand-looms at this day, Cleaning yarn, 100 packs, (at 1,300 Leipsic ells each,) 15 cents, daily work (70hours) 800 packs..................... 1 08. Spooling, for weaving, 100 packs, 18 cents, daily work 47-:0 hours) 800 packs. 1 08.......... Machine-weaving: Every good workman attends two looms, using, per week,1,000 packs or more of yarn, at 36 cents per 100 packs........................ 3 60 to 5 76 —............. —-- Attendants at machines...... -—. 2 16 to 2 88 Loom-masters..................... 4 32to 5 76............... (Hours of labor, 11 per day.) Reichenbach, Saxony. Flannel-factory: Wool-assorters................................... 96.-......... Wool-washers. 2 40..................... Attendants at carding-machines........-....... Men at spinning-machines.......... 2....28 - Boys at spinning-machines................................. $0 72 to $0 96 Workers at hand-looms..-.... 2 16 to 3 60 1 44 to 1 80. Fullers and finishers............... 2 16 to 2 28........ Dyers.............,.. —-- 2 16............................ Nappers -....... -...... 1 20 Press-hands................ 2 40. —....... Packers 1 32........... Drying-machine hands...................... 1 20. —. —---- Workmasters 3 60 to 8 64............................. (Hours of labor, 11 per day.) Gera, Saxony. Woolen cloth: Finishers........................ 2 88to3 60...................... Machine-loom weavers..... 2 16 to 4 32................. Hand-loom weavers.............. 2 88 to 4 32.......-............. (Hours of labor, 12 for No. 1 and 2; irregular hours fbr No. 3.) 506 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Rates of wages paid by manufacturing establishments in Germany-Cont'd. Occupations. Men. Women. Children. Glauchau, Saxony. Per week. Per week. Per week. Machine-weaving: Weavers..............$.......... 1 80 $1 66 $1 66 Spooling........................1.............. I 44 1 32 Shearing........................ 3 94. Putting in beams................ 3 84.............. 1 08 Turning in...................... 2 81............................ (Hours of labor, 11 per clay.) Linden, Hanover. Cotton-velvet factory: Weavers......................... $3 60 to4 32 $2 16to2 88 Day-laborers. 2 88 to 3 60. (Hours of labor, 60 per week.) Sorau, Lower Lusatia. Cloth-factory: Wool carders and pickers.......................1 80.............. Wool-spinners................... 2 16 to 3 24Weavers on power-looms......... 2 16 Weavers on hand-looms........... 2 88 to 4 32............................. Warpers -------------- ----------- 2 52 ------------ - - -- -. —------- Pressers......................... 2 16 to'3 24Spoolers.............................1........... 144tto'2 14.............. Firemen......................... 2 88............................ Machinists.............. 5 04... Duren, Rhenish Prussia. Cloth-factory: Wool-assorters................... 1 30 to 1 58. Washers.2....................... 2 88 to 3 60. Dyers ---------------—.-. ——... 2 16 to 2 60............................ Carders.2........................ 2 30 to2 60. Fine spinners................... 2 88 to 3 60............................ Fullers.......................... 2 30 to 2 60. Shearers......................... 2 88 to 3 60. Weavers......................... 2 88 to 3 98............................ Schuviebus, Saxony. Cloth-factory: Wool-assorters, (9 hours per day)-. 84 Wool-pickers, (9 hours per day)... 84.............. Wool-shearers, (13 hours per day) -... 1 38........ Wool-pressers, (13 hours per day) - 2 16... Wool-dyers, (13 hours per day) ---- 2 16. Weavers, masters,(13 hours per day) 2 88 to 4 32............................Machinists, (13 hours per day).... 2 16 to 2 52.. Luckenwalde. Cloth-factory: Dyers, males, per day, (13 hours)... 39 to 42Wool-assorters, females, per day,(13 hours) ----—.. 18 to 19.............. Knotters, per piece of 30 yards...9. 6 to 12 Chain-shearers, for 100 pieces yarn -.. 9 Spinners, girls, per day, (13 hours).............................. 26.4 Fine spinners, per 1,000, from 36 cents to 48 cents; per week... 3 60 to 4 32............................. LABOR IN- GERMANY. 507 Rates of wages paid by manufacturing establishments in Germany-Cont'd. Occupations. Men. Women. Children. Cloth-factory: Weavers, according to work and Per week. Per week. Per week. rates.. —-----— $ —3 60 to$4 32.................... Roughers, (13 hours per day,) per week.-................ 1 92to 2 04............................ Shearers, girls, (13 hours per day,) per week................................................. $1 06 to$1 32 Fullers, per week.......-....-. 3 60 to 4 32....... Gorlitz, Silesia. Cloth-factory: Wool-sorters.................................... $1 14............... Wool washing and drying........ 2 40.......... Cleaners -2 64 Carders........................................ 1 68 Knotters ----- - 1 20............ Spinners, (contract work)........ 3 60 to 4 32.............. Weavers............... 2 40 to 3 76 1 68.... Fullers and washers.............. 2 40 to 2 88...................... Nappers......-................ 2 52to 2 88... Shearers................. 2 52 to 2 88........ —--- Dressers......................... 2 52............................ Dyers........................... 2 16.......................... Spongers. -................ - 2 76........................... Card-setters..................... 2 88............................ Sagan, Silesia. Master-workmen. Cloth-factories: Spinning- Per week. Wool-sorters.................................... $1 26 to 1 44.............. Washers.-......2 16 to 2 88................ Warpers....... —.. —..... —.. 1 44 to 1 68 1 14tol 44........ Carders........ --—.... - - 2 16to 2 88 1 14to 1 44 Fiue-spinners..................... 2 88to 3 60 1 14 to 1 44 1 14 to 1 44 Weavers. -......... $4 32to 7 20 2 88to 3 68 1 80to2 52.............. Nappers............ 4 32 to 5 76 2 16to 2 52.............. Fullers............. 4 32to 7 00 2 54to 2 88 Finishers........-................... 3 60 2 16-to 2 52..:. —.: Cleaners........... 4 32 1 44 to 1 80.............. Pressers............ 3 60 2 16 to 2 52........-................ Spongers....-.. —........ — 2 16 to 2 52.i':::. Fasteners..........2 16 to 2 58........ Card-setters, dyers, and heaters, from 41 cents to 48 cents per day. Leipzic. Merchant-tailoring establishment: Making waistcoat, 72 cents to $1.08.. 4 32 to 5 04........................... Making pantaloons, 84 cents to $1.08. 4 32 to 5 04......................... Making coat, $3.60. Making frock-coat, $4.32. Repairing, per hour, 7* cents. 508 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Rates of wages paid by mnanufacturing establishments in Germany —C(Jont'd. Occupations. Men. Women. Children. DULKEN, PRUSSIA. Weavers............................... $3 24 to $5 04................. Warpers ------------------------------- 2 16 to 2 58 $2 16 to$2 88. Spoolers......... —......$.............. $1 44 to $1 80 Dressers.......... 3 24 to 4 32............................ PIRNA, SAXONY. Weavers............................... 2 88 to 4 32.......................... Spoolers........-..... 2 16 to 2 52.............. PETERSWALDE, BOIHEMIA. Weavers............................... 3 06 to 4 14.... Spoolers............................................. 1 98 to 2 34....... CLOTHII-FACTORIES, GROSSENHAIN, SAXONY. Wool-assorters, per day, 38.4, 43.2, and 48 cents; wool-dyers, per day, 36 cents; overwork per hour, 2.6 cents. Spinners: from 1~ to 3 hanks per pound, per 100 hanks, 29 cents; from 31 to 6 hanks per pound, per 100 hanks, 21.6 cents; from 6j to 2 hanks per pound, per 100 hanks, 24 cents; cleaners per hour, 2.6 cents; warpers per day, 25.2 cents; overwork, per hour, 2.6 cents; carders (girls) per hour, 1.6 cents; spinners (boys) per day, 12 cents. Satin-faced-cloth weavers-machine looms: 5,000 threads per hank, 1.2 cents; 6,000 threads per hank, 1.4 cents; 7,000 threads per hank, 1.6 cents; 8,000 threads per hank, 1.8 to 2 cents; crossweaving 5,000 threads per hank, 1 cent; 6,000 threads per hank, 1.2 cents; 7,000 threads per hank, 1 cent. White-cloth weavers, per hank, ~ cent; colored-cloth weavers, per hank, 4 cent. Fullers, carders, shearers, hands at the press: Fullers per day, 31.2 to 33.6 cents, for over-hours, 2.6 to 2.8 cents; card-fitters per day, 30 cents; over-hours, 2.6 cents; hands on machine, per week, $3.24. Wages of foremen vary greatly, according to ability. Cloth factory of Schwiebus, Saxony. Males. Females. Washers $1 32 Dyers and spongers.................................................. 2 16 Pressman....... — 2 16 Machinist.......................................................... 2 52 Machinist-..-2 52 Fireman........................................................... 2 16 Fullers, (13 hours per day)....................$..........1 80 to'2 04 Wool-whelpers, (13 hours per day) ---—.-................................. 1 92 Wool sorters and pickers, (9 hours)-................................ $0 84 Wool washers and dryers................................................... 84 Wool-carders................................................................ 1 50 On self-actors 1 38 Shearers, (13 hours) -----------------—.. —...- 1 08 Nappers... 84 Chain spoolers, (females,) per chain of 120 meters (min. 130 yards).... —. 10 cents. Chain shearers, (females,) per chain of 120 meters -.... 12 cents. Chain gluers, (males,) per chain of 120 meters.................. 12 cents. Power-loom weavers, (females,) per 24 meters..... 48 cents. The overseers of the various factory branches receive, for six working-days, from $2.88 to $4.32. LABOR IN GERMANY. 509 FRINGE-AKING-SCHLETTAU, SAXONY. The Messrs. Greifenhagen & Co. having their manufacturing done at the homes of the operatives, pay them by the piece and not by the day. For the manufacture of every article several kinds of work-people are required. Therefore, if the skilled laborer will obtain proportionate wages several must work together in preparing and finishing one and the same design or piece, as for gimps, loops, cloak-trimmings, ornaments, &C. The lowest wages are paid to those who stitch the design to the prepared paper, viz cents to 1 cents per hour, while those who take off such design earn from - to 1 cents per hour. For finer and more complicated designs from to of a cent additional are demanded. While there are laborers o more or less skill, the average earnings for ten working-ours are: for adults, from 16.S to 28.8 cents; and for children from 9.6 to 11.4I cents. When business is brisk and labor scarce, much higher wages are paid for these articles, which are nearly altogether manufactured at the houses of villagers. It has been found impracticable to fabricate these articles in factories, where regular wages could be paid, for two reasons: First, the articles being dependent upon fashion, the demand for them is very irregular; and secondly, few skilled women could be induced to work at establishments nto the neglect of their domestic duties. Weavers of fringes, gimps, &C., are also paid by the piece or meter, and earn, according to skill and industry, from $1.44 to 82 per week, of1 labor, hic is chiefly manual, ihours per day.id The preparatory and incidental labor, which is chiefly manual, is paid at from 1~- to 2 cents per hour. Makers 5of hand and loom curtain-band holders, having become greatly reduced in number on account of the previously very low wages, now command from $2.16 to $2.88 per week. The manufacture of this article also requires much preparatory and incidental labor, for which from $1.08 to $.2.16 is paid per week, of ten hours per day. The lowest wages, viz, -Z to A cents per hour of persevering labor, is paid for the twisting of the bullion fringes, usually performed by children or other unskilled persons. Occupations. Men. Women. Children. Linens, table-linen, Gross Schcenau, Saxony: Per week. P er week. Per week. Weaver, narrow goods- - $1 08 to $3 24 -. —----- -------- Weaver, wide goods. - -. —----- I 80 to 4 32................... (Working hours, 12 per day.) Bleache,'s - - - -$1 44 to $2 16..-.. (Working hours, 12 to 15 per day.) Manglers.._...- ---. -— 1 44 to 2~ 16 --- Dressers —----------- I 44 to 2 16.................. (Hours of labor, 12 per day.) Walbersdorf, Saxony: Weavers, iiarrow goods...1 00 to 2 40..................... Weavers, wide goods._ -1 44 to 3 60-................ Bleachers.-.. --- 1 25 to 1 60... Manglers..................... -1 80to 1 68 ---—. --- Dresse-s -- 1 15 to 1 68................. (Hlours of labor, 12 per day.)j 510 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Occupations. Men. Women. Children. Fancy ticking, Gross Schcenau, Saxony: Per week. Per week. Per week. Weavers..................... $1 44 to $1 80............................ Spoolers. —.........-...................... $96 to $1 08 --- -....... Treaders.................. 96 to 1 08................................ Dyers........1.......... 1 80 to 2 16..................... Dressers......1.. 68 to 2 16................................ Overseer, dyeing department. 3 60 to 3 94..................... Overseer, dressing department 2 88 to 3 24................................ (Hours of labor, 12 per day.) Striped drill, Sebritz, Saxony: Weavers, on power-looms..... 2 16 to 2 88 2 16 to 2 88................ Spoolers..................................... 1 08 to 1 44................ Treaders..................... 1 08 to 1 44.............................. Overseer................... 3 60 to 4 32................................ (Hours of labor, 11 per day.) Jacquards, Oberlangenbielau, Silesia: Weavers, mechanical.........2 52 to 2 88................................ (Working hours, 12 per day.) yWeavers, hand.......... 1 44 to 3 60...................... Spoolers....... 7........... 2 to 1 08................ Dressers.-.................. 2 16 to 2 88...................... (Hours of labor, 15 per day.) Carpets, Schmiedeberg, Silesia: Spinners................. 2 88 1 44................ Dyers........... 1 92................................ Weavers, on hand-looms...... 2 16 to 2 88................................. Weavers, on power-looms..... 1 44 to 1 80................................ Knotters............ 1 44 to 2 16................ (Hours of labor, 12 per day.) Leather goods, Freiberg, Saxony: Pocketbook-makers.......... 2 52 to 5 76................................ Cabinet-makers........... 2 88 to 4 32.......-.................. Steel-workers................'2 64 to 5 04................................ Harness-makers.............. 3 24 to 3 60................................ Polishers......... 2 88 to 4 68 1 44 to 1 56......... Day laborers............ 96 to 1 68............... (Hours of labor, 11 per day.) Leather goods, Offenbach-on-theMain: Pocketbook-makers.......... 3 60 to 7 20.............................. Book-binders................ 3 60 to 5 04....................... Girdlers.......... 3 60 to 5 04............................... Steel-Workers.............. 3 96 to 5 04................................ Steel-polisher ------ - 3 96 to 4 86................................ (6 days of 11 hours each.) Oil-cloths, Crefeld, Prussia: Printers.............. 5 40.............................. Blackeners.................. 3 60 to 5 04................... Day laborers........ - 3 36 3 36................ (6 days of 12to 13 hours each.) Glass beads, Bayreuth, Bavaria: Women and children......................... 1 62 to 1 80 $0 60 to $1 08 Families with many children earn 2. 40 to 2. 88. (6 days of 11 hours each.) PAPER-MILL, BAUTZEN, SAXONY. Machinists, $4.68; paper-cutters, $3.60; grinders, $3.24; firemen, $3.12; ra-cutters, $2.88; bleachers, $2.88; laborers, $2.16 to $2.52; packers, $3.12. Children: Assorters of rags; $1.44; assorters of papers, $1.44. Hours of labor, 84, per week." .... 7'e.......... lv1.... 7s...... ~~ e... LABOR IN GERMANY. 511;ion of articles wh:ich, to a considlerable fited States. AGOLD AND SILVER FRINGES, LACES, ETC., FREIBELDG SAXONY. Goldsmio ths, per week, $1.80 to atuai$2.76; 12 hours per day. Wire-drawers, per week$2.88 to $5.76; work at home. principge-makers, per wstreek, $2.64 to $3.60; work at home. ~~~~Spinners and embroiderers, (girls,) 72 cablents to disc$1.44; 12 hours per day. Lace-mak ter-s, lces. The United States consulate boeing (~women,) 25 centars to 84 cents; work at ahome. TMAC E UNITED-SOP, STATES. rnisPered by weeIr. PiConsul echster k.ill dlue of goods wvhich find a market in this )tion and value of mlerhlanldise exported to the Unqited Machine-locksmiths -~~~~~~ ~~~~~$3 24 $6 48 Buildin-locksmiths —-Barmen d uing t-e yea-e -ded Setem-ber 3 24 6 4873.,lloons, &c.)...................... $571, 155 Turners in iron-~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~3 24 6 48 Turners in braands...................... 723 24 6 48 mnd wool mlixed....................... 831, 739 lk, satinls taffe~tas.............. 156, 5i76 Turners in wood..................................... 24 4 86 ~~....................... 118, 737 ~Tinmen-3 2................7.....................01,4 89 cutlery...o.n....fo...nd.3 24 4 86 Joiners................................... 136,102 Per month. ~~..**.Engineers-.... $24 30 to $28 35414 ~~..Master-workmen.......32 40 to 4073, 86750 Master-fitter-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~20 25 to 28 35................................. $9, 984,'255 Forema.n-..40 50 to 48 60 CHIEF MANUFACTURING TOWNS OF GERMANY. Having in the preceding pages presented statements showing the rates of wages paid for factory-labor in. many of the smaller manuifacturing towns of Prussia and Saxony, classified by industries, it is now proposed to continue to give similar statements, classified by towns, selecting such as are' engaged in the fabrication of articles which, to a considerable....extent, find a mar..et in the United States.17, 79 3~ARMEN AND ELB~ERFELD.~1 1 These towns are in fact but one, there being no0 natural boundary between them, and the stranger who passes along the principal street of this seat of industrial activity is unable to discover where the one terminmates and the other commences. The United States consulate being in Barmen, the consular districts bears that name. EXPORZTS TO THE UNITED STATES. The following statement, furnished by Mr. Consul Hoechstler, will show the kind as well as the -value of goods which find a markiet in this country in a single year: Statisticat statement 8howinlg the description and value of mernhandisc exported to the United, States fromt Ute consular district of Barmen during the yeatr ended September 30, 1873. Cotton goods, (braids, trimmings, galloons, &c.) ---------- -----— $571, 155 Cotton and half-silk ribbons and hat-bands ------------ - -----— 724,081 Manufactures of wool and of cotton and wool mixed —----- - ----— 831,739 Dress and piece goods of silk, half-silk, satins, taffetas -------- ------ 156, 576 Velvets and velvet ribbons —------------- - --------— 214, 505 Buttons and button-stuffs ------------------------- 118,737 Woolen cloth --— 701, 489 Steel, iron, brass, and hardware and cutlery -—...............522,066 Dyes and chemicals —---------------- - ----------- 136, 102 Mliscellaneous... -.. - -- - ----- - 97, 414. Total-............................... 4, 073, 867 Shipped by way ofBremen ------------------------------- e,% 984,255 Hamburg —728,603 Antwerp —--- --------------------------- 170,779 Rotterdam ------------------------------ 160, 391 Liverpool and London-..22, 763 Ilavre —7,076 Total-.....4,073, 867 512 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. WAGES IN MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS. The following statemeits show the weekly earnings of operatives employed in various industries in the consular district of Barmen, Prussia: Occupations. Men. Women. Children. Silk and ribbons, Barmen. $3 96 to $4 32 $2 52 to $2 88 $1 68 to $1 80 Ribbon and silk weavers having their own looms................ 7 20 to 10 08............................... Hours of labor, 10 per day. Cotton-braids and trimmings, 10 hours perday.................. 3 60tto 4 32 2 16 to 2 88 1 44 to 1 80 If they work by the piece the average weekly earnings are. 5 76 to 8 64.... Fancy dress-buttons, weavers, 10 hours per day.................. 3 60 to 7 20 2 16 to 4 32................ HIalf-silk goods, (Elberfeld:) Weavers of grenadines, satins, &c. 3 96 to 4 14 2 64 to 2 88 1 68 to 1 80 Furniture stuffs, (Elberfeld:) Weavers of worsted damask....... 4 58 to 5 04. Weavers of silk damask........... 5 40 to 5 76............................... Weavers of worsted brocade... —. 6 48................................ Woolen mills, Barmen, average weekly wages for 11 hours of labor. Occupations. Men. Women. Children. Wool-sorters.$2 88 Wool-washers -.. 3 60... Wool-dyers...................... 2 52 —. Overseers........................ 4 32..... Pickers -1 80 Carders.-......................................... 2 04 Spinners......................... $3 60 to 3 96 Warpers and beamers............. 4 08 to 4 32Reelers........................................................... $1 98 Overseers............-........... 4 68 to 7 20. Assistants.......................-3 24 to 3 60 Weavers......................... 3 60 to 3 96 Burlers.......................... 1 92to 2 16 $1 92to 2 16Overseers. 4 32 to 4 68 Fullers 2 52.......................... D:essers or giggers. 3 36. Finishers........................ 2 52 Press-tenders..................... 2 52 -..... Drawers....... 2 83................................. Brushers. 2 04 Packers......................... 2 88 -- - -- -- Overseers........................ 4 68 to 6 48 - -. - Assistants........................ 3 60 to 3 96. Engineers....................... 3 96 Mechanics....................... 2 52........................... Laborers......................... 2 52Foreman4........................68 ROLLING-MILLS. Forge-masters -$...........................................10 80 Assistants.......................................-; ------------------- 6 48 Foremen of strikers................................................... 5 40 Strikers. 4 32 LABOR IN GERMANY. 513 P.........ddle-masters-....... $- 64to$9 36 Puddlers —-------—......................... 5 40 Workmen for bloomin........................... a..... 6 48 Looping-rollers~............ 8 64...........................5 76 Preparatory rollers..-5.................................. 5 7604 ~~Rollers-5................................ 4 32 Dr~awers and stretchers —----------------------- 4 3~2 Welders —--------------------- ----- --------- 12 96..........Assistants.-..-* —. 7 20 Foremenofrole. -----------------------......................... 10 80 — Assistants —-------------------------- 5 76 to 7 20 Hammer-smiths --------------------- - 8 64 Assistants —----—................................ 5 40 Turers and blacksmith................................ 8 64 Machinists................................. 5 76 Laborers and firemen.................................... 4 32 Hours of labor, 12 per (lay. NOTE-The cost of puddling iron is 75 cents per 10 centner = 1102.3 pounds; of steel, 84 -cents per 10 ceutner. The coal is about fifteen English miles distant, and costs $4.14 per centner; the ore is from 8 to 10 milts off. IRON-OUNDERIES AND MACHINE-SHOPS. Per week. ~~~Iron-molders......................................... -$7 20 to $8 64 -, —-. —............................. 7'20 to 8 6;4 Machinists, best ------------------------— 7 —--- ----- ----------- 7 20 to 8 64 Machinists, ordinary................................ 5 04 to 6 48 H elpers —-------------------------------—. —------------------------- 4 32 il~...-iveters —...... 5 76 to 6 48 Helpers -—................................ 4 32 to 5 04 Flagers —-----------------------------------—.... 5 76 to 6 48 Helpers —------------------------------— 4 32 to5 04 Blacksmiths.. —-.5 76 to 8 64 ~Helpen~s —-................................ 4 32 to 5 04 Pa~ttern-makers and carpenters —5 40 to 6 1 21 ~~Turnl'ers —-.................................... 5 704 to 8 64 Fitters —-------------------------------------------- - 4 32 to 5 76 Laborers. —---------------------------------------------------------— 4 3-2 Hiour-s of labor, 12 per day. FACTORY-LABOR iN 1867. The following valuable and interesting information in reg-ard to the rates of wages in the factories and industrial estalblishMents of Barmen was collected and drawn up with evident practical knowledge by a resident manufacturer, and embodied in astatistical report, Ipublished -by order of the town council ofBa~rmen. Although the rates of wages ill 1867 were much lower than they have b~een since the war, yet, as they are given in great detail, are presented here: Statement showing the rates of weekly wvages in the town of Barm~en daring the year 1867. Trades.' Classification of workmen.'Weekly Hours ofr wages. woik pe Turkey-red yarn-dyers-...........J ourneymen-.......... $3 124 it WNorkwomen............ I s0 ii Color-dyers-.................Journeymen-.......... 3 80 11 Workwvomen-..........$1 8~9to 2 16 ii Dressing and finishing works -........Dressers-............ 5 04 11 Z5 ~~~Assistants........... 2 ~88 Apprentices-.......... 2 16 1 Stuff-priutingworks-..............Journeymen-.......... 3 12 I I to 114 Z~~~ Apprenitices-.......... 1 62 11 to Ili Piece-dx-ers....................Workmen-........... 3 12 11 Bleaching works-..............Journeymen-.......... 3 24 11' to Ili Apprentices-.......... 1 62 ii to 11i 33 L 514 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. S'atement showing the rates of weekly wages in the town of Baren, -c.-Coninud.'We RvIours of Trades. Classification of workmen. wae ork per day. Kal'tting-yarn and sewing-thread........... Workmen, (at piecework) $4 32 Workmen3 4 11 Workwomen, (at piecework) - - 2 16 i Workwomrn1 Boys.-1. Silk-goods manufactory................... Jacquard-workers, (piecewor) $2 8 to 4 32 Uncertain. Treadle-workers, (piecework) 1 44 to2 5 Zanalla textile fabrics..................... Workwome, (piecework) 21 11 to Workmen360 11 to Lastings, textile.............................. do C5~ ~Workwomen252 1 Girls...11 Cotton-mill................................ Weavers, (piecework)2 40 to 3 7 12 Sitk and woolen ribbon, cord, and heald man- Master ribbon-weavers: ufactures. Common sorts, (piecework) 56 -- Better sorts, (piecework).. 64 Workmen2 52to3 0 13 Silk and woolen ribbon and cord manufac Female reel-workers 2 13 turers. Workmen 16 to 2 88 Workwomen- 80 to 16 10, Tape-weaver, with his own 396 12 loom, (piecework.) Boys......to 1 44 India-rubber manufactories................. Power-loom weavers: Journeymen34 101 Journeymen, (piecework) 3 60 to 7 92 10 Winders: Men, (piecework)2 52 to 3 06 1 Women, (piecework) 216 Boys, (piecework)1 80 to 2 16 Factory-hands: In binding-room2 88 to 4 2 10 In cutti-room.2 16to3 24 Reel-workers, women 216 10 Out-workers576to11 52 10 Hand-winders.1 08 to 180 10 Machine-winders1 44 to 2 8 10 Soap and candle manufactories............. Workmen-288 11 Workwomen-.......... 168 11 Chemical works-...............At the reverberating-farnace. 4 80 104 At the pyrites-furnace.... 3 96 104 At other processes-.......3 42 to 3 96 104 Handicraftsmen ------— 3 6(1 to 3 96 101 Driivers-............ 3 24 104 Helpers............ -3 06 104 Iron, steel, and hardware manufactories... - Smniths —............2 88 to:3 60 31 Average workmen....... 2 88 11 Apprentices - 1......... I8Sto 2 16 Ii Iron-founderies-...............M olders............ 3 60 11 Journeymen-.......... 264 11 Boiler and machine makers.. -....... Tuirners-............ 360 12 Boiler-makers-......... 3C 0 12 Smiths ——......... 4 32 12 Hammerers-.......... 3 24 12 Apprentices -..........1 80 to 2 52 12 Percussion-cap manufactories -........Workmen-........... 396 104 Workwomen-.......... 198 104 Button-manufactories -............Boys and girls, (piecework-) _.. 72 to 1 08 (* Boys and gii-ls fr-om 17 to 20 1 44 to 2 04 1 ~11 years of age, (piecework.) Cutters, (piecework)-......2 40 to 3 12 11 Stampers, polishers, &c., (piece- 3 24 to 4 32 11 work.) Turners, (piecework) -.....4 32 to 5 76......... Plating-works-................Boys and girls-......... 1 56 () IWorkmnen.-.......... 381.......... Whip-manufactories-.............Boys and girls-......... 158 (* Workmen-........... 270 11 Piano-manufactory and organ-build~ing - 1.. iano-forte makers ------ 404....... Orgaun-bnilders..........-. 4 20....... Othier workmen-........ 3 60. Lithographic establishments -.......... yokmn............ 3 60 104 Letter-press printing-offices -..........Tpestes-......... 43-2 10 Printers —........... 2 88 10 Bookbinding-................Workmen —.......... 2 88 114 Masons, builders, brickmakers, plasterers Journeymen masons...... 348 12 -{Assistants - —.......... 252 1 2 Carpenters........... 48 13 Welmkr,(piecework) 360 12 *As regards boys and girls, or "juvenile operatives," the honis of labor are limited in conformity wiL the regulations laid down by the industrial code, Gewerbe-Ordluung,. LABOR IN GERMANY, 515 MECHANICAL AND FARM LABOR IN 1873. Te daily wages of mechanics in Barmen and vicinity in the year 1873 were as follows:Blacksmiths, bricklayers or masons, carpenters, miners, machinists, painters, tailors, tanners, and tismiths, 96 cents and upward; cabinetakers and coopers from 72 cents to 84 cents; stone-cutters and wheelwrigts, $1.08; tailors receive, with board, $1.44 per week. Agricutural laborers, ordinary hands, receive $86.40, and experiCed hands $108, yearly, with board. The price of boaird, per week, rainged from $f2d.52 to $2.88 for workmen, and~anged from $2.5216 to $2.288 for workwomen. An. In a letter, transittig the above statistics of labor, Mr. Consul Hoe ster, under date of October 17, 1873, writes:' Since my last year's report on the same subject, there has been no change in the condition of the laborin classes in this consular district. In some instances strikes occurred during the last smmer, and employers were obliged to raise the wages of their workmen about 25 per cent., especially in the hardware and cutlery trade, but wigtothe dulness of business in autumn the wages went down again, and are now about the same as last year. As business gradually grew worse many of the factories were oblied to dismiss a part of their workmen. Some of them left for other places, but the greater part found employment as common laborers on street improvements, and principally on the street railways which were built this year in the cities of Barmnen and Elberfeld. DSSELDORP. This old town, more celebrated for the fine arts than for manufactures, aving a school of paitig and a school of architecture, exports to the Uited States woolen cloths and a variety of other articles, the products of the mills and factores in the neighborhood. The following table shows the value ad kind of the principal articles which find a market in the, United States: Statement showing the descri~ption an d value of merch andise exported to th e United States fromt the consular district of Dls~eldorf in the year ended September 30, 1873. Articles. Value.'W oolen cloths........................................... e63,504 Hardware and cutlery-.................................... 140, 512 Oil paiuting-8........................................ 43, 693 Chromo-lithographs and engravings-............................. 2,357 Artists' colors and materials-................................. 3, 502 Ribbonis, bands, braids, and trimmings-............................ 24, 518 Miixed worsted and cotton goods-............................... 212, 365 M iscellaneous-........................................ 15, 432 Total-.......................................... 1,116, 003 PRICES OF FACTORY AND OTHER LABOR. In transmitting the following rates of wages Mr. Lewis, United States consular,agent, makes the following observations in regard to the rise in the price of labor over that of former years: My DEAR SIR: In reply to your circular I beg to submit the following answers to your inquiries, remarking that the prices here given are exceptional and are in anany instances double what they were at this time last year. That these prices will be maintainedl is doubtful, but it is th pnono h owners of these works that mhyiay sontewbat recede, hut not to the standard of former years. The causes have beent chiefly owing to the great advance in the price of alt necessaries of life, and also in house-rent, and the consequent rise in the price of all kinds of labor, and as this is the great question of the day here, until that question is settled on a permanent basis, these grea~t fluctuations will continue. All the raw material is at least 50 per cent. higher than it was at this time last year, and in some articles, such as pig-iron and coal, the advance has been 100 per cent. The wages of the work-people have nbit, I find, advanced in the same ratio, the advance being on the average not more than 37 per cent. 516 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. IRON FURINACES. Cost of pig-iron per ton October, 1872........$4320 Cost of pig-iron per ton in 1870-'71........60 Cost of coal at works, per ton, 1872-...........4 23 Cost of coal at works, per ton, in 1870-'71 - -$2 52 to 2 88 Daily wages of skilled worklimen: Smelters, 84 cents; furace-feeders, 2 cets; mixers or puddcllers, 66 cents; coke puddlers, 60 cents; sla carriers, 68 cents; eginemen, 66 cents; firemen, 60 cents; laborers, 60 cents; smiths and fitters, 70 cents modelmakers, 77 cents; carpenters, 68 cents; masons, 9 cents; ore and limestone puddlers, 70 cents; limestone breakers, 96 cents; coke burners, 84 cents. Hours of labor from 6 a. m. to 6 p. m., and the reverse, te labor being continued through the night. Out of this one hour is allowedfor dinner and one-half hour for breakihst, and the same at 4 o'clock, making in all 10 clear hours of labor. A certain portion of the labor of these works must be cared on on Sndays as well as on weekdays, and these men obtain an advance price for Sunday-work. ROLLING-MILL. Cost of pig-iron..............................43 20 Cost of coal at works here...................4 60 Labor: Puddlers, per ton, first quality...........2 00 Puddlers, per ton, second quality.........78 Puddlers, per ton, third quality....58 A good pulddler, with an assistant, will make from to tos per day, and will earn, after paying his assistant, from $1.08 to $1.44 per day. IRON-FOUNDERIES AND MACHINE- P. Machinists and turners, (best workmen)$0 96 to $1 08 per dy. Machinists and turners, second class68 to 7.2 per y. Machinists and turners, inferior -48 to 55 per y.. Boiler-makers.1 44 per ay..... Assistants or riveters............................... Helpers or laborers.............................. WOOLEN AMANUFAcTO11rt~S. The working hours are from 6 o'clock in the morning until 7 in the evening, -with the same-time for meals as in. the tbuuderies, Viz: on)e hour for dinner, arid half,ani hour each for breakfast, and coffee at 4 o'clock. The prices of the different kinds of labor are as follows: Wool-sorters from 84 cents to 96 cents per clay; wool-washers from 86 to 96 cen-ts per dlay; girls for carding froni 24 to 29 cents per day; women from 34 to 38 cents per day. Spinners generally work by the piece and earn from $1.08 to $1.20 per dlay; children from 14 to 15 years of age from'_24 cents to 27 cents per day; children from 15 to 20 years of age from 41 cents to 46 cents per day. Muchr of the above work is also done by the piece, and the earnings depend on the industry of the workmen. MECHANICAL LABOR. Carpenters, first class, earn from..1.08 to $1.20 per day. Time of work from 7 in the morning to 7 in the evening, in summer; half hour allowed for breakfast and at 4 o'clock, a~nd one hour for dinner. Cabinet-makers, 84 cenats per dlay. Time of labor as above.. Masons fromt 96 cents to t1.08 per day. Time of work iu summer from 6 in the morning until 7 iu the evening. In winter from 7 in the morning until dlark. Work here can be carried on the greater part of the winter; the average loss of time from very cold weather, when such work cannot he (lone, would not be more than one month. Ornamental plasterers-$1 08 to $1 44 per day. Common plasterers, (or assistauts). -72 per (lay. Plasterers-1 08 to 1 32 per daby. House painters anid grainers ----------------- 84 to 1 08 per day. Gas-fitters and housesmiths ------------------ 7 2 to 1 20 per dlay. Shoeakers first, class - 84 to 93 per daiy. 8~hoemnakers, second class-.................. 72 to 84 per dlay. Tailors-........................... 60 to 84 per day. LABOR IN GERMANY. 517 AGCULTURAL LABOR. Laborers in this district are seldom employed by the year. When such is then case they receive from $2.88 to $4.32 per month, with board, and sleep on the farm where they are employed, usually- over thle staes. Marrie people are seldom or never hired in this manner; they et or buy a small cottage and small plat of ground which they cultivte, usually keeping a goat or cow; if the latter, it is employed in owing andhauling the little two-wheeled cart of the proprietor. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, PRUSSIA. This town, where Charlemagne was born, lived, and is entombed; where till 1558 the German emperors were crowned; where the treaties O 1668 an 1748 were held, celebrated also for its sulphur baths. is a centerof enish indstry, aong which the cloth manufacture is the most extensive. ndeed, a reference to the following statement will show tat woolen cloths comprise 74 per cent. of the value of exports from this district to the United States: Exortsfro Ai-la-Chaple to the United States dariTg thle year 1872. Articles. Value.'Woolen cloth. —-------------------------------------- $0,038, 131' c and lead-............................................................... $,03 s2, 13401.................................................... 3'2, 4V l'Kidgo ---------------—........................................... g182, 256 ~~G'~~~~I~ass ware............................................. 90, 16t........................:................... 67,:390.........................................................................., Total................................................................. 2 742, 336 FACTORY AND MLECHANICAL LABOR. The following tables show the rates of wages paid for, factory and other kinds -of labor in Aix-la-Chapelle and vicinity: CLOTHL-FACTORIES. Per week. W\ool-glossers-.............................$1 80 to $2 16 Wool-assorters —--------------------------— 2 16 Wool-dressers ---------------------------— 1 86 to 2 16 W~ool-spinner-s —...........................3 60 to 4 32~ Wool-weavers-...._3 60 to 5 76 Fullers. — - - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - -- -- - - - - - - ---- --- 2 88 I Carders -------------------------------- 2 ~88 Wool-pickers —-------------------------— 1 80 to 2 16 Shiearers.. —---------------------------— 2 88~ Dyers.. — - - - - -- - -- -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - -2 88 Firemten —----- ---------— 4 32) Press-hands-_.2 88 to 3 60 Looim-cutter. —-------------------------— 2 88 Spooler. — - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -1 s0 Gluer —------------------------------— 3 60 C-ard-setter -----------------------------— 5 40 Burlers -- - - - - - - -- -I- - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -2 88 Spinnerls' foremian -------------------------— 5 76 to 7 20 Weaver-s' foreman -------------------------— 5 04 to 5 76 Carders' foremian............................4 32 to 5 04 Spoolers' foreman............................4 32 Fullers' foreman.. —----------------------— 4 32 to 5 76 Shewayers' foreman —..........................4 32 to 5 04 Dyers' foreiran..5 04 to 5 76 Fo'remnen at the press-.-4 32 to 5 04 Spinners of wor'sted yarns —......................4 32 to 5 04 M~aster weavers of worsteds.......................7 20 518 LABOR IN EUROPE ND AMERICA. MACHINE-WORKS. Per day. wvork. Machine-mounters'09...$ 9 $1 20 O*. Ad.]j sters...............................72 9 Turners. —. -. O.O.O...... Borers-67 8. Clay-molders-7.96............... Sand-molders.. 80........ Coal-inners, at piecework 84 96 Coal-dumpers, at piecework.......0 72 Per day Machinists................................... 0 131lacksliiths...............72 Locksmiths..9............. —~ Carpenters... 0 67 to 86....V, Cabinet-makers............................. Masons —O...O72 to 83....... Painters..................................... Plasterers.O.O............... —-- 83........ Shoemakers..................................2 Harness and saddle makers. 0...... Agriculturallabor..........48.e. CARRIAGE-MAKER Per day. Body-makers................................. 0 9 T'rimlners.................................... Varnishers....,,,,..,,..72., Blacksmiths.................................36 GLOVE-MAKERS. Cutters — ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~$0 43 Ctaners.......................................'Workwome-n —-- 86 Workwomen on fine work-................................ 1 44 Hours of labor, 66 per week. NtEEDLE MANUFhtCTUREE Per week. W betters..........- - - --—...............................- 6 94 Cutanters. ------ 3 9, Blue-dyers.....-.-.. ----------- 4 ( Polishers - -.- - --------------------------------— 3 65 Makers of sewing-machine needles - - -—.....................6 74 Hours of labor, 54 per week. COLOGNE, PRUSSIA. Although this old Ploman town is now more celebrated for its catbedral, its perfumed water, aid the tw6- bridges over the Rhi-ne-the one, of boats for ordlinary travel, and the other the railway bridge, a, fine s,,pecimen of mnodern en gineeriDng-thau for its md ustrial establishbinentIs, -yet in its vicinity there are, mills and factories which lproduce goods for the American mark-et,'as the following statement will show: Statenient showving the exports from Cologne to the Unite States in the year 1872. Articles. Value. Velvets and ribbons —-........................................ Lead —------------------------------------ _r....... 4.GJl 496 lIton, raw —-.......................................... 127' 9.~~ Steel —--------------------------------------------- 142. 177 Cu "tlery —--------------- 7'. 155 W ool, manufactures of —.................................... 5, 688 M iscellaneous —-3......................,.......2.......6... Total-......................................... 1,7 6 4, C61 LABOR IN GERMANY. 519 eekly wages of mechanics. Hours ~~~~Trades. ~Wages. per day. ~~Blacksmiths ~.............................................. $5 76 11 Carpenters —--------------—.............- -........................ $5 04 to 5 76 9 Carpenters, on piecework-6....4.................................. 6 48 to 7 20........ Coopers —--------------—...............-........................ 4 32 Masons —-------------—.................................- -. 5 04 11 MU~asons, on piecewo................................. 6 48 to 7'20 11 Machinists, skilled workmen-6...48a................................n. 6 48andup- 11 wards. Painters-4...32..to..5..76..9................................... 4 32 to5 76 9 to 10 Plasterers............................................... 5 76 to 8 64 9 ~Shoemak~ers- —..................................... 2 88 to 4 3-2 shoemakerswithboad................................. 1 44 to 2 16 On piecwork larger earnins are obtained. Tanners, tinsmiths, and whee rits, $5.76 and upward; bakers, $4.32 to $8.64-1.2 to 13 hours, Laborers in sugar and other factories earn from $2.64 to $3.60 per week-working 11 hours per dlay. Wome are generally paid 36 cents, and girls 24 to 28 cents per day of 10 to 11 hours. Experienced farm-laborers per day, without board, 72 cents; ordinary farm-laborers, with board, 43 to 48 cents; common laborers, without board, 60 cents; female servants, per month, $2.16 to $3.60. NOTE.-Workmen's families pay rent for one room,from $1.44 to $2.16 per month; and for two rooms, from $2.88 to $4.32. No family occupies mnore than two rooms. Children are reqnired by law to attend school until 14 years of age. School fee, 12 gro schen (29 cents) per mouth. There has been but little change in the rates paid for mechanical and farm. labor in the district of Cologne, since the visit of the author in 1872. Mr. ll61scher, United States consular agent, transmitted the following figures expressive of the daily wages of the above classes during the year 1873: Blacksmiths, bricklayers, or masons, carpenters, machinists, and tailors, 11- thalers iper da~y, ($ 1.08;) stone-cutters, $1.2.0; cabinet-makers, $1.44; plasterers, $1 80; hod-carriers, tanners, tinDsm1iths, 8111( wheelwr-ights, 9(3 cents; p~ainters, 84 cents-; coopers afnd shoenmakers, 72 cents; and miners, from 84 cents to $1.44; farm-laborers, from 43 to 48 cents, with board, in summer; and from 34 to 38 cents in winter. Laborers, at other than fiarniwork, earned 60 cents per (lay without boardl. Femnale servan~ts obtained from $2.16 to $3.60 per month with board. Price of board per week, from $1.68 to $252 for work-men; and $1.44 for workwomen. BERLIN. This famed capital of Prussia, and now, also, of the German Empire, affords employment to thousands of work-people in the it-on1, woolen, leather, and various other industries for which she is celebrated. The manufactures which find a market in the United States are indicated iii the following statement of exports from that consular district: 520 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Value of goods, wares, and merchandise exported to the United States from the Berl.'n consular district during thq year ended September 30, 1873. Articles. Value. Woolen cloth and cloakings..................... —.......................................... *$1, 202, 766 Woolen shawls............................................................................ 68, 031 Ready-made ladies' dresses, cloaks, woolen, &c............................................ 499, 650) Worsted yarn............................................................................ 41, 4-26 Dyed worsted yarn, embroideries.......................................................... 292, 312 Cotton goods.............................................................................. 85, 936 Linen goods.............................................................................. 331, 54 Silk goods —-155~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~, 232 Silkl goods................................................................................. 155 ":2 Basket wares............................................................................. s, 240 Manufactures of leather, wood, iron, zinc.................................................. 262, 004 Fancy paper, cards, and paper boxes...................................................... 140, 818 Books, lithographs, prints, paintings, &c.................................................. 234, 280 Chemicals, apothecaries' utensils.......................................................... 150, 179 Scientific apparatus, surgical, optical, musical.............................................! 54, (00 Leather gloves........................................................................... 195, 42S Imitation jet, (ornaments of black glass).................................................... 66, 088 Glass and porcelain wares................................................................. 51, 536 Liquors, wine, sirup, &c.................................................................. 46, 911 Lead and machinery...................................................................... 402, 292 Miscellaneous goods....................................................................... 200, 62 t Total................................................................................ 4, 490, 224 * The thaler computed at 72 cents. FACTORY LABOR. The following rates of wages were paid in 1872 by the proprietors of cloth and other factories in or near Berlin: Per week. Occupations. Men. Women. Children. Shawl-factory: Spoolers......................0............. $0 2 16 to$2 52.............. Warpers................................... 10 $4 78 to $5 76 -—................. - -. WTeavers on hand-looms.................... 10 4 32 to 5 76......-....... - --- WVeavers on power-looms................... 10................ 2 52 to 2 88............. Washers................................... 10 3 24............................ Dyers....................................... 10 3 24........................... Gluers...-.................................. 10 3 60....................... Carders.................................... 10 2 88 to 3 24............................ Fullers..................................... 10 3 60 to 4 32 1 80 to 2 16.............. Shearers0......10............................. 10 80 to 2 16............. Pressers............................. — - -....... 10 5 04 to 5 6............................ Beaters.................................... 10 5 76.............. B]urlers..................................... 10.............. 2 16 to 3 24............. Laborers.................................. 10 2 88 to 3 24...-................. Fringe-makers............................. 10................ 2 52...............,adies' cloaks: Seamstresses, (cloaks)...................... 1l0 to 12................ 2 16 to 5 04.............. Seamstresses, (costumers)...................10 to 12................ 1 80 to 5 76.............. Cutters out................................. 10 to 12 4 68 to 7 20...................... Ironers................................... 10 to 12................ 4 32.............. Einbroiderers.............................. 10 to 12................ 3 60 to 7 20............. Fancy silk trimmings: Makers of fringe, gimps, &c................ 10 5 04 to 8 64 1 80 to 4 32 $1 26 to $1 80 Overseers..........10........................ 10 *28 20 to 36 00........................... Gold and silver trimmings: Fringe-makers.....................-........ 10 to 12 4 32 to 5 04........................... Platers..................................... 10 to 12 4 68 to 6 48............................ Wire-drawers............................. — 10 to 12 5 76 to 6 84............................ Spinners.. —...... 10 to 12 5 4Q to 7 20 -- --- Spinners on power-looms................... 10 to 12................ 1 80 to 2 52............... Hand-made goods.......................... 10 to 12................ 2 16 to 2 88.............. * Per month. LABOR IN GERMANY. 521 MECHANICAL LABOR. Rates paid for mechanical labor in Berlin. ccupations. day. Occupations day.* dy Skilled workmen: Skilled workmen-Continued. Basket-makers....................... $0 66 Nail-makers.......0 66 Blacksmiths.......................... 72 Paper-makers, (fancy,) men... 72 Brewers.......................... 72 Paper-makers, (fiac women 48 Carpenters.......................... 1'20 Piano-makers... 90 Carvers.......................... 72 Ready-made garments, makers of, Cigar-makers, males.................. 72 women..... 96... Cigar-akers, females................ 42 Hoofers... 96 Coopers......................... 72 Saddlers........... 72 Copper hs........................ 72 Salesmen or clerks... 72 Engineers, steam..................... 72 Seamstresses... 60 Factory-ands, men.................. 72 Shoemakers..............72 Factory-hands, women.......... 60 Stokers... 72 Factory-hands, children.......... 36 Tailors... 66 Glove-makers........................ 72 Tanners... 72 Joiners.......................... 96 Turners............. 78 Loc.......................... 72 Weavers... 66 Mac.......................... 72 Laborers: asons.......................... I1 20 In city... 7 — - Millers.......................... 66 In country... 60 * Hours of labor, from 6 a. m. to 7 p. m. WAGES IN IRON-WORKS. The largest and most celebrated establishment in Germany for the manufacture of all kinds of engines and machinery is that of Mr. Bor. sig, in Berlin. Want of time prevented a personal call at his works, which are open to the public on payment of a small fee; and it was deemed highly important to obtain the rates of weekly wages for the various kinds of skilled labor employed in the works. A request by onr consul at Berlin for the, desired information elicited a polite but evasive note from tile proprietor,* which was equivalent to a refusal; while an application to the Statistical Bureau of Prussia proved equally unsuccessful. But the, difficulties that beset this search after knowledge served to stimulate to increased exertion, which resulted in comlplete success, for Mr. Kreismaun silortly afterward obtained from the German Atnalgamnated Engineers' Society the following official statement of the wages received by the members of this union, ilot only in the works of Mr. Borsig, but in all other establishments of a similar character. *Under date of Berlin, October 22, 1873, Mr. Borsig writes: SIR: In reply to the communication of the 18th inst., I regret to be unable to furnish the statistics desired, as, in my works, no such tables of rates of wages as the blanks inclosed call for are made up. I, therefore, return them herewith. Respectfully, A. BORSIG. Mr. H. KREISMANN, Consit Of the6 United States of America) Berlin. 522 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERITCA. Statement showing the average rate of wages paid, in 1873, to persons enmployed in the ironfounderies and manchine-shops in the city of Berlin, Prassia. Average weekOccupations. y; waes, (ingol Occupations. ~~ ~~~~~~~ United States Iron-molders................................................................. 1, 800 $7 20 to 64 Machinists, best.............................................................. 00 0 Mtchinists, ordinary......................................................... 1, 500 5 76 to 7 0 Machinists, inferior.......................................................... 850 4 32 to 5 7 Helpers................90.................................................. 900 2 8 4 32 Boiler-makers................................................................ -600 6 4 to 7 Helpers................................................................. 1, 00o 4 32 Biveters.............................................................10 7......... 100 5 7 to Holders-on............................................................... 150 4 32 to Flangers..................................................................... 50 7 20 to Helpers.................................................................. 40 0 3 6 Blacksmiths. 8 -00 7 to 8 I Helpers.................................................................. 1, 900 3 0 to 5 04 Foremen..................................................................... 400 8 64 to 10 Engineelrs.................................................................... 700 Pattern-makers and carpenters...........................................-.... 00 5 76 to Assistants-............................................................... -300 3 60 Laborers, carters, &c......................................................... 2, 000 2 88 to Apprentices.................................................................. 200 72 o Mlillwrilghts.................................................................. 300 7 20 to 0 08 Assistants................................................................ 400 5 76 to 48 Brass-founders................................................................ 150 7 20 to Titters...................................................................... 400 3 60 to 5 04 Turners.....................................................................500 6 48 to Hours of labor per week, 60. Products: Locomotives, machine castings, columns, tubes, pipes, machines, steam-engines and tools steam-boilers, pipes, agricultural machines, implements, railroad-cars. RUD. RAUISCH, Scretary of the Berlin branch of the German Amalgamated LZgineers' Socity BERLIN, November 15, 1873. The value of the foregoing table is enhanced by the fact that of the 16,800 employes whose weekly earnings are therein given, the nbr engaged in each of the various subdivisions of labor is stated, ts affording data for an accurate computation of the average earnings of skilled and of unskilled laborers engaged in the various iron-works of Berlin. The average weekly wages of the 10,100 skilled workmen is $6.88; of the 4,500 helpers and assistants, $4.38; of the laborers and carters, $3.60; and of the 200 apprentices, $1.44-computed ini United States gold coin. BUILDING-TRADES. The Minlx Of material wealth, after the termination of the war with France, gave a marked imnpetus to new enterpr-ises, largely advanced the pr-ice of real estate, and induced the erection of a large number of buildings in Berlin. Real estate advanced as rapidly, and changed hands as frequently, as III some of our western cities in Lprevious years. The owner of a corner prop)erty in the celebrated Unter der Lin del, not far from. the Brandenburg gate, was, at one time, offered only 100,000 th~alers, whic'h lie was advised to refuse, but in a few months afterward he obtained upwardls of 200,000 th'alers. The activity in the building-trades caused a great (lemandl for Skilled labor whichi rapidly advanced in price, reaching figure's previously uuiknown ill Germanv.* I incte. thle above was Written the price of real estate hias tieclined, the demand fur skilled labor has been less active, and the rates of wages have, consequently, been reduced. LABOR IN GERMANY. 523 The following tables show the rates existing in Berlin daring the eight months ending with the month of August, 1874: WAGES OF MASONS AND CARPENTERS IN BERLIN IN 1874. Statement showing the number of men actually employed by the Association of Master Masons, Carpenters, and Builders, with prices paid per day of ten hours.* MASONS-MASTER WORKMEN. Month. $1.02. $1.08. $1.14. $1.20. $1.26. $1.32. $1.38. $1.44. $1.50. $1.56. $1.62. $1.68. $1.80. January........... 1 2 4 15 11 28 21 64 21 14 7 26 28 February........... 2 2 14 12 31 19 79 13 23 10 19 30 March.............. 1 5 28 17 33 15 98 13 16 6 20 16 April................................ 55 20 55 14 108 12 14 5 20 14 May............................ 5 34 18 46 14 112 10 15 5 25 16 June................................. 41 17 42 14 117 11 16 4 23 19 July................................. 38 23 46 11 113 7 21 7 21 18 August.......................... 35 26 44 12 108 4 22 7 29 15 PERCENTAGE OF MASTER MASONS EMPLOYED AT EACH OF ABOVE RATES. January. 0.42 0.83 1.64 6.20 4.55 11.57 8.67 26.45 8.67 5.78 2.89 10.74 11.58 February......... 0. 79 0. 79 5. 50 4. 73 12. 20 7. 48 31.10 5. 12 9. 06 3.94 7.48 11. 8l March.................... 0. 37 1. 49 10. 44 6.34 12. 30 36.52 4. 85 6. 40 2. 24 7.45 6.40 April............ 17.35 6.32 17.35 4.42 34.07 3.75 4.42 1.58 6.32 4.42 May...................... 1. 65 11.22 6.60 15.51 4.62 36.97 3.30 4.95 1.65 8.25 5.28 June.................... 13.49 5.59 13. 81 4.61 38.49 3.62 5.26 1.31 7.57 6.25 July........ 12.46 7.54 15.08 3.61 37.05 2.29 6.89 2.29 6.89 5.90 August......................... 11.59 8. 61 14. 57 3.98 35. 74 1. 33 7. 29 2. 32 9.60 4.97 CARPENTERS-MASTER WORKMEN. January.............. 8 26 25 25 5 32 5 10 3 12 11 February.......... 8.... 8 24 19 25 9 32 4 10 3 11 11 March..8 25 23 26 9 39 4 11 4 7 8 April........... 37 46 14 43 8 8 1 6 9 May............... 3 11 27 33 29 9 44 3 12 3 8 8 June.................... 36 33 30 7 49 3 10 2 7 10 July............... 8. 29 26 21 13 46 2 13 2 8 8 August............ 3 43 27 23 8 50 3 13 2 6 10 PERCENTAGE OF MASTER CARPENTERS EA:MPLOYED AT EACH OF ABOVE RIATES. January..................... 4.84 16.04 15.49 15.49 3.09 19.75 3.09 6.17 1.!5 7.40 6.79 February.......... - ------ 5.12 15.38 12. 11 16.12 5.77 20.51 2.56 6.41 1. 92 7.05 7.05 M arch.................... 4.48 15.24 14.02 15.85 5.49 23.78 2.44 6.71 2.44 4.27 4.88 Aril........... 21.51 26. 74 8.14 25.00 4.66 4.66 0.58 3.49 5.,22 May.............1.58 5.79 14.22 17.37 15.2Q6 4.74 23.16 1.58 6.32 L5d 4. 20 4. 20 June................... 19.22 17.65 16.04 3.74 26.21 1. 6 5.33 1.08 3.75 5.35 July...................4.55 16.48 14. 78 11.93 7.38 26.13 1.13 7.39 1.13 4.55 4.55 August................... 1.60 22. 87 14.36 12.23 4.:25 26.60 1.60 6.91 1.07 3. 19 5.32 JO)URNEYMEN MASONS. Month. u0d'r $0.96. $1.02. $1.08. $1.14. $1.20. $1.26. $1.32. $1.38. $1.44. $1.50. 1.56.* $0.96. January................ 45 124 43'2[ 61l 250 14 10 5 1 1. February...................... 45 164 492 648 140 15 13 4... 2 March................... 34 90 4:38 1, 034 262 83 10 5 8 —..... April................... 2 163 414 1, 711 252 30................. ------------------—.....- 2 i 1 1 141 1. 985 [ 334 804 7 6 ].... 3 -- ---- -- June............................ 14 73 1, 917 769 139/ 1'2 6............. Muny.2.11..141.1,985.... -11 8463. July..................... 1 1 49 1, 79 1, 094 167 14 6 1 8. August...............16 46 1,560 112 136 7 3 1 10.. In the original tables the prices are stated by the honr at one-tenth of the rates in the above staremects. For a working day of nine hours, as in England, the respective rates would be:.918,.972, 1.023, 1.08, 1.134, 1.155, 1.24:, 1.296, 1.35, 1.35, 1.458, 1.51'2, and 1.62 per day. I 524 LABOR AIN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Statement showcing the nvolber of men, actually employed, 4Sc.-Continued. PERCENTAGE OF JOURNEYMEN MASONS EMPLOYED AT EACH OF ABOVE RATES. January-............3. 01 8. 31 28. 93 40.9-2 16. 74 0.95 0. 68 0. 34 0.06 0. 06.... February............. 2. 98 10. 77 8,12. 30 42. 54 9. 19 0. 99 0. 85 0. 26 -......0. 12 March -..........1. 73 4. 58 22. 35 52. 64 13. 34 4.22 0. 50 0. 25 0. 40 -. — ------ April-...........0. 08 6.:34 16. 10 66. 52 9. 79 1. 17..................... May............0. 08 0.42 5.50 77. 07 13. 05 3.28 0. 27 0.22....0.11.........Jutne............... 0.48 2. 49 C5. 43 26. 25 4. 75 0. 40 0. 20. —- --- ------ July...........0. 03 0. 52 1. 60 55.19 35.69 5.44 0. 45 0.19 0. 03 0. 26....... August.............. 0.57 1.63 54.11 38.19 4. 76 0.25 0.11 0.03 1 0.35...... JOURNEYMEN CARPENTERS. January............. 31 165 421 4-29 17:3 54 23 7 2 3 1 February........... 717 1~27 380 339 169 67 32 8 2 3. March........... 9 50 173 422 359 179 54 18 73 I.... A pril........... 7 36 169 582 430 232 34.............:.. May............ 2 35 131 639 412 20:3 39 25 10 2:...... Junie............... 18 116 747 4371 186 39 21 2 3.... 1 July............ 1 9 75 841 501 215 48 26 3 5 -—. --- Au~ust.. —------- --- 10 68 900 539 186 47 2 1 3 3....... PERCENTAGE OF JOURNEYMEN CARPENTERS EMPLOYED AT EACH OF ABOVE RATES. January............. 2.37 12. 60 32. 26 32. 77 13. 22 4. 12 1. 68 0. 54 0.15 0.22 0.07 Fcbruary............. 6.39 10. 55 31. 56 28. 17 14. 03 5. 56 2. 66 0. 6(1( 0. 17 0. 25.... March...........0.70 3.99 13.56 3:3. 06 2812 14.03 4.23 1. 40 0. 54 0.14 0.23.... April............0. 47 i2. 42 11. 34'39. 07 28. 85 15. 57 2. 28................ May..........o..i01 2.34 8.74 42-. 66 27. 50 13.55 2.61 1.67 0.67 0.13. —- --- June.. —-------- -— 1.16 7.40 46.21 29. 00 12.00 2.50 1.35 0.1-2 0.19.....0.07 July. —----- -— 0.06 0.52 4.35 48.69 129.18 1-2.45 2.78 1.51 0.171 0.29... August.............0. 56 3. 83 50. 64 30. 33 10. 47 2. 65 1. 18 0. 17 0. 17..... RECAPITULATION. MASTER WORKMEN. MASONS. CARPENTERIS. Month.a ac a a a CZ LL 2 ~~~~ ~~~ 2tf a ~~~~~~~~~~~ a~~~~~c January. —-----------------— 242 $-285 12 $1 17.8S 162 $180 70 1 11. 5 February.2....................II54 336 96 1 3-2. 6 156 196 15 f I 2i. 0 M1arch. —------------------— 238 376 56 1 45.9 164 2-26 80 1 38. 3 April.......................317 426 24 1 34. 4 172 241 9i2 140. 6 May.......................303 430 56 1 42. 1 190 2.59 20 136.4 Jule.......................304 434 16 1 42.8 18-7 254 88 1 36.:3 July.......................305 415 60 1 42. 8 176 242 64 137. 8 August.....................302 4312 00 1 43. 2 188 258 48 1 37j. 5 JOURNEYMEN. January.....................1, 493 $1, 337 04 $ 0 89. 5 1, 309 $1,1712 88 $0 83. 6; February....................1, 5:23 1, 524 124 1 00. 0 1, 204 1, 213 20 1. 00. 7 March --------------------— 1.964 1: 673 28 85.2 1,276 1, 4~1 28 1 11. 4 A pril...................... 2,57, 841 106.9 1,490 1,654 56 111. 0 May.......................,559 2,804 40 1 09.6 1,498 1, 667 52 11 11.3 June.......................2, 930 3,011 04 1 02.7 1, 590 I1,774 80 1 11. 6 uly....................... 3,065 3. 397 68 1 081727 1,933 20 1 11.9 August......................2,891 3,207 60 1 10.9 1,:777 1,982 88 1 11. 5 LABOR IN GERMANY. 525 CHEMNITZ, SAXONY. The town of' Chemnitz is situated in the most extensive manufacturing district of Germany, fully three-fourths of the inhabitants of which may be classed as work-people. The extent and value of the imports into the United States from that district are shown by the Iollowing table: Statement showing the value of exports to tho United States from the consular district of Cheinnitz daring the two years endirg September 30, 1873 and 1874. Value. Articles. 1873. 1874. Cotton hosiery............................................................... $2, 622,:163 $1, 807, 957 D)amasks..................................................................... 41,674 25, 915 Dress-goods................................................................... 10, 328 55, 307 Dress-trimwings.............................................................. 353, 335 126, 4996 Embroideries................................................................. 104, 279 74, 139 Fancy goods.................................................................. 2,384 60, 106 Gloves -455, 666 549, 602 Laces, (cottoni antI sil'k) —............................ 190, 2-27 2~65, 00-2 Musical instruments.......................................................... 14144, 782 51, 906 Miscellancous -12, 637 21, 625 Toys........................................................................ 47, 88'0 29,163 Woolen shawls and yarn...................................................... 9, 454 6, 243 Total................................................................... 4, 015, 009 3, 073, 521 MECHANICAL AND FACTORY LABOR. Before presenting the rates of factory labor obtained during a visit to this enterprising district in 1872, the following statements of the earnings of mechanics, factory hands, and others in preceding years are given. They were obtained in the respective years indicated, and published in the reports of the Chamber of Commerce of Chemnitz: Table showing the average weekly rates paid for labor in the district of Chemnitz, Saxony, in tihe respective years 160, and front 1864 to 1868, inclusive. Males. Females. Trades., - -- 1860. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1860. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. Accordeon-makers- $2 16 $3 60 $2 52 $2 52 -2 52 $2 52 $1 08 $1 08 $0 96 $0 96 $0 96 $0 96 Artificial-flower makers- - - 402.4..0 2 52 2 52 - 1 08 0 87 0 87 0 87 0 87 Bakers................... 108 144 216 216 25 8. Ba9 rbers.................. 17 72 48 48 1 44 1 44....... Basket-makers...........1 2 5 1 92 1 92 2 16 2 16. Bqtrrel-makers-3 60 3 60 3 60 3 60.-......... Beer-brewers- 3 24 3 60 2 16 2 88 2 88 3 24. Belt-makers, workers in bronze - 108 144 288 288 288 432................. Bleachers................ 228 252 25-2 —- 288.120 144 144 144 144 144 Bookbinders - 204 252 2.40 240 2 2 88 118 144.. Brass-fonders —-------— 2 5-2 3 24 3 12-) —--- -4 56 — Brush-makers........... 2 16 72 72 72 7-2.... -...... lh'icklayers - 2 52 2 52 2 88 2 88 2 88 2 88. BI'ick-makers- 2 52 2 52:3 24 3 24 3 60 3 60. Butchers................ 25-2 233 23 233 288. Button-makers. 108 120 216.21.6 28 288-108 108 108. 108 Card-mnakess, (palaying).- 2 88 3 24 2 88 2 88 2 88 2 88 1 08 1 20-............ Card-makers, (cardrig) -2 16 3 72 2 52 2 52 2 88 2 88 68 1 20Cabinet-makers- 2 16 2 88 2 16 2 1.6 2 li 2 16 Carpenters.... 2 64 2 76 2 7.2 79 -2 88 3 24.....Car'toon-maq kers..........34 324 2 52 321 324 120 144 108 108 120 120 Cigar-makers............ 278 216 16 216 240 90 108 72 72 48 216 5%6 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing the average weekly rates paid for labor in the district of Chemnitz, 4-c.-Cont'd. Males. Females. Trades. - - - - - 1860. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1860. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. Chlair-framers............ $22 16 $2 1]6 $2 522 $2 52 $2 88 $2 88 -......-........................ Chemical-manufacturers. 1 62 1 9812 40]2 40 2 40 2 40 $0 72 $0 96-................. Chimney-sweeps......... 92 1 92 72 72 72 72 - ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ Cloth-finishers...........2 37 2 37 32 3 24 3 24 3 24 90 08 96$96*$0 96 *$0 96 Cloth-weavers...........2 04 2 40 2 88 2 S8 3 12 3 60 72 72 84 84 84 84 Cloth-shearers...........180 2 52 288 2 88 288 2 88.................................... Cloth-printers...........324 2 16 3 24 3 24...... 3 60 1 44 1 62'48 - ------ ----- *48 Comb-makers............108 120 144 144 1 44 1 44.................................... Confectioners............216 288 144 144 1 80 1 80.................................... Coopers..................- 240 288 360 360 360 3 60............................... Cotton-spinners.......... 216 22 88 288 ------ ------ 3 60 1 08 1 20 1 081......0......'8 C'rockery-ware artists.-. - - 4 32 5 04 4 32 5 04 5 04 5 04.................................... Crockery-ware workmen. 288 2 88 -- ------ Day-laborers.............1 68 1 92 2 04 2 07 2 16 2 34.................................... Distillers................ 318 318 144 144 t44 1 44.................................... Dyers of silk and wool... 1 44 1 80 288 2 88 288 2 88.................................... Engravers............... 396 288 360 360 360 3 60.................................... File-cutters.............- 216 288 288 288 288 2 88................................... Fringe-makers..........192 2 16 2 16 2 16 2 16 2 40.................................... Furriers - 1 I56 180 242 242...... 3 60.................................... Gardeners............... 180 216 144 144 1 44 144-.................................... Glaziers................. 108 126 264 [2 64 2 88 288............-........................ Gi,-ss-workers...........216 288 288 288 212 2 96 -.............................. Glove-sewers - 252 360 288 —.-.- 1- ---- i 44 96 1 02 1 08 1 08 1 08 1'08 Goldsmiths 12.................312 3 24 3 24 3 24 3 24.................................... Gunsmiths-.............../2 16/2 40 1 68............1 68-......[...... "'............. Hatters.................. - 68 22 16 2 16 2 16 252 2 52......5...................... Harness-malkers -.........216 234 96 96 1 08 1 08......'-...... -...... i............. Iron and steel workers: Iron-founders...2 522 3 16 52 88. 32 1.. ~3 60 ).... ~ 4 32 ------ ------ ------- Machine-builders....- 3 24 3 24 3 1'2 3 12 3 17 3 24.................................... Locksmiths.......... 216 288 288 288 360 4 32/ —---- ------ ------ ------ ------..... Cutlers..............120 144 216 216 216 2 40 - ------ ------ ------ ------ --- Nail-makers............... 252 240 240 240 2 40. —---- ------ ------ ------ ------ ----- Blacksmiths......... 1 08 1 20 96 96 1 08 1 08.................................... Screw-makers............. 252 2 88 2 88 3 60 4:32 { ------ ------ ------ ------ ---- -- Lithographers........... 3 96 3 96 4 12 —---- ---- 4 32............................... Loom-builders........... 2 16 288 252 2 52 2 52 252.................................... Millers.................. 2 05 215 192 1'2 1 92 1 92............................... Milliners-126 1441........... -...... 4 44 1.44 1 80 1 44 Mining: Carpenters...........432 504Miners..............- 468 468 -..................................................... Drawers.............2 52 2 52........................................ —.-................ Day-laborers......... 2 30 2 50.-............................................. —.......... Needle-makers...........2 16 3 60 72 72 96 96................................... Oilcloth-makers.......... 80 192 204 2 1 2 2 40.................................... Potters - 2 ------------------ 16 288 240 240 240 240...... Printers: Compositors -.....360 360 324 324 360 3 60..................... Boys --------— 106 104 72 -...... 96-.................. Rope-makers-.......1O 08 OS0 96 96 96 96 -................... Saddlers.........-. 84 96 96 96 96 96-.................. Saw-milillaborers -....216 25-2 25-2 270 288 2 88-.................. Slaters-..........180 180 19-2 1(92 192 1 92..........-......... Shoema'kers-....... 120 144 168 168 168 1 68 ---- ------ -------—. —Sh]oeMakers' tools.....- 1 20 1 44 2 88 2 88 2 88 2 88-.................. Soap-mnakcrs-.......180 21-2 252. 252..-..288-.................. Stocking-weavers, (machine) -.....396 396 396- - -......5 04-.................. Stone-masons -......2 16 264 2 64- - -......3 60- - - - —.................. Stone-cutters -......336 336 576- -...648 7 20.-................. S5tone-quarrymen -....1 98 2 16 2 16 216 216 2 16...................... T —tlors -..........120 168 288 288 288 2 88.... -.................. T1anners -.........108 120 108 108 108 1 44..................... Turners -.......... 96 1 08 96 96 1I08 1 08..................... Tapestry-ma~kers -.....252 2 88 240 2 40 240 -2 40..................... Watchm~akers -...... 108 108 210 216 240 ~288-...-............... W\heelwrigihts-.-..... 216 2 5-2 228 24012 52 2 88-............... Worsted-work-.............144 1 68 1 68 1 68 60 48 48 481 60 60 Wire-cloth iiakers....... 2 52 2 88 2 16 2 16 2 16 21) 16..............I...... Weavers, (silk).......- 2 16 2 16 216 ~216 240 2 40.. ~..-......... Wool-combers-.......288 324 25-2 252 20 28 180 08 108 1Oiae 1 20 *Children. LABOR, IN GERMANY. 527 Table showing the average weekly rates of labor paid in the district of Cheminitz, Saxony, in the year 1871. ~ 0 Trades. Pq A Artificial-flower makers, females. -.................... $1 44 to $1 87. Barbers --------------- ------- *84 $' 2 16 *$0 60 to $1 20 *$1 0S to $l 44 Bakers....................... *1 32 to 1 68 2 16 2 52 1 Soto 2 88 Brewers..................... 2 88 3 60 2 16 to 4 32 1 44 to 4 32 Bleachers.................. $2 52to 2 88 2 52to 2 2 2to 3 60 1 1 92 to t54 Bookbinders...3 96 to 4 32 2 64 to 3 24 1 44 16 2 52to 4 32.................~~~~~~~~~~ 96 to 1 68 Basket-makers............... 3 06 *1 44 to 1 80 *1 08 to 1 56 1 O to 1 20 Brass-founders.................................................... 2 88 to 3 60 1 80 to 2 16 Brick-layers, (see tile-layers).....................................-.................................... Bronze-makers...............*...................................................... 86 to I S0 Brush-makers................ 2 76 to 2 88 *72 *96 i utchers..................... *1 08 2 16 *90 to 1 80 1 44to 2,8 Bulton-makers............... 3 60 — 1 68to 2 88 Cabinet-makers.............. 4 08 3 24 2 52 to 3 60 1 80 to 2 88 Calico-printers -288t36 2 2 88 t o 3 60 Caiopitr............ 1 68 to 4 92 2 8t 0..................................... I2 88 to 3 24 Calico-printer laborers. 288 to 3- -- - Carpenters................... 3 36 3 36to 3 60 2 34 to 4 32 2 52to 4 32 Chair-frame makers - 3 -8to40. C ai-fam mkes W.......................... 4i69.................. I f 88 o 6.................. Cliemical factories, laborers.. 2 28 to 3 69. Chimney-sweeps............ 2 16 2 52 *1 44 2 16 China mannibetore: Day-laborers............. 2 59 2 16to 2 88 2 04 to 2 88 1 15to 2 16 ~~~ 2 88 5 ~~~~~~~~~ 1 ~26to 5 04 Cigar-makers 2............. 24 to 2 88 2 88 to 1 44 1 0 to 3 60 1 08 to 4 32 96 to 1 44 t3 124 to 1 08 Clock-case makers................................................ 2 16 to 4 32. Comb-makers-*.'1 20 *1 08................. Confectioners................ 3 60 3 60 - -2 88 Coopers...................... *1 20 *1 80 1 Soto 252 *1.to 1 20 Crotchet and netting work 1 08 to 7 72 to 1 20.................. 836 to 72. Cl-inoline-makers......-........................ 5 40 to 1 80..................I.............-.... Distillers, brandy............ 3 60 2 88 *72 to 2 52 *2 52 Dyers in silk and wool.3 6to 396 2 52to 1 98to 43-2 2 16to 504 Ingravers................... 4 32 3 24to 4 32 3 96. Fairiers or horseshoers * —---'1 98 3 60 2 16 to 3 24.................. File-makers.................. 5 76 2 16 2 16 to 2 88 2 88 to 3 60 Fringe-manufacturers.......................... 2 52 1 44 to 1 80.................. Furriers 3 24 1 44 to 3 24 *1 80 Fullers and wool-washers - - - - --.................................... 2 16 to 2 52 Gardeners................... 2 16 2 16 to 2 88 *1 26 2 8- to 3 60 Glass-stainers.... 2 70to 4 32 2 88 1 80to 5 76 2 16 to 3 60 -"-..... 1 44 to 1 80 1 1 62 172 Glaziers..................... 3 96to 4 32 2 5to 43-2 2 88to 3 60 *1 08 to 1 80 Glove-sewers, females.... 1 08 1 44 to 7'2 6to 1 80 t29 to 48 7 Gold and silver workers 5 76 3 24 3 60 *1 68 to 2 i6 Grinding and polishing establishments.................. 5 76...................................................... Gunsmiths.............1 98.................. llairdressers................ 3 60 to 4 50 2 16 to 2 88.. llarnuonicon-makers......... 2 88 Harness-makers............. 2 88 2 88 1 44............. Hatters.................... 2 60 to 3 96 2 16 to 2 88 3 06to 3 24 *96to 1 4t Hose-manufacturers 3 o.......!43 to 48...................................... Iron-founders................ 3 36 to 5 04 3 60 to 4 32 2 $8 to 4 68 1 80 to 2. 88 Lithographers, males 3 24 to 4 32 3 60 to 1 44....{ 36 to 1 80 Locksmiths.................. 4 50 3 24 2 70 to 5 04 2 40to 4 32 Loop-sewing, females.......................... 3472 to 1 32 *Besides board and lodging. 8 Children's wages. 528 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing the average weekly rates of labor paid in the district of Cheianitz, 4-c. —Cont'd. cebu 5 0 0~~~~~~~~~~~ Ms-,cbino buildingr: Machine smiths.......... $4 20 $4 32 $2 16 to$5 76 $2 16 to $3 24 Machine wood-workers.. $2 64 to 3 36 $3 60 to 5 04 2 52 to 4 32.................. (hher workers.......... 2 76 to 2 94 2 16 to 2 88 3 00 to 4 32.. Masons...................... 3 12to 3 96 2 88to 3 96 2 52to 4 32 2'40to 4'8 2 64 to 3 16 Match.manufacturers, males..............48 to 34 I NS8 to 84 Aechanicians and opticians.. 4 32.'Millers...................... 2 to 3 36 68 to 16 44 toI..60 8o6. o..4to432 Miners: Metal. 252.1 44to 2 16 1 44to 228.I 15to 1 30 1 44 to 2 IC.................. Slate.1it13.. Sht......................................................... I 15 to I 30......... Stone..... 4 32to 6 48.................. Coal............ 4 32to 6 48. Modistes or milliners, females 2 16 to 2 28 2 16 72 to 1 80 72 to 2 5-2 Nail factories................ 2 16 to 5 96..... *1 44 Needle and pin makers......*.................. 72 to 96.................. *1 20 to 1 44 Painters and varnishers, or- 5 64 to 3 96 2 namental................ 3 48t.25 namental.348to 252 ~~ 288to 4 68 3 24to 648 lO80to 4 32 Point-lace workers, females.................... 1 44.......... 96 to l ing Oil-cloth manufacture...... 3 60 to 3 84..................9...................................' Paper manufacture........ 1 78 to 2 16 Pa-iors......................2.................. 3 24to 4 32 2 88to 3 60 2 16 to 5 0-1 Potters, general work........ 5 76.................. 3 60 1 80 to 2 88 Portfolios, leather and fncy$....2.... 2 16 to 2 88 goods..................2..t 1t..................................4 1 0 to 1 44 Pattern-drawer........ 5 04 to 2 88 Photographers............. 76to 7 20 3 60.................................... *25.2 to tl 08 I Plaster of Paris or gypsum manufacture.................................................. 2 52to 3 24. Playing-card manufacture 3 *1 80. 321 8O to 2 16.......... Powdor-mills..........2 Powder~~~ ~~-mil'-..i.......................I..................~.................. 2S printers or type-setters...... 5 40 "3 96 to 4 68 2 88 to 5 76 2 52 to 3 CO Printers, boys and girls......[ 72 to 1 44 1 08 to 1 44 1 08 to 2 16. Purse, glove, and cap makers. 3 24 to 3 42 2 88 2 52 to 3 24' 96 to 1 08 Quarrymen..................................... 3 60 16 to 4 32 2 52 to 4 32 L'ibbnn-manufacture................................................................ 1 44 to 3 CO Roofing-factories......... 2 88 to 3 36 Rope-makers................ 4 32 1.8 to 1 20 *96 to 1 62 2 88'to 66 Saddlers.................... 3 96 2 88 1 44 1 68 to 2 52 Saw-mills................... 3 24 2 88 to 3 24 *1 44 2 16 to 3 46 Screw-manufacture........ 1 44 to 2 16 Sculptors...........5 0.......... Scul tor............... 5 04...................................................... Sh1oe-makers................. 2 40 2 16 to 2 5-2 1 44 to 2 88 1 80 to 2 $8 Sieve-makers.............2 52..... Siater or roofcoverer........ 4 14 2 88 2 16 to 4 68 -2 52 to 4 3-2 Smiths: Copper-smiths........... 6 00 2 88 to 4 32 *1 80 to 2 16 2 40 Cutlery-smiths........... 3 60 *1 08 to 1 44.................................... Boiler-smiths............ 5 16............................................. Technical instruments.. - 4 32.................. 2 34 to 2 88.................. Nail-smiths...... 2 16 to 3 24. Blacksmiths.............'1 98 3 60 2 16 to 3 24 1 98.to 3 C0 Soap-bhilers.................. 3 60 2 5-2................. 1 80 Spinning: Ct1n80to 432 396 Cotton................. I 62; to 2 34................ f541to 7-2 96 to 1 80 Loose yarn....... 3}Nto16 3 24to 169.oose.yarn.. 136 to 48.................................................... 2 16to 288 Cam-yarn.............. 1 44 to 1 68.....2 to 6 f42t o 48 3 Flax spinning................................................. 2 88 to 1 20. Stitch or loop work. 2'..'88to 4'3-2 811itc o lop w rk..........'....................................................... 2 1 4to 4 32 ~1 44 to i 80 *Besides hoard and lodging- t Children's wages. LABOR IN GERMANY. 529 Table hoi the average weekly rates of labor paid in the district of Chemnitz, 4,c.-Cont'd. V 4 0 _ _C..... Stocking-weavers: d..............)1 44 to$i S0..... $1 08to$2 16 $1 44to$2 88 ant.4to 72 96 tO 08 M2 16 to 5 76 1 1 i................. (1 44to 2 88 1 08to 1 80 144 to 2 88 I5 8t Stocking-framebuilders..................... 2 88 to 3 60 1 80 to 2 88 Stone-.uarries —... $3 60................................... Stone-cntters -.3 24 to 720 $4 32 to 7 20 3 60 to 4 50 3 60 to 5 76 Stone-workers.............................. 4 32................. Stone-setter-.... 3 96to 5 76 3 24 to 4 32 2 88 to 3 60 2 16to 5 04, ~ ~ ~~.Straw-hat manu ture1 44.................. 1 08 Strings for musical instru~~~ments ---—............................................ 2 34to 1 44 Succory.........fatr..1.............................................. 1 98 Steam-engine firemen........ 3 24 2 88 to 4.i2 1 80 to 3 12 3 60 Tailors —.............3 96 2 16to 3 60 2 16 to 360 1 68 to 4 32 Tanners-......... 3 24to 3 60 2 88 2 70 to 3 60 2 16to 3 96 Tile or brick layers -... 2 16 to 3 24 4 32 to 504 2 16 to 5 04 Tile-makers —----------— 5..................7t 20 2 88to 5 76 2 88to 3 96 Tin-founders......1 08-1 0.. Tinkers ------------ 2 64 to 5 76 2 5-2 2 52 to 3 24 2 52 Turners in metal-.................2 52-.................. Turners in wood —------ 2 88 to 3 12.......... 2 52 to 3 60 1 44 Umbrella-makers -....... 2 76 to 1 80-............................. Upholsterers & trunk-makers 2 52 to 3 96 2 88 to 4 68 —.................... Walking-stick or cane-manufacturers -—................... 1........80...... Watch and clock makers.. 5 40 3 214 2 88 to 3 60 1 98 to 2 52 Weaving-slaie makers 1 2to 3 24 2 88 to 1 44-.........-......... I 9to 1 44 4 32 to 1 J2-.................. Weaving-chair makers-....3 24-...............;............ Weaving silk-weaver - - —.............2 40 2 88 to 4 32 -............. Rand-weavers: On damask........2 16 - —.......... 2 16to 2 88 1 Soto 2 16 On piqud-...........-...................... 2 16 to 2 52 1 44 to 2 88 On quilts and carpets.... 2 40 2 16 to 3 60 I' SOto 3 601 1 44 to 2 40 1 144to f43 On fustian and lining 1 08to 24 Wheelwrights........4 08 2 64 2 l6to 2 88 1 8O to 2 88 Wire-cloth weavers-......2 52............................ Wood-polishing --—................................... 1 68 to 2 88 Wood-work, boxes and cases-................................2 88 Wood-work, wooden toys-.................... 2 5-2 to 3 24.......... Wool-card manufacture.... 3 60 to 1 92 —.........2 52 -.......... Woolen-cloth weavers -—...................... 168 to 3600Woolein-cloth shearers --—.....................2 88 -.......... Wool-printing.......... ~ ~ 324to 360 2 52to 360 - *Besides board and lodging. t Children's wages. 34 L 530 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. WAGES IN SAXONY IN 1870. Basket-making in Zwenkau, Saxony.-In 27 factories, with 73 skilled borers and 30 apprentices, good workmen earn per week 4 thalers $2.88; three of the above factories manufacture exclusively children's cradle-baskets. Chair-makers in Waldheim, Saxony.-Chair-makers, per week, from $2.16 to $2.88; polishers, per week, from $3.60 to $4.32; packers, per week, from $1.44 to 1.80. Casks and barrel-Jfactory in Dibeln, Saxony.-Coopers, per week, from $4.32 to $7.20; finisher of small casks and barrels, per week, from $2.16 to $4.32. Day-laborers in cooper-shops, for 12 working-hours receive 40 cents; unskilled laborers, 30 cents. Straw-plaiting in Zwenkatu, Saxony.-This indstry is chiefly carried On by women and children, besides their housework and school-hors; such of the men as are occupied during the summer-months in brick kilns, &c., plait straw in the winter. The earnigs for men per day are not less than 18 cents; women, 10 cents; children, while attendig schools, 4 cents. Paper and pasteboard mnanufacture, Chemnit, axony.-Wags vary from 96 cents to $3.60 per week. Pasteboard boxes and other articles of steboard, Buhholz, Saxony.Men, per week, from $2.52 to $4.32; women, 1.20 to $1.80; children 36 cents to 39 cents. The above industry consists of the manufacture of boxes or chocolate, candies, soaps, perfumeries, gloves, hose and half-hose, trimmings, labels, envelopes, tilckets, &c. Playing-card factories at Chemnitz, Saxony.-Wages per week for men,7 $2.16 to $3.60; wages per week for women, 84 cents to $1.80. ilfanuf~acure of Chinese lanterns, &c., Zwvenkau. Saxony.-Children, over 12 years of age, working from 3 to 4 hours per day, earn weekly from 36 cents to 48 cents; men, working 12 hours per da y, earn daily fromn 36 cents to 48 cents. Piin-ffitces in Chemnitz, Saxony.-Type-setters and printers, per week, $2.88 to $3.76; women and girls, 41.20 to $1.80; apprentices, 72 cents to $1.68. Leather-belting for machines, &fc., Chemnnitz, Saxony.-Men, per week, $2.52 to ~4.32; womeni, $1.20 to $1.68.Kid-glove sewing at Oberwviesenthal, Saxony.-Wages, for 1 dozen gloves, sewed, 54 cents. Felt and cloth shoe factory, Waldheim, Saxony.-Men, per week, $3.60. Cigar f'actory, W~aldhein, Saxony.-Rollers and assorters, per week, (male and femnale,) $1.20 to $3.60; girls, 12 to 16 years of age, 72 cents to $1.68; children, under 14 years of age, 36 cents to 72 cents. Slate-quarries, Jiochlit tz1, S~axony.-Daily earnings from 36 cents to 40 cents. -Earthen, and stone ware marnu~facture, Chemn itz, Saxony.-Weekly earnings of men, $2.16 to $.5.76; women and boys (14 to 16 years of age,) $1.20 to $1.44. Working-hours in summer-time, 12; in winter, 10. -Cloth-weaving establishments in ]Jleerane, Saxony.-Weekly earnings of men, $2.16 to $ 3.60; weekly earnings of women, $1.62; weekly earnings of children, 36 cents to 48 cents. Plush-weaving, Erohburg, Saxony.-Aen, $1.44 to $1.80. LABOR IN GERMANY. 531 CITY LOCAL-EXPRESS COMPANIES IN SAXONY. Place. Name of company. ~ Wages per week. ~~~~~Annaberg~........ Express..... 1862 20 $1.80, without percentage. Chemnit MUller's Express C............. 1861 60 $2.16 to $.40. Do Expressmen's Institution, (yellow marks of ditinction) —-—...... -. 1868 50 $1.80 to $2.52. Do. United Expressme Institution, (white marlks of (listinction)-............. 1868 25 $1.68. el Expressmen's Institution - i..........8 3l These expressmen work for their own account and pay a weekly amount of 18 cents Waldheim Expressm's Istitution................... 1862 3 J for the loan of tools, &c. Leisnig Express-1................ 1867 5 $1.92................1861 6 $1.44 tO $2.16. Mittweida -Express Company-1861....!........ 6.4to2.6 The above COsistsmainly in unskilled labor of every kind, garden work, transportation and packing of furniture and other articles, carryingofcirculars, cards, bills, &c., &C. PRCES OF FACTORY-LABOR IN CHIEMNITZ IN 1872. The statements presented in the preceding six pages show the rates ~~paid f~~bor mechanical and other labr in the district of Chemnnitz during the year 1860, and in the years from 1864 to 1868, inclusive; also the weekly wages which obtained in the year 1871, classified according to the population of the respectivetowns, which tables, aswell as thegiven statemlent of wages in Saxony in 1870, have been translated from the reports of the Chemnitlz chamber of commerce. It will be observed that the rates in, the latter years exhibit a considerable increase over those of 1860.'The rates which prevailed in 1872, when the author visited this district, and which are presented in the following pages, showed a decided advance over those of 1871: Per week. Occupation. -_____ _____ c t Men. Women. Children. Hosiery fiaotories:* Stocking-weavers, according to skill and industry-................... 10 $'2 88 to$3 60-.............. Ordinary hanDds-.............D —-- 10 1 44 to 2 16............... Suiperintendent of factory —----- - ----- 10 5 04 to 8 64............... Machinists -—................. 10 3 60 to 5 04- - —............. Locksmiths-.................. 10 3 60Oto 5 04-.............. Spoolers, weavers, &c - -............ 10- - -$...... 1 8 to $2 88...... ]Bleachers-................... 10 3 12 1 44........ Edging-machine workers............ 10 2 88 to 5 76(.......i......... Ilydraulic-press men ------------- - 10 2 88 to 5 04- - —.....-........ Finishers, asserters, stampers -........ 10 -........1 44 to 1 80........ SpLoolers-.................... 10-........ 1 68........ Weavers, on piecework............ 10 4 44 2 40........ Cutters, on p~iecework............. 10........ 2 04........ Sewers, on piecework-............. 10.........1 08 to 1 26........ Formers, on piecework............ 10.........1 92 to 2 88........ Finishers-................... 10-........ 1 20........ Master-finishers............... 10 4 68 to 6 48............... Finishers' assistants.............. 10..1 68 to 2 16........ *This establishment, beside the fixed wages, pays an extra percentage for good work. 532 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Factory labor-Continued. Wages per week. Occupation. P _az Men. Women. Children. Hosiery factory-Continued. Formers..................................... 10..............:$2 16 to 2 88.............. Dressers..................................... 10.............. 1 56 to 1 68. Pressers.................................... 10 $3 60 to$4 32........................... Another factory: Stocking-weavers............................ 10. 40 3 24........................... Spoolers..................................... 10. 40.............. 1 44.............. Glove-makers............................. 10. 402 16.............. Glove embroiderers and ilters............ 10. 40.2 88.............. Glove and stocking formers................ 0. 40.............. 1 62 to 2 16.............. Cotton-glove finishers....................... 10. 40.............1 08 to 1 80. Cotton-glove cutters1......................... 0. 40 —.1 —-------- i 20 to 1 56.............. Weavers of gloves on frames................. 12.............. 1 08 to 1 44.............. Weavers of gloves on frames................. 12.............. 1 44 to 1 80.............. Weavers of glove-cloth on power-looms...... 1 2 1 80 to 2 52.'.'44to.i'.0'.....::..: Girls, at piecework.......................... 121 44 to 1 80. Girls, ornamenting and embroidering... 12 -.............. 1 44 to 2 16.............. Girls, making hand silk-points.............. 12..............0 72 to 1 20. Girls, making button-holes, &c., by hand 120 72 to 1 20.... Girls, finishing... 12.............. 1 08 to 1............... Yarn factory: Spinners, on piecework................................ 4 32 1 44 to 1 92 $1 08 to $1 3. Cotton-spinning: Assorters, &c., per 10,000 spindles....... 1 44........... Dressers-up.................................................... 1 80to 2 16.......... - Turning-in on self-acting machines........... 08 Twirlers.......................................'.. 1 44 to 1 80.............. Weighers, packers..... 1 80 to 2 16.............. Grinders, polishers......................... 3 24 to 3 60. tpinners.................................... 3 24to 3 42. Locksmiths................................. 4 68to 5 40. Watchmen and day-laborers................. 2 52 to 3 24. Carding and spinning master, machinebuilder, &c................................ t7 20 to 17 92. Machinists, gas-fitters, &c........................ 3 06 to 3 84. Manufactures of Thibets, &c.: Weavers, on power-looms.................... 12 to 13 3 42. Weavers, on hand-looms..................... 12 to 13 t2 40.. 98...: Dyeing: Foreman..................................... 11 7 20. Assistant foreman........................... 11 4 32 to 5 76. Dyers.................................... 11 2 88 to 3 60. Firemen.................................. 11 2 88to 3 60. Laborers.................................... 11 2 40to 2 88. —----------- " i' -o-i'At other work... 11 -2 6to 240 1 44to 180 1 44.to 168 Darask factory: Machine-looms... 11 2 88 1 0.. Finishers................................... 11 3 24 1 36. Chain-shearers............................... 11 2 52 to 3 24. Hand-lodm weavers........................ 11 2 52 to 432. Work-masters............................... 11 3 24 to 6 48. Preparatory machines... 11....................1......3 Machine-works:~ Borers, planers, screw-smiths............... 4 50. Turners.5 04. Founders and molders......................... 94. 1lammersmiths.............................. 5 76. Strikers..................................... 2 58. Tinsmiths................................... 6 72. Coppersmiths................................ 7 720. Braziers, (kettle-makers)..................... 6 80. Varnishers................................... 2. 88. Pattern-makers.............................. 3 48. Polishers.................................... 4 54. Blacksmiths................................. 6 48. Grinders..................................... 4 56. Smelters..................................... 3.4. Locksmiths.................................. 3 96. Saddlors..................................... 378. Joiners...................................... 432.............. Seventy-three hours of labor produce, on the average, 13,000 pounds of stocking-yarn No. 20. i And house-room. 4 The difference between the wages of male and female labor consists, mainly, in the manufacture of finer articles, intrusted to the former. ~ flours of labor per week, 60. LABOR IN GERMANY. 533 Factory labor-Continued. )'Wages per week. Occupation. - - z e Men. Women. Children., ~~~... Machine-Works Association: Kettle-factory: Braziers............................................... 3 60 to 5 76............................ ]iraziers, on piecework............................... 6 4a to 7 42............................ Strikers...................88............................ 2 Boys................................................... 1 44............................ Copper-workls: Coppersmiths.......................................... 3 96 to 4 32............................ Coppersmiths, on piecework......................... 5 04 to 5 6............................ Assistants........................................... 2 88............................ Brass-foundery: Founders.............................................. 4 32to 7 20.......................... Cast-polishers........................................ 2 88 to 432....................... Boys.........................................1.......... 62. -. Smith-shop: Smiths......-........................*........... 3 60to 4 32...................... Smiths, on piecework................................. 5 04 to 7 20............................ Strikers............................................... 2 88............................ Turners' shop: Turners............................................... 2 88to 3 60............................ Apprentices, first to third year........................ 36 to 1 08............................ Boring-machines: Borers............................................. 2 16 to 360............................ Borers, on piecework.................................. 4 32 to 5 04............................ Planing-machines: Planers............................................. 2 16to 3 60............................ Planers, on piecework................................. 5 76 to 7 2 0............................ Locksmiths' shop: Machine locksmiths................................... 3 24 to 4 32............................ Machine locksmiths, on piecework..................... 5 76 to 864............................ Cahinet-shop: Model-makers, carpenters.............................. 3 60 to 4 32............................ Model-makers, carpenters, on piecework.............. 5 04 to 6 48............................ Tinshop: Tinsmiths............................................. 3 60 to 4 32.................. Tinsmiths, on piecework.............................. 5 04 to 6 48........................... Assistants............................................. 1 98to 288............................'Wire-weaving shop: Weavers, (chiefly on piecework).............m......... 5 76 to 6 48............................ Unskilled laborers....................................... 2 52 to 2 88............................ Miachine-works, making embroidering machines: Cabinet-makers and pattern-makers.................... 6 48 to 10 08........................... Locksmiths........................................... 5 04 to 10 80............................. Iron-turners........................................... 5 04to 8 65............................ Planers............................................... 4 32to 7 92........................... Borers................................................. 3 60 to 576............................ Polishers.............................................. 3 60 to 5 76............................ Smiths................................................. 5 76 to 865........................... Smiths.~~~~~~~~~~~5 764to 8 65. Mschine-builders, (setting up machines)................ 8 64 to 18 00........................... Apprentices............................................ 1 44 to 3 60.................... Although the preceding statements show the price of labor in the manufacturing establishments of Chemnitz as prepared chiefly by the respective proprietors, yet as it is believed that some of the notes of the author,.taken as he visited the factories, will afford additional informa. tion on the subject, they are reproduced here: Hartmnann & Co.'s machine.worlcs. CHEMNITZ, SAXONY, September 16, 1872. Accompanied by Mr. Rider, United States consul, visited the works of the Saxon Machine Company, (Hartmann & Co.,) the largest establishment of the kind in Saxony, and, except Borsig's, at Berlin, the largest in Germany. About 200 men are employed. ~534 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The following are the rates of wages or weekly earnings of the men: olders on piecework, from 6 to 8 thalers, $4.30 to $5.76. Machinists and riveters, average $4.68. Carpenters and wood-workers, 5 thalers, $3.60. (These formerly worked by the piece and earned more.) Common laborers, 4 thalers, $2.88. Apprentices, first year, 20 groschen per week, (48 cents;) second year, 84 cents, and an increase of 10 groschen, (24 cents,) each subsequent year. There are about 75 apprentices and 125 young men under instrucons employed; 200 in all. (Hours of labor, 10 per day.) Coal now costs 7 thalers (85.04) per ton, formerly 5 thalers. It is brought from the district of Zwickau, about 60 miles. They import part of the pig-iron used from England and Scotand. They make cotton and woolen machinery, locomotives, and a variety of other machinery. HTssel & Co.'s damask-factory. Visited the factory of HIssel & Co., who make damasks, velvets, reps, &C., some all wool. They employ a few men and 800 women. Wages average as follows: Women, 23 thalers per week, $1.98. Men in mill, 4j to 5 thalers, $3.24 to $3.60. Men dyers, 4~ to 5 thalers, $3.24 to $3.60. An allowance of 1 thaler (72 cents) per month for rent is made to the married men who have been employed in this establishment for more than one year, and 20 silver groschen (48 cents) if under a year. Many of their working-people live out of the city and bring their dinners. They are very frugal, living largely on coffee and potatoes. They bad little kettles with coffee, some had bread, others potatoes, some both. They cooked their potatoes and warmed their coffee in the mill. Men with families live in two rooms, paying from, 3 to 4 thalers ($2.16 to $2.88) per month in the city, but in the country only about 30 thalers ($21.60) per year. Wages of mason~s.-Men and women at work on an addition to the factory earn as follows: Brickla~yers, per weeki, 5 thalers, $3.60. Master, masons, 6 thalers, $4.32. Wom en to mix mortar and assist the masons, earn durhing the building season 4 tbalers, ($2.88.) These women are chiefly from Bohemia, who return home and remain during the winter. Nottingham Knitting Company, (MTr. Felkuer, manager.) Established by, Mr. Mundella, M, P., of England, who is one of the principal stockholders. Wages of Ynen in factory, average $3.60 per week. Wages of females in faictory, $1.50 to $2.50 per week;, average, $1.44. Their principal factory is at Pansa, a small village of about 2,000 inhabitants, near Hot; and not far from Bavaria, where from -1,800 to 2,000, chiefly females, are employed. They have their knitting-frames at their homes, where all the members of the family work, and earn but.from 3to 4thalers per wee~k, at piecework. They receive from.44 to 130 sgr, ($1.06 to $3.1.2,) per dozen. On the finest hose, selling at 8 thalers, per dozen, the price paid is but 130 groschen, and as a family of ordinary size can complete but I dozen per week, their earnings ($3.12) are very small. In the factory at Pausa the females earn but from 1 to 2 thalers, (72 cents to $1.44,) per week. LABOR IN GERMANY. 535 Starke & Co., manufacturers of common cotton hosiery, employ about 300 hands. The men earn 5 thalers per week, $3.60. Women to finish goods, 2 to 3 thalers, $1.80 to $2.16. LEIPSIC SAXONY. The two anual statements of MIr. Consul Steuart, as given below, exhibit the kind and value of merchandise manufactured in this dis. trict which in the years indicated found a market in the United States.,Statement of the description and value of merchandise certified at the Leipsic consulate and exported to the United States during the years ending September 30, 1873 and 1872. Value. Kind of merchandise. 1873. 1872. Woolen and half-woolen goods.................................. $808, 634 $1, 306, 639 Furs and skins-5................................ 523, 782 430,390 ~~~~....Cotton and linen goods-............................. 382, 786 363, 560 Books, music and pictures.................................. 376, 770 286. 565 Musical and other instrument................................. 255, 833 273, 955 Laces and trimmings6........9......................... 169, 976 279, 658 Drugs-................................................. 83, 409 99,144.Kid gloves-.......................................... 90, 6i46 163, 577.Human hair-.................................... 86, 265 87, 564 Toys and fancy-ware-................................. 55, 556 66, 345 Bristles-................................................... 35, 447 47, 649 Machinery and iron-ware................................ 6,515 14, 064 ~Miscellaneous-5................................................... 3, 438 5 3 29, 430 Total value in United States gold dollars................................. 2, 929, 057 3, 448, 540 Leipsic is celebrated for its three annual fairs, and for its extensive book-making establishments. Its book trade being the largest in the world, the following brief notice may prove interestin g. THE BOOK TRADE OF LEIPSIC. It is a fact well known to the literary and scientific world that this city'distances all others in the book trade, particularly for works in the German tongue; -and not for that alone, but also in the maj ority of modern and dead languages. As the American author intrusts his manuscript to a publisher in New York, Boston, or Philadelphia, so does the French writer with one in Paris, the English with one in London, and the German, and, it might almost be said, those of the rest of Europe, with the publishers of Leip.'sic, this being the metropolis of German letters, and only a few good works are published at other places in the German Empire. The sale of books forms one of the most important branches of commerce here; it alone is said to amount to two millions of dollars yearly., In fact the whole book trade of Germany is centered on the spot, and every bookseller in Germany and the adjoining countries has an agent here. Six hundred booksellers sometimes assemble at the Easter fair to settle their annual accounts and purchases, and there are 130 residents and 40 printing-offices. They have an exchange of their own called the Deutsche Buchhiindler BMrse, where they meet and transact business. Among the most distinguished publishers are F. Brock~haus, editor of the far-famed Conversations-Lexicon, and Baron Tauchnitz. 536 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The Leipsic City Directory for 1871 gives the names of 249 book-firms in a population of 106,925, smaller than that of Washington City, of which 114 are publishers, part of them having their own printing-establishments; 21 are book-commission-merchants; 21 are music publishers and dealers; 6 are antiquarians, some of them being firs of great importance. The celebrated Leipsic auction-sales of books and objects of art are conducted by three book-firms, at certain regular stated periods. In 1868, twelve such auctions were held, resultingin the agreate sales of 54,200 works, comprising some 200,000 volumes, and net proceeds of $36,000. In 1869, there were eleven auction-sales, with 60,000 works and 250,000 volumes, an aggregate sale of $54,000. The most important sale during this year was that of the library of the late Emperor 3Maximilian of Mexico, which realized $16,560, and attracted purchasers not only from England and France, but from the United States. Besides these book-auctions, there were two autograph-auction-sales, consisting of 3,300 numbers, and six auctions of objects of art, numbering 15,000. In the year 1870, in consequence of the Franco-German war, there were but seven auctions of books and six of objects of art. Comparative statement of the works published by the German book-trade of Leipsic during the years 1868, 1869, and 1870 Subject of works. 1868 1869. 1870. Encyclopedias; works of reference; science of literature196 26 271 Theology............................................... 1, 440 1,607 1, 470 National economy and law; politics and statistics......1,141 1,014 Medical, surgical, veterinary sciences -—................... 528 517 412 N~atural sciences; chemistry and pharmacy -—.................. 636 675 535 Philosophy ----------------------— 12 —--------- 6 1274 103 Education~al and text books -—.......................... 966 1, 13i 997 Juvenile —------------------------------------ 246 322 235 Classics and oriental languages; antiquity and mythology - —.......... 440 471 399 Modern languages...........................I..... 332 335 297 History and biography -—............................ 710 634 69-2 Geography ------------------------------------ 290 269 234 Mathematics and astronomy -—.......................... 134 1124 114 Military science and horses —--------------- - ------------ d 308 242 Commerce andl industry ------------------ - ----------- 425 424 4i11 Architecture, aiachinery, railroads, and navigation - —.............. 190 2!13 192 Forestry and hunting; mining and smelting -—.................. 83 93 91 Housekeeping, agriculture, and gardening -—................... 280 305 351 Belles-lettres ----------------------------------- 958 999 739 Fine-arts; copy-books and stenography -—.................... 437 435 346 Vreemasonry 38 —------------------------------- 14 36 389 Miscellaneous works -.......-..;..................... 8 6 8 Slavic and Hungarian works —.......................... 38 62 50 Periodicals ------------------------------------- 237 335 2171 Total for each year-.............................10, 348 11, 161 I 9, 866 Total for three years-............................ 31, 375 LEIPSIC FAIRS. Tilis quaint old city reposes in its nbrmal inactivity, except during one of tilose seasons of the year when it becomes the principal mart and exchange of Northern Europe.I Three large fairs are, held here, annually, one, beginning the first of January, called Neujahrs messe; another, the second Sunday after Easter, or the Oster messe; and, lastly, the Michaelmas messe in October. Of these three, each of themn lasting three weeks, the Easter fair, already referred to, is by far the most important. These fairs are visited by merchants and foreigners from the most distant parts of the globe, LABOR IN GERMANY. 537 sometimes to the number of its actual population. The money transactios at one tie amounted to 80,000,0(00 of thalers annually, though of late they have fallen short of this sum. These fairs date back to the middle ages, and for a long period have been well known throughout all Europe. Indeed, among all the multitude of foreigners who flock together every spring to transact their business in Leipsic it is probable that many a well-educated Greek and Asiaticnows more about this one city than he does about the country to which he belongs. During the fair all the principal squares and streets of the city are filled with long lines of temporary booths, in addition to the ordinary shops, in which goods of all kinds are exposed for sale-hardware cloths Bohemian glass and porcelain, furs of every variety, pottery, boots and hats, artificial flowers and hair, jewelry, toys, pipes and amber-work-in short, it is one great bazaar, where no product of human industry seems to be without its mart. Every hotel and lodgig-house is filled to overflowing; the streets are thronged with strange costumes and faces. Persians and Armenians, with their peculiar manners and dress; Polish Jews, with their long black buttoned-up frocks reaching to the ankles, gaunt, wily-lookg men, and excellent specimens of the typical Israelite; Tyrolese, Americans, and English, Greeks and Turks, are mingled together as in a masquerade. The real business of the fair is seldom seen by the tourist, being carried on at the exchange, or borse, as it is called, where the merchants meet and transact their business. Most of the countries of Europe send representatives here with their prodce. Three or four hundred guests sit down daily at the tablesdh6te of some of the principal hotels; gardens and coffee-houses are thronged; theaters are filled, and the concert and beer-gardens, as well as the circus-tents, crowded. Reaching Leipsic a few days before the October fair, the author was nevertheless prevented, owing to previous arrangements for visiting manufacturing districts which constituted the main purpose of his visit, from remaining during its continuance. Its near approach was indicated by the booths which were in course of erection, as well as by the crowded state of the hotels, and the consequent increase of prices for accommodation. MECHANICAL LABOR. Bates of wages in Leipsic and vicinity in 1872. Trades. Time. Wages. Blacksmiths ---------------------------— Per day-......$0 41 to $0 92 Bricklayers-...............................do - -....... 76 to 97 Cabinet-makers ----------------------------— do- -....... 65 to 72 Carpenters-...............................do - -....... 76 to 92 Coopers-...............................Per week -..... 3 57 to 4 28 M achinists-................................(10 -....... 3 57 to 4 28 Plasterers-...............................do -....... 4 28 to 5 71 Shoemakers-...............................do -....... 3 57 to 4 65 Stone-cutters-................. —--— " do -....... 5 00 to 5 47 Tailors-.................................do -....... 3 57 to 4 65 Tanners-................................do - -....... 357 to 4 28 Tin-smiths-...............................do -....... 3 2i to 3 57 W heelwrights-..............................do -....... 3 21 to. 3 57 FARM LABOR. Experienced hands in summer, per day, 65 centes; in winter, 60 cents. Ordinary hands in summer, 60 cents; in winter, 57 cents. Female servants, per month, $1.70, with board. 538 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. FACTORY LABOR. The rates of wages in many of the manufacturing towns in the consular district of Leipsic appear, on previous pages, under the heading "4 Factory labor in Germany." The following information in regard to a glove-factory in Altenburg was furnished in a letter from the proprietors, under date of August 20, 1872: KID-GLOVE FACTORY, ALTENBURG DUCHY OF SAXONY. The number of workmen consists of 1,800 persons, men, women, and ildren some 300 of whom are employed in the factories, while the remainder of them take the work to their homes. The average weekly earnings are as follows: Glove-makers, from 6 thalers, $4.32, and upward. Tanners, (kid,) 6 thalers, $4.32. Dyers, 4 to 4$ thalers, $2.88 to $3.24. Day-laborers, 4 to 4$ thalers, $2.88 to $3.24. Sewers, (children included,) 1 to 2 thalers, $0.72 to $1.44. The usual hours of labor are from 6 a. m. to 7 p.., with an interruption of half hour for breakfast, one hour for dinner, (at noon,) and half hour for luncheon, (at 4 p. m.) It is difficult to give the exact amount of the expenses eitherof a familyor of a single person; and a general rule in regard to the expenditures of the laboring classes cannot be accurately stated, as the outlay is governed by the income, which is usually all expended. Although France has almost monopolized the production of goat-skin gloves, in which she excels, yet Germany manufactures to a large extent the medium qualities, which, being less expensive, are more readily sold. Germany was represented at the World's Exhibition at iena by many of its most important glove-manufacturers. Favorable local circumstances, enabling the manufacturer to combine tanning and dyeing with the production of gloves, and the introduction of new methods for perfecting the article, has conduced to make German gloves an important article of export. There are in the German Empire towns whose printipal branch of industry is glove-making, such as Altenburg, above re-,erred to; llalberstadt, in Prussia; Erlangin, in Bavaria; Arnstadt, in Thuringia; Ilaynau, in Silesia; and Esslingen, in Wiirtemberg. DRESDEN, SAXONY. The capital of the kingdom of Saxony is more celebrated for its artireasures than for manufactures. Few European capitals contain a greater number of objects calculated to gratify a refined taste. Enriched with extensive collections of paintings and statuary, with museums of antique and moZdern art, libraries, and public gardens, it has become a favorite resort for the wealthy of all nationalities, large numbers of whom make ittheir place of permanent abode. It is afavorite residence of English and American families, and among its inhabitants may be found many men of learning and talent. Dresden gives its name to the renowned porcelain ware which is made in its vicinity, chiefly at Meissen, about 28 miles distant. Although manufactories and other industrial establishments have not hitherto been erected, yet, as the United States consul at that place, states in his communication, "1the steamships on the river Elbe, which divides the city into two parts, the old and the new, (Altstadt and Neustadt,) and which is navigable from a point a little above Prague in Bohemia to Hamburg on the German Sea, and the iron-horse on the land, were irresistible in opening even the city of Dresden, eup~hemistically called I'Elbe Athens,' to the inroads of an ind ustrial era." DRESDEN-WARE. China ware or p<-ircelain was originally brought from the country after which it is name.4, and was first made in Europe at Meissen, in 1710, by LABOR IN GERMANY. 539 one Bticher, an alchemist, who, after wasting a great deal of the gold of his patron (Augustus, Kig of Poland and Elector of Saxony) in his lsearch for the philosopher's stone, stumbled, by accident, upon a more sure method of producing the precious metals by the discovery of an art which has served to enrich his countrymen. This manufactory, so celebrated in the time of Augustus II, was annihilated in the " sevenyears' war," being then plundered and its workmen and models carried away by Frederick the Great. It continued to enjoy royal patronage at a heavy expense to the private purse of the Saxon sovereign, but the king has lately ceded it to the government. It is now carried on for proit, and cheapness being the object, it now produces a revenue, but the articles made are very inferior to those of former times. EXPORTS TO THE UNITED STATES. That the market in the United States for the productions of the Dresden consular district is b no means extensive, will be shown by the followingr table: Statement hoing the eports to the United States from the Dresden consular district during the year ended September 30, IS73. Description, Value. Description. Value. ~~~Drugs -- ~$3~7, 834 Musical instrumentsand merchandise $133, 781 Earthen ware an lava oods68, 997 Photographic paper and paper goods. 44,243 Glass ware —.......... 391, 388 Porcelain........................ 25, 522 Gloves-...........7..... 5, 689 Toys and ornaments................. 28, 295 Hosiery —------------- 150, 455 Watch-movements.................:- 17, 970 Laces, ebroideries, and trimmis — 104, 209 Woolen and half-woolen goods....... 9,110 Linen and half-linen goods — 32, 509 Sundries - -............................. 79, 993 Total —.-......, —-, —- 1,219,995 The following information was furnished by Mr. Brentano,. United States consul at Dresden, and altho ugh not classified under distinct headings, inl uniformity with similar data from other manufacturing districts, yet it is deemed best in this instance to insert the report entire: LABOR IN THE MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS OF SAXONY AND BOHEMIA. Annaberg arid thie surrounding mountai noues country, including Buchholz, carries on chiefly the manufacture of laces, gimps, guipures, fringes, gloves. &c. Laces are madelby womnen andgirls in villao~es surrounding the beforenamed towns; gfood workers and such'as have experience make from 21 to 3 thalers ($1.80 to $2.16) a week, working fourteen hours a day; girls an(d old women do not exceed 1 to 1_~ thalers ($0.72 to $1.08) a week. Board is cheaper in the country than in town.; worki ng-girls pay, about 2- thaler (48 cents) a week.; a family of five expends about 3 thalers, ($2.16.) -Children in thre country are obliged to,attend school. as regularly as those in town, but only three to four hours a, day, and up to their fourteenth year. b ewmn n hlrn Fringes, &c., are chiefly made in town, bymn wmnladcilrn and they mostly work in their dwellings. The working-hours for men are from 7 to 12 a. m. and from 1 to 7 p. in., (eleven hours,) and they earn from 3 to 4 thalers ($2.16 to~ 2.88) a week. Women and children do the lighter part of this work; they labor fourteen hours a day and earn from 2 to 3 thalers ($1.44 to $2.16) a week. A family consisting of five members, (man, wife, and three children,) if diligent, can make about 7 thalers ($5.04) a week. 540 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Children attend school regularly five hours a day, from their sixth to their fourteenth year, inclusive. Embroiderers, (girls,) who work in stores ten hours a dy, earn from 2 to 2- thalers ($1.44 to $1.80) a week. Board and lodging for an unmarried laboring-man ranges from 1 to 2 thalers, ($1.08 to $1.44;) for a girl, 1 thaler (72 cents) a week. A family consisting of five members generally uses up the earnigs of a week, i. e., 7 thalers, ($5.04.) Gloves.-A good glove-klnitter, workin twelve hours a day, may earn 7 to 8 thalers ($5.04 to 85.76) a week; girls working in the ctory ten hours a day make 24- to 3 thalers ($1.80 to $2.16) a week. Girls who sew at home and work twelve hours a day earn 1 to 2 thalers (1.08 to $1.44) a week. Children are not employed in glove-making. Markneukirchen, as well as the villages and small towns around it, form a district in the southwest corner of Saxony, where a specialty is made of the manufacturing of musical istruments of various descriptions. There are only men employed in these manufactories. They work eleven hours a, day, and earn during that time fro 22 roshen to thaler, (54 to 72 cents,) i. e., 44 to 6 thalers (3.24 to $4.32) a week. The expenses of a married laborer for rent may be estimated at 30 to 40 thalers ($21.60 to $28.80) a year. Unmarried workingmen pay from 2D to 3- thalers ($1.80 to $2.52) for board and lodging a week. Children are obliged to attend school from the seventh to their fourteenth year, but there are advantages offered for further improvement. Olbernhau, Zschoppau, Waldkirchen, &c., is a district in Saxony where, chiefly, toys are manufactured. Men working in these toy-factories, either by the piece or by the hour, (twelve hours a day,) earn from 3 to 5 thalers, ($2.26 to $3.60) a week. Women and girls working on the same conditions make from 2 to 3 thalers, ($1.44 to $2.16) a week. Children work eight hours a day-the remaining four hours being devoted to their school-and receive 1 thaler (72 cents) a week. They cease attending school when fourteen years old. Board and lodging for an unmarried man ranges from 1.20 to 1.25 thalers, ($1.24 to $1.32) a week; for an unmarried woman or girl, from 1.05 to 1.10, (84 to 96 cents.) Freiberg, a town of about 20,000 inhabitants,. 1,200 feet above the level of the sea, known. for its excellent Mining Academy, has also one of the largest manufactories, of gold and silver laces, trimmings, fringes, sandal laces, &C., in Saxony, probably in all Germany. Here, as well as in all other manufacturing districts of Saxony, most of the work is done by the laborers in their dwellings; in this instance chiefly that of wire-drawing, fringe-making and lace-making,. The latter work is usually performed by married womsen and their grown daughters, and as they have also to perform their household duties, it is difficult to give a certain number of hours for their working time. The wages of employe's in this branch of manufacturing are as follows: 1. Men who work in the manufactory 12 hours a day receive from 2.15 to 3.25 thalers ($1.80 to $2.76) a week. 2. Wire-drawers working at home make from 4 to 8 thalers ($2.88 to $5.76) a week. 3. Fringe-makers who also work in their dwellings earn from 3.20 to 5 thalers ($2.64 to $3.60) a week.' 4. C-iris who either spin or embroider work on machines in the manufactory, 12 hours a day, earn from 1 to 2 thalers ($0.72 to $1.44) a week. LABOR IN GERMANY. 541 5. Lace-makers, (married women,) working in their homes, earn from thalers ($0.24 to $0.84) a week. In regard to board and lodging it may be said that girls usually live with their parents and pay nothing, their earnings being so little. Unmarried men pay annually for rent from 15 to 20 thalers, ($10.80 to 14.40.) Generally the expenses for living may be considered the same as stated in the districts of ilarkneukirchen and Annaberg. e ylass-anfaturing district of Northern Bohemia. Workmen in this bran of manufacturing are divided into two classes, viz: class A, those who live in their own dwellings and do the polishing, painting, gilding, and the lower kind of engraving; and class B, those who work in establishments or ateliers. The former do not keep certain hoursbut work as they please, and earn, according to the demand for labor, from 9 to 15 fors ($3.60 to $6) a week, while the latter adhere to a working time of 8 hors a day, and receive a fixed pay, which varies, according to their abilities, from 12 to 20 florins ($4.80 to $8) a week. Women are only employed for polishing the glass and gilding, and for packing the goods, and earn from 3 to 5 florins ($1.20 to $2) per week. Children are not employed until they are fourteen years of age, and, consequently, free from school duties. After that time they are appren. ticedas painters or engravers, these being the easiest employments. They are obliged to serve four years, unless the apprentice has the means to pay to his master board and lodging for the first year; in that event he serves only three years. There, is a great difference in the habits and in the social standing and enlightenment of these work-people, which, in fact, is indicated by the kind of labor -which they perform. The people belonging to class A are, if I may term it so, a rough class, and have to subsist on 6 flormns ($2.40) per week for each family. Those belonging to class B, among whom are found real artists, and who also live (not work) in their own dwellings, cannot support their families upon less than from 15 to 20 flormns ($6 to $8) a week. Unmarried men of class B pay from 6 to 10 flormns ($2.40 to $4) a week for board and lodging. MECHANICAL AND FARM LABOR. Statement showving the wages of skilled and other workmen in Dresden, Saxony. Occupations. Per day. Per week. Skilled workmen: Blacksmiths-.............................. $0 60 to $0 84 $3 60 to $5 04 Brick-layvers or masons —........................60 to 34 3 60 to 5 04 Cabinet-makers-............................ 72 to 96 4 32 to 5 76 Carpenters —-............................ ~..72 4 32 Coopers-................................72 4 32 to 5 76 Machinists-.............................. 60 to 84 3 60 to 5 04 Painters-................................ 54 to 72 3 24 to 4 32 Shoemakers —-............................72 4 32 Tailors —-...............................72 4 32 Tin-smiths-............................... 48 to 72 2 88 to 4 32 Farm-hands: For month. Experienced hands —.........................48 7 20 Ordinary hands —............................36 5 40 Common labor, (not farm)-.........................24....... Female servants-.................................... 2 16 to 3 60 542 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA FRANKFORT-ON-TIE-AIN. Frankfort, formerly a free town, was the seat of the German Diet down to the year 1866, when it was annexed to Prussia. It lies on the right bank of the Main, and is connected by a stone bridge with the suburb of Sachsenbausen on the left bank. In 1871 it had 90,748 inhabitants, of whom 3,000 were Jews. Many of the hoses in the new town, especially in the principal street, called Zeil, in the Nee Mainzer and Taunus-Strasse, and on the quays facing the Main, inhabited by rich merchants, bankers, or diplomatists, are palaces. Nothing is more pleasing here than the belt of boulevard gardens, replacing the ramparts and studded with handsome detached villas. The old town, on the other hand, with its narrow streets and quaint wooden buildings, with gables overhanging their basement-stories, forms a complete contrast to the new. Mlany of the houses are of great antiquity, especially in the quarter around the cathedral and R6merberg, and preserve all the characteristics of the ancient imperial free city. Frankfort has long been the financial metropolis of continental Europe; the cradle of the Rothschilds. In the Jews' quarter the old house, so long occupied by the family, and where the grandmother of the present Baron Rothschild died in a recent year, was standing in 1872. Exports to the United tates. The following statement shows the exports to the United Statesfrom the consular district of Frankfbrt-on-the-laiu for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1873: Articles. Value. Articles. Value. Leather, bidles, and slkins-........ a43,131 35 Mineral-water............ $6999 93 Hares' and hatters' fur...........183" 36 57 Frankfort printing-black....... 8, 939 ii Jewelry, precious and imitation stonies. 186 599 28 Perfumery and soap......... 361 37 wine, brandy, beer, and cider ----- 139 186 46 Type and copper matrices -........ 2-38 43 Linen, woolen, andi cotton goods -.... 1'7, 171 79 Em.nery-stones-............ 1, 497 33 Human hair and hair works ----— 97,323 O8 Seed - -.................... 10,741 58 Leather goods-.............8 457 98 Macaroni-...............647 141 11 Silk and silk goods-...........37 l6l5 59 Ciga r-molds-.............. 7 443 65 Fancy goods-..............3,299 53 Earthen ware-............. 5,499 ~25 Iron, hardware, iron goods, and ma Shoe and horn buttons........ 5, 248 55 chines-................ 16,516 53 Hops-................. 10,390 20 China and ~lass ware-........;-24,842 40 Prunes,;, fruit-juice., and dried fruit_ 31,430 ii Pipes-..................14, 0eO 30 Marble bloks2 817 30 Drugs, chemicals, and dyes....... -402 901,4'0 8Ouiucallerie-.............16, 693 32 nine-9................. 9896 45 Toys................. 1,497 14 Kid gloves-...............34, ca5 7i Sundries —..............,93 9I Stationery, papers, hooks, prints, &c.. 17 467 -cI Cement-................. 00,27 44 Total-...............1,828,034 97 RATES OF WAGE ~5 IN 1874. The advance in thl'e prices paid for labor in Frankfort a. d vicinity, especially in building-trades, is thus stated by Hon. W. Prentiss Webster, United States consul-general: There has been a great advance in the rates of labor and a corresponding increase in the prices of rent and provisions. There is now going on in nearly every city of Germany an immense and wholly u nparalleled amount of building, as well as many public improvements, such as water-works, sewers, and similar undertakings. This great amount of work in cities has drawn not only the men and boys from all the villages, leaving the women to do the work in the country, but has also drawn thousands of skilled laborers from the northern part of Italy, who find employment as masons,9 carpenters, painters, and some as laborers. Still the supply of labor does not equal the demand. LABOR IN GERMANY. 543 Daily wages of skilled workmen in the building-trades. Trades. Wages. B3ricklayers or masons................................................................... $ 0t 12 Bricklayers or masons-~~~~~~~~~~~~~$1 00 to $1 20 Carpenters.............................................................................. 80 to 1 20 Painters................................................................................. Soto 1 00 Plasterers............................................................................... 00 to 1 Stone-cutters............................................................................ } 00to 16 Stone-cutters-1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2 to 1 60 Daily, wages of farm-laborers and others. WXit~hout With board. board bo.'rd. Experienced hands ~ Summer...................................... 0. t Winter............................................ 30 to 50 C0 to 80 Ordinary hands - n r-0t 70 0to S Ord~~~.. interyad......Smer................................................................ { Summer......................................................... Common laborers at other than farm-work................................- I....... - 70 to 80 2 600t tooS0? Female servants............................. -6 to - 00 - Femaleserv nts —--------------------------- ----------- -----------, per m onth.'........... Weekly wages of skilled workmen, in the city of FranIfort and in the veiglhboring town of Offem bach. [The florin computed at 40 cents, United States gold.] Occupations. Frankfort. Offenbach. Bakers, (including board)............................................. $4 00 to $6 00 $2 80 to $3 60 Bonnet-makers........................................................ 4 00 to 5 20 2 80 to 3 60 Bookbinders......................................................... 4 2,0 to 4 80 4 80 to 8 00 Braziers................................................................ 6 00 to 8 00 4 80 to 6 40 Carpenters........................................................... 5 20 to 6 00 4 90 to 6 00 Cigar-makers........................................................ 4 00 to 4 80 4 00 to 4 tO Cofectioners, (including board)..................................... 00 to 600 2 80 to 3 60 Coopers.............................................................. 4 80 to 7 20 5 60 to 6 40 Engravers........................................................... 4 90 4 80 to 7 20 Farriers.............................................................. 4 t0 to 6 00 3 20 to 4 00 Goldsmiths.......................................................... 6 40 to' 8 00 Joiners............................................................... 6 00 to 720 4 80 to 8 00 Kettle-makers........................................................ 4 80 to 6 00 6 40 to 7 20 Leather-dressers -------------------------------- - -------------------- 8 40 to 9 60 6 00 to 7 20 Maohinists...........................................................-6 00 to 9 60 4 80 to 10 00 Marble-cutters - 7 20 to 9 60 5 60 to 7 20 Marble-polishers..................................................... 5 00 to 6 00 5 60 to 7 20 Masons.............................................................. *7 20 to 840 4 80 to 6 00 Painters, house....................................................... 4 80 to 6 00 6 00 Printers- 4 80 to 600 5 60 to 7 20 iProof-readers......................................................... 7 20 to 8 40. Pump-makers......................................................... 7 20 to 9 60 5 00 Saddlers.............................................................. 4 80 to 600 4 00 to 4 80 Shoemakers.......................................................... *4 20 to 6 00 4 00 to 4 80 Slaters................................................................ 6 00 to 720 4 80 to 6 00 Stone-cutters.......................................................... 7 20 to 9 60 5 60 to 7 20 Tailors............................................................... 4 20 to 6 00 4 00 to 6 00 Trunk-makers........................................................ 4 80 to 6 00 4 00 to 4 80 Upholsterers.......................................................... 4 80 to 6 00 4 00 to 5 00 Waiters, (including board)............................................ 7 20 to 9 60 4 80 to 7 20 Waiters in hotels, (including board)................................... 4 00 to 8 00 2 80 to 6 40 Watchmakers......................................................... 4 80 to 6 00 4 80 to 6 40 Workmen, unskilled................................................. 420 to 480 2 80 to 4 80 * On piecework. STUTTGART, WURTEMBERG. The manufacture of textile fabrics, chiefly of cotton and of half wool, of gold and silver articles, gloves, leather, and musical instruments, constitutes the principal industries of this famed city. The cotton-spinning manufactories employ upward of 270,000 spindles and 3,850 operatives. The number of power looms employed in weaving cotton tissues has increased since the year 1861 from 2,250 to 3,000; the number of hand. looms in use is about 12,500. The value of the annual production of cotton fabrics was estimated 544 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. in the year 1861 at upward of $5,000,000. Stuttgart, although by no means equal to Leipsic, yet holds a high position in the book-trade, having numerous book-selling establishments. The Stuttgart booktrade is reputed to produce annually $1,500,000. LABOR IN WURTEMBERG IN 1872.'Unable from a want of time to visit any part of this kingdom the author availed himself of the proflfered services of Mr. J. Oberndorf, formerly of Baltimore but now a resident of Stuttgart, to procure information in regard to the cost of labor and of provisions. The following statement not only gives the prices of both at different periods, but their absolute and relative increase. It is gratiying to learn that as compared with 1830 the advance in wages has been greater than in the necessaries of life, and the condition of the working classes has been consequently improved. STUTTGART, Sep~temiber, 1873. The feeling of security since the close of the great German-French war, and the general belief in the probability of a lasting peace, have given a great impetus to the development of industrial enterprise in Germany during the past few years, and the increased demand for labor has resulted in a considerable advance in the rates of wages. Tables given below are based on reliable information obtained during the autumn of 1872, from manufacturers, mechanics' unions, and official authorities al over W rtemberg, and are compared with those given in the report of the chamber of commerce for the year 1865. They are the average wages paid to adult males: I.- Wages in factories, (by decdes.) Industrial establishments. 1830-'39. 1840-49. 1850-59. 1860-65. 1872. Cottton-spinning....................................$0 30 $0 33 $0 44 $0 56 cotton-Nyeaving............................................40 55 Wool-spinning..:..................- 28 2S1 37 44 62 Woolen-cloth factories -—............... 262 28 33$- 44 51* Chemicals -—..................... 23$ 2.7 39$ 38 46 Paper -—........................ 24 27 33 38 52 Wall-papers -—.................... 28 3-2 36 48 60 Silver —w~are -—..................... 43$ 47 57 70 80 Jewelry -—...................... 40 47 50 64 97i Pianos........................ 3 6 41$ 50$ 64 97 Cutlery -—....................... 27 32 40 44 52 Japanned tin-wsre -—.................. 36 46 56 60 701 Printing -—...................... 44 50 50 67 97$ NoTE.-The prices in this and subsequent statements were given in florins, which have been com. puted at 40 cents. II.-Daily wages of mechanics, (by decades.) Wilrtemberg. Cityvof Stuttgart. Occopations. -____ _ _ _ _-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1830-'39. 1840 —49. 1850-'59. 1860-'65. 1872. 1872. Blacksmiths-............... $0 23$ $0 27 $0 37 $0 42) $0 51 $0 70 Brickla9yers and masons - -......... 27$ 31 37 52 63$ 88 Carpenters. —------ --------- 27$ 30 36 49 61$ 84 Coppersmi-ths —.............. 25$ 29 53$3 42 61$ 67 Cuters —................. 26 29 33$ 40 51$ 60 Dyers —.................. 27$ 311 37 42 51 70 Harness-makers —............ 24 27$1 32 38 55$- 60 House-painters —............. 37 43 3 512 66 78 96 Joiners —................. 25 28 33 40 55$ 60 Laborers on public works - -........ 24 24 28 34 47 70 Locksmiths —............... 26 28 33 41 55 60 Shoemakers —............... 21 23 28 34 48 52 Stone-masons —.............. 34 39 47 64 88 1 40 Tailors —................. 21$ 24 29$ 34$ 52 60 Tanners —................. 28 30 35 41 53 60 Tinners —................ 25$ 28R 33' 39$ 60 60 Turners —................ 24 25$ 31$ 36 53 60 Average for factory hands, (male adults) 31$1 35$1 41$ 51$1 67$ 67$ Average for mechanics, (male adults) -- 26 29y$ 34$ 42$ 42A 421 LABOR IN GERMANY. 545 The former custom of journeymen and apprentices boarding and lodging with their employers is, as a general thing, only kept up yet in the country; in the larger cities onlyexceptionally. W ereboardandlodging are given, it is calculated at the average rate of 28 kreutzers (18 cents gold) per day. Wages of masons and other mechanics employed in house-building, especially in the city of Stuttgart, have increased more than that of other trades on account of the extraordinary growth of the city and the consequent demand for masons, bricklayers, carpenters, painters, &c. At present a good stone-mason can earn about 5 florins per day in Stuttgart. This is of iportance to the neighboring villages, who furnish a considerable proportion of these workingmen. As a consequence agricultural pursuits are more neglected, and inthe tilling of the soil left more to the feale part of the family, because the father, with his SOS, finds employment in the stone-quarries much more profitable. The vineculture in these places suffers from the samle cause. It i to be regretted that the fondness of drink, (although generally only of beer and not of stronger beverages,) prevents the working people from saving any considerable part of their now relatively-good earnings. gs. The percetage of increase in the rates of wages was as follows: C. o ~. ~. Classes. D I ~.-Factories:...Per cent. Per cent. Cotton-spinning....................................................... 107 26 Cotton-weaving.132........................................ 1 32 37 Wool-spinning......................................................... 12 I 41 Woolen-cloth factories............................ 92 17 (Chemicals.................................. 97 21 Paper-.................................... 117 37 Wall-papers-....I........................... 114 25 Silver-ware-................................. 83 14 Jewelry-.................................. 143 52 Pianos.................................... 168 52 Cotlery-................................... 95 15 Japanned tin-ware.............................. 94 17 Printing.........................4...................................... 121 46 The average advance paid to men employed in factories.114 31 IL.-Mechanics: Dyers..................................... 85 21 Tanners....................................... 88 30 Stone-masons —................................ 159 53 Brickla~yers and other masons —....................... 132 22 Bailders and carpenters —.......................... 130 26 House-painters —............................... 113 18 Blacksmi irhs —................................ 137 45 Locksmiths.................................... 110 34 Coppersmiths..-............................... 142 46 C atlers —..........27 28 Tinners —................................... 1:7 5-2 Tailors —................................... 151 50 Boot and shoe makers —132.......................... M 41 Harness-makers —............................... 131 46 Joiners..................................- I- - - - 124 38 Turners-.................................... 119 46 The average- advance paid to mechanics................... 124 -37 IlL.-Day-laborers on public works......................... 133 37 35 L 546 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. But this advance has not entirely contributed to improve the condition of the working classes, as on the other hand the prices of the necessaries of life have advanced in a similar ratio. The price of dwellings in Stuttgart has advanced within the last tell years from 50 to 75 per cent. In the country the advance has been comparatively small. Now, let us see the advance in the price of bread, meat, beer, and firewood: Average prices per 100 pounds (which is 1l-per cent. lessthan the hundred-weight in Amer- Average prices per pound ofica, the latter being equal to Years. 101.60475 German pounds) ofSpelt. Grain. Rye. Barley. Beef. Pork. Veal. 1833-'42................ $1 33 $1 851 $1 29 $1 371 $0 05. 8 $0 05. 47 $0 05 1856-'65............ 1 73 2 47 1 79 1 66 9.03 9.07 7. 93 1872.-......................... 2 21l 3 11 2 25 2 06 14.67 14. 67 14 Advance in 1872. Years. On spelt. On grain. On rye. On barley. On beef. On poerk. On veal. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 1872 compared with 1833-'42. 6 67 75 50 15:3 1 180 1872 compared with 1856-'65. 28 26 26 24 61 62 76 AveragLe advance in the p)rice ofYears. Breadstuffs. Meat. Per cent. Per ceot. From 1833-'42 until 1872....................................................... 65 1674 From 1856-'65 until 1872......................................................... 26 1;6 The prices of beer and of fire-wood were as follows: _~~~~~~~~~~~ 1 cord wood = 141 wtirtt. cubic feet =- 31.3860; wilrtt. cubic meters. Years. II Hicklory. Pine. 1830-'39.-'$0 01.17 $6 90 $5 20 s180 —'65........................................................... 1.67 9 40 6 40 1812............................................2.7 11 60 6 80 This makes the average advance in 1872: On pine and Years. On beer. On hickory On pine hickory wood. wood. wood together. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Co'rpared with 1833-'42............................. 94 68 31 50 Compared with 1856-'65............................. 36 23 6 15 The advanced prices of fire-wood have caused the consumption of coal and coke to assume much larger proportions. These are preferred by all whose first object is LABOR N GERMANY. 547 onomy, as they are muc ceaper than wood, and many of the old-fashior 9d woodtoves now take the place of coal-stoves even in the country. If we put together, for purposes of comparison, the ADVANCE of wages ard of the price of read, meat, beer, and wood, we obtain the fobllowing result: Wages of meYears. ehani~cs and Breadstuffs. Meat. Beer. Wood. in factories. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent Per cent. From 180-39 qr 1833- to 7219 65 167 94 50 ir 1860-6 or 185-65 to 1872... 34 26 66 36 15 Compared with 1830, the advance of wages has been greater than the advanee in the pices of the ecessaries of life; so in general, and especially with some of the branches of trade the ondition of the workin-classes has experienced a considerable amelioration. INDVSTRY OF WURTEBERG IN 1871. Te following information in regard to labor in Wiirtemberg in the years 1870 and 1871, before the advance in the rates of wages resulting rom the termiation of the Franco-German war had taken place, is condetised from the British couar reports: Ot of a population of 1,748,28 inhabitants, 50 per cent. are employed in agricultre and 9,077 in other kinds of industry. These last are distributed as follows: Employed inClasses. Total. Manufactures Commerce and and handicrafts. carrying-trade..Employers and overseers........... 111, 330 21,719 133. 049 W orkmnen-................................................ ll, 144 9, 023 120w, 167 )Vor'klwomen.................... 13,741 2,120 15,861 Total-........................ 236,215 32,8S62. 269, 077' It, has been calculated that the capital of the nation, by aid of the, laboring population, returns a revenue of 10 per cent. The following- statistics will help to give a further idea of the mode in which labor is (Iistrihnted among (the different branches: 1F01ty-foujr thousand three hundred and forty-four persons are employed in the preplibaof food. The principal establishments in this class of manufactories areCi11 ~l -------------------------------— 2, 084 listilleries. --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- -18,000 (~N B.-Of this number only 55, or 66 per cent., are at present at work.) Bretxweris --------------------------------— 2,367 Chicory mannfactories ---------------------------- 4 Beet-root sugar 1 ianufactories ------------------------ Four establish ments, employing 325 hands and 5,200 spindles, are engcaged in spinning flax. Linen is mostly hand-woven in W~iirtemberg. This trade employs 19,507 workmen and 19:1.379 loomis. The number of power-looms in present use is 271. Seventy-five, estalilishments are engaged in spinning woolen yarn, employing, in the aggregrate, 60,000 spindles and 2,2400 workmen. Three manuifactories for carding wool, employing 420,000 spindles and 13,500 workmen. Seventy-four, working with 527 hand and 31 power looms, and employing 1,114 hand's, a-re employed in the manufacture of woolen tissues. Twenty-two, working with 444 hand and 45 power looms, and occupying 836 wor-k — mien, are engaged in the manufacture of flannels and mixedl stuffs. Thiere are upwarid of sixty manuifactories employed in Wtirtemberg in the construction of' machines, six of these engaged on metals in the consirruction of locomotives. Thirty-four establismieuts, are engraged in working precious metals. Besides these, there are many large factories working in all classes of iron, bronze, and zinc mannfactores, and employing a large portiun of the industrial population, the number of which does not appear in the official returns published. The pre-sent avera go rate of wages may be generally stated as follows: LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. WAGES IN TOWNS. For the most ordinary class of labor, 40 cents to 48 cents per day, or $2.40 to $2.8 per eek; while skilled labor in the higher branches of industry,. g., of an engine-builder, or first-class machanic, con-mmands as high as $6 to $8 a week. The worst paid labor is that of journeymen tailors and cobblers. On the occasion of threatened strike of cobblers in May, 1870, it was represented that the rate of paymet for piecework was so low that it was impossible, even by working fourteen and fifteen hours a day, to earn more than four or five florin ($1.60 to $2.00) per week. The masters maintained that good work could obtain double that amount of wages. They, however, agreed to raise their former wages from 15 to 25 per cent. WAGES IN TIlE COUNTRY. Wages vary considerably, according to the time of year. In winter labor is very cheap; while in summer, and particularly during the harvest time it will command even higher wages than in towns. Instances are not rare where as much as 75 cents d 78 cents a day have been paid for day laborers. When in receipt of equal wages, the position of the country laborer is naturally far better than that of the workman in town; is wants being much more easy to supply, especially in the item Of lodgig, the rent of which is very high in the larger towns, and constantly on the increase. A married workman in Stuttgart has, at the present moment, to pay from $35 to $50 a year for a lodging consisting of two rooms and a kitchen, while in the country he could easily lodge himself for half that sum. The rates of wages in factories vary according to the distance of the factories from the capital. In the cotton-spinning manuifactory near Essligen, about four miles from Stuttgart, the wages for a good male spinner vary from 36 cents to 75 cents a ay; a good female hand receives 36 cents a day. Tile working hands in this establishment have the advantage of procuring excellent lodgings built by their employers, and consisting of four good rooms each, with kitchen and cellar, at the moderate rent of from 20 to $30 a year. In the calico manufactory at Heidenheim, the present rates of wages are 37 cents a ay for a male hand, and 22 cents for women's and children's labor. It may be observed, however, that Heidenheim is situated in one of the cheapest districts of Wrtemberg, and the purchasing power of wages is accordingly higher than in other parts of the country. Wages in this factory have increased 12 per cent. since 1865, and 4 per cent. in the last year. The most marked rise in wages is in the building trade in Stuttgart. This businiess was one of the first to suffer at the outbreak of the-war; but within the last year it has received such an impetus as to have affected the price of labor in various other branches of industry, and over a very extended radius. The following rates of daily wages of workmen employed by the Stuttgart Building Society was furnished by the secretary of the society: Class of laborers. Amount. Class of laborers, Amount. Ditchers and diggers.............. $0 66 Toclismiths-0............. 0 66 Btickilayers —................. 79 Blacksmiths............... 54 Ordin~ary laborers, hodmen......... 58 Potters................. 55 Ordinary laborers, boys - -......... 45 Timen................. 66 Masons —................. 91 House-painters............. (Carpenters.. —.............. 7 Room-painters-............. 83 Plasterers-1............... 00 Upholsterers-.............. 54 Joiners —................. 66 Paviors................. 83 Glaziers.................6-2 BAVARIA. Interesting as a visit to Bavaria, and especially to its art-renowned calpital, would have been, its manufacturing industries were iiot sufficiently varied and extensive to induce the author to depart from his prescribed route through the Inanul'acturing towns of the con1tineut. The population of Bavaria is pi-incipally engaged in agricultural pursuits. Its manufactures are chiefly connected with science and the tine arts. They comprise philosophical instrullents, paint colors, lithographic-stones, gold and silver le-a~f, carl-iriges, and cloth-stuffs. It is LABOR IN GERMANY. oted particularly for its breweries, of which there are five to d six hundred, making one hunldred million gallons of beer anuall, inly consuamed within the country. Nearly two-tlirds of the ene of the state is derived from this source. Next to b r, coarse ien is te most important p)roduct of mnanufacturing industry, and of late ear a number of cotton-factories have been erected. Leather is somewhat extensively manufactured, as are also paper, articles of straw and wood, porcelain, glass, nails, needles, jewelry, beet-root sugar, and toaco. uic it is true, has some eminently good iro, bronze, and bell fonderies, but its chief glory consists in its finue galleries of aintings and sculpture. It owes its )rosperity chiefly to the amount of courtfavor bestowed upon it. Within the last fifty years this town as a focus of artistic activity, has been largely developed, and its material proslperity augmented in a proportionate degree; and now there are wif any, towns in Europe, of the same size, which contain so many public edifices and institutions devoted to the purpose of art and science, this the capital of Bavaria, and the acknowledged metroolis of Southern Gerany. It has a university with seventeen hundred students, andalibray containing 147,00()0 volumnes and( 5,294 i sripts. Twelve newspapers are published in the town. Its porcelain is exported lie that of Dresden, to different parts of Europe. AGRICULTURAL LABOR IN GERMIANY. Professor Dr. Freiherr v. d. Goltz, of Kbnigsberg, who as nertaken the elaboration of the "'Investigation into the co ition of the rural laborers in Germany," initiated by the congress of German griculturists, has recently published, ii the Concordia, preliiary tables of the waes usually paid to agricultral laborers in diferent parts of Germuany.'These tables refer to snch laborers only as, although. not unader contract-obligation~s, are steadily employed diiri ng the wviiole year, earning no other emolumnents. Thie rites of wagt(es for summier and winter represent the average of all reports received, aggregating nearly one thousand four hundred, so that each amount in. the seventy-three classes enumerated below represents the mnean. of nearly twenty reports. Statement 8howi-ng the daily wvages in saninner and winter, respectively, of agricultural laborers ine the under-mentionied 73 districts of Germtany,'in the year 1874. [0silber.-roschen 1- thaler - 79 cent,;, United'States gold.] Places. a Province, of Prussia: 1 District of Gumbi-nnen-......................$0 26. 40 $0 16. 80 $0 21 60 2 District of Klnigsberg-...................... 31. 68 1 9. 68 25. e;, 3 District of Dantzic-........................ 32. 60 21. 60 07 I1) 4 District of Marieuwerder-..................... 34. 32 2-1. 35 7., Aveae3 1. 25 19.86 05.55 Province of Pomerania: -__ 5 District of C~slin-......................... 33. 84 26. 40 3.I-, 6 District of Stettin-3......................... 3o.6 12. 04 3.-0 7 iDistrict of Stralsund-........................ 57.81 84 ( 21 4.G Average-......................... 43. 6Ga- 26. 40 I 315. 04 Province of Posen:I 8 District of Birombergr —-------------------- 38. 88 21. 12 30. 00 9 District of Posen —.......................... 7. 81 1s. 2-4 ~ 23. 04 Average-......................... 3 3. 3,6 19.68!2GL532 550) LABOR IN EUROPE AN AMERICA. Statemeot showing the daily wages in summer and winter, 4c.-Continued. -Y C.45z~~~~ ~Places. Province of Brandenburg: 0 District of Potsdam..............................88 34.44 11 District of Frankfort-on-the-Oder................. 24 2. Average................................. 5 Province of Silesia: 12 District of Liegnitz..................6 21. 9.... 13 District of Breslll...............................64 14 District of dppeln................................. 80 Average.......................................... Province of Saxony: 15 District of Mersebutrg............................ 36.72 28.32 32.52 1 District of MAlgdeburg.......................76 29.28 35. 5.1. 17 District of Erfurt.................................4 Average.................................96 Province of ilanover: 18 District of Hanover...................................... 19 District of Hlildesheim............................04 20 District of Liinebr.4-2 31. 44 3.... 7 21 District of Osrnabrilek............................. -.7 22 D)istrict of Aurich................................ 92 23 District of Stade.................................. 04 Average................................. 8 24 Province of Schleswig-Holsatia...................36 39. 9 Province of Westphalia: 25 District of Atiluster...................................3. 64 26 District of Minden......................... 32.16 1245.08 30. 1Z 217 District of Atrnsberg-...51. 454 39. 36 45. 60 Average —......................... 41. 28 33. 12 37. 20 Province of Rhenish Prussia: 28 District of Duisseldorf........................ 47. 76 37. ~20 42. 445 2) District of Cologne.......................... 42. 72 32t. 454 37.645 30 1)istrict oif Aix-la,-Chapelle.................... 455. 12) 33.640 39. IfS) 51 District oftTreves........................... 41. 68 32. 40:Ss. 04 32 District of Cobleuz........................ 34. 40 29. 245 32. 04 Average-......................... 42. 72 33. 12- 37. 92 33 Provitace of ilesse-Nassaun.....................345. 44 10.7-2 34. 454 34 Principality of Waldeck...................... 35.20 24 27. 60 35 Principality of Lippe-lDetraold.................... 36 24 30 36 flanscatic city lBremnen....................... 66.24 48 57. 12 5i7 Gramd-duchy of Oldenbur..................... 50. 40 36C 43. 20 W4 ltnseafic city Ltiheck........................ 39.450 23. tO 34.045'39 Duchy of Lauonbarg......................- 345. 45 25.68 32. 120 40 Gratnl-dotchy of M,1ecklenDbtrGr............................... 38. 40 41 Dtochy of Ilirnuswick........................ 37. 20 31. 68 34. 44 4-2 Duehy of Auhalt.. —----------------------- 30 26. 16 245. 08 4;1 Gratnt-dnchy of Saxe-Weinmar.................... 33. 12 23. 52Z 24.12 44 1)nclhy of'Saxe-Cobttrcg-Gotha.................... 34.840;24. 458 30. Q45 45 Dtietrly of Saxe-Altenbarg..35. 52 245. 48 31. 2 46 Duchy of Saxe-Meining-en....................... 27.36 22~.045 24. I 2 KNin dons of Saxony: 4 7 District of Leipzie......................... 40.045 28. 32 34. 20 445 Dtstrict of Dresden......................... 43.645 31.20 37. 44 49) Di fowlt of Zwickau......................... 39. 84 245.56 34. 20O 50 District of Bantzen......................... 31. -20 245. 045 -29. 45 Average.......................... 38. 45 245. 85 33. 655 Kiugdomn of Bavaria: St1 Di-strict, of Palatinate........................ 39. 84 32. 64 36. 24 -52 IfAstriet ot Lower Franconia.................... 33. 4 24.-24 29. 04 5" stritt (if5 Middle Franconia.................... 39. 72I- 23. 5-2 27. 12 5t Ditstrict of Upper lFracoa-ia. —----------------- 3 4.40 21. 36 25.5)08 - butA ict o1 Upper Palatinate and1 Itegensbulrg.2........... 5,. 3 2 23. 04 25J. (645 ab D tuct ot Lower Bavaria..................... 37.68 30.-24 33. 96 LABOR IN GERMANY. 551 Statement showing the daily wages in snmmer and winier, 4'c.-Coatinued. ~- Places. s.. 57 District of Upper Bavaria........................................ $0 44. 88 $0:33. 36 $0 39. 1 58 District of Suabia and Newburg.................................. 47. 76 34. 06 40. 92 Average.................................................. 37. 23 27. 8 L 32. 52 Kingdom of Wiirtemberg: 59 District of Neckar................................................ 49. 92 38. 64 44. 28 60 District of Jaxt.-................................................ 40. 3-2 29.76 35. 04 61 District of Danube.............. -—................................ 44. 64 34. 08 39. 36 62 District of Black Forest with ilohenzollern....................... 43. 44 29. 76 36. 60 Average................................................. 44.58 33. 06 38. 82 Grand-duchy of Baden: 63 Valley of the Lower Rhiniie........................................ 43. 20 35. 28 39. 24 64 Valley of the Upper Rhine........................... 46. 80 37. 20 42 65 Lower Mountains................................................. 37. 20 29. 52 33. 36 66 Upper Moutntairns....................... 49.20 38.1 6 43. (18 67 Surrond(lins of Lake Constanco......................................'..... 44. 40 36. 24 40. 32 Averago................................................. 44. 16 35. 28 39. 72 Grand-dnchy of Hesse-Darmstadt: 68 Province of Starkenburg.......................................... 38. 64 30. 24 34. 44 69 Province of IRhenish iessia....................................... 30. 96 30. 96 30. 96 70 Province of Upper iessia....................... 37. 44 26. 88 32.16 Average................................................. 35. 68 29. 36 32.52 Alsace-Lorraine: 71 District of Lower Alsace......................................... 46. 80 39. 60 43. 2e 72 District of Upper Alsace.......................................... 49. 92 41. 76 45. 8~ 73 District of Lorraine............................................... 52.08 36. 96 44. 52 Average................................................. 49- 60 39- 44 44. 52 Average..~~~~~~~~~~~49. 60 [39. 44 4.0 PRICES OF BREADSTUFFS IN WUPRTEMIBURG. Statement showing the average prices of breadstuffs in Wiirtemburg in the years from 1833 to 1873. The lowest prices occurred in the years1836. 141. W heat.................................. per scheffel5.:3 78. Spelt. -,,, 1 6:2. Rye...............................................,'-5-....Barley.......$ 2...4.......... —--—...........- --—. —--- $ 24 Oats................... 1 42 The highest prices occurred in the years1847. 1854. 1873. Wheat........................... per scheffel $9 97 $10 28 $s 99 Spelt.................................................... 4 27 3 90 3 t Rye ----------—.-...-.-..-..-.-7 I1 8 12 6343 Barley..,,....................... 6 08 6 23 6 29 Oats.-.........................2..,....... 20 3 02 2 93 * One sclefftel — 5. 02' bttushl 1t. 552 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The high prices in 1873 are the result of the small harvest in 1872 and a decidedly poor harvest in 1873, together with a sinking price of golil during the last years. Average prices of other provisions. 1872. 1873. Pease. -........$3 52 $3 74............. Lentils...................................... 59 3 82 Beans.......................................31 3 38 Potatoes....................................77 87 Ilay......................................... 58 57 Straw....................................... MEATS. Beef, (fat)....-...................-........... 5.3 Beef........................................13.3 Cow........................................ Pork..........................3 II.-COST OF LIVING IN GEMANY. The rates of wages in manuifacturing establishments in various parts of Germany, also of mechanics and farm-laborers, which obtained in 1872, when a personal investigation was made, as well as in previous and subsequent years, are presented in the preceding pages in such variety and to such extent as to indicate not only the absolute cost of labor in that country, but the relative rates as compared with those of other portions of continental and insular Europe, and with those of the United States. A just comparison with the latter country cannot, however, be made unless the p)urchasing power of the wages be ascertained; for, if,a machinist in Berlin etarn ten thalers ($7.20 gold) per week, and another of equal sk~ill in Philadelphia receives $.12 in gold, it would be inanifestly incorrect to say that the American earned 66J per cent. more thanr the German workiman, unless $7.20 in Philadelphia would purchase as much food, clothing, house-rent, and other necessaries, as ten tha-lers in Berlin; which is not the case. To aid in forming a correct estimate of i~he purchasing power of wages in Germainy, tables showing the prices of provisions and other necessaries of life are presented in the succeeding pages. To guard against erroneous conclusions, however, it must be stated here, as it has been heretofore done in relation to Grea't Britain, that the iprices given in the ttables referred to dlo not indicate with entire accur~acy the cost of the necessaries of life in Germany as c1ompared with those in the United States. For example, the average miarket-price of superfine flour is as great in the former as in the latter country, bat as it is not commonly nsed by the German workman, its price is comrparatively of little importance as an element in the computation. 1t however, a skilled laborer from. the United States * should obtai empoyen i Germany and subsist largely npon wheaten bread. and' animal food as he has been accustomed to at home, instead of in chief part upon ryebread and beer *the, value of the followiung tables for purposes of cornparison would be greatly enhanced. In the city of Priague, dtlring the year 1873, the consumption of beer was on an average 72 gallons for every man, woman, and child in the city. LABOR IN GERMANY. 55-3 Although great care has been taken in the computation, yet it is be lieved th~it in some cases the "Ipound"1 as expressed in the tables is really the German "1pfnnd" which is equivalent to I-T- Englisli pounds. It will be observed that the blank forms to which the prices of pro-,visions in the following tables are attached, are the same as those -used in the United States, and do not in all respects conform to the German classifications; as, for instance, in the different designations of sugar and domestic dry goods. It is also believed that, in many cases, the figures given in the tables represent the prices of better qualities of the articles specified than are generally consumed by the working classes. 554 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Statement showin.g the prices of provisions, groceries, and o er lead g tles of consu tion, with house-rent and board, in the towns of Dresden, Cenitz, and Lei Saony, in 1872, 1873, and 1874. [The thaler computed at 72 cents.] Articles. ~~~~~~~Dresden. Cheniiiitz. Leipsie. Articles. 1q72. 1873. 187. 1874. glour: PROViSIONS. Wheat, superfine........................ per barrel.- $5 $8 83 $7 WVheat, extra family..............9..o.4 10 27..o Rye........................................... do.706 835 Corn-meal......................................... do...58to 06 Beef: Fresh, roasting-pieces................... per pound. 13 0 19 15 15 16 Fresh, soup-pieces..1-2.17 1:...........2 14o'resh, rump-steaks............................ do.. 17 4 15 1 Corned........................................do... 17 14................... Veal: Fore-quarters.................................do.................. ittnd-quartcrs................................(o.1.10 14 1 Cutlets........................................ do..24 12 1 Mutt on: Fore-quarters.................................do....... 12 14 1. Leg. -.... 19............... 1......do Chops.......................................... do..19 14 15 15 Porli: Fresh -....................................... do. 14 16 15 15 Corned or salted.. do. — 15 17 17 17 1 ]Bacon.......- do............ 18 24...o 24.. Ilants, snioked - do._............ 24 Shoutlders..... do..1315 Sausages......................................1 Lard............................................. do.. 2 Codfish, dry..................................... 10..o.. Butter...........................................d o 026to29 38..4 Cheese..........do... - - - 12 to24 12 -22 -------- - 16 Potatoes.....................per bushel-. so8 86 48 11 tiC Thee ------------------- — per potndttd- 07 07 -------- 07 071 Beaus-....................per quart. - 05 11 04 11 084 Milk-........................do.... 050... 05 0-4 0 5 Eg gs-.....................per dozen.. 14 20 14 21 17 GtOCERIES, ETC. Tea-Oolong, or other good black -......per pound.. 54 72 60......... - - 6 Coffee: Rio, green-...................do.... 2)4 29 23......- 25 Rio, roasted-..................do..-. 29 16 30.. -.... 32 Sugar: Good brown-..................do.- -. 08tol10 11 129 12 11 Yellow C-....................do-..-. 08 to 10 ---- 13 - -..... 11 C offo B -------------------— do -- - ---- 14.14 15 14 Strup —-----------------— per gallon. 38 8tn 64 75 (per lb.) 10 - -...... 72 Soap, common-................per potud. 07 to 10 10 * 08 11 09 Stare.........................do. —-. 07 08 07 10 08 Fuel: Wood, bard-................per cord.. 6 48 7 20 5 00 9 60 7 07 Wood, pine —----------------— (10....- 4 86 5 52 3 60 8 88 5711 Oil, coal-...................per gallon - -..... 37 —--- - --- 39 38 Shirtings: DIY GOODS, ETC. BrtWn, 4-4, standatrt quality -........per yard._ 09 ---- --- ------ -15 12 Bleached, 4-4, standard quality - (10.......... 11 —......... 15 13 Sheetings: Browtt 9-8. standar-d quality -..........do ---.............. 38 35 Lleaehed, 9-8, stattdard quality - d........(o... -—............. 38 38 CottottnII tnttl, iuodinin quality -..........do.........- - 18-....... 24 21I Ticnings good quality................-do. —.. —. 30.......-..... 30 Pttnts-(to. —------------------ - (I... 10 11 ------- 19 13 Mousseline doe tantes-(10................(t. 60 - —........ 36 48 Sfitnets, teduttm quality-(10.............(t. 24 - - -.......... 24 Boots, monas heavy...............per- pair.. 264to288 3 24 3 24...... 30 S IFonr-roomned tenements......... -....per month.. 5 04.... 2 40. 3 72 Six-rootuod toeuuents..-............. do. - -. 7 20................. 720 F or mnen, (meebauies or other workimen)... per week.. -i216to2~ 52-.............. 2 3-1 For woun io employedt itt factories -.........(It). 108 to 1 25-.............. 1 17 Statement showing the prices of provisions, groceries, and other leading articles of consumption, with house-rent and board, in the undermcntioned towns of Prnssiat, in 1872 and 1874. [The thaler computed at 72 cents.] 1872. 1874. 1872.'~ Articles. - _ Aix-la-Cha- oon.Bre n pelle.h- Cologne. Duisseldorf. a Berlin. Dantzic.; Palle. ~~~~~~Elberfeld. PROVISIONS. Flour: Wheat, superfine-..................................................per barrel. $10 03 $10 44 $8 00. $11 76 $11 10 $10 24 $10 26 Wlheat, extra fatmily.....................................................do... 10 48 12 24 14 11 - -11 24 12 02 R ye.....................................................................-do -720....61 941......... 628 6 05 7 05 Corn-mneal-.... --------- ---------— 11'1 —- do... 5 62- - —......5 92................ - 60 5 86 Jhee: t' Fresh. roasting-pieces.............................................per pound. 17.2............ 24 17 15 19 Fre' h. soup-pieces ---------------------------------------------------— do.... 17 18 14 17 1 2 12 15 1I resh, rump-steaks......................................................do. 21............. 25 3i 21 19 21 Corned........................................-.........................do..............19 16 16.............. 17 Veal: Fore-quarters...........................................................d o. 16 18 16 10 $0 12 to 15 15 Z 11ind1-quarters..........................................................do... 17 18 18 16 17 18 17 Cntlets..................................................................do.... 18 20 23 16 19 21 20 Mutton: Fore-quarters...........................................................do... 17 17............................ $0 11 to 14 12 15 Leg —..do... 18.......16 19 14 14 16 Le....................................................................o. 81 91 4 1 Chops................................................................... —do.. 23 19.............. 19 1 5 14 18 Pork: Fresh................................................................... do.... 20............................ 19 13 12 16 Corned or salted.........................................................do... 20 2'2 19 14 16 15 18 Bacon...................................................................do.... 20... 23 19 16 21 20 Hams, smoked..........................................................do.... 27 34 28 29 19 to 24 28 28 Shoulders.do.... 23 22 19 19 18 20 Sausages................................................................do.... 27 $0 14 to 24 $0 12 to 22 19 24 22 21 Lard............................................................... d.........do.... 2: 3 22 22 20 19 -21 21 Codfish, dry.........do.... 09 08 05 09 07............. 08 Butter.......................................................................do ---- 23 26 to 3 4 30 24 20 to 29 26 to 35 27 Cheese.....................................................................do.... 20 I0 to 12 13 to 15 16 14 15 Potatoes.............................................................per bushel.. 72 37 to 54 57 (100 lbs.) 76 38 to 70 46 53 Rijce...................................................................per pound. 04 04 to 07 09 05... 06 to 12 07 Beans..................................................................per quart.. 05 03 to 04............. 06 04....... 05 Milk......................................................................... o... 041 04 05 03 04 03 to 04 04 Eggs.................................................................. per dozen.. 18 14 to 17 26 19 12 to 15............. 18 GROCERIES, ETC. Tea-Oolong or other good black.....................................per pound.. 75 60 to 84 72 to 1 00 86............. 2 80 Statemtent showing the prices of provisions, groceries, and other leading articles of conumption, with house-rent and board, -c.-Coiitinued. )X [The thaler computed at 72 cents.] 1872. 1874. 1872. Articles. ~~~~~~~~~Aix-la-Cha. Barmen andDt pelle. Cologne. Dlsseldorf. Elberfeld. oerlin. Dantzic-;, Coffee: GROCERIES, ETC. Ri o, green..............................per pound.. $0 27 $0 22 to $0 24 $0 36 $0 29 $0 24 60 24 $0 27 Rio, roasted —...............................do....- 32 27......... 35 26 28.39 Sugar: Good brown................................do................. 08 Not used..........11 09 Y elel C...ow....C.....do.........14.......2...... d..............1.1. —---------— 13 —-— 13 3 Coffee B...................................do.... 16 12.........14 $0 12 to 13 14 14 Sirup...................................per gallon. Per pound, 1 1 67 -------— Perpound, 12......... 76 93 Soap, common.. —-------------------------— per pound.. 06 os $0 05 to 08 06.........$0 09 to 12 07 Starch......................................do... ii l0 to 11 14 12 l0 to 12......... 12 Fuel: Coal...................................per ton-. 552 7 68 4 32......... 672 666 0 18 Wood, hard................................per cord. 4 39.........5 30 4 80................ 4 83 Wood, pine..................................do.... 3 45........ 335 Not used. 528......... 40:1 Oil, coal..................................per gallon.. 80 48 38 34 43 56 50 DRY GOODS, ETC. Shirtings:Z Biown, 4.4, standard quality......................per yard.. 10 08 11 1i 10........ 10 Bleached, 4.4, standard quality........................do.... 14 08 14 14 14 11 13 Sheetings: Brown, 9_8, standard quality.......................do... 14 14.........Not used. 154 15 14 Bleached, 9.8, standard quality......................do.... 15 16.........Not used. 104......... 16 Cot~tontl.Danel, medium quality.........................do.... 15........19- 18 15 to 42 28 21 11 Tilehings, good quality.............................do.. - 26.................24 24 to 30......... 26 Prints......................................do.... 14.10 16 17 il to 12........ 14 iMousseline do lamues..............................do...........14 14 24................ 17 Sat et, ed netsy.........diun........quality.......d..do...........41................................. 4 PBoots, men's heavy............................perpair-. 2 00 288 to 4 08 1 80 to 3 60 $i 80to 288 2 16 to 3 96........272 HOUSE-RENT. Fonr-roomed tenements.........................per month. 2 rooms, 1 95 7 20........ 1 room 14 52 04for 10 08ms 5 58 4 82 Six-roomed tenements.............................do.......... 10 80....... 288 to 360 18 00 8 50 10 13 for 3rooms. BOARD. For men, (mechanics or other workmen).................per week.. 2 76 1 68 to 2 52 2 40 2 40 1 80 1 80 2 21 For women emlployed in factories.......................do — -------- 1 44 1 68 1 68 1 44 1 42 1 53 LABOR IN GERMAINY. 557 Sta-ternen sohowicng th~epr-ices of provisio~ns,gqroccries, and other lead~ing articles ofconisum~ption,, wvith, hoase-rent and, board, in, Alunich, Stuttgart, and.Frankfort, Germany, in 1872, 1873, and 18i74. [The thvler computed at 72 cents; the florin at 40 cents.] Munich. Stuttgrart. Frankfort-on-the-Main..A rticles. __ _ _C__ __ _Z__ _ __-_ _ _ _ _ 1872. 1873. 1872. 1874. Flour: PROVISIONS. Whecat, superfine.........per barrel. $12 00 8s 50 $11 50....... 94 Wheat, extra fasmily -..........do.. 13 20 9 50 12 50 - -......11 12) Iiye...................-.do-. 10 80 700 900 $7 84 71 Corn-meal..................do........ 7 50 9 00. —---— 686 beef: Fresh, roastiug-pieces.......per pound.. 17 17 15 18 1 Fresh, soup-pieces...........do.... 12 14 15 $0 10 to 15 14 Freshi, rump-steaks...........do.... 13 15 20 -. —---- 1 Corned.................do.... 21 18 —-20 —171 Veal:.1 Fore-quarters.............do.... 11 14 15 14 13j Hind-o-uaiters..............do... 12 18 15 18 14 Cutlets.................do... 12 16. -....... 24 18 Mutton: Fore-quarters.............. do.... 10 12 14 11 13 Le-..do... 10 14 22 15 1 chlops..-...............do.... 10...... 22 20 17 Perk: Fresh..................do.... 17 15 15 17 16 Corned or salted............do........20.! 14 212 18 B3a eon --— do —-—. ——. —— 20 18 22 - 21..... ~ Hams, smoked-.............do. -. 32 3-2 22, 26 to 30 2 Shioulders -------------— do.... 32....... 22- - -...... 21 Sausages-................do... 3-2 16 $0 14 to ~20 16 to 3-2 19 Lard.....................do.. 24 18 16 24 21 Codfish, dry.................do.... 08 06 09 09 09 Butter....................do... 17 22 2-5 to 30 3-2 28 Chieese -----------------— do... 26 $0 O5 to 06...... 26 17 Potatoes................per bushel. 48 60- -80 36 60 R'iee.................per pound.. 08 08 06 to 09 06 to Ov 07 Beaus.................per quart.. 08 00 06 11 07 Milk.(1.....................(o. 04 04 05 06 05 E ggs-.................per dozen. 16 16 18 15 17 GROCELRIES, ETC. Tea-Oolong, or ether good black. ---.per pound. 80 1I00 64 60 73 Coffee: Rlio, g.reen..................do. 25....... 26 32 27 Rio, roasted...............do. 3 1.......... 30 38 32 Sugar: Good brown —..............do. 08 112........ 10 Yellow C................do. i1 14 16 14 13 Coffee B................do. 17 18 13....... 15 Sirup.................per gallon-. -. 40 64..- -..... 46 Soap, common ----------— per pound.. I10 10 08 06 08 Starch...................do... 12 12 08 08 to 14 10 Fuel:I Coal.................per ton. 5 20 8 50 8 00 7 20 6 70 Wood, hard ----------— per cord. 8 0.1 9 50 12 00 4 00 7 24 Wood, pine...............do.._.. 5 60 4 75 7 00 2 80 5 17 Oil, coal................ per gallon.. 24 48 1 00 64 49 Shirtings: DRY GOODS, ETC. Brown, 4.4. standard quality-....per yard.. 11 10 14 16 12 Bleached, 4.4, standard quality.....do.... 12 10 16 20 13 SheetinUgs: Brown, 9-8, standard quality......do.... 16 12 to 18 20........ 24 Bleached, 9.8, staudard quality-.....do. _. 20 17 to 25 20 40 26 Cottou-flanuel, mnedium quality...-.....do.... 24 17 to 22....... 18 21 T lekings, good quality...........do... 13 30........ 18 to 24 26 Prints, -ood...............do..- 12 10....... 18 13 Mo(usselint, do lames -............do... 3 2 10 to 25 36 32 31 Satinets, mredinum ouanty..........do.... 24 30 26........ 31 B oots, mnen's heavy ---------— per pair.. 4 00 2 75 3 00 2 50 to 4 00 3 02 HOUSE-RENT. Four-roomed tenements...........- - per month - -...... 12 00 8 00 7 50 5 90 Six-roomed tenements........ -.....do.. -..... 18 00 10 00 9 15 9 90 BOARD. For men, (mechanics or other workmen) -per wk 2 40 1 75 to 2 00 3 20 2 24 to 2 80 2 35 For women employed in factories -.....do.... 2 43 1 00 to 1 40 1 60 to 2 40 1 75 to 2 80 1 56 *General average of this statement and of the two on preceding pages. 558 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Prices of the following articles in Franlfort-on-ai and Offebah. Articles. Frankfort. Offenbach. Lamp-oil................................................19 Petroleum-.............................................. Olive-oil........................-........................ Railroad-oil............................................................. Linen for shirts, bleached, (width, 6-4 meter)............ 0 20 to 25 Linen for shirts, unbleached, (width, 6-4 meter)........1 Linen bfor shleets, bleached, (wvidth, 6-4 meter) do...........4 Linen for sheets, unbleached, (width, 6.4 meter)..... 0 to 40. Cotton................................................. (Cotton, for bed-ticks................................... Boots, for men......................................... per pair. 2 50 to 4 00 00 to $5 00 Boots of best make..................................... 5 00 to 7 00 4 50 to 6 Shoes, for women.......................................1 50 to 2 50 1 20 to 200 Shoes of best maike....................................to 700 4 to 600 Shoes, for children.................................... 50 to 1 50 32 to HOUSE-RENT. One room, for a sinTgle man............................. 2 to 3 50 100 Twvo rooms andl kitchen............................... 70 00 to 100 00 28 00 to 60 00 Three rooms and kitchen.................. Oto 125 00 36 00 to 64 00 Three, four, five, or niore workmen occupying one room, eachpermonth. 1 20. Jn reference to the above, Mr. Consul-General ebster writes under date of October 14, 1874: I send herewith a list of the prices of the necessaries of life in the cities of rankfort and of Offenbach. The latter is almost wholly a manufacturing city where leather goods, machinery, carriages, &c., are made. In the cost o..f the necessaries of life tere cannot be much difference between the two places. The articles sold in a place like Offenhach are of an- inferior quality to those sold generally in Frankfort. But there is not a correspontding difference in the pr~ices. The same quality sold in the lowest-cla~ss places in Frankfort would he ahout, the same prices, perhaps a little lower. In a letter dated a few months previously, Mr. Webster thus wrote in regard to the high prices of the necessaries of life, in Germany: If, as is probahie, the demand for labor will not continue to be so great as it now is, wages must still increase, in consequence of the advancing prices of provision~s and cost of living. Rents have generally douhled within the last three years. Within niy own knowledge, tenements, which re-nted in 1869 at from 800 to 1,2~00 fo0rms,, now rent front 2,000 to 3,000 florm~s. Conimon laborers occupy hut very few rooms, and they pay often 12 to 20 flormns for two small roonis tier month. For a tenement, 300 to 500 flormns. Con1gress may well raise compensation of its consuls, whoa they pay $1,000 per year rent, and hring their hread from California. The prevailing idea is that the cost of living is very much less in Europe than in'the United States. I think that the experience of niost persons and fiamilies now living in the cities of Europe satisfies theta that there is hut little difference between American and Europ~ean cities, if we except our very largest cities. There is not mnuch difference in rents, furniture, and provisions. There, is a difference in clothing, househelp, aiid carriage-hire. Fuel is dearer, and gas is dearer here than in the United States. Of course, in the country and small towns rents are very difterent fr-om the3 cities. ItI Other things there is not munch difference. Of course, a person will live differently in the, country from what hie will live in a city, therefore lie will live chleaper. If an American lives in a European. city in. the style atditi anner that he has livetl at homle, his expenses will not be materially less. People go abroad to live cheaper thanr at home,. lIn order to acconitpdish it they live in smaller quarters, and in a mneaner style. Travelers have, often remarked to me that their hills at hotels are larger here than when in. New York City. Also, that tr-aveling~ hy railroad with hagrgage i's also ilearer than in the, United States. The general charge is 21t t-o 3-, cents per mnile, and haggage extra. Two hundred pounids, of haggage, costs ahout as much as a passenger. PRICES OF PIZOVISIONS IN THE BERLIN MARKET. Statement showing the prices of provisions in the Berlin market Th each month from January to October, inclusive, in the year 1874. RECEIVED BY WATER. Months. Wheat, 50 kilograms. * Eye, 50 kilograms. Barley, 50 kilograms. Oats, 50 kilograms. Pease. 50 kilograms. 1i'lihest. Lowest. Averagre. Highest. Lowest. A-verage. Hig-hest. Lowest. Average. Hig~hest. Lowest. Avera-e. 11i-lest. Lowest. Average. January........... $342 $2 88 $305 $258 198 $2 30. 60 $276 $2 10 $2 23. 20 $3252 $1 74 $1 95.80 SO 2 48. 40 $2 16 $2 23.~20 F'ebrumry... 3....../342 2 88 3305 258 192 230.40 276 210 23:3.'0 2 2 58 174 202.C00 248.40 216 22 3.20 March ------------ 336 285. 60 301 261 204 2 26 270 204 - 238. 80 -270 180 2009. 80 246 219.60 228. 40 April.............. 3 31.20 [ 2 82 3 02 2 64 1 92 222. 80 2 70 2 04 2 36.80 2 64 1 92 2 12. 40'2 46 222 { 2 29. G0 May............... 331. 20 2 84. 40 3 07. 60 2 5:3.80 1 90. 80 2 22. 60 2 70 2 01.60 2 35 2 48. 40 1 87. 20 2 17.80 S 2'44. 80 2 26.80 2 35. 40 June -....:.........- 334.80 2 84:40 307.40 2 56.80 2'03.40 2 30.801 270 2(01.60'235.20 2 59.20 1 90.80S 2 26.20 2552 2 41.20 246 July.............. 3 31.20 2 70 3 00.20 2 57. 40 I 72.80 2 18.60 {2 70 1 98 {2 34 2 59. 20 2 01.60 2 30. 40 2 52 2 41.20 2 46 1 August............ 3 20. 40'2 30.40 2 79.80 2 48. 40 1 72. 80 2 04. 40 2 66. 40 1 98 2 -25. 40 2 62.80 1 94. 40 2 20. 80 2 73. 69 2 44. 80 2 62.60 September. —---- 2 66. 40 2 0.80 [ 2 40. 60 2 19.60 1 69. 20 2 91.60 2 44. 80 1 98 2 21.20 2 30. 40 1 83.60 2 11.20 2 Ks 2 52 277 October. —--— 2 66.40 1201.860 2 33 2)16 1 69. 20 1 95 2 44.80 1 98 2 21.40 2 37.60 1 87.20 2 09.80 2 73. 60 2 5-2 262).80 0 Total. 320.02 3 0 88.6 49 8 84.20 22 72.80 26 58 21 33. 20 23 04 25 41.60 18 64.80 21 36.80 25 7-. 80 23 31. 60 24 34.20 _ I__ _ _ - _ _ _ -- - _ - _ _ - _ _ s o Average... 32..36 2 62.3-2 288.1 249.30 186.4 227.28 265.80 213.32 230.40 254.16 18.48 213.68 257.28 233.16 2 43. 42 RECEIVED BY LAND. Mouths. Wheat, 50 kilograms. Rye, 50 kilograms. Barley, 50 kilograms. Oats, 50 kilograms. Hay, per wt. hlighest. Lowest. Averag. -Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. _ Jauary..... $324 288 302.40 $2 58 2 16 42.40 $246 $240 $2 36.60..252 $16 $234 $0 96 054 $082.40 February......... 3 24 2 88 3 09.60 2 58 2 16 2 41.80 2 52 2 46 2 49 2 26 2 16 229 96 54 83.20 March............. 3 24 2 88 3 09.00 2 55 2 19. 60 2 43 2 52 2 46 2 53 2 26 3 22 235.80 96 54 81.80 April.............252 2 16 2 43.80`252 246 250.40 258 228 248.20 102 60 85.00 M ay......... 316.80 3 16.80 3 16.80 2 52 2 16 2 47.00 2 53 2 44.80 2 5~2. 40 2 72.80 25-2 28-:2.80 9)9.60 6-2.40 81. 20 June..... 26-2.80 244.80 255... - 272.80 258 206.80 100.80 54 78 Jaly.... —------------------— i- 2 6. 40 2i:-7(0CO 2 553.8 9 2 59.20 2 39.40 2 49.40 272.'0 2 61.80 2 68 98.40 54 78.20 Augrust............ 3 02.40 2 59. 20 280 -2 52 2 16 233.00 252 2 12.40 226 272.80 2 16 249.60 1 05.0 60 86.40 September......... 2 59.20!O 2 5 9.21,-'; 0 2 59.20 -223.20 ~2 80.80~O 2 1.7 2 126. 80'2 08.80 2 18.80 2,55 2 14.520 2641 1 10. 40 06 90.20 October...... 2 23. 20 2 80.0 215.0 230.4 209.80 218 255 237.40 245.20 115.20 72 94 Total 18 50.40 16 99.20 16 97.00 25 0:2. 60. 21 41. 2:1 21)0 22 23.4% 22 92. 0 2t 53. 00 25 7120 4 21. 40 24 80.4 10 20.30 5 90.40 8 41.40 Average-. 185.04 1 69. 92 1 69.76 250.26 2. 34. 9.32 2 22.34 2. 29.22 2.15.36 26. 32 2. 42.14 248.04 1 02.03 59.04 84.14'~ilogram abou.'t 2 105 pounds; 50 kilograms 110.23 pounds. Statement showing the prices of provistons in the Berlin market,,c.-Continued. RECEIVED BY LAND. POTATOES. Months. Straw, 60 bundles. Pease, 5 liters.* Lentils, 5 liters. Beans, 5 liters. 5 liters. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. January........... $10 08 $7 92 $8 83. 20 $0 36 $0 24 $0 28. 20 $0 48 $0 30 $0 35 $0 42 $0 30 $0 35. 60 $0 07. 20 $0 04. 80 $0 06. 20 February.......... 9 72 7 92 8 92. 20 36 24 28. 60 42 30 35. 40 42 30 36. 80 07. 20 04. 80 06. 20 March............ 9 72 8 28 8 70.80 36 24 29 42 30 34.80 42 30 36.20 07. 20 05.40 06.20 t' April.............. 10 08 7 92 9 19 36 24 28. 80 42 30 35. 40 42 30 36. 20 07. 20 05. 40 06. 20 P May............... 10 08 7 92 9 00.80 36 14.40 28.60 42 30 35.40 42 30 35.80 07.20 05. 40 06.20: June.............. 9 72 8 28 8 91.40 36 24 28. 6fJ 48 30 36 48 30 36.40 12 07. 70 07.20 O July....... 10 08 7 92 8 87. 40 36 24 29. 80 42 30 35. 40 4-2 30 36. 80 19. 20 07. 20 12. 20 August............ 9 36 7 92 8 88.80 36 24 29. 40 48 28.80 35. 40 42 28.80 36.60 18 08.40 12.20 September......... 9 36 7 92 8 81. 40 36 i 24 30 42 30 35. 40 42 30 37. 20 12 06 08 October.......... 10 08 7 92 9 16.60 42 24 29.40 48 24 36 48 28.80 37. 60 09. 60 06 06. 60 I __ _ _ _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 2_8 3.6 0.0 06 066 Total ------- 98 28 9 92 89 31.60 3 75 2 30.40 2 91. 30 4 44 2 92.80 354.20 4 3 2 87.60 3 65.20 106.80 59.10 77.40 Average.. |9 82. 80 |7 99. 20 8 93.16 37. 50 |23.04 29.13 |44.40 29. 28 35.42 43. 20 |28. 76 36. 52 |10. 68 5. 91 7.74 i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ POTATOES. FLOUR. Mounths. Per bushel. Wheat-flour, per pound. Coarse wheat-flour, per pound. Fine rye-flour, per pound. Coarse rye.flour, per pound. Months. Highest.| o es.|veg- liht- Lowest. |Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average.. January........... $0 72 $9 48 $0 60. 20 $0 08. 40 $0 06 $0 06. 80 $0 07. 20 $0 04. 80 $0 05. 40 $0 06 $0 04. 20 $0 04. 80 $0 04. 20 $0 03 $0 03. 60 February.......... 72 48 59. 80 08. 40 06 06. 80 07. 20 04. 80 05. 40 06 04. 20 04. 80 04. 20 03 03. 40 March............. 72 48 59. 80 08. 40 06 06. 80 07. 20 04. 80 05. 40 06 04. 20 04. 80 04. 20.03 03. 40 Q April.............. 66 48 59. 40 08. 40 06 06. 80 07. 20 04. 80 05. 40 05. 40 04. 20 04.60 04. 20 03 03. 40 May............... 66 48 60. 20 08. 40 06 06. 80 07. 20 04. 80 05. 40 05. 40 04. 20 04. 60 04. 20 03 03. 40 June.............. 74 54 71. 40 07. 20 06 06. 80 06. 60 04. 80 05. 40 06 04. 20 04.60 03. 60 03 03. 40 July.............. 1 46 66 1 06. 80 07. 20 06 06. 80 06 04. 80 05. 60 06 04. 20 04. 80 03. 60 03 03. 40 August............ 1 44 60 1 01.20 09.60 06 07 07. 20 04. 80 05. 80 06 04. 20) 04. 80 04. 80 03 03. 20 September........ 96 48 79. 20 08. 40 06 07 07. 20 04. 80 05. 80 06 04. 20 04. 80 04' 20 03 03.'20 October........... 78 48 62. 60 09.60 06 06. 80 07. 20 04. 80 05. 60 08. 40 04. 20 04. 80 04. 20 03 03. 40 Totl........ - 5I-........ —-7_o_ - Total........... 8 86 5 16 7 20.60 34 60 68.40 69.20 48 55. 20 64.20 42 47.40 41.40 30 33.80 Average..... 88.60 51.60 7-2.06 03.40 06 06.84,6.92 04.e0 05.52 06. 42 04.20 04.74 04.14 03 03.38 * 1 liter- 0.908 United States quart; 5 liters _ 4.54 United States quarts. or about 1i gzallons. Stalement showing the prices of provisions in the Berlin maricet, 4'c.-Continued. FARINA. PEARL BARLEY. GRITS. 3 Months. Of wheat, per pound. Of buckwheat, per pound. Vine, per pound. Mliddling, per pouind. Of wheat, per pound. L -M7 ths_ Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average.;o o —77~o ~o-77~ ~o l~~~~~~ — January........... 09.60 $0 07.20 $0 08. 80 $0 09. 60 $006 007.20 $0 00.60 $0 07.20 $0 08.80 $0 08.40 $006 00700 $0 0840 006 $00660 February....... 09. 60 07.120 09 09. 60 06 07. 40 09. 60 07. 20 09 08.40 06 07. 20 0Ot. 40 06 06. 80 Ma'rch............. 09. (60 07.'20 08, so 09. c0 06 07. 20 09. 60 07.,0 08. s0 08. 40 06 07. 20 08. 40 06 06. $0 A pril.............. 09. 60 07.'20 08. 80 08. 40 06 07 09. 0 07.20 08. 80 08.40 06 07 O. 40 06 06. 8o May —............. 09. 60 07. 20 08. 40 09. 60 06 06. e0 09. 60 07. 20 08. 60 08. 40 04. 80 07 O,. 40 06 07 June............ 09. 60 07. 20 08. 60 07. 80 06 06. 80 09. 60 06 08. 60 08. 40 06 07 07.'20 06 06. 80 July...... 09. 60 07. 20 08. 60 07. 20 06 06. 80 09. 60 07. 20 08. 60 08. 40 06 07 07. 20 06 07 August............ 09. 60 07. 20 08. c0 07. 20 06 06. 80 10. 20 06 08. 60 08. 40 06 07 09. 60 06 06. 80 September.........09. c0 07. 20 08. 60 07. 20 06 06. 80 09. 60 07. 20 08. 60 08. 40 06 07 07. 20 06 07 October... —--- - 09.60 07.20 08.60 07.20 0(6 06.80 0. 60 07.:20 08. 60 08. 40 06 07 07. 20 06 07 -] - _.. - - _-_-__ __Total... 96 72 86.80 83..40 60 69.60 96.60 78.60 87 84 58.80 71.60 70.40 60 68.60 let Average. 0. 60 I 07.20 08.68 08. 34 06 06.96 0966 07.86 08.70 08.40 05.88 07.16 07.04 0- 06.86 z GRlITS. ~MEAT. Months. Of o'tts, per pound. Beef, per pound. Pork, per pound. Mutton, per pound. Veal, per pound. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. January.. $0 08.40 $006..60 $007 $0 1 $0 12,0 16 019.20.2Q0 $0 16 60 $0 18 $0 12 $0 15.40 $0 18 $012 $0 14.40 Februlary.......... 08.4,0 06.60 07 18 12 16 19. 0 13.80 16.60 18 12 15.40 18 12 14.60 arch....... 09. 60 06 07 18 12 16 18 13. 20 16.60 16. 80 12 15. 20 18 10. 80 14. 20 April.............. 09. CO 06 07 18 12 15. 60 18 14. 40 16. 40 16. 80 12 15. 20 18 12 14.60 May............... 09.60 06 07 18 12 15.40 19.20 13. 80 16. 40 16. 80 12 15.20 19.20 10.80 14.80'u e.. 07. 20 06 07 ~1 12 15. 60 18 12 16.20 16.80 12 15.'20 18 14.80 July. 07.20 06.60 07 18 12 15. 60 19. 20 13.20 16. 40 16.80 12 15. 20 19.20 09.60 14.60 August......... 08. 40 06. 60 07 19. 20 12 15. 80 19. 20 13.20 16. 40 18 12 15. 40 18 10. s0 14. 60 September....... 08. 40 06. 60 07. 20 18 10. 80 - 15. 80 18 1'2 16. 40 16.80 12 15. 20 18 10. 80 14. 60 October......... 08. 40 06 07. 20 18 12 15. 80 19. 20 14. 40 14.40 16. 80 12 14.80 18 10. 80 14. t0 Total.......... 85.20 63 70.40 1 80.20 1 18.80 1-57.6 187.20 133.201 164.40 1 71.60 120 1 52.20 186.40 *1 11.60 1 46 Average...... 08.52 06.30 07.04. 00 11. 88 15.76 18. 72 13.-32 16. 44 17.16 12 15.-22 18. 64 11.16 14. 60 Statement showitg the 2,'ices of provi~ons in the Berlin market, ~e. —Continued. t~ ]3ACON. tlAM. BUTTgI~. ]~[onths. iVat, per pound. Streaked, per pound. Smoked, per pound. Cut, without boiles, per pound. Per pound. I Highest. LoWest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. I ] ffanuary................................... $0'28.80 $0 37. 80 ~ $0 24 $0 19. 20 $0 2%20 40 ~4 ] 40 12 $0 2o~.20 $0 33. 60 ]:$0 21.69 { 40 28 40 38. 40 ~'ebruary.......... 33.60 [ 26. 40 30 24 19. 20 2~. 20 24 [ 12 22. 20 33. 60 I 21.60 ] 29. 40 38. 40 28. 80 ~0 36 [ $0 24 ~0 30. 40 37. 60 ]darch............. 24 19. 20 2'2.'20 24 ] 12 2'2 33. 60 [ 21.60 [ 27. 60 38. 40 28. 80 35. 80 33. G0 [ 26. 40 30 April.............. 24 19.'20 21. 40 2,1 ~ ~ 1'2 21.60 33. C0 ~ 21.60 [ 26' 38. 40 28. 80 34 33. 60 / 26. 40 30,~iay............... 24 19. ~0 21.40 24 ~ 12 21. 40 33. 60 ~ 2l. 60 {'25. 60 38. 40 25. ~0 33. 40 36 I 24 29. 80 O Juno.............. 24 19. 20 21.40 24 I 12 21.40 23. 60 [ 21. gO ~ 25. 60 38. 40 28. 80 33. 40 36 ] 24 28. 20 ~:j July.............. 24 19. 20 2l. 40 24 [ 12 21.40 33. 60 [ 2l. 6,~ ] ~5. e0 38. 40 [ 28. 80 i 33. 40 23. 60 ] 24'29. 20 August............ ~4 19, 20 21.40'24 { 12 2l. 40 33. 60 [ 2l. (iO ~ 25. ~0 38. 40 28. 80 i 33. 60 34.80 ~ 25. 20 29. 40 ~-4 September........ 24 19. 20 21.40 24 [ 12 21.40 33. 60 [ 2l. 60 [ 25. ~0 38. 40 28. ~0 33. 60 33. 60 [' 26. 40 29.60 ~,~............1 o., 60 / /.4 I......... I Tot,1. -~ — q-~ — -~.-5- 2 40 -- -~-~ 3 36_ -5q-6 —1-755o-~ — 2!16. 40 A,~r~go....... i -~4 19.'~0 ~.66 ~4......... i- i ~ ~.~6 / 3~.60 f -5i.~5~o ~'.qT —~?~o —~.~-~l EGGS. VENISON AND GAME. ]k[onths. Per 15. Red-deer, saddle, per piece. I Red-deer, leg, per piece. Fallow.deer, saddle. ~'allow-deer leg. ttigh,~st. Lowest. Average. H ghest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest.. A~ erage. Highest. Lowest. Average. Jonuary........... $0 30 40'24 40 25. 40 $4 68 $4 04 ~,2 52 $2 90. 40 $2 52 ~.~ $4 51. ~0 I $4 32 $3 ~0 $4 ~. 40 $3 ~4 $1`20 $~ 0~. CO l~ ]Cebruary.......... 24 18, 20. 40 4 68 4 ~;4 4 48! 4 56 3 96 4 17. 20 3'24 2 16 3 14.,10 2 5'2 I 44 2 18. 80 (~ ~March............. 24 18 18. 80 4 68 4 04 3 60 4 17 3 24 I 80 3 13.20 2 52 i 32 2 10..60 ~. April............. 4 50 I 4 96`24 14. 40 18.................. ~Vlay............... 19.`20 13.20 15. 40.................'3'60.....1'80.....2 57.....2'i6.....i'08......1'79:40 June..............! 18 14.40 15.20....... 2 8'8 1 80`2'26.40 2 16 1 08 1 7'2.80 July............... 4'36~20' "4'68.... i 18 14. 43 16.80'5 04''3'60"'f2'88.....3 89,20' 2 88 I 80 2'27 2 16 I 20 I 69,&ugust........... { { 19.80 15.60 17.~0 4 68'2 88 3 82.60 3 3'2 2 52 3 3'8.80 2 88 1 44`2 68 1 ~0 96 1 37.80 September........ 20. 40 16. 80 18. 40 5 04 2 16 3 72. 60 ] 4 68'2 44 3 31. 80 3'24 I 44`2 16. 40`2 16 I ~0 I 56. 20 October........... 21.6~) 17. 40 20. 20 5 76 2 16 2 93. 30 I 3 3'2 2 16 3 1-2 2 88 I 44'2 06 60'2 16 I 08 I 64. 20...... 1 —....... Total........ -2-]-9 — "'1-66.20 — ~.-~'3 34 56 2'2.:92 —`2~5 33.90 2-~ —'2 —~.-~- 28 08 16 20'-~ 37. 4~ 20 l0 1-0 —~ — ~:'~.~ ~,,go. -— K,0 ~. ~ ~s. ~4 ~,~,~. ~ ~'~. 4'~ 4 04.,4[ ~ s~. 4, 5-~.-5 ~ ~.~ ~ ~'~ q-~ — -~ ~. 4~ ~,~4 -/-~ — 7 ]~.7~ Statement showing the l~rices of tvrovisions in the Berlin Harkt, ~'c. —Continued. v~m~os,.~D oA~m. rOV~,Tn~. I Months. Hares, each. Partridges, each. Turkeys, each. Capon,% each. Highest. Lowest.]Average. IHigtmst.] Lowest. [Aver~ge. IHighest. I Lowe.,t.]Average.[Highest.[Lowest. Averoge. Highest. Lowest.[Average.,Tamlacy........... $0 84 90 60 I $0 69.80 ]..........I..........].......... $3 60 ] $1 $0 ] ~2 51.60 ] $0 96 [~0 60 90 8~ 90 66 $0.36 [ i~0 48. 40 ~'ebruary......... 90 60 I 74.80 [..........]..........I..........[ 3 (:0 [ I 80 [:2 50. cO [ 96 [ 4~ I 76 66 36 48. ~0:n,,ra~..'.............................I..........I....................I..........I a 6o I 1 ~o I ~ 55 / 96 [ 48 [ 76.60 66 36 49. 40.April................................. /''''....................................................'f145.601 96 [ 48 I 70'80 66 36 50 ~l;,y........................]1]....... ]........I..........I 3 60 I I 80 I'2 38. 20 [ 96 I 48 [ 69. 60 66 36 47. 20 juo........................ I.............../..........I ~ ~s i i ~0 I ~:s4 I so I 4s I va.~o G9. co ao 44. 40 auly.............. i! 4a.,,o.... ~.~..............I................ /......... I ~ eo I 1 ~0 I ~ 36. co / 90 I 54 [,~1.40 co' 42. ~0,Xukust............'i'~5.... 1 05 190 4~ $0 14.40/~03z~01....... t..........I........ / co I 4~ I 7t. 40 60 Se, l~t~,mber........ I 44 1 3~ 92. ~0 / 42, 14.40 [::4. eO [ I 80 [ 1 44 [ 1 6'2 [ 96 ] 48 I 57 80 60 4'2. bO [ 1,4,............ /~,'- ~o;- 6a~.~o 4,~,.~o.....[ POULTRY. DRIED FRUIT. ~onths. Spring chickens, each. I)ucks, each. Geese, each. Pigeons, per p'dr. Apples, 5 liters. Highest. Lowest. Averqge. IIighcst. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. I~ighest Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. ffanuary........... ~ 4~ 93 18 ~3 28.20 99 96 90 30 $0 62 9o 52 $1 08 91 7l. 60 90 36 $0 18 90 29. 40 $0 96 $0 36 I~0 51 ]?cbruary.......... 42 18 2c~. 80 I 02 30 64.40'2 16 96 1 46. ~!0 36 18 30. 20 84 60 55. 40 ]~larch............ 48 18' 30. b0 96 36 63. 60 2 04 96 1 4 l. 60 34. S0 19.20'2~. 80 96 60 56 April.............. 48 18 29. e0 90 36 66 I 18 I 0'~ I 62 36 18 28 84 48 61. ~0 May............... 48 14.40 25. 80 90 36 61. ~0 I 68 96 1 14 36 19. 20 27. 40 96 36 60. 40 ffuue.............. 42 14. 40'23 96:~0 54.80 l 44 84 1 19. $0 36 19. 23 26. 40 84 36 60. 20 July.............. 30 12 22 72 30 50.::0 1 44 84 1 19. 20 36 18 24.'0 96 60 72 August.......... 48 12 22. 80 ~2 30 4L 80 I 62 84 I 19. ~0 36 18 2~. e0 84 60 69. 20 September......... 30 12 22 7'2 30 50. 00 I 68 84 1 20. 40 36 18 22. 60 ~2 60 70 O6cobcr........... 48 14. 40 ~5. 80 72 36 51.40 2 28 84 I 33. ~0 3 [. 20 18 2~. 80 72 60 71 Total....... -~6 — I 5 —-— 1. 2 —0'2 5 —-'8 ~ —0-'-~-~e — -~3 ti"~ —- "'~ — 1 —80~ ~ 1-~'" 13 48. 20 3 54'-1-83~ 2 6 —-— ~2. t; —-O-'-~ —'-~ — 6 26. 40 x.~.go..... 4 —-~. ~o, —-;o. ~ — ~?,.%5- ~ —%. ~o — ~,. ~ —-~ -7L-7~ oL ~o l ~. ~ ~ —-~.,~ — ~.5; —-E-Tg —5.-~ —-~.%5 ~, ] ~. 4o Statemtent 8howiflg the jprimt of provisions in the Berlln market, 4~c.-Contjnued. C~ DRIED FRUIT. Months. Pears, 5 liters. Prunes, 5 liters. Millet, per pound. Oat-meal, per pound. Hieghest. Lowest. Averazge. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. January...................... $0 72 $0 36 $0 50 $0 96 $0 48 $0 59. 20 $0 08. 40 $0 06 $0 07 $0 08. 40 $0 07. 20 $0 07. 40 February...................... 72 36:'53. 20 96 48 64 08. 40 06 07 08. 40 07. 20 07. 40 March................ 7 2 42 52 1 02 54 64.020 08. 40 06. 60 07. 20 07. 80 06. 60 07. 80 April........................ 72 42 53 96 60 67. 20 09 06 07. 20 0S. 40 07. 20 08 May........................ 72 36 49.80 1 02 48 69.40 09.60 06 07.40 09. 60 07.20! 08.20 0 June......................... 72 36 52. 20 96 48 70. 40 08. 40 06 07. 20 08. 40 07. 20 08 July........................ 72 42 54 90 60 75. 20 08. 40 07. 20 07. 60 08. 40 07. 20 08 4 Aug~ust....................... 72 4.2 59. 40 90 48 71 08. 40 07. 20 07. c0 08. 40 07. 20 08 z; September...................... 72 42 62. 60 84 72 73. 80 08. 40 07. 20 07. 60 08. 40 07. 20 08 October........................ 72 36 69. 20 72 48 69. 20 08. 40 06. 60 07. 60 09. 60 07. 20 08 Total.....................7 20 3 90 5 55.40 924 5 34 68S3.60 8 05. 80 6 04. 80 7,03.30 8 05. 80 0 71. 40 0 78. 80 Average................... 72 39 55. 54 92. 40 53. 40 68. 36 08. 06 06. 05 07. 04 08. 06 07. 14 07.88 t-. It~ will be observed that the figures in these columns and in similar columns in the tables on the five pa.ges immediately preceding, do not express the arithmetical mean 4 between the highest and lowest prices. They denote, however, the true " average" as obtained by computation of the quantities sold at different prices in the Berlin market. z4 EXPEANDITURES OF WORKMIEN'S FAMILIES. flaying, in the pages immediately preceding, given the prices of lProvisions and other articles of domestic consump- tion, it may be desirable in this connection to show the expenditures of the families of workmen in different localities and 0 under different circumstances, to furnish a basis of Comparison between the actual expenditnres of workmen for the re- 4~ spective elements, of subsistence, clothing, and shelter, ailil those of other countries iii Europe and America. Before presenting data relating to the years 1872 and 1873, information somewhat similar relating to the expenditures of families in previous years are given, whichi will serve to show not only the low prices which formerly prevailed in comIparison with those of the present time, but the moderate rate of expenditure for living which obtained among the agricultural laborers of Germany. COST OF SUBSISTENCE IN PRUSSIA. Statement showing the annual sum required to support a workingman and his family in the following provinces and districts of Prussia. [Condensed from official returns published in 1860.] A rt i c les of Provinces, districts, ~~~~~~~ ~. Articles of ~~~School-money T~ Provinces, districts, &c. ~ p Subsistence. Lodging. Fuel. Clothing. househcli use aodtaxese Tol. and tools. ~..................... Province of Prussia: District of Gumbinnen-towns................. 4 to 5 $73 00 $8 76 $8 76 $14 60 $4 38 $2 19 $111 69 District and town of Kbnig sb er g........................ 13140 21 90 5 84 11 68 2 92 1 46 175 20 District of Marienwerder-towns...................... $43 80 to 52 56 8 76 5 84 $10 22 to 10 95................ $2 19 to 2 92 $70 81 to 81 03 Province of Posen: Districtof Posen-ruraldistrictsandsmalltowns 5 29 20 to 80 29 $3 65 to 10 95 $2 92 to 14 60 5 84 to 21 90 $0 73 to 9 49 97 to 3 65 43 31 to 140 88 Province of Silesia: O Town of Grlitz............................... 4 to 5 73 00 to 81 75 23 36 to 25 55................ 13 14 to 15 33 2 92 4 38 116 80 to 129 93 District of Breslau- small towns............. 4 36 50 to 87 60 24 to 18 25 3 65 to 10 95 5 84 to 29 20 73 to 18 25 73 to 3 65 47 69 to 167 90 0Pr c of Pomresana manufacturing districts......... 58 40 to 0 29 10 22 to 14 6(0 4 38 to 6 57 14 60 to 29 2 0 2 19 to 14 60 1 46 to 2 92 91 25 to 14818 Province of Pomerania: District of K-slin-rural dist's and small towns. 5 to 6 36 50 to 73 00 8 76 to 12 41 5 84 to 8 76 7 30 to 14 60 73 to 4 38 2 19 to 2 92 61 32 to 116 07 - Province of Brandenburg: District ( f PotsdanL-rural district............. 5 to 6 58 40 to 87 60 2 19 to 8 76 2 19 to 7 30 7 30 to 36 50 2 19 to 3 65 2 92 to 4 38 75 19 to 148 19 District of Frankfort-rural dlstricts and small towns............................... 4 to 5 51 10 to 102 20 7 30 to 10 97 2 92 to 11 68 10 97 to 14 60 3 65 to 7 30 2 92 78 86 to 149 67 Province of S xony: " Town of Magdeburg............................ 5 87 60 8 25 to 21 90 7 30 21 90 3 65 3 65 132 35 to 146 00 Province of Westphalia: District and town of Muinster.......................... 62 05 to 65 69 14 60 to 18 25 3 65 10 95 to 14 60 3 65 3 65 98 55 to 109 49 District of Minden-rural districts and towns.. 5 to 6 51 10 to 65 69 7 30 to 8 76 3 65 to 8 76 10 95 to 14 60 2 19 to 5 11 2 19 to 3 65 77 38 to 106 57 Rhenish provinces: (Circle of Essen, northern part............ 5 127 75 18 98 8 76 21 90 3 65 3 65 184 69 Mettmann, manufactur. lg districts.......... 5 91 25 14 60 14 60 18 25 3 65 3 65 146 00 Town of Iteuss, mechanDistrictofiDusseldorf-. ics................... 4 65 69 to 73 00 14 60 to'26 28 5 84 to 7 30 29 20 to 37 96 2 19 to 2 92 5 84 to 7 30 123 36 to 154 76 Town of Deutz......... 5 131 40 21 90 8 76 1460............... 2 19 178 85 ITown of Bonn.......... 5 102 20 21 90 8 76 10 95................ 2 19 146 00'Trowln of Treves............ 5 80 29 20 44 14 C0 29 20 5 84 2 92 153 29 ICoblentz, rural districts and small towns...... 5 to 6 87 60 to 94 89 10 95 8 76 to 18 98 11 68 to 21 90 3 65 to 5 11 5 84 to 7 30 128 48 to 159 13,,,,.,_ _.,.... _... _..,. _ ".. z~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C~ 566 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. COST OF LIVING IN RURAL DISTRICTS. Statement showing the annual cost of living of a rural laborer's family, consisting of husband wife, and lhree children, from the result oj an official inquiry in 1849. [The thaler computed at 72 cents, United States gold.] a i.! a ~Governme.tal districts of - Prussia. 4,a ~; + -4~ Kbui-,31erg- —.......$5 76 $2 88 $43 20 $14 40 I$5 76 $2 88 $2 88 $1 44 $79 20 Gumbnlrueu......... 288 3860 ~ 2520 7 0( 6 48 1 41 2 83 1 44 51 12. Dantzic........... 504 4 32 39 60 10 08 7 92 l 44 2 16 2 16 72 72 Marienwerder............. 5 76 5 76 34 56 12 96 9 36 2 16 360 1 44 75 60 Posen..................... 5449 5 76 29 40 16 92 6 36 3 60 3 24 1 56 72 24 Potsdhm -- 576 5 76 57 60 2:3 76 7 20 216 144 288 106 56 Franikbrt-on-Oder.......5 76 5 76 46 56 14 46 C 11 52 4 32 1 68 3 60 93 60 Stettin.................... 648 8 28 48 96 800 11 52 2 88 18 2 88 100 80 Coeslin.................... 792 5 04 36 00 1440 I 1 52 1 44 2 88 2 16 81 36 Stralsund................. 648 720 59 76 14 40 7 20 2 16 2 16 2 88 102 24 Breslau................... 360 4 68 38 16 11 52 5 04 1 80 2 16 2 16 69 12 Lajppelu.......... 360 5 76 3660O 12 241 576 2181 2 16 1 44 69 12 Liegn'tz................... 360 648 41 76 2 96 5 401 252 1 44 2 88 77 04 -Magda~ehtrg.......... 576 7 92 45 38 864! 2521 180 1 44 28e8 7 63 2 Merseburg.............. 648 5 04 44 C4 1 080 360 2 16 1 44 2 88 77 04 Erfurt................... 7 20 792 41 76 79'2 4 32 216 10 5 04 78 12 Mhiister.................. 5 04 7 0 50 40 1 152 7 20 2 88 18 0 i2 8S 88 92 Arnsberg............... 792 7292 3960 10 b 76 216 216 216 7848 Col)gne................... 10 80 10 80 50 40 25 20 I 7 20 3 60 2 16 5 76 115 92 Diss'eldorf............... 1080 6 96 26 28 8 64'.. 08....... 72 54 48 Cobleuitz.................9 6 11 52 93 C0 25.20288 1 80 2 88 147 04 Troves... 900 9 00 2 160 54401 i10'80 5 76 4:32 3 60 7848 A. ix.-la,-Chapelle........... 576 7 92 43 0 12 96 2 88 1 44 1 44 1 44 77 0.1 Average............ 635 6 67 43 20 188 692 247 2221 2 5 84 28 Percentage of each to the whole................... 7.60 7. 98 51.67 16.61 7.56 2.96 2.54 3. 68 100.90 Table showing the earnings of rural laborers who possess no real estate, but work for landproprietors. KONIGSBERG. Emnolaments. Free domicile, value..$5 76 to $7 20 Land for garden and potatoes, value..5 76 to 7 20 Pasture for I cow, value.. 5 76 to 7 20 Fael..7 20 to 8 64 10 scheffel rye, at 1~ thaler, value...... 8 40 6 scheffel barley.... 3 24 2 scheffel pease, at 1(k thaler, value.... 68 2 scheffel oats. 0 82 Cash.... 7 20 to 9 36 Total................................................................. 53 74 GUIMBINNEN. Ordinary emoluments. Free domicile, value......................................................... $2 88 Fuel......................................................................... 0 72 1'2 scheffel rye at 1* thaler.................................................... 11 52 Feed for cattle, vwlue........................................................ 10 80 Potatoes and vegetables, value................................................ 5 76 Cash........................................................................ 7 20 The above is for 24 weeks' work, (of son).................... 8 64 Extra Lxr threshing 20 scheffel grain at 1 thaler................................ 14 40 LABOR IN GERMANY. 567 Exra emoluments. uter, 1 stone, value............................................... 3 60...................................... 2 18 1 sc fel linseed, val.................................................... 2 816 2 lambs, vae —2................................................. 0 7288 Eggs, poultry, &c....................................... 5 7684 I calf, value —-------------------------------— 0 72 1 pig, value —-------------------------------— 5 76 r 1~atpi —864....................................... 8 64 o..o............e.................... 0 48 ~Total-87-....................................... 8700 DANTZIC. Emoluments...Free domicile, v....alue...$..5 04.................................. 432 120 square rods lad for potatoes ad gardenu, value......................... 5'76 30 sqare rods lad for li....................................... 1 44 Pro ts of cow, less cost of feed....................................... 5 28 Sale f 5 schffe. rye at 1...................................... 3 60 Sale of ool less eed of se....................................... 1 08 Wages, 140 daysat thaler, 18 days at, and 30 days at -......26 98 Wages, for threshing through the iter....-21 84 ~Total~ 1-...................................... 75.34 MARIENWERDER. rnolurents. Free do-icile, value.-$5.. 76....................................... $5 76 Lad ga, v.................................... 4 80 Land fr farming-....................................... 76 Pasture, mneadows, and hay-7 20 Fuel and light —................................864 Total..-................................32 16 From this sum are subtracted for rent of house and garden, 2 thalers Rent of land- 2 thalers -.....4 32 Pasturage Rar 1 eow, 3 swine-..............2thalers The eniolurnents over...........................27 84 Wages, in summer, husband iper day, - thaler.. -. -0 10 in summer, wvife, per day, -,Lr thaler-...................0 7 ill winter, husband, per day, ITr thaler-..0 7 in winter, wife, per day, thaler....................0 5 POSEN. Field-latborers receive a free dwelling- with 1 morgen' land for garden, 1 morgen for potato field, free pasture for a few swine and for 1 cow, also winter feed for the latter, and wood for fuel. For these emoluments the husband i'enders 52, the wife 30 days' service. lDaily wages, husband, 1I cents, woman, 6 to 9 cents, children, 7 cents. Threshing- in winter, which lasts 5 months, yields to the laborer about 25 scheffel rye. POTSDAM. The compensation of married field-laborers consists of a free dwelling and fuel, 90 square rods of field and 30 square rods of garden land, 3 morgen land for potatoes, pasture and feed for 1 cow and 1 pigr, faitteuiug.at own. expense; moreover, about'28 bushels rye, 4j scheffel pease, 4 s-cheffel barley, 20 scheffel oars, and abouit 1 uushel salt. For these emiolumnents and a cash pay of 30 thalers ($21.60) the husband is bound to give every day's service, while the woman, whben required, receives Y-1- thaler (9jZ cents), per day. Thus their cash income amounts toMan's cash pay..-.............................$21 60~ Woman's wages-...............................14 40~ Sale of potatoes, swine, &c...........................18 00, Total-................................. 54 00. A1 mortyen = 0.631 United States acre. 568 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Unmar.ried laborers receive board and lodging, 30 talers ($21.60) peryear, of wages, a load of wood; and if they are in charge of a horse and wagon, about 10 to 12 thalers ($7.20 to $6.64) annually, for bringing products to market. FRANKFORT. Married field-hands are furnished by the owners of estates with a free dwelling, nmorgen of land, pasture for 1 cow, and fuel. For dwellig ad garden the laborer's wife renders one (lay's service each week; for rent of lad the husband reners labor worth 2, thalers ($1.C.) For wag(res, the laborer receives talers, (12 cents,) the wife - thaler (14 cents) per (lay. Contract work Ias the an taler (24 ces) a day, and duriing the harvest he earns ~ thaler (18 cthe wife - thaler (9 cents) a day. For threshing he gives one-fifteenth or one-fourteenth part of the grain threshed. The whole earnings are thus computed26 weeks at I thaler, (18 cents)......08 Threshing 6 months, at 6 scheffel.............720 Woman, 104 d-ys, at-I-, thaler................740 Woman, 104 (ldays, at...............4 Extra earnings during harvest.................360 Total.................................52 52 Day-laborers' work on an averageIn summer, 13 horsortale,(18cets;)inwinter,9ours for - thaler, (18 cents).) Under contract, 11 hours ior ~ thaler (18 cents) in summer; 9 hous fr thaler (14 cents) in winter. STETTIN. Ernolument. 50 square rods land for garden, 40 square rods land for linseed, 40 square rods ad for potatoes, 50o s(quare rods land for rye, pasture for 1 cow, 1 load of, 6,000 p ces of turf for fuel, for which the fitamily render-wife 52 days at - thaler, 7 cents,) rent for p tatoes, linseed land, 5 thalers, ($3.60,) turf For the work the man receives thalers (90 cents) per week; the wife works 290 days at - thaler, 29 thalers, $20.88. For th-'eshin- the men receive one-seventeenth of the grain; accordin gly the earnit gs amoun11t, for the year toDa~ys' wagres to husband-.....................32 th alers. -$2-3 04 Days' waels to wite..........................30 thalders.-_ 21 60 For threshing.-...32 thadcrs.. 23 04 Increase for contract work.....................5 thalers.. 3 60 CleanMingy flax.... -12 t ha lers. - 8 64 Attending cattle..........................10 thalers. - 7 20 Woman, by spinnlinlg_.~..................... 4thalers.. 288 Yields from potato land-......................21 thalers. - 17 28 Total..............................-.149 thalers. 107 28 The expenses for house rent.......thalers. - $4 68 fuel......................9j thalers.. 6 96 food__.63* thalers-. -45 60 clothing-...................4l-16 thalei s. - 29 71 furniture-...................5 thalers-. -360 ~~~~ - — ~~~~~~~~~~~3+*1 thalers 26 269 taxes, church and school —---------- 4~-L thalers.. 354 linen-.....................8 thalers. 5' 88 Total-.......................... 142j1- thalers. - 102 66 COESLIN. Day-laborer on estate receives as emolumentsDwelling aud garden, value —----------------— 10 thalers. - $7 20 Fuel, value..-.........................6 thbalers. - 4 32 1morgren rye, 5.10 scheffel, value-6................. tha-lers. 4 80 1morgen oats, 8 scheffel, value. —---------------- * ihalers.. 3 84 1morgren potatoes, 60 scheffel, value-...............15 ihalers-. -10 80 Pease and linseed-.........................2 ttialers.- 1 44 LABOR IN GERMANY. 569 Feed for 1 cow. value..10 thalers.- $7 20 4 sheep, value-............................. 4 thalers.. 2 88 Share in pigs, value-........................... 9 thalers.. 6 48 Poultry, value.................................. 1 thalers.. 72 ~~~~~Total-.......................... 69 thalers.- 49 68 The laboring nian received in snmmer, per day, — tA er(9cnt, er day, fl- thaler, (91 cents,) an in winter, thale, (6 cents,) which for 140 and 84 days respectively; and his i, per day, at -z thaler (6 cents) in sumier, a thaler (5 cents) in witer, for 120 and 60 days respectively, makes................................. 392 thalers.- 28 56 Total earnings.................................... 108 thalers.. 78 24 The condition of labor is similar in other districts of the state, and the total earnings and cost of snbsistence vary but slightly. COST OF LIVING IN 1872-'73. Average eeky expenditures of two families, consisting, respectivtly, of two adnlts aiid two children and two adults and four children, in the town of Barmetenl, Prussia. ~~~8Articles. Articles. - 4 o 84 F. M CO Flonr and bread -................$0 72 $0 86 Fnel-................... $0 19 $0 28 Fie~sh, corned, salted, and smoked Oil or other light................ 10 07 meats-.............. 60 96 Spirits, beer, and tobacco, (if any) 48 12 Lar'd-............... 20 24 H1onse-rent —---- ------- 48 48 Bunttor............... 13 36 For ednoational, religions, and Cheese-.............. 1 6- -.... benevolent objects - -...... 38 12 Sugar and molasses -........ 10 12- - - Molasses or sirup -......... 18..... Total weekly expenses... 5 76 5 54 Milk-............... 14 33$ Clothing per year -........1A 40 64 80 Coffee................... 32 38 Taxes per year-.......... 2 16 1 44 Fish, fresh and salt. -........ 10 -.... Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, Weekly earnig of hnshand and &c..................... 14 19 wife, (the wifeB earning three Eggs-................... 19 thalers in each case)-...... 6 48 7 20 Potatoes and other vegetables.... 1 34 84 Average weekly expendittgres of two families, each consisting of two adults and three children, in the town of Essen, Prussia. Articles. 187-2. 1873. Articles. 1872. 1873. Flour and bread...........$0 79. 2 $0 86 Frnit, green and dried -......$0 08. 6 $0 09$ Fresh, corned, salted, and smoked Fnel —.............. 19. 2 29 meats —............. 84 84 Oil or other light. — ~...... 16. 8 17 Lard —............... 19. 2 334 Other articles -.......I —- 21. 6 21$1 Buntter —.............. 43. 21 48 Spirits, hoer, and tobacco, (if any) 33. 6 33$ Cheese —............ 07. 2. 07- Honse-rent - ------------- - 50. 4 60 Sngar and molasses - -....... 07. 2 07 For educational, religions, and Molasses or sir-up........... 07. 2 07 benevolent objects - -...... 08. 6 09$ Milk —............... 14.4 211 Coffee — 1............. 2 24 Total weekly expenses....5 20 5 88 Fish, fresh and salt - -........ 02. 4 05 Clothing per year -........50 40 50 40 Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, Taxes per year-..........5 76 5 88 & ()...................... 16.8 17 rEggs............... 08. 6 07 Potatoes and other vegetables... 60 60 Weekly earnings -......6 60 7 32 570 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Average weekly expenditflures of two families consitig, respectively, of to adt and three children, residing in the town of Aix-la-Chapelle; and o adults and two child in t town of Diusseldorf, Prussia. n -q~ -4. Articles. Articles. _a.. Flour arnd bread.................. $0 72 $1 10 Spirit, beer, and tobacco (if ) $0 36 $0 60 Fresh, corned, salted, and smoked House rent.4 9 mlets.......................... 67 92 Fo educational, religious ad Butter............................ 36 4.5 be 10 (,heese................................... 20 One child at school. Sllgar and molasses............... 18........ Milk............................ 18 16 Total weekly expenses4 44 5 93 Coffee............................ 18 64 Clothing per year1 70 20 70 Fish. fresh and salt............... 5........ per year 10.. Soip, sttarch, salt, pepper, vinegar, &c............................. 14 9 Weekly earnings of father and E rggs..................................... - - - 14 son96 Polatoes and other vegetables.. 40 5 Weekly earnings of fatherworkFuel............................. 17 23 i g for himself-5 04 Oil or other light.................. -9 11 Average weekly expenditures of two families, each consisting of two adults and three children, respectively. of the town of Chemnniz, Saxony, and the cit of Berlin, Pruia. 1872. 1872. Articles. Chem Articles. Cem Berlin. aiem. -Berlin.ni. nitz. i. Flonr and bread.................. $0 62 $0 78 Potatoes and other vegetables. 0 36 $0 39 Fresh, corined, salted, and smoked Fruits, green and dried.[. 10 Meats-.............. 47 1 13 Fuel............... 24 48 Lard................. 08 24 Oil or other lgt. 03 12 Butter...tt............. 58. 36 Other articles, —--------- 07 07 Cheese —............. 05 10 Spirits, beer-, and tobacco (if any) 115 55 Sugar and miolasses - -....... 03 12 House rent -............ 36 1 08 Molasses or- sirup - -........ 02 0- For edlucit~ional, religious, and Milk-............... 15 12 benevolent objects....... it.-... Coffee —.............. 15 14.- _ - Tea - - - —...................... Total weekly expenses -.... 3 87 6 07 Fish, fresh and salt - -....... 05- - -....Clothing -per year......... - 24 96 28 80 Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, Taxes per year..........2. 80 *7 20 &c —............... 17 13Eggs —............... 06 14 Weekly earnings-......... 4 68 6 48 Average weeklyl expenditures of two fantilies, consisting, respectively, of tu'o adults and fonr children,7 in 1873, and two adult and three children, in. 18k72, in thre city of Dre-sden, Sacony. Articles. W wArticles,. paen Pen -ce Pe 14 14~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Flour and bin d --------— $0 72 $1 15 Fruits, green and dried - -........ $0 02 Frcsh, corned, salted, and smoked Furel.. -............... (a$0 24 3 meats —............. 48 60 Oil or other light........... 08 Lard —................... 08 Other articles ------- -------- 25 Brutter-.............. r 80 Spirits, beer, and tobacco (if any) 24 35 Cheese...........-.... 05 House rent. —---- ------- 48 38 Snaar and molasses.........-. 06 For educational, religious, and Molasses and sirup -........ 48 S 0-2 benevolent objects - -...... 15 22 Milk-.................. 25 — - Coffee-............... I 15 Total weekly expenses- -... 3 29 570 Tea-................ -..Clothing per year-.........28 80 40 00 Fish, fresh and salt - —.......08.... C Taxes per year... —------- 48 2 20 Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, &c —.............. 02 09 Weekly earnings of father and Eggs-48...............08 daughter............ 720 () Potatoes and other vegetables.. 64 *Unknown. LABOR IN GERMANY. 571 Average weekly expenditures of two families, consisting, respectirely, of two adulls and two celddre,, in ate town, of Stnttyart, Wiirtemberg, in 1673; and two adalts and jive children, in the city o MAlunich, Bavaria, in 1872. Articleus. zs % -.~ Articles. Articles. a a Flour ad bread.................. $1 06 $3 48 Fruits, green and dried......... $0 08. Fresh: cor'nd, salted, and smoked Fuel............................ 46 $0 56 meats.......................... 75 80 Oil or other light............... 10 20 Lard............................. 2 20 Other articles............ 06 40 Buttter.......................... 15 20 Spirits, beer, and tobacco (if any) 25 1 20 Cheese............................. 20....... House rent.-1 —---------------- - 75 40 Sugar anl. molasses.............. 28 For educational, religious, and Molasses or sirup........................... benevolent objects............ 40........ Milk............................. 40 76 Coffie e —-----— _ —--------------- 14 30 Total weekly expenses...... 6 93 6 70 Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, Clothing per year............... 35 03 16 00 &c............................. 20 20 Taxes per year.................. 1 60........ EEggs............................ 18 12 Potatoes and other vegetables.. - 28 60 Weekly earnings................ 8 8 Average weekly expenditures of a family consisting of two adults and two children, in FrankJfrt-on-the- Mfain in 1873. Articles. Cost or value. Articles.. Cost or value. Fl. icr. Ft. kcr. Flour and bread.................. 1 48 $0 76 Potatoes and other vegetables. 1 48 $0 32.Fresh, corned, salted, andasmoked Fr-uits, green,and dried.............. meats.......................... 2 0 so 0 uel............................ t 112 08 i,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -lit.......................!t LardO.i................ Oil or other light.-.2 08 Butter —........................... 48 3-2 Other articles................... Cheese......"... —]............ 12 08 Beer and tobacco (if any)........ 18 12 Sugar.................................... House rent...................... 2 12 68 Molasses or sirup.............................. -b o For educational, religious, and Milk.............................-40 24 I benevolent objdects. Coffee —------------- 48 32 Tea -.............................. i Total weekly expenses. 10 22 4 16 Fish,freshand salt..............-.-. Clothig per year.. - 50 (10 20 00 Soap anud ttarch.................. 06 04 Taxes per ytar..................-I 45 30 Salt, pepper, vinegar, &c......... 06 04 Eggs............................. 2 08 Weekly earnings................ 5 60 Statement showing the annual earnings and expenditures of the thirteen German families wholsc weekly expenditures are giren in the Joregoisig tables. Expenditures. Number of weekly list. Earnings. 7', Total. 1................................................. $336 96 $299 52 $14 40 $2 16 $316 08 2................................................. 374 40 289 64 64 80 144 355 88 3................................................. 343 20 270 40 50 40 5 76 326 56 4................................................. 3-0 64 305 76 50 40 588 366 04 5................................................. 262 08 230 88 10 70 1 10 242 68 6................................................. 502 3` 308 36 (*) (*) 308 36 7................................................. 243 36 201 24 24 96 26 0 22380 8................................................. 3-16 96 315 (14 28 80 7 20 351 64 9................................................. 374 40 171 08 28 80 48 200 36 10................................................ t374 40 296 4',} 40 00 2 2o 338 60 11................................................. 416 00 360 q.6 35 00 I60 396 96 12................................................. 416 00 348 40 16 00 -_.-. 364 40 13................................................. 291 20 262 08 20 00, 30 282 38 Average..................................... 357 84 28152 3202 279 313 44 * Not stated. t Estimated. 572 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. III.-CONDITION OF LABOR I GERMANY. Having in the preceding pages prese'ntdfirsttheratesof wageswich obtained at different periods in the various industries of the principal towns of the great German Empire; second, the prices ofproviios and other articles of necessary consumption as well as the weely expenditures of the working people, the third and not least important division of the subject will now be considered, viz: The aterial and moral condition of the woi kmen and their families. Betore presenting original data, personally obtained in the year 1872, and through the instrumentality of others in subsequent years, it ay be well in further illustration of this branch of the subject to give some statements from trustworthy sources in reference to the condition of labor in previous years. The following information, chiefly obtained in 1870-'71, is condensed from British consular reports: CONDITION OF LABOR IN PRUSSIA IN 1870. Before the revolution of 1S48 the improvement of the condition of the working classes in Prussia was looked upon as a question which concerned the philanthropist more than the statesman. That revolution, with its cofused ams and utopian legislation. effected nothing permanent toward the accomplishet f such a result. In the year 1861 a strong attempt was made by the workigmen's unions to bring about a combined action and a closer cohesion between them for the purpose of promoting their common interests. The attempt failed in its immediate object, but it hd one important result; it established the conviction among the working classes that it was only by intimate union and co-operation that improvements in the social and economical condition of the working classes could possibly be effected. These unions still continue to hold annual meetings, but less attention seems to be paid to them than formerly. The socialist agitation in this country is a purely negative one. It signalizes itself by hostility to every practical reform, utter indifference to popular education, and a feeble interest in political progress of any kind. One exception to the negative policy of the socialist party of late has been the encouragement and organization of strikes. In many instances these strikes have ended by the workmen obtaining an increase of wages, and the confidence of the socialist party in their power has been increased in consequence; but the fact is that in most cases where the strikes have been successful public opinion had already declared itself in favor of the workmen. The practice of traveling, or "1wandering"1 as it is termed, for the purpose of com.pleting his technical education, is still regarded by the German journeyman as an indispensa~ble portion of his training. The young lad, released from his apprenticeship, leaves the house of his master and travels abroad wherever the German langruage is spoken. He usually, however, visits those towns which have a special reputation for excelling in his own particular branch of trade, and taking1 up his residence there endeavors njot merely to obtain a livelihood but also, and more especially, to complete his technical education and to become a skillful workman. Some journeymen who have got the means of doing so and have a talent for acquiring foreign languages, widen their experience by traveling beyond the lim-its of the fatherland. Numbers of enterprising journeymeth leave every year to visit the watchmaking-establishments of the Jurin, the machine-manufactories and lockmaking-works of England, the arms and guin fhetories of Liege, and the industrial establishments of Lyons, Brussels, and, above all, Paris. Many of them. remain some years or permanently settle in these places, and, true to their Gernman habits of thrift and induistry, generally thrive. They are as a rule, however, the Jlite and most intelligent of the class of' journeymen, and their success therefore is less to be wondered at. Amni0g the large towns which have a special reputation for excelling in particular branches of inldustry may be mentioned Munich, renowned for its brewers and sa~ddiers; Dresden for its tailors, (the Tailors' Academy at Dresden is much frequented by foreigners;) Colo,!.ne and Munich for their stone-cutters; Barmen (Elberfeld) for its fring,,e-makers; Berlin and Viennua for their locksmiths; Iserlohn for its bronlzes', &C. Leipsic also is contsidered the best school for teaching the polygraphic art in all its branches. CONDITION OF LABOR IN GERMANY. 573 MINING. Among the working classes in Pruia the miners and iron-workers hold an exceptional position, inasmuch as their welre and interests are attended to by the Governmet officials who are appointed to superintend all the mines, iron-works, and saltworks in the kingdom. This class of the laboring population is animated by an honorale esit de corp dating from the earliest times, and forming a singular exception to the egotistical tendencies prevalent among the working classes of the present day. The great importance natally attached to the conservation of so able and stanch a race of workmen as these miners and iron-workers has induced both the State ad the private owners of the larger works to provide suitable dwellings for them, ad to make such geral provision for their comfort and well-being as to make their lot an enviable one in comparison with many of their fellow-laborers. They seldom, however, succeed in amassig any considerable savings, and some of them emigrate o time to time to other countries where the mining industry is on a smaller scale than here. HOURS OF LABOR. Trouout nearly the whole of Prussia, artisans, journeymen, and apprentices work reularly in summer from 5 a. m. to 12, and from 1 p. m. to 7, and even later; and in winter, from daybreak, sometimes from 6 a. m. to 8 or 9 in the evening. The hand-loom weaver frequently sits at his loom, employed in monotonous labor, for 16 hours in the day; and agricultural laborers have to work hard for 12 hours a day out of arvest-time, and durig harvest-time for 14 hours. The same rule app.ies to farm serxvant S. The extreme length of the hours of daily labor is indeed one of the dark features of the condition of the working classes in Prussia, and generally throughout Germany. Night-wok is especially injurious to young persons of both sexes, and inudled to females of all ages. FOREMEN. Foremen of works in factories, managers of printing-offices, foremen of mines, and other such like headmn and overseers employed in industrial establishments, are considered more in the light of employs than of workmen, and in disputes between the masters and the men the generally side with the former. This intermediate class is certainly one of importance and inlfluence in the social and economical questions which are constantly arising between, the representatives of capital and labor, and yet it is by no means treated with the consideration which it deserves. The reason is that there is always an abundance of educated men in this country who are only too.glad to be able to obtain employment of this kind. The salaries paid to persons of this class are just sulfficienlt to provide them with the means of living in tolerable comfort, but T'hey are considerably lower than what are paid to a similar class in every other country. PORTERS AND OTHER LABORERS. Porters, loaders, packers, and such like laborers who are employed to do heavy work of all kinlds, whether for commercial and industrial establishments, or in. sea-ports and inland towns, or in connection with any branch of public'traffic and transport, generally earn good arnd even high wages in this country, as the great physical strength required for this sort of labor is rare enough to prevent the labor-market from being overstocked. These people soon save a sufficient sumi of money to enable theum to set up an independent business as carriers, small shop-keepers, &c. Examples of this kind are numberless, but at the same time, drunkenness is the bane and ruin of many of them. Day-laborers in the towns, men who work first for one person and then for another, are generally well oftf if they are known to a tolerably large circle of employers, as the wag~es paid this class of laborers in towns are high. If the laborer is known only to a few employers, he is very often left without work an d falls into pauperism. They are employed both in town and country in cleaning the streets, in miaking roads and railways, felling timber, sawing wood, &c. WORKWOMEN. Workwomen in the towns, including all those not employed in coarse manual labor, such as seamstresses, milliners, embroiderers, and the like, are div~ided into two classes differing Irmin. each other very much both as regards their material an'd social condition. Those who, from not being able to obtain private employment, are obliged to work for the large shops, clothing establishments, fringe-makers, &c., aire miserably paid, owing to the demand for this species of employment being so much in excess of what is required to meet the wants of the public, in spite of the constant changes in the fashiomis. The bulk of workwomeu. of this class, unless they are'very clever at work and have some means of their own wherewith to lbuy a sewing-machine, take to 574 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. prostitution. Workwomen of the other class, on the other and, who scceA in getting a goo(l private connection, go out toprivate houses or workat hoe, and are able to earn a comfortable subsistence and tosave money. As a general rle their moral conduct contrasts favorably with that of their less fortunate fellow-workwomen. DWELLINGS OF THE WORKING CLASSES. It is almost impossible to describe in general terms the character of te houses ocpied by the working classes in Prussia, varying widely as they do in iferent localities. What may be tirue of the houses in one place is altogether inapplicable to those of another, and even of others in thie same loca ity or in the neigbohood. Te sbjoined account, although necessarily imperfect, will serve to give a idea of the general class oft habitations in which the laboring population lives. In the large towns the artisan classes live almost exclusively in lodgings, and it is rarely that, he independent artisan or snmall tradesman lives in a house of his own, whereas in the country and in the small towns the latter is more frequently te rule than the exception. The houses inhabited by e rural artisans, laborers, hand-loom weavers, &c., both as regards their structure and living arrangements, ae generally of the ptoorest kind, especially in the eastern provinces. Laborers, factory operatives, miners, &c., are frequently obliged, even in the country, to live in lodgings or else ia buildingDs expressly constructed for workingmen by the large landed proprietors i the eastern provinces, and by the mill-owners and proprietors of mines and ion-works, and companies in the western provinces. In many istricts in the west joit-tock building companies and co-operative building soieties have been establishe with the object of supplying the want of proper dwelins in aticular localities; tey purchase lalid witlh the subscribed capital and erectl dwellings suitable for workimen aid their families, and lhen let thenm at a moderate ret freqently with tile opiO of purchase, by thle payment of a certain annual sum for interest and sinkig nd in &aldiion to the rent. CONDITION OF LABOR IN SILESIA. In relation to the working classes in Lower Silesia, it is stated by a competent - thority, that " the conlition ot the artisallopulatio is, on the whole, a satisfi tory one. Journeymen and falctoly oleratives cat earn competent wages witout their strength beinlg overtax d by tlhe hours of labor. The vorkien emloed i the industrial establishments sit..atedl in ttle l. lis are in penlal, favorable circ-stces. A great inany (If tleiem are, settled on little properties of their own, anld nearly ail eniploy Illems Ives out of workiug-hoals in eulltivatiog the ground. They raise the greater part of the vegewables and potatoes for their owii conSt.imnptioin. The wvrking population is mnore, anld uiore disposedI toward frilg-dl lonsehold inanagrement, ill olrder by c-arefufl economy to save imoney, Without t00(I!far sj;ltjnting tjenl~is~ele in. resect their bodily wants. One obvious c0onsequncelC of this is that,, owving to the iillOdr-itiou and sobriety (It their mode ot livingr the woivkmea enjoy bodily healt~h, at the same time, thwat, tileir uioial. condition 15 aist d. It is to be feared, however, that this lose-colored (leseriptionl applies to bitt a limited portioll of tile coIuntry. Of thle more liap~oitant groups which coiistitiite the working classes of Prrssiin, the band-loom wea-vcis oh Middie Silesia, inullleriilg about 30t,000, are uiioobtettly thle poorest, thle worst fedl and from their weak phlys~cal cons~titi~ons, which dees iiot lprevent them', lhow ever(fro 0hIaving large tiailliies, th,, least; capatble of raistiig thciinsulves uflassiste~l above their pi eseitj condition. Seine ch age for the better hasl be~n tiected of late by the erection of large spinn~ing aiid weavomg f~actories, fitted with fii sr-rate machineiy, on the shtirts of thle miountains, attracted tbere no doubt by the hellepness and abundance ot' labor. With respiect to the employment of female lallor in manuifactories, owing to the rapid increase of populatiell anld the great, development of lildustry, women. are employed] 11w to a nitich larger extent than fcrinii lyN in tile factories. IMore than a, fifth of thle -whole unulber of factory opewratives are femnales, and considering, that the greater port-ion of theni are members of families, and thir, they receive coniparatively good wvages, they are, decidedly well off iii ail ec(ionomcah polint of view. Thleir moral conditton, owing to the tiale and foniales operatives wo, king indiscri (iatly oe rat the muills, is fromn all accounts niuch less favorable,. The reporis finomi the various provinces describe theni as ino~li~lnately fond of phlantvue and given I(o lissipation, addinlg that laige Inumibers of them live a dissolilte life, lfull have to bring tip illegitimate (children. Many of the mill-owners fake particular care, to keep t ile work-roonls of the, sexes separate,; hut, in some branches of Maintfactiure thi's precatntioiiary-ineasure is tituposs ble. The proprietors (If t he smaller class of' mannfactories show little ilnclinatiowl to incur expense by introducing the changes iii the working of their establishments which the adoption of snell a mea~snre would render necessary. The wages paid are for the most part sufficient to support gingale pDersons in comfort, CONDITION OF LABOR IN GERMANY. 575 and if theyre at all thrifty, they can save money and frequently do so, but they are insuficttosupportawifeandchildren in(ldependenltly of whal.t the latter earn themselves. The anufacturi pplation is pre-eminently deficient in the resolution, which dtinniss other i strial classes in this country, to strive to work tb-ir way, even in spite of advere circumstances, to comparative independence. The monoto of tr aily labor seenis to produce in themn an inordinate longing for enjo ent il the gratiicatio of whiche. eysped(l a considerable portion of their earnings and wk( their physical powers by dissipation. e ini nd ion-workers of Upper Silesia are almost exclusively Poles. They contrast navorbly with the Germa orkumen in their addiction to (lelauchery and dissipation so uch so that in niny of the works where they are employed neasnres have be dopted for paying the weekly wages due themn to their wives, to prevent then fro squanderig their earings instead of supporting their families. CONDITION OF LABOR IN PRUSSIA IN 1872. REPORT OF MR. LEWIS, CONSULAR AGENT AT DUSSELDORF. AGRICULTURAL LABOR. Agricultural laborers in this district usually rent or buy a small cottage and small pt of ground, which the cultivate, usually keeping a goat or cow. If the latter, it is eployel in plowing an au lig the little two-wlheeled cart of the owner. Thre are thousads Of suc sall proprietors here, owning iromn a quarter of an ~acre to tlh~ii~e acres, fro which with the ai(l f occa sional work done for others, they maae to live. Their scale of liv is very low conmpared to ours, and it is wonderful ow they keep their health ad strength on such diet as they have. This is mostly veetables with occasionally a bit of pork or sausage, which is boiled with the sou or sot Lf stew which constitutes their main support. Coffee is universally used, but itoutmilkorsugarand iiiadevery weak, butit is drank three or for tiinies a day. Whe working for any one their wages vary, according to the tinie of year and the kind ~otw.ork~theyhaveto(10,fromtntytotwel)ty-ninlle cents per da(ly. Most of t he women of thetitiily nike orspinpen clot h each year sufficient for the nleeds of the famnily. und if th( y h ye srilhicient black bread and potatoes they coiisider themselves well off. The childreu are all educated so far as they can read andl write; and all the miale popula lion between) the iges of twenty and twenty-six are liable to three years' mitr,;s tvice. Dul-iD ( t his period they are probably better fed and clothed th;an in any din r purt of thenr lives; dud, although. they only get -five cents per (lay as pay fromt the gooveminent, they Icr'nt habits of (lisciplinie, cleanliness, and order that stand theni in,ood nieed alter this seix ice is ended. I findt that drun~kenniess is rare among the rural populat on. They all drink. either beer or SClhnaps, or both, buat inot to the excess Wxe find in agrieulttird lopulations of other countries, and it is seldoni they lose a days' wo'(ik through this c nise. They aire oirderly, civil, and very obliging in their ma41nuer, especially to straiiger-s, and brawvls or flgtits are, oif rare, occurrence. In their -way thliy are nearly all punictuial in their religious (luties; the R~oman Catholic portion gciiig 1(o early church, anti then aniusing themselves the halance of the day in their resv~ii-.t(.tis be~er-g-a-ir(lens,or atnaking iis'ionnvillare oto aliotherBewn theni a nd their pastoir t here is always great reshect or regard, and he is in reality the father of his flocki, -ndl has to settle ninny grievances other than of a religious iiature. The proportion. of Catholics to Protestants in this hart of Prussia is four to one. So far as I cat learn their tiorals are good, and it is rare to find a niaj or woniai thirty years old unmarried. Most of the men. marry as soon as their military service is finished. WORKING CLASSES IN TOWNS. The condition of the working classes in towns is not so good in a, moral and religious poin~t of' view as that of the rural population, although their earimlilgs are (Iouble as great. Thiere are more teii'ptat ionis to spenmi money in towuis, and it is miostly spent ueely and foolishly. Th.e diwellinigs are pooramid dear, and the gre'trs iitels few yeca-rs in the price of' all hoursen property has caused the rents of the poor to rise preJo',oi ioimally. None, or very few new houses, are lbuilt for the [~ocr, and they are crcewm~ed in the old and incoinvenielit houses, where cleanliness and coimtitrt are impossib'e. TIhe- pr-ice paid for two roems varies of course aIccordhing to their size and locality, and also to the stage or story on which they are, situated. The lowest price would be $2.88 per miont h, or ten cents per day, aiid front this t o $5.0)4 or $3.76 per niont hi. They live mostly ott potatoes, black bread, and vegetables, hut use niore fresh m11at thanl the country popul1ation). The staite of morals is lower titan in the country, arid may be accounteti for by the state of overcrowding in lodging-houses, and the iiidiscriminate mixture of the sexe's in 576 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. factories. On the whole, however, I consider their moral state better than would be found among the same class in most European communities. The town populations are not so temperate as in the country, and amog some trades blue Monday is the rule rather than the exceptio, and I consider that driki to excess is on the increase, although nothing to compare with what the same habit is carried in England, Scotland, and Ireland. I spok with the proprietor of a large rolling-mnill who employs 250 hands, on this subject, and he told me that he ad not had a case of drunkenness in his establishment for six months, and that not a single man had remained out on Monday for upward of three months. He accounted for te fact by saying that most of his hands were married en with families, ad that they worked in gangs of six or eight, and that when one remained out it disarranged the work of those who worked with him. So also with a large wool-spining factory that employs 200 ha(ds. The proprietor told me that very few of his people were addicted to drinking, and it was rare that any were absent on Monday from work. The workpeople do not, as a rule, look so strong and healthy as those in the country, as they do not get the same amount of fresh air and healthy exercise, although as a rule they live better. Compared to our working classes in the United States their state is far below them, both as regards living and wages; nevertheless I believe statistics would show that they are, on the whole, longer-lived. Those trades most addicted to drinking are masons, tailors, and soemaers, with some of the workers in iron. I omitted to mention that unmarried journeymen chanics usually rent only a bed in a room with others, near where their work may happen to be, and for this they will pay from 5 to 6 cents per igt. When at work they do not generally board in the sense of our work-people, but buy a piece of bread, and sometimes a piece of smoked ham or sausage, and ground coffee to the value of, say, 2 cents. Each has his stone jug and cup, dtenthisissenttotheearestshop, where they buy their provisions, with the ground coffee, and is filled by the with boiling water, and they sit about the work they may be doi: in groups and take their breakhfast. For dinner they generally take a glass of beer with their bread and meat or sausage, but never anything hot in the way of meat or soup. At 4 o'clock coffee is again taken with a slice of bread, and supper when the work is finished, same as dinner. I ifound that the three meals cost on an average 24 cents per day, and that each man generally expended 5 to 7j cents a day for his spirits or s aps. This schaps can be bought from 14 to 20 cents the quart, and when good and taken in moderation, doctors have told me that it is not only ot hurtful, but beneficial to the workman who lives on such a low diet and gets so little animal food that some stimulant is necessary. The married mtan has his dinner sent or brought to him by his wife or one of his children, but makes his own coffee as the unmarried ones do.'To sit dowvn to a regular and comfortable meal as we understand it, is not known amiong these people. In conclusion I should say that the condition of the working clas ies here, as to morals, temperance, and religion, would compare favorably with the same class in any part of Europe. ]IARMEN, PRUSSIA. M1r. Consul H~oechster, under date of September 13, 18 72, writes as follows: The condition of the work-people' in my consular district is now tolerably good, as they have had plenty of work for several years. Their morals are quite satisfactory, but their comfort at home is very poor, in consequence of the un~healt h y and small rooms in which they live. They have seldom houses of their own, and as rents are very high they are obliged to live in one or twvo small rooms. I ha ve found the family'of a skilled Miechanic, consisting of -two adults and three children, l~ivig in two small rooms, for which they pay 40 thalers rent per year. To make a somehow comfortable living, the whole family —husband, wife, and childrenhave to wvork. They can earn about 10 to 12 thalers per week, but very seldom make any savings. They live from hand to mouth, and in times when business is dull and work scarce they depend mostly on the charitable institutions, which are very good in Elberlidd and Barmen. DANTZIC, PRUSSIA. Extract from a letter on the condition of the workiingmen, received fromi Mr. Collas, consular agent, under (late of Dantzic, September 7, 1872: Workingmen in this part of the country nuostly live very poorly and enjoy none of the luxuiries of life, their limited earnings not permitting it. The best class of work. Men) such as masons, carpenters, and other mechanics, are paid at the rate of $4 per CONDITION OF LABOR IN GERMANY. 577 wee in the summer and somewhat less in the winter. The second class earns about 6 cents less and the third class 72 cents less. There is another class of laborers, such s porters who carry the wheat into ad out of the granaries, and others employed in the ranspot oftier, who earn t times double this sum; but on the whole they re t bette off s winter puts a stop, in a great mneasure, to this sort of business. Comfot s ot known or attended to among these people, and a family-man, wife, and hildenlive in one room which, with a sort of kitchen, is rented at about $40 a year. Women are sometimes employed in different places, and earn about $1.50 a, week. Childen re seldom eployed before the age of foturteen, when ttey are either aprele an et their hboard and lodging, or if employed otherwise $1 to $1.33-k, oring to ter deserts and the nature of the employmenlt. Education, although c psy is not uch attended to among the lower classes, and morals are at a very low ebb i* There are several iron-founderies here, Portland-cement manufactories, breweries, &c. At Dirscha and Elbig there are also establishments of this description. Wages the are not quite so high as at Dantzic, but living is from 20 to 25 per cent. cheaper. FRlAT{KFORT-ON- THE:-MAIN. Letter from r. Consal-General Webster on the condition of the laboring classes: CONSULATE-GENERAL OF TtHE UNITED STATES, I'rankjo'rt-on-the Main, October 19, 1874. S~~In:R * * * Th~e laborers in Offenbach, near Frankfort, where an inerior class of work is produced, are of a lower order in the moral scale, idle, dissipated, and troublesome. In a place like this, where there is a large fixed population of workmen wha is called here social democracy, not unlike communism in Paris, has fixed its fatal grasp, which, while it promises to improve and elevate, actually ipoverishes and degrades. The laborer is induced to believe that association will ri to him the prosperity which his own industry and temperate habits can alone secuire. When wages were lower and the lborer received less pay, although provisions were alsosomewiat lower, still the absolute necessaries oflife required the most, if not all that the laborer received, and there was less chance for intemperance. The increase,.. Ias not been all used in providig better food and clothing. The beer-house receives1 more, than its proportion of the, increase. This is illustrated by the greater irregularity of the workuien, the increase of the inumiber of beer-houses, and the later anik.noisier carousals which often occur in the streets. The German laborer lives very differently from the American laborer. If he is mari'ied he generally has a home in sonic of the sniall villagers of Gerniany, from which, issue every moninDig crowds of men and boys to the cities, and of women to the fields. and farnihouses. If he is able to hire rooms in the, cities, it is rare that the lower. classes more, than sleep at their homes. Like the villagrer, who lives too far to go and cone ic eery day, and like single, nen, they heave only t heir sleeping-places, generxlly. severail in one room. They eat and drink whete they happen to be. Wherever their work is for the time, they will make a little fire, boil ti eir cheap coffee, buy -their bread aud'eheap meat, generally sausages, and cook the same anldlmake'their mieals in primlitive style. They rarely go tothe beer-houLse or resta~urant for breakfast or dinner. The evening is gene rally spent at the beer-house until it is time to go to their beds in the villages or their sleeping-plaices in the cities. They have, no boarding-plhaces. where, as according to our customs the laborer takes his meals, sleeps, and passes his; leisuire time. In small manufacturing Villages, where there is a fixed, permanent supp)ly of labor, with little or no surplus, the.operatives, having nerma nent employment., receive less pay and are steadier, as they are niore dependent upon their employer. The Gernian is -not a hard-wxoiking man; that is, he does not produce much unless he is a foimer workinDg upon lis own land. The'fact that w,%omen are compelled to work in thq fields, doing every kind of work that eover the servile classes of the South were formerly compelled to do, showxs, great drestitution or gross indolence on. the part of the, men. It is true that the condition of the laboring class has been very low throughout Enmope. In Gerninny it. has not changed much. With better wages,. their ability to- live better must he clear; siill. it is not plain to he seen where the increase, is expended. It must be so well distributed that the gain is iiot apparent. The oiily class of Gernians who seem to make great progress are the Jews. They, however, arc rarely laborers or mechanDics. They take to trade or business.. All children must attend school until they arc 14 years of age. They are then put to labor until they are 19 or 20 years of agre. Then they are called into the active army for three, years. Young men able to undergo a, certain exanmination are required to se~rve buat one year.'The exercise and training of every muscle of the body they then receive', and the, forced habits of temperance they there undergo, m ake them strong. 37 L , 578 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. and healthy men, better fitted for toil and a long life than they could otherwise be. But habits of industry are not acquired. Relieved from restraint they are morejubilant. The attractions of dissipation make them unsteady. Still it canot be doubted that the condition of every class of laborers is improving. I am, sir, your obedient servant, WM. P. WEBSTER, United AState8 Con~sul-General. In reference to the unsteady habits of the laboring classes, Mr. Webster, under date of September 22, 1873, writes as follows: Labor has of late become so irregular and unsteady, that nearly every laborernow works by the piece or square. Cotractors will reluctantly make a contract for a specific time or amount. A man, who employs 1,20 laborers, states that tey scarcely labor four days per week, allowing for bad weather as well as absence from work from other causes. CHEMNITZ, SAXONY. The following reports on the condition of the laboring classes inGer many, and p)articularly in the consular district of Chenitz, possessing, as they do, great interest, are presented in fll. The one was prepared by Mr. Saville, chief clerk of the Treasury Department, who was then in Europe; the other by Mr. Cropsey, United States consul at Cemnitz. REPORT OF MR. SAILLE. JUNIE 18, 1874. SIR: Referring to Department letter of November 4, 1873, in wich I am instructed to procure for the Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, certain information in relation to the condition of labor in Germany, and particularly in Chemitz, I have the honor to submit the following REPORT: The town of Chiem-nitz, which in 1871 con1tained abont seventy thousand inhabitants,'i situated in the midst of ihe mnost flourishinlg and extensive manufacturing district of GermanDY. More than two-thirds of the population of the town, and fully threefodrths that of the district, may be classed as laboring people. The principal indlustries ofthe section are the mnanufactutre of cotton hosiery, machinery of all kinds, linen;goods, toys, &c. Most of the hosiery goes to the Americanm mret.Tearclua laborers form but a small part of the population, and those whom I saw Seemed to be -leessprosperoustha-n thenmill-ha-inds an~dmechianics. Mr. Cropsey, our consul at Chemnnitz, is of the opinion that, as a class, they are more so. The laboringT classes are generally industrious. The cost of maintaining an average family in the ordinary frugal manner of the country, exceeds the amount which a xana with steady employmnent and average pay can earn, so that even though the natural tendency Of the laborer was to be idle, his imperative wants would compel him to industry. I think, however, as a mass, the working classes of Germany arc, naturally industrious. Intemperance, in the sense of drunlkenlness, is rarely met with in Europe, where an intoxicated man- is a very unusual sight. The common liquor of Germany is beer, which is used to great, excess. Ordinarily it does not produce intoxication. The annual amount of beer consumed is enormous, but very little time is lost fromt its effects. The most serious result of the excessive use of this liquor is the cost. I merely repeat the opinion of the best informed and most reliable authorities in Germany when I say that,, taking the whole country together, the average amount spent by the lower and middle classes for beer is quite one-fourth of their earnings. Trhe necessary consequence of this is that the comforts of the fiunily, represented by the character of their houses and the quantity and quality of their food andl clothing, are either very seriously abridged or are provided for by the labor of the women and children. And even this latter does not supply the waste, since the gross earnings Of the head of the family, as I said before, do not meet the common wants of an ordinary frugal household, and the labor of the wife and children is necessary to. make up the deficit. As a greneral rule, the laborer is housed in poor, mean, and crowded quarters. Many families are found herded together in a single house, and but very few of them have more than one or two rooms. I was informed by a gentleman in Dresden that one of the large manufacturers of machinery in the district of Cheinnitz had undertaken, CONDITION OF LABOR IN GERMANY. 579 some years ago, to provide decent small houses for his mechanics and laborers, to be rented to thenm at an annual rate of 4 i~er cent. on their cost. The experillment was a failure, because the rent was nearly double what they paid for the miserable one or two rooms they had been wont to occupy, and to have made the improvement in this feature of their condition, eonomy in beer would have been necessary. These houses, built with a view (.f conft(rtably acconnmmodating a single average family, are now occupied hy two and sometimnes l)y three and tour families. One of the most noticeable features of the homes of the laboring classes, not only in Germany Ibut throughout t hose l)arts of Continental Eur pe which I have visited, istheir squallor and wretchedness. Most of those I looked into were m anly furnished, even wanting what in America would be considlered the indispensable furniture and utensils of the poorest household. The.r comImon condition was dirty, dingy, and comfort1(s to the last degree. The food of the laborer and his family usually consists of a substitute for coffee lmade from chicory, and coarse black lbread in the morning and evening, and a cheap soup made trom vegetables, with black bread, at noon. Occasionally they will have a l)iece of meat, but, generally, this would not happen more than once a week. Recently there has been established in Chenllnitz a mlarket for the sale of horse-meat, which, being comparatively cheap, gives them more for their mjoney or enables them to get it oftiener than formerly. The advance in wages which occurred between 1870 and 1872 was accompanied by an equal, if inot greater advance in the l)rice of all the actual lnecess:ries of litf. so that the re-sult has not been to the benefit of the worklmnien and their families. Receitly wages have fallen 20 to 25 per cent. without a correspondling fall in the l)rice of food, and the consequence has been widespread sufferIing and want. I (do not think ar increase of wages, even when not accompanied by an increase in the p)rice of itood, would result in any inmprovement in the contmorts of the v orkrien or their filailies. They are actustomed from hildhoo(l to coarse and mneager food, and do not ordinarily care for mtore or better. When wages go up, therefore, the extra money earned goes t, the beer-shop to pay for what they consider the one great luxury of life, plenty of beer. Perhaps the hardest condition of the laborer of Germany, and in fact of all Europe, grows oult, of the enfoirced military service from all persons cap)able of bearing armi.. It means the absolute loss of not ]ess than three years out of the productive period of every able-i odied man's life, during which the pay is scarcely enough to supply the beer constumed by the soldier. As a Conseq(uaence, the family is deprived of all suppl)ort, from this source; land wheln the soldier is the Iea(l of a fttmily, as hle not unlrequently is, they struggle through a period of wretchedness and poverty beyond descripl ion. The ioregointg covers all thle points of inquiry in Department letter, and, I believe, is a fair statemlent of facts as flar as I had timne to investigate the subject. I inclose a letter fromi the consul at Cheinnitz. in whichl he has, at my request, answered the several qnestions askeul in the memorandum of the Bureau of Statistics. Very respectfully, J. H. SAVILLE. Hon. B. H. BmISTOW, Secretary of the Treasury. RRPORT OF MR. CONSUL CROPSEY. UNITED STATES CONSULATE, Chemnitz, Saxoty, May 11, 1874. SIR: In complying with your request to fiurnish information concerning the condition of the working peoplle in this consular district, I wish to say Chemnitz is situated in the midst of an exclusive manufiacturing( district. Of the 86t,000 inhabitants in this city more than 50,000 belong to the working class, and are operatives iu the numrnerous factories and machine-shol)s, one alone employing over 4,000 men. Therefore, the an!swers to questions asked will have more particular reforence to this class of the cotnmunity. The peasantry are the farmers; however, farming in this country partakes very much of gardening, the women always sharing the labors of the field. These people are hived in a cluster of shanties that are dignified with the name of village-each stupporting a beer-saloon and a church. The lands belong to wealthy families, and are renlted out in patches to the peasants. They are generally a more prosperous people than those engaged in the mantufactories. Question first. Are the working cla.ses industrious? Poverty necessitates industry to a limited extent. They do not and cannot lav up anything for the future, and the loss of a day's labor thrusts themn on the verge of 580 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. beggary. The instances are indeed rare where a workingman has secured a competency sufficient for the support 6f himself and family, and has risen above the common herd. Question second. Are they intemperate, and, if so, do they lose much time in consequence? Intemperance prevails to a certain degree. Beer is the popular beverage, and everybody indulges. Alcoholic drinks are above the reach of the poor, or drunkenness would be more common. The system becomes accustomed to the beer, and judging from the quantity one man (a native) can consume, I apprehend that one will stagger quicker from the weight than the strength of the potion. Third. Are the comforts of theirfamilies seriously abridged by the amount spent by the men in drink? In many instances they are. The military law, rigidly enforced, requiring three years' active service from every able-bodied man on the c mpletion of his nineteenth year, frequently works a hardship where there is but a single son in the family. Fourth. What is the condition oJ the rooms they occupy? They are deplorable. Families are stowed away together in dirty, dingy, verminbreeding alleys, attics, and cellars. Fifth. Do many families live in one or two rooms only? A vast majority of the whole do. Sixth. Has the recent advance in wages resulted to the advantage of the families of the workmen? The price of living, the simple necessaries of life, has advanced in equal ratio with wages. At present there is a decline in the price of labor, attributable to the falling of'f of foreign trade, and as a natural consequence actual suffering is wide-spread. The chief meal of the average artisan consists of a few potatoes and unbolted ryebread, washed down with cheap beer, with the occasional addition of a few ounces of horse-meat. A stupid nature, and dull ambition, with the inborn idea that they will1 labor all their lives as their fathers did before them, makes the working class of some portions of Germany peipetual slaves to poverty, and the day is far oft when they shall be emancipated from this thraldom. I forward you a report of the Chemnitz Chamber of Commerce for 1871, and a similar report issued by the city of Plauen for the year 1873, which will give you further information. With great respect, I am, sir, yours, &c., LOUIS E. CROPSEY, United States Consul. Hon. EDWARD YOUNG, Chief of Bureau of Statistics, Washington, D. C. LEIPSIC, SAXONY. Mr. Consul Steuart writes as follows, in reference to the habits of in. (lustry and temperance among the working class: " From observation of the laboring class in Leipsic, I should say that they are obliged to be industrious in order to live; that beer is their priucipal beverage, and intoxication is not often seen on the streets." PAUPERISM IN SAXONY. The following statements in regard to pauperism, and to the food and l(lginig of the working class in Saxony, are condensed from the British consular reports: The number of paupers in Saxon poor-houses on a given day in three different years was as follows: Year. Poor- M3ale Female Total Y~~ ~ ~~ear. houses. paupers. paupers. paupers. ]'ecember 3,1858............................................. 2,540 10,817 13, 019 23, 836 L. ocember 3, 1861............................................ 10, 047 12, 256 22, 303 December 3,1864............................................ 2, 555 7, 967 9, 617 17, 584 CONDITION OF LABOR IN GERMANY. 581 It has been calculated for 1861 and 1864 that out of 100 of each of the following classes of workmen in towns, the following were paupers: Class. 1861. 1864.... Per cent. Per cent. Master mech anics................................................................ 15.88 14. 3 Master journeymen............................................................... 19. 03 12. 96 Sedentary workmen.............................................................. 16.81 21.95 Factory operatives............................................................... 2.57 o'2. 25, Daily laborers..................................................................... 32.12 31.58 The chief causes of pauperism are ascertained to be idleness, evil habits, and drunkenness. FOOD AND LODGING. The diet of the Saxon is simple, and not unhealthy. It consists chiefly of rye-bread, butter, bacon-fat, pork, sausage, beef and veal, potatoes, cabbage in great variety, dumplings, and soups. The meat most in use is pork, being as cheap as beef and more substantial. Beer is smaller than in England, but good and healthy. Of that any amount may be drank; not so of ardent spirits, in the use of which caution is greatly to )be recommended. The rooms in which workingmen live are usually healthy, being chiefly in the upper stories, and seldom under fifty yards in area. In lodging-houses, however, the healthiness of the rooms is in exact prdportion to the number of beds, whether two or four or more, that are introduced into them. The Saxon bed is short and narrow, and its furniture is an Indian-grass mattress, a wedge pillow with straw stuffing, and a feather bed. LABOR AND (OTHER ASSOCIATIONS IN CIHEiMNITZ. In connection with the two foregoing reports in reference to the condition of the laboring class of this seat of industrial activity, it may be well to present the following translation of a statement in relation to the large inumber of associations which have been established by the working people for mutual benefit and protection, and for their advancement in technical and general knowledge: The commercial and industrial district of Chemnitz, in Saxony, to an area of 770,045 German acres has a population of 789,183 inhabitants, a large majority of whom are working in or for the numerous establishments engaged in the various trades and industries represented in that district. This large number of people, living upon their daily earnings without being able to accumulate a sufficient amount to last them longer than a month or two when m1isfortune of any kind overtakes them, have been induced for this reason at first. (and also owing to their social disposition,) as also their taste for knowledge, to establish as many institutions and associations as there are trades; these are called the trades-unions and labor associations. These associations are based on so many different plans and made to serve so many various purposes, that every want and need is provided for, and since they are mutual associations, are productive of decided benefits to the individual as well as to the comminunity. The membership of these associations, whose special object is the organization and support of industrial schools, both for the young and the aged, and the establishtenut of mutual savings and sickness-funds, is cons antly on the increase; nor do they restrict themselves to their first object, but they continute to develop and enlarge their respective fields of action, and already several among theml have instituted branches of so-called "associations for protection against malicious debtors." LThe principal associations in the district of Chenmnitz are those limited to making advances of money to mnembers after a certain period of membership, or on personal security, a period of fromn one to six months at J to 2 per cent. interest. Tlese were sixty in number, with an aggregrate membership in 1870 of 20,075, and a deposit and interestfund of $2,542,395, and outstanding advances to the amount of $8,074,801. Next in order are the mutual savings associations, fifty-one in number, with 129,5:;4 depositors in 1870; amount of deposits $S,735,949; the smallest deposit being from six to ten cents, paying from 3 to 4* per cent. interest. Consumption associations number twenty-one, with a membership of 5,191 and a clear protit of $12,525 in 1870. 582 LABOR IN. EUROPE AND AMERICA. Industrial associationsand associationsto pomotementalcltrenmbertirty-five, and have libraries aggregating nearly 10,000 volumes, lhets and periodical, and about L0,000 meubers with lecture courses onl scientific, industrial, commercial and other subjects and annual contribution fee ranging from i24 cents to 90 cents. DRESDEN, SAXONY. The following report of Mr. Consul Brentano, o the condition of the working-classes in Saxony, with the accompanying tables showing the consumption of bread and beer during the six ars from 1 to 1873 inclusive, will be read with inLterest: UNITED STATES CONSULATE, Dresden, October 9, 1874. In regard to the information you request, I desire first to state that Dresden cannot be classed among the manlufascturing or industrial cities. Being the capital of the kin)gdom of Saxony, and the residence of the reignig yasty, the erection of manfactories or other industrial establishments in the city, or its immediate neighborhood, was, till of late, in no way encouraged. Devoted to the culture of the fine arts, of science music, and literature, Dresden has, through its fine coilection of paintings, works of sculpture, and public gardens, acquired a world-widle reputation, and attracted straners from all parts of the globe. Wealthy people)l of different nationalities have taen up their residence here either perinanuently or temporarily, to enjoy the amenities of culture and refinement. Under such circumstances it is not to b)e wondered at that the smokestack of industrial establishmuents antd the noise of the steam-hammer were no very desirable accessories to the state capital. But the steamships on the river Elbe, which ivides the city in two parts, the old and the new city, (Altstadt and Neustad,) and which is avigable from a point a, little above Prague, in Bolhemia, to Haburg, on the Geran Sea, and the iron-horse on the land, were irresistible in openin even the city of Dresden euphemistically called "Elbe Athens," to the inroads of an instrial era. Although in the last few years quite a number of new industrial establishments were founded, or such establishments already existing were enlarged, and althougrh -there, are in the city, or its imimediate neighborhood, establishmnents for the mnaunfactare of tobacco and cig-ars, for mechanical purposes, for machineries, for chemical manufactories, steamt brick-yards, cot ton-sp~inneries, dyeing establishments, breweries, printing-houses, in which establishuitents several thousand laborers find em ployment, yet these men who work in such establishments -are only a swall portion of the laboring class of this city. In consequencee of the estabolishiment of the German Empire and a German citizenship giving every German the right tosettleany %bere in the " Father-land," t here was, in late years, quite an influx of p~opulation into the larger cities, and especially into Dm-esden, the population of which has now nearly reached m he second hundi-ed thousand. This necessitated the erection of maioy new buildings, thereby attracting operatives in) thle building-linle, as masons, stonecutters, bricklayers, joiners and carpenters, locksmiths, filers and s&atxrs, plasterers, painters, wAhiiewashmers, &c. To these meay be addled other woikmen of skilled labor, tailors, shoenmakers, tann11ers., cabiret-mnakers,2 and piano-makers. For the product ion of fine and elegant furniture, especially carved 91nd inhlaid. fUtnitUte of excellent workmanship, and for the manufacture of hig-hly finished pianos, the city of Dmr-sden enjoys an excellent famte. The xN agyes of the laboters had reched their highiest scale in the period of 1871-1873 but have, in consequence of thle cl-isis which commenced in the autunmn of 1873 and which ha's continued more or les-,s up) to the p)rescut time, somewhat declined. If the con3sequences of that crisis have had a less detrimental effect upon the laboring clas,,ses of Dresden, the causes tonay be funtid iii thje fact that Dresden is not a manufacturing or industrial city inj the common sermse of the woed, as above shown;and, therefore, not so much affected by a general etisis as places having a prepondlerance of factory populat ion. In addition to these causes it may be observed that dum-ing the last year, when there was somie relaxation iii lrivate tmui (ing emterpi-ises, as coinplared with the two previotis yetars, a gcreate meany public buildings were oimig erected. I mention here the erectiont of extended military buildin~gs, bart-acks for thle quartert-lu of several regiments of soldiers, an extensive ptolytechnic school, a new royal opera-house in the Altstadt, on the site of the one, burned in 1869, a royal theater in the Neustadt. extensive docks along. the Elbe-, and lam-ge water-works. Tie, latter niecessitated the laying Of waterpiw-)e all over the city, as up to the f1resent, timne the waiter supply of Dresden was of a verny primitive nature. As another cause, 1 may miention that tiio high state of agri CONDITION OF LABOR IN GERMANY. 583 tre around Dresden, and the many improvements in this important branch of the national resources, gave employment to all laborers who could not find such in the city proper, and the high prices of the farm-products enabled the farmers to pay good wages. A new railroad, in progress of building from Dresden to Berlin, also gives employmet toagreat many skilled and common laborers. ~As regards the industry of the laborig-classes, it is known that the Germans generally are a laborious and savig people, and the same may be said of the laborers of Dresden and he srrounding country. In 1871 the average rise in the price of labor was about 50 per cent. in some ranees even more; and the effect (f it may be shown by the fact that since that te the consumption of bread, meat, and beer has increased considerably. I a indebted to Dr. Janaseb, the director of the newly-established bureau of statistics of the city of resden, for some very interesting statistics in regard to the consumption of the above-amed articles. As the city of Dresdlen levies a small import duty (octroi) o all eatables and drinkables at the barriers, it can be easily ascertained how much is consumed in the city. The following table gives the number of inhabitants uring 1868-1873, il ive, the prcentage of the illncrease of the population, the consumption of meat in the city, the consumption per capita, and the percentage of the increase of consumption: C Consumption of meat. C a~~~~~~~~~~ 4, Year.'ci C.-El P-4 a S _ _ _ _ _ p~ _ _ Pounds. Pounds. 1868-151.................. 154, 308...... 17, 880, t04 115. 86.... 1869 —--------------------—.... — i5, 3~2 3. 28 19, 536, 95-2 le2. 57 9. 3 170............................. 164, 456 3. 18 20, 6:12, 214 1t25. 45 5. 6 ~~~~~~~~1871- ~~..... 169, 530O 3.08 23, 731, 164 133. 97 11 1872-........................ 174, 6,'4 3. 99 24, 570, 036; 14. 72 8. 3 18713-............................................... 179, 678 3.09 26, 340, 7_50 146. 60 7. 3 The table annexed, marked A, shows the import and export of whea~t and rye flour, and of breadl, and the consumption of these articles by the whole population and p&r calpita. While the increase in the consumption of the cereals kept step with the increase of lpolpulationl, the consumptioli of meat increased in a higher ratio, which shows that the circumstances of some people have greatly improvedl, amid it may be contended that. it was the laboring cla~ses who, by tile higher wages which they earned, were enabled to live in a better and more substantial manner. In regardl to the habitations, the mode of living of Germain laborers compares very unfavorably with the condition of American workingumen. While a great many of the American laborers, especially the skilled class, reside in -neat, comfortable, cottages mostly their own, the workingmen here., as a) general rule, live inl tenement houses in the suburbs ofthe city. I speakbhere of thepermtanent resilleut class. The fluctuating ( laboring liopillation which comes in froum fte country remains in the city dluriug the'week, andl retlirns to their families onl Saturday, lpnt up at sleepingr-places, (schlafstel.. len,) where often quite a number occupy one and the samne apartment. As a wNhole, the Germian laborers here are temperate. Au. exception to this rule may be found under t~hat class of wvorkingmien which I have just described, who have no, homne here, and who consequently resort to beer and liquor saloons. The consumption of beer has of late considerably increased, (as is shoyn. by the annexed statisticaltable marked B,) and. there is no doubt that the laboring classes figure to a great extent among the0 consumiers of this Teutonic beverage. But it would be a serious mistake to conclude, fromn tlhi* increase in the consumption of beei-, that amonog the laboringclasses intemnlerallce, was on the increase. Onl the contrary, beer is cuasidered by the German as a nourishment, and in. the same, ratio as the consumption. of beer increases,. the use of that most pernicious beverage, distilled liquor, immus8t necessa-rily decrease., My experienlce is (and many Americans, somel of whom. were strictly abstinence men,. who made observations on this sub~ject, entirely agree with me) that a more quiet Sunday cannot be found than here, although be er-saloons and beer-gardens are on that day crowlled by the laboring( classes and the, small busriness men andl their filuilies. An exception to this rule will be found amongr those laborers who are'singrle men, or, who are here without their families, occupying such sleeping-places as I have above described. 584k LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. As rogards the education of the laboring classes, I desire to state that popar edation in the Kingdom of Saxony, as in the other states composig the German Empire, is a compulsory one. Quite inconsistently with this system of compulsory education is the fact that they have here no system of free schools. The idea of the only true statesmauship, that it is the duty of the whole community to educate the rising population, has not yet penetrated into the German states. Only the two model republics, the Unitd States of America and the Swiss Confederacy, have a system of free schools. n Saxony the parents are compelled to send their children to school till they have reached a certain age, generally fourteen years, and they are, at the sae time, obliged to pay a tuition fee, and for the school-books and writing-naterial. That this is very frequently a gre4 hardship for poor people is self-evident. The common schools here are certainly not superior to the public schools in the cities of the United Statesas, for instance, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Cincinnati, Saint Louis, Mwaukee, &c. On the contrary, I find that the studies in our schools have a wider and moe lieral range. I will only observe here that the children of the Catholics are educated in different schools irom those of the Protestants and Jews, because not only the moral teachings r Of religion, hut also the dogmas of the different recognized denontinations, form a part of the lessons in the public schools. In some parts of Germany they have recently commenced to establish non-denominational, or mixed schools, in which all the children, regardless of their denominational character, congregate aned are taugh t the doctrines of Protestant or Catholic Christianity, or Judaism, by the respective professors of those creeds; bnt in Saxony the distinction of the different denominational schools was sanctioned by a law which was promulgated the present year. I give it as my opinion that the advance of wages during the past few years has resulted in benefit to the laborers anrd their families. I am, sir, your obedient servant, LORENZO BRENTANO, United States Consul. Hon. EDWATRD YOUNG, Ch~if of Bureau of Statistics, JJ'ashington, D. C. e oiported, exported, and conswed, and aso the quantity of beer produced, imported, exported, and consumed, in Dresden in the years fromn 1868 to 1873, inclusive. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 187-2. 1873. 00 ~~~~~~I0'l 0I 00 01 Co D+Oc 0+ C;0 + 0+ 0 Articles. -4.4 - ~ ~:~ 4. ~ oo e ~. ~ ~ ~ Q. ~ Cs c$ 1C0 Z9 C; CZ A.-FLOUR AND BREAD. Population............................ 154, 308 159, 382 164, 456 169, 530 174, 604 179, 678 Wheat-flour: Imported...................cwt.- 155, 966. 43..... 190, 677. 32 - 2...... 204, 063. 77......... 203, 948. 73 -2........ 04, 881. 06....... 200, 08. 04.......... tv Exported ---------- do - d 9, 360.'0 11,036. 67 - 2...... 1,415. 58. 23, 506. 39 9,002. 20 10, 4-24. 71.........ConsuMed -................... 0do 146, 606. 23 179, 640. 65 -...... 182, 648. 19 180, 442. 4- 195, 878. 86.190, 383. 33......... Consumption per capita..pounds.. 95. 01 - 112. 71 - 111. 06 - 106. 44 - 112. 18....-. 105. 96 - Rye-fiour: ~ Imported...................cwt. 104, 533. 81 101,135. 39.120, 205. 56 - 130, 029.18 113, 001. 76.........1 Tmxprted................... ct. 120,205.6......10,7-.726..... Exp, rted -.................... do -_ 98.68 488.97 -...... 6, 09:3. 37 11,659. I. - 187.46. - 963.52 - Consumed -----------------— do.- 1C4, 435. 13 100, 646. 4-2 -....... 114,112. 19 118, 370. 07 - 112,904.30 - 104,888.75 -. Z Consumption per capita.:pounds. 67. 68-63.15 - 69.39 - 69.82 64.66. - 58.34 - Bread: " Imported................... cwt. 129,066.7 - 136, 898. 36...... 139,123. 42 -. 139, 831 159,083.15.-.. 177,2.33 Exported- 1,..........4.............2.... 3,47.........4. Consumed...................6do 127,614... 136, 898. 36 - 139, 123. 42. 139,'831 55, 596.15.177, 260. 33......... Consumption per capita..pounds. 82. 70 85. 89......84.60 82.48 89.11... 98.65. B.-BEER.. Population, including military........ 159, 884 166, 548 172, 230 176, 570 181, 679 186,664 Produced: Simple beer..........hectoliters.. 133, 699. 77 - 125,183. 99 - 6. 37 133, 674. 71 + 6. 78 149, 099. 80 +11. 54 152, 460. 99 + 2. 25 169, 477.02 +11.016 Lager beer.................do.... 1V5,121.77 112,650. 57 + 7.16 111,230..21 1.22 130,753.14 +17. 55 130,115.12 - 0.49 150, 612. 80 +15.75 City-brewed beer consumed: Simple beer. do.... 129, 733. 72 --------- 121, 042. 24 - 6.70 129, 312. 77 + 6.83 144, 545. 52 +11. 78 147,708.01 ~ 2.19 164,943 59 +11. 67 Per capita.............liters.. 81.14 7-2.68 -10. 43 73.508 +- 3.23 81. 86 +.9.03 81. 30 - 0. 68 88. 36 + 8.68 Lagte'andstroi:gbeer.hectoliters — 63, 470. 99 67, 946. 93 + 7.05 72,587.79 + 6. 83 82, 654. 65 +13. 87 59,449.59 -88.07 54,8837.24 - 7.76 Per capita.............liters.. 39.70 -. - 40.80 + 2.77 42.13 + 3.31 46.81 +11.06 32.78 -30.10 29.38 -10.21 Imported be- r consumed: Simple beer-.........hectoliters.. 52, 505.52....... 53, 448. 04 + 1. 59,436.96 -411. 20 70, 029.38 +17. 82 82,130. 94 + 17. 28 88, 457. 66 + 7. 70 P- capita....liters.. 32.84 32 09 - 2.88 34.51 + 7.54 39.66 +814.92 45.81 +13.99 47.39 + 4.82 Lapjer and strongbeer. hectolitnrs. 47, 690. 75 64, 476.66 +q35. 80 73,128.825 +13. 42 94, 264 +28.0 125, 105. 60 +3-2. 72 160, 204.35 +28. 14 Per capita............. lit-era.. 29. 8:1 -- - 38.71 +29.77 4-2.46 + 9.69 53.39 +25.74 68. 86 ~828.99 85. 87 +'24.70 Exported: Simple beer..........hectoliters.. 3,966. 05 4, 141.75 + 4.41 - 4, 361 94 + 5. 31 4, 554. 28 *+ 4. 43 4,752.98 + 4. 35 4, 533. 4:3 - 4.61 q~ Lagfer and strong beer. do.... 41, 650. 78 44, 703. 64 + 0.13 38, 642. 42 -13. 56 48, 098. 49 +24. 47 70, 665. 53 + 46. 92 95, 774. 96 +35.53 Ga 586 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMEICA. CELEBRATED INDUSTRIAL ESTABLISHMENTS. The iron-works and the locomotive-sops of Mr. Borsig, at Berlin, and of the Saxon Machine Company, at Cenitz, have already been referred to in the preceding pages. Both produce engines, machines, and a variety of other works, which although destitute of the beauty of fiish of similar articles made inl the United States, yet possess the desirable quality of (lurability, and have atained a reputation which is no doubt deserved. The tools and appointments of at least one of the establishments are unquestionably inferior to those of firstlass shops in Philadelphia, Paterson, Providence, Taunton, and oter cities of the United States. No inducement therefore exists for presenting an extended notice of industrial works, which, however deserving of credit, possess in no degree features which can be profitably imitated by similar works in the United States. But among the metalllurgiec industries of Germany, there is one which, whether in regard to its history, its extent, the excellence of its worknanship, the liberality of its administration, or its general rosperity, is sofa:r in advance of others-being p)erfectly nique-that it eands a foremost place among the noteworthy inustrial establishet, not only of Germany, but of the world. Reference is made to the STEEL- WORKS OF FRIED. KRUPP, IN ESSEN PUSSIA. In pursufance of the author's determination to examine the principal manutflcturing establishments of Europe, a visit was made to Essen, in Rhenish Prussia, where the celebrated steelworks of Fried. Krupparesituated. While waiting in the office, a notice in the Englis, German and French languages, was observed onl the walls, requesting visitors not to ask for admission into the works, because of the interruption and annoyance it would occasion to the workmen, and not thereby impose upon the prolprietor the pain of a refusal. Although, in obedience to this intimation, a request for the coveted "open sesamne" was not made to M1r. Krupp, yet a cordial invitation was extended to the author to call, on his return from Saint Petersburg, and thoroughly examine the works. The following extracts from his note-book, in regard to the captacity and capabilities of this gigantic establishment, are here presented: ESSEN, September 20, 1872. Left Diisseldorf by first train to visit the celebrated steel-works of Fried. Krupp, havinig been invited to do so on my previous visit here. The town of Essen is utterly nnattractive in itself; and possesses no interest apart from this remarkable establishment. The population (51,768 in 1871) consists of those enigagedl in the works, or in snu)plying those who are so engagedl with food and other necessaries of lile, and are wholly dependent upon the works for their means of subsistence. I was I)olitely conducted through every part of the works by Mr. Hagemnann, xvho, with great patience and courtesy, pointed out every object of interest and answered my numerous questions. MEN EMPLOYED. The total number of men employed is as follows: In the works at Essen.....................12,7 000 In coal-mining, ore-mining, &c................. 5, 000 Total.........................17,000 LABOR IN GERMANY. 587 AMOUNT AND VALUE OF PRODUCTION. Cast steel produced last year, 125,000 tons. Wole value of steel, steel guns, shaftts, tires, rails, wheels, axles, &c., produced in 1871, 12,000, talers,- in United States gold, $6,640,000. ron and iron-ore used, 200,0)0,000 p)ound(s. Coal usel per day, 30,000 cetner, or nearly 500,000 tons per annum. )Coal now costs 24 thalers per 100 ceutner, -5 tons, or nearly 2400,000 thalers, = $178000 per annum. Number of crucibles used er day, 5,000. Total coal p anm, 250,000 thalers, = $180,000. al cost of labor 5000000 thalers, = $3,600,000. RATES OF WAGES. wi to the mode in which the men are paid it is difficult to ascerantain the rates of wages but the earigs average about 1 thalers (96 cents) per da y.A Men in each branch of work are allowed certain minimum wages, but men of skill and industry are either paid by the piece or receive extra allowances at the d of the year. For instance, the wages of skilled forers is cents per ay, ut the imost industrious andl skillful earn as high as 2 thalers ($1.80) for 11 hours' work. The rate of the next class is 20 grohen, (48 cents,) while they earn 1- thlle1rs, (96 cents.) The thirdclass are allowed 18 groshen, but earn 1 thaler per day. Mlen in the fring and finishing shops receive the lhighest pay. Puddlers in iron-rolling mills earn about 2~ thalers ($1.80) per day. Appreices are allowed 6 groschen per day, the best lrorn 7 to 8, but D1nly one-half is regularly lpaid to them, the balance remaining un~til the end of the apprenticeship, when each has a considerable sum to enaable him to enter upon the customary " wanden'ng.~ Unskilled laborers receive, but 4 thalers ($2.88) per week. My inquiry as to how these lived on so small a sum was relerred to the loreinan, who shruggwed his shoulders, as if to say it was a question in economy beyond his comj)rehension. EXTRA EARNINGS. The men work, ordinarily, 11 hours per day, but as the works are, open and in operation at night and eveit on Sundays, miany meni work extra, hours, and thus increase their earnings. The mode of palyment of the workmen, at least of those most skilledl, is substantiallyV by P~iecework, or in lprolportion to their reslpective industry anad skill. In the castingr of large shafts, cylinders, guns, &c., hbe hi ghest skill is requiied, as, in case, of failure, great loss to the proprietor would ensue. XWheu all is ready, mcii of long experience andl great skill are called from their regular work-, assist for but tweiity minutes, perhaps, aii( are paid for this extra service at high rates in addition to their regular' earnings. At the end of the year Mr. Krupp distributes a very large amount,* to his workmen iii the shape of gratuities, (gratifications,) prolportioned to the skill and success shown by results. For instance,. the inen who have been the most regular at work, who have had texv or no "1blue Mondays,~ who have done their work well, spoiled no work, made no mnistakes, and caused no defective castings,' receive the largest gratuities. * The sumn distributed in the preceding year, 1871, was given. in confidence, with a request that it should not be published. 588 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. BENEFACTIOS. Workmen when sick get half wages, and are cared for in hospital without cost.'The men pay toward the expenses of the hospit one groschen out of each thaler earned, the firm contributing one-half as much as the aggregate contributions of the men. A workman of good skill will receive in scrip, 100 talers, payable to his family after his death. In case of sickness or inability to labor he can obtain an advance, not exceeding 50 thalers, on it, which is to be repai(l on his return to work. Mr. Krupp is building houses for 1,800 families, which will be rented to workmen very low, each family occupying two or three rooms. He will continue to build every year. Unmarried men to the number of about 1,000 are lodged and boarded at low rates. They are furised with abund(ance of meat and vegetables for dinner, which, With One-half pound of butter and one-quarter poud ofcoffeeper week, and lodging, are furnished at 7 groschen per day, $1.18 per week. Bread is an extra charge, furnished at cost. I visited the bakery, where nearly 10,000 pounds of rye bread and from 4,000 to 5,000 pounds of wheaten bread are made daily, of excellent quality,as INot only the single men who are supplied with food, except bread, but the families of all the workmen obtain their bread here at cost, viz, a loaf of rye bread, weighing 6 pounds, for 4 groschen, (10 cents,) and a loaf of white bread, weighing nearly 3 pounds, for 4 groshen, being, respectively, about 24 and 3 cents per pound. The meat and vegetables for the boarders are of good quality and well cooked, everything being clean and nice. Although the dinig-rooms and dormitories resemble barraecks, they are very clean, and are kept in good order. There are stores to supply boots and shoes, clothing, dry goods, &c., to workmen at cost; also a mian ufactory of seltzer waiter, which is sold to them at the low lprice of 4 grosehen (14 cents) per bottle. Mr. Krupp has established schools and reading-rooms, will build a theater, and is doing everything hie can for the comfort, the instruction, and the amusement of his employe's and their families. CRUCIBLES. All the crucibles for re-smelting the puddled steel, of which 5,000 are used daily, are made on the lpremises. They cost but 5 giioschen (12 cents) each. I did not ask the kind of clay used, but fromn the appearance and cheapness I think it is the ordinary fire-clay and com mon plum bago. They are used but once, then broken, remolded, burnt, and againused. If usedl several times without break-ing, as in England, the clay is unfit for remolding. They consider it cheaper to us,,e the crucibles but once and remold the, clay, amid recommend the steel-makers in the United States to make their crucibles, whtich is cheaper than. to purchase them. QUALITY OF STEEL AND SECRET OF SUCCESS. With regard to the soundnes,_s and good quality of the steel ca-stings made in this establishment, they appear to be entirely faultless. 1 saw immense gunsnearly completed, inltended for exhibition at Vienna next year; an immiense shaft for a iteamship of one of the German lines to New York, which seemied the, very perfection of workmanship, and for which 1 thaler per Lpound was to be lpaid; and great numbers of other manuftactures of steel, either completed or in progress, all of which ap LABOR IN GERMANY. 589 peared to possess great excellence. In regard to tools, machinery, and appointments these works do not, in my opinion, surpass in excellence toseoftesteel-worksofMessrs. Firth & Sons, ot Sheffield. But as the products have obtained a higher reputation than those of any other manuacturer, how is this admitted excellence obtained' No doubt it is in part ue to the aalyses of the various ores from his mines in Germany and Spain, and rom Great Britain and other countries, and from experiments ade by the experienced and celebrated analytical chemists in his employ. But, in my opinion-te opinion of an inexpert in metallurgy and mechanical egineering-this firm has no secrets in regard to the admixture of various kinds of iron which, if known, would enable other manuacturers to produce as good steel. The superiority is, I believe, owing to the following causes: Most of his workmen have been a. long time in his employ and have great experience an(l skill; his foremen thoroughly understand their businesspossess technical training, an(! the highest practical knowledge. These are all attached to the proprietor by his ractice of givig extra pay for skilled work, by his annual gratuities, by.is generosity exhibited toward the men in every possible way, and his smpaty with them. His workmen are thus warmuly attached to im, strive to promote his interest by performing their several duties thoroughlyand well. n the reputation of the establishment for excellence of workmanship they are, therefore, interested. ORIGIN OF THE WORKS. The works were established in 1810, by Mr. Fried. Krupp, who died when his son, the present proprietor, Mr. Allred Krupp, was but a little over fourteen years of age. Having hadl some experience he left school and, in company with one of the skilled workmen, continued the business, on a very small sca-le at first; but he soon obtained a high relputation for the excellent quality of steel produced, and gradually increased the extent and 1)roduct of the works. A pamphlet, giving a full and detailed account of the history, present condition, and product of the works, is in course of preparation for the Vienna Exposition, a copy of which will be sent to me. The small house in which Mr. Alfred Krupp was born is still standing among, the large shops, and is kept in good repair. The name of the firm continues, as at first, ".4Fried. Krupp," and will probably so continue to future generations. CAST-STEEL MANUFACTORY OF FRIED. KRUPP. The following information in regard to the extent and (capacity of these works is condensed from the pamphlet prepared for the Vienna Exposition, which is alluded to in the above notes: The ca~st-steel manufacetory near Essen was established inthe yearl1810. It was conducted by Alfred Krupp from the year 1826, and taken by hin. on his own account in 1848. The works havd been gradually developed, and at this time they cover a continuous area of more than 4,784,000 square yards, of which about 900,000 square yards are covered in, and employ more than 12,000 workmen, independently of about 2,000 who are suppilied by building-contractors. Iu the mnines and smielting-works belonging to the firm, there are employed a further nnmber of about 5,009 workmen. Therefoire, the total number would amiount to about 174000 mren. The numnber of officers and fixed employ6s is at present 739. The (Itialitity of cast-steel producedl in the year 1871 exceeded 125,000 tons. The art icles aniaufa~ctured from this cast-steel were, axles, tires, wheels, and crossings1 590 lABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. for railways, rails and springs for railways and mines, shafts for steamers, different pieces of machinery, boiler-plates, rolls, spring-steel, tool-steel, guns, gn-carriages, shot, &c. There arenow in operation 250 smelting-furnaces,390nnealing-frnaces 16 eating furnaces, 1i5 welding and purddling furnaces, 14 cuola and reverberatory furnace, 10 furnaces of other kinds;'275 coke-ovens, 2 sniths'forges, 2and 240 steam-olers, besides 70 more in course of construction. Seventy-one steam-hammers in all, of which 66 weih from 2 hundredweight to 110 hundred-weirght each, and one each of 140, 15n 1,000 each; 266 steamengines, representilng altogether 10,000 horse-power, aog which there is one of 1,000, 3 of 600, 5) of 150, a.nd one each of 500,200, and 120 ose-power. One ihonsa.nd and fifty-six machine-tools, viz: Three hundred and sixty-two trning-lathes, 82 shaping-machines, 195 borin-inachines 107 planing-machines, 42 punching 1and11 groovin macihines, 32 pressin- clines 6 riding-machines, 31 glazing and plishillr machines, 142 nmachines of different kinds In t he ye ar 1872 there were consurnedl, coals 500000 tons; coke, 125,000 tons; water, 113,000.(00 cubic feet, supplied from several we os; gas, 155,000,000 cuic fet, su)pp]ie(l y the gas-works of the establishment fo 1,500 burners. To f.ciliitate the traffic on the works,,here ae abot 24 miles of railways of sal gauge, with' 180 sid ngs and 39 turn-t:ables, on which r 12 tank-locootives ofabout 16 incles cxlindler diameter, and 530 cars, also abot 10 miles of sall-guge railways, of 30-inch galure, with 147 sidings and 65 turntles The traffic on these railways is cafi itd on by means of horses and of 3 locooties of 6-inch cylinder diameter, and 270 cars. The carriage department comprises, besides, 272 wagons, and altogether 191 horses, of which 60 wagons and 80 horses are supplied by contractors. To facilitate the communication between the several workshops, there are thirty telegrtaph stations. A permianent fire-brigade, consisting of seventy men, has also been instituted, who perfoiiim at the samie time police (luty. There areone ndredadsixt-sixwatmen besides. The general supply stores, nnder control of the firm, supply those belonging to the works for ready cash, provisions, clothilng, lr&c., at cost prices. Te receipts at the dlifferent stores amount at prcet to,000 (nearly $55,000) onthly, and are contiiually increasing. There are also three beer-houses, one hotel, one seltzer-water muaunfactory, one flourmill, anld one bakery, with two steaml-engin.es, producing at anl average eighty-five tons of bread monthly. Of rhe dwellings for the officers and workmen, there are for the former two hundred and six; for the latter, two thousand nine hiind red atid forty-eight, either inhahited or in course Of constructonD. There are living now ini these houses more thtan eight thousand individuals, and the nnmber is being rap~idly increased. The existing hoarding(-houses offer hoard andl lodging to two thousand live hundred unumarried wo-rkmen, a-nd other honses of the same description are nowv being huilt for the accommodation of one thonsand six hundred more. The arraiigecniits foir the accommodation of the sick consist of one hospital containing one hundred beds, andl une, epidemic hospital With one14 hundred and twenty beds, all under the supervision of physicians especially engragetl for the pturpose. A sick, burial, and pension lund has also been instituted for the workmen. The firm contrihutes to this found half the amount of the. contrihutions ptaitd in by the mnembers, being, in additi,.n, at the expense of providling pensions and suplport for those who have heen rendered unifit for wvork in their service, andl for the wvidowvs of their worknien. The total receipts in the year 1672 amounted to ~ 16,000, the expenditure to ~12,500, and the capital in hand at the beginning of the present year (1873) to ~,19,348. From another funDd members receive for their families free medical treatnient against an annual payment of seventy-two cents. Final y, thie firmi has organized *a chemical laboratory, a photographic and lithographic atelier, as well as printitig and hook-hinding c-stahlishment. in the printingoffice there, are two steam and fonr hand i~resses in olperation. Besides the cast-steel works niear Essen, the firni pcssesse5 considerable mining and smelting works, which F-ecure to it a regular amid uniform supply of thle best raw material. These comprise coal-pits in Prussia, iron-ore. mines to the number of four hundred atid fourteemi, with an area of more thau 2-39,200,000 square yards. Thie firtn. possesses iniportant concessions of excellent iron-ore heds in North Spain, whence it is intended to import annually tip to 300,600 tots of ore for the production of cast,-steel. To facilitate the, importation, a railway in Spain nearly eight miles long, as well mis several steamers, are, already in course (if conistruction. The Sayner and Oberhammer Ameltihng-works coittain two hlast-furnaces, which produce daily about twenty tons of "1spiegeleisen" and "1charcoal spiegreleisen; the LABOR IN GERMANY. 591 Mlofer smeti-wr on the Rhine, containing four blast-furnaces, each of which producs ai y bout frty-five tos of spiegel, B3essenter, an(l lille ion; alnd the Herrmas seltig-wors on the Rhinear Netiwied, with three blast-furlnaces. Also, the Bendorf selti-works; the Johannes smelting-works near Duisburg, on the Rie, producig daily i four blast-furnaces friomi about one hundred and forty to one hundred ad sixty tons. The constructiou of six more turtaces has been come, and the works ae in connection with the Rhenish and the Bergisch-Mi'rkisch Railway. hse wors ave also one hundred and forty coke-ovens in coperation, and one hundred an twenty more in course of construction. Krupp's stelti-works oduce, inl aCCOi at the present time, with eleven blastfurnaces, nearly ten thousd tons opig-iron per month. DESCRIPTION OF SOME ARTICLES MADE FOR THE EXHIBITION. One crucible cast-stec block, (, crucibles, each containing about sixty pounds,) 54 ithes tgo, weighig fity-two and one-half tons. This castg, originally cylindrical, has been reduced to the octagonal form by forgy-ton anner, to illustrate the malleability of the matetial. Cuts were ade in ur difeet places, while in a red-lhot state, to sh1o0w, w en broken off later, the esity a(l soundness of the cast steel. This block of -1un-nietal quality is itended for the body of a gun of 14-inilch caliber, and receives -he required form by further forging. One locootive straigt axle, of crucible cast steel, in the forged state. One fored teder-axle, of crucible ast steel. The body of this axle is forged conmplte uder the baner, ad r quires O furt her ortkmanilship. Six carriae-axles of crucible cast steel, forged according to the dimensions approved by the German railways. Two nwelded rins o crucible cast steel, forged from solid blocks by making a cut in the middle ad driving them out under a haunter. One locootive-eccentric crank an one driving-wheel crank, both of crucible cast steel, in the finished stae. These pieces of machinery are supplied by the works in the roughy, turned, or fittished state. Two carriage-axles, of crucible cast steel, body forged, ready fitted with tires of same material, atid spoke-wheels, nave incluletd, of wrought iron. Two carriage-axles, of crucible cast steel, ready fitted with disk-wheels cast in miolds, of satte utatetial. A colleci itott of cast-steel springrs for locomotives, tenders, ar d carriagres. Besseater steel rtivls, the manufacture beitig illustrated by a Bessetuer casting, from which octagonal blcsare forged as shown by the exhibited saniple. Rolls and rolling-Diachines ilitnstrating the most, ustual fortmts and dimensions used in this branch of manutaeture, one of the oldest of the istablishmtent. Artillery nisaterial.-Tbhe guns are manufactured front crucible cast steel of a quality especially -adapt ed for the.~ purlose, atid are, those of the smallest celibers excepted, constructed -according to the built-np systeni. All guns halve Krupp's rotitid wedge. The niaval and coast gun-carriag-es are genera, ly ianuaDUetCLurCd fromt wiotight iron; only patrticular parts, such as the axles, axle-trees, cylinders, and piston-ruds of the hydraulic butler' and the slide rollers of the coast-gun carriages being made of cast steel. Cast, iron is only uised for small truick-wheels. Heavy guns on carriages for coast defenses, sbip-guns on battery-carriages with hydraulic buffers and self-acting rtunning-out alpparatus; lighter gutis on ship anti upper-deck carriages, and on slide and on wheel cairiages, for siege ptri oses, as also field-pieces and one light mouuntain-gun on carriage, -were among the aitieles exhibited at Vien~a. CONDITION OF THE WORKING-CLASSES. From inormation obtained from Germany, in relation to the workii)gclasses, since the foregoing went to press, the following is I)reselited: The condition of the working-classes in Bavaria (luring the year 1873 i~s desciibed as prosperous, even in comparison with the previous year. The former high wages were generally maintained, though, it is added, few of the recipients appear to have taken advNantage of the improveMent in their material condition to la, by anything for future contingencies. With the exception of the journieymen-printers' strike, no organized strike occurred in any trade during the year, but tile relations between employers and workmen are described in the report of the Stiittgardt chamUber of commerce as anything but satisfactory. 592 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The following is extracted from that report: The sound sense of the working-classes is becoming more and more obscured by the systematic efforts made to mislead them into hostility toward capital, under te pretext of oppression and great injustice. Worked upon for party purposes, a feeling of distrust has gra(dually suting up and developed to an extent which gives just ground for fearing thalt iot only production will suffer from the growing complications, but that social order in general may be placed in peril. FARM-LABOR. From the report of a commission appointed by the German agriculturists to inquire into the condition of the rural laborers in the German Empire, it al)pears that the wages paid are higher in districts having large lauded proprietors, and also when the productiveness and consequent rentability of the soil is greater: The proportion of wages for contract work to the per em paid shows that the former exceed the daily summer wages by 49 per cent., the average cotract-wages showing 59 cents, the average daily wages being 40 cents in summer and 35 cents in winter. Generally. one-third of the rural laborers in Southern and Western and one-fourt in Eastern and Northern Germany work under contract. The average yearly earnings of agricultural laborers approximate the following sums: 1. Free laborers owning land.$173 09....... 2. Laborers hired under contract..............165 60 3. Free laborers not owning land.............146 16 The number of their working-days averages 300 in the year. It is remarked that in exclusively Catholic districts the number of work-days is smaller than in districts inhabited p)rincipally by protestants. The wages paid show an increase of from 50 to 100 per cent. dring the last twenty to twenty-five years. The wives of rural laborers generally contribute to the support of the family, either by working for wages or by tilling their own family-farm, or by both. Children generally work at agricultural labor where other industrial interests do not preidominate, atherwise they seek empnloyment in factories. Our information shows that nearly everywhere the earnings of the father are insufficient alone to meet the necessities of a family. Agricultural employers generally claim for their laborers a higher moral standard than. that accorded to other laborers, while ninny acknowledge their average intellectual inferiority. The data received will not warrant a comparison of their relative material condition. As to the general condition of the rural laborers, compared with that of ten or twenty years ago, the reports received, although somewhat contradictory, indicate a general improvement in morality. The decrease of crimes against property is universally acknowledged; while sobriety has improved in Northern but decreased in Southern Germany. Wbile a general improvement in their material condition is freely acknowledged, it is remarked that, as a class,2 the laborers have not become more provident. While the, prices of rye and beef, duringr the past twenty to thirty years, have adYancedl 25 and 53 per cent., respectively, wages, during the samne period, have increased ft-ot 50 to 100 per cent. Emigrnation to foreigrn countries is greater in Northern Germany, and less from Central and Southern Ger'many. The inducements to emigration are'stated generally to be "1to improve their co-ndition;" "711to acqu ire a homestead;' "induced by agents or relatives in America; "to evadle military service." In Prassia, the current of emigration seems to have run from west to east, as indicated by the fact that, of each one thousand inhabitants, there emigrated from.1844-159. 1860.-67. 1868-'71. Rhenish Prussi-a-.................... 1.6 1.2 1.0 Westphalia,..-.................... 1.7 1.7 1.4 Pomerauni-...................... 1.1 3.1 5.1 Posen-... --- 11,............... 0.3 1.6 2.0 Prussia, provinces of-.................. 0.2 0.4 1.4 But whle 4,05 persons emigrated from the Kingdom of Prussia in 1872, only 47,809 followed in 187'd3. Although without eVact tables, the information for 1874 indicates a continuied decrease in the numiber of emigrants. It may therefore be assumed that emigration fromm Northern (especially Northeastern) Germany has passed its climax, and will continute to decr-ease inthe same ratio as previously in Southern and Western Germany. The migrration of laborers, especially of single men. and women, (the latter most numerous,) from the dountry to towns and cities, is noticeable. LABOR IN AUSTRIA. b3 LABOR IN AUSTRIA. Manufacturing industry is of comparatively modern growth in Affstria, which has not lbug ceased to be a purely agricultural country. The industrial population is not, therefore, to any considerable extent engaged in manufactures which come into competition with the produc. tions of the United States. Bv reference to the following table, it will be noticed that glass-ware, manufactures of leather, including gloves, buttons, and fancy goods, constitute the principal articles of Austrian manufacture which find a market in the United States. Silk goods, musical instruments, china-ware, jchinawar elry, jewelry, and some other articlesof luxury serve to swell the amount of our imports; but, it will be observed, the articles of chief value which we receive from that country are fruits and wool: Statement showing the value of exports, direct and indirect, from Austria to the United States'luring the fiscal year ended June 30, 1874. Direct trade. Indirect trade. Articles. Value. Articles. Value. Chemicals.............................. $8, 231 Buttons................................ $400, 9RI Cordage..i...................... 1, 659 Chemicals, &C......................... 25, 6 Fancy goods............................ 12,048 Cotton, and manufactures of............... 826 Fruits of all kinds...................... 98 7 hiaware, 477&c........................ 9, 340 Glass................................... 690 Fancy goods........................... 163, 863 Old and scrap iron.............-..... 26, 912 Flax, manufactures of.................. 6,869 Jute, raw............................... 1,164 Fruits................................. 416,'221 Gloves of kid, &c....................... 1, 475 Furs....................................25, 221 Metals, &c............................. 420 Glassand glass-ware................ -.. 442, 213 Musical instruments................... 1, 204 Iron and steel, and manufactures of. - 10, 112 Paints.................................. 2,548 Jewelry.............................. 39, 052 Saulphur................................. 985 Leather, and manufactures of.......... 319,121 Wine, spirits, and cordials.............. 399 Musical instruments................... 58, 221 Wool........................-....... 9, 754 Silk, and manufactures of.............. 77, 823 Unenumerated......................... 8, 714 Wine, spirits, and cordials............. 15, 381 Free of duty............................ 113,962 WVool, &c............................... 509,607 Unenumerated -..................... 136,135 ree of duty........................... 99, 809 Total............................. 488, 642............................... 2, 830, 940 IMMIGRATION INTO THE UNITED STATES FROM AUSTRIA. The large Teutonic element of our population has already been referred to, but it is worthy of remnark, the immigration from the AustroHungarian Empire was not extensive. The last census exhibited the fact that there were in the United States on the 1st of June, 1870, only 30,508 natives of Austria proper, 40,289 of Bohemia, and 3,737 of Hungary. And although during the last semi-decade there has been an increase in the number of ilnlmmigrants from that country, yet the aggregate is by no means large, as will be seen by reference to the following statement: Number of immigrants who arrived in the United States from Austria during the five calendar years from 1870 to 1874, inclusive. 1870....................................................................... 5,23 1871....................................................................... 4,770 1872....................................................................... 5, 100 1873....................................................................... 6,943 1874....................................................................... 6,891 Total................................................................ 28,987 38 L 5t94 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Vienna is one of the ancient and famous capitals of Europe, but, until the late exposition, was less known to Americans than alost any other. Its population in 1872 was 980,000. It is the most important manufacturillg city in the empire. The principal product consist of silk ad other stuffs, gold-lace, silver-lace, ribbons, hardware, and ornamental goods, philosophical instruments, carriages, and paper. There are several ) porcelain works, one of which employs 150 painters and about 1,500 work-people. There are also anufactured steel ornaments, jewels, watches, musical instruments, and chemical preparations. There are locomotive and engineering works, a gun-fatory, and a manfactory of small arms, belonging to the government. Tobacco is manufactured under a government monopoly. The manufacture of silk-stuffs is an important branch of industry, and 4 personsareemployedinte weaving of shawls; but the most flourishing trade is the manufacture of nmeerschaum-pipes, in which much skill and artistic taste are displayed. Glove-making is also carried on to much perfection, and the trades and manufactures common in large capitals are prosecuted here. Notwithstanding its disadvantages of climate ad situation, ew places possess such ample resources, such large means of ejoyment both intellectual and physical, as the imperial city. The streets are crowded with a lively, active, bustling population. The Exposition of the industry of all nations, hel( in 1873, which transeded in magnitude every effort of a similar character previously attempte in any country, has doubtless been productive of vast benefit to that city, as well as to the whole empire, by reason of the disbursement there of the immense sums Of mnoney that were necessarily expended in carrying outi the objects of the, enterprise, and also on account of the improvement's in arts and scierices that have been introduced, and the quickening that has be-en given to all the industrial processes of civilization. The permnanent benefits accruingy to trade and commerce, and the prestige that has resulted from the concourse of the repiesentatives of all nations, are, it is believed, sufficient returns for the cost and labor bestowed upon the undertaking. THE KID-GLOVE MANUFACTURE. The Vienna manufacturers were fully represented at the Exhibition by a collectiomi remarkable for elegance. Several kinds of gloves were found in this selection as they are exported to all parts of the world. -By means of important improvements introduced in glove-cutting, regulating, and sewing by machinery, the Austrian article has acquired a good repute, and consequently extensive markets. The principal seats of this manufacture in Austria are Vienna and Prague. For several years past the demand in England and America has been very considerable, and the export to those countries, as well as to Switzerland, Holland, the Danubian Principalities, Russia, and the East has.steadlily inraeas will be seen from th olwn fiues. The value of gloves exported fromt Austria amounted in 1863 to $3,300,000; 1864, to $4,590,000;- 1865, to $6,840,000; 1866, to $9,420,000; 1867, to $12,1195,000; 1868, to $14,070,000; 1869, to $15,795,000; 1870, to $16,545,000; 1871, to $121,090,000; and 1872, to $22,545,000. LABOR IN AUSTRIA. 595 WAGES IN WOOLEN-MILLS. The following table, exhibiting the wages paid to the work-people em. ploye in the manufacture of woolen'i? goods in several parts of Austria, has been translated from the original statements, which were obtained and transmitted to the author of this report in 1872: atement showing the rte of ages paid to work-people employed in woolen-factories in the undermentioned places in the year 1X72. Yaegendorf. Brunn. -Occupation. Hours. Weekly Hours. Weekly wages. wages. Workmen in warehouse - 6 a, m. to 7p. m. $2 18 6 a. m. to 7 p. m. - $1 97 to $2 03 oosorters............................. do........... 1 45 to 1 51 yers.......-6a.m.to7p.m. 2 04 6a.m.to6p.m.. 2 18to 2 06 wlfersk —- --- a.m. to 8 p.m. 1 94 Accord'g to need. 2 91 to 3 15 Pishers-........................ do...... 2 91 ~~~~8p.Combers, (girl) -a.m.top.m.. I21 6a.m.to6p.m.. 1 40to 1 59 Spin...ners, (gilis) —----------- -$2 91 to 4 85 Accord'g to need. (a) Spinners, (boys)-5 a m. to 8 p.m 1 16 -.. -do....... (a) Dressers-(10.................... 2 18 6a.m.to 6 p.m.. 2 91 to 3 40 Master eses —---------—........ *-... 6ram.to8p.m_ 9 70to16 97 Master spinners-a................... 82 to 8 7~ -..-do —---— 7 27to 9 70 Y~ai n-eelers, (girls)-...... ------------ -----— Accord'g to need. (b) Twisters ---------------. m. to 8p. m.. 1 21lto 1 70 _..do —---- (e) Y'aen-'poolers, (girls)-.........6 a. mi. to 7 p. m.. 1 21 to 1 70 -...-.do —----- (d) Vvarp-sharers-s-.............do...... 1 45..do -......3 S88to 4 37 Sinurs —------------------------------------ do -......2 91to 3 40 Baud-weavers —---------— 10 boors at most. 2 4-2 to 3 88...-.do -......4 1.7 to 5 82 Spoolers -----------------------—. 97 to 1 21 -.-.do —----- (e) Coarse burers-............6 a. m.to 7p. m.- 1 16 6a. m. to 7p. m.. 1 31lto 1 45 Needkewomen-..................do...... 1 16 -..do -......1 89 to 2 03 Fine boilers-...............do ------ 1 16. —.do -......1 45 to 1 69 Washers.................................... do -......1 97 to 2 33 Fullers' bands —----------- 5a. m.to 7p. m — 1 94..-.do -......1 97 to 2 33 Master fellers-...............do ------ 3 88.. —-----— 5 8 2 ikappers-....................do...... 2 18 6 am.to7p. m..- 1 60Oto 1 55 Master Dappers --—.....................................7 27 to 12 1-2) Card-cleaners.............5 a. mi. to 7 p. in. 1 21 6 a. m. to 7 p. in.. 1 89 to 2 031 D)rye-s-................................. do. 189 —----! Shearers...............6 a..m. to 7p. m -I 21lto 1 45 -..do....... G 60to 1 89 Shearers, (boys)...............................do....... 99 to 1 16 Brushers.............-.......................do. 1 —--- 551 1o 89 Master sbearers,. —--------- -------— 4 85 to 7 27..........4 85 to 7 2!7 Frizzers............................... 6a. m. to 7p. m.. I 75 to 1 89 Pre;Ssmen.................................do ------ 2 9 1 Master pressmen....................................4 85 to 5 82 Stokers................ 5a. m.to 8p. m.. 3 40 to 4 37..........2 91lto 3 40'ugine-tenders......................................2 91 to 3 40 Factory blacksmiths..........6 a. m. to 7 p. in.. 2 18 to 2 91...........4 8550o 5 82~ Factory carpenters............do.......2 18 to 2 91..........3 40 to 4 85 *Wolfers in the original; the Ejiglish equivalent unknown. 596 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Troppa. Bielitz. Occupation. Hour Weekly Hours. Workmen in warehouse...5 a. m. to 7 p. m.......... $2 42 WVool-sorters.................... 6 a.m. to 7 p.m..13 Dyers....................................do 75 6. top. 1 82 *Wolfers............................ 1 31 5a. m. to 6 p.m. 218 Plushers................................. do...........1 13 Combers, (girls)..........................do........... Spinners, (girls)...................... Variable $3 39 to 3 88 do........2 91 to 3 88 Spinners, (boys)..................... 6 a. m. t88.do 6 p.m02 Dressers........1 94to 2 42......................................... 2 Master-dressers......................................... Master-spinners..............................................79 Yarn-reelers, (girls).................. Variable 1 45 to 1 94.do........1 21 Twisters............................. 6 a.m. to 6 p. m.. Yarn-spoolers, (girls).....................- do...........1 16 Warp-shearers..........................................do 2 42 Sizers.............................18 do...1 45 Hand weavers....................... mt 2 to 339 do.. m Spoolers............................. Variable....... e). -do 1 16 Coarse burlers....................... 6 a. m. to 7 p.m..16 Needlewomen.............................do........... do Fine butlers.............................do........... 1 - - - - do 1 16 Washers............................ 6 a.m. to 6 p.m.. 2 18.do 1 69 Fullers' hands.......................... 18 -.do........... 4 Master-fullers...........................do3 39 to 3 88...........5 82 Nappers............................. 6 a.m. to 7 pm. 1 4m..do 1 45 Master-nappers........................... Card-cleaners..................... m.to 7p.. 1 16........... 97 Dryers...................................do...........do Shearers............................................do...........45 Shearers, (boys)....................................... Brushers............................................ 4..... 5 Master-shearers..................................................7 76 iFrizzers............................................... Pressmen............................... aster-pressmen................................................ do........... 3.. Mastoker-pressme........................................................... Engine-tenders-6a.mto6p.m. 262...do.3 15 Fqctory blacksmiths-.........Variable-....... 5 82 _. —.do......4 85 Factory carpenters-..........6 a. m. to 6 p. m - 3 20...-.do......3 88 *Some of these occnpations have not been translated, others probably not correctly rendered, owing to a want of technical knowledge on the part of the translator. a Per 100 " st~raehne "warp and woof, according to fineness, 24 to 38 cents; strong yarn, 49 to 57 cents. A straehne is 1.760 Vienna ells, or 1,508 English yards. b Per 103 straehne 9.7 to 14.5 cents, according to the fineness of the yarn. c Per 1,00 straehne 48 cent~s. d Per 100 straehne 10.7 cents. a Per 100 straebne 30 cents. PRAGUE, BOHEMIA. This a'ncient city, the capital of Bohemia, possesses many industrial establishments of considerable importance; and it is to be regretted that a statement of the rates of w~ages in each branch of manulacture was not obtained. M1ARKET-PRICES IN PRAGUE. Statement showing the average market-prices of grain aed other commodities in the, city of ______________________Prague, during the year 1873. Articles. Valuein United Articles. Value in United States gold. States gold. Wheat.........per bushel. $2 06 Hay............per cwt. - $1 39 Rlye-.............do.. — 1 431 St:-aw - -............do.... 86 Barley -............do.... 1 18 Beef - -.........per pound..-14 Oats-.............do....- 65 Wine - -........per gallon..- $1 03 to 1 45 Pease -............do-..-. 1 47 Beer —...........do. - - 15 to 20 Beans............do.-.. 2 27 Wood - -.........per cord.- 6 24 to 9 03 Millet -............do....- 2 58 Wool - -.........per cwt. - 55 89 to 86 24 Buckwheat -........do....- 1 37 Laborers' wages, w i t Ii on u Indian corn-.........do... 1 53 board - -........ - per day..- 37 to 69 Potatoes-...........do.. — 46 LABOR IN AUSTRIA. 597 PRICES OF HOUSE-RENT IN PRAGUE. Up to $462................... 36 9 From $231 to $462................7. 4 ]ion $46..................... 27.2 From $462 to $924.................. 3. 4 From $92.40 to $13.60..13............1. 7 From $924............................ From $138.60 to $184.80.................... 6. 2 From $184.80to...................... 4.1 Total - 100. 0 Average wages of a laborer in 1873, from 39 to 72 cents. The following statement, translated from a report of the Chamber of Commerce of Lintz, on.trade of Upper Austria, shows the rates of wages then paid to work-people employed in the various factories and industrial establishments in that year: Daily wages in Upper A1ustria in 1870. [The Austrian ori, subdivided into 100 kIrutzer, is about equal to 48 cents, United States gold.] Occupied in- In Austrian currency. I gd Cottn-spinneries................................. 40 kreutzer to 2 florins 19.2 to 96 cents. Cotton- tories................................. 40 kreutzer to 1 florins 19 to 72 et. Wool-spineries................................... 30 kreutzer to 1. 2 florins olen-ctories.................................. 35 kreutzer to I florin.. 16 3 to 48 cents. Adult males....................... 60 kreutzer to 1 florin. 2.8 to 48 cent. ax-yarn spineries Adult females...................... 35 to 60 kreutzer........ 3 to 28.8 cents. Children........................... 25 to 35 kreutzer........ 16.3 cents. Linen-factories.................................... 45 to 50 kreutzer...........6 to 24 ets. G f-aories-...................................... 30 kreutzer to 3 florins.. 14.4ce:tsto.44. 11a peaciotteries......................................... 40 kreutzer to I flories. 19.2 to 72 cents. Printing and lithography..................63 to 80 kreutzer......31.2l to 38.4 cents. 1ihemical and dye- stuff' factories-..............35 kreutzer to 1 dlorin 16.3 to 48 cents. Flonr mills......................... 40 kr-ettzer to 1$ florins- 19.12 to 7-2 cents. Ship wharf in Lititz-.................... e0 kreut~zer to 2 flories..38.81t096 cents. Shoe blacking factories-...................50 to 90'kreutzer.- 24 to 43 2 cents. P"orcel-in factories.....................70 kreutzer to 1 flormin 33.6 to 48 cents. Gilded Irame factories-...................23kreutzer to I florin- 12 to 48 cents. T-nnueries............................ -83 kreutzer to 1 dlorin...- 40.8 to 48 cents. Sirup-factories-....................... *6 to 9 dlories....... *8288 to $4.32. *Monthly wages, including board and lodging. Average anntual wages in Upper Austria in 1870. Occupations. Occupations.a Florinus. Florins. Awl-ma'kers............. 100 $48 00 Cast-steel-flle cutters............ 200 $96 00 Armor —makers - -.......... 117$ 56 31. Hammersrniths-.......... 100 48 0(1 Tiusmiths-............. 221L 106 08 Chain-forgers-........... 104 49 92~. Aug~er-mnakers - -.......... 100 48 CO Sword-smiths-.......... lit 5-2 60 Gunismiths.......118..... t 56 64 Copper-hiammerers........ 130 62 40 Steel-lack makers - - 130....... D 62 40 Coppersmiths-.......... 100 48 00 Wii-c-drawers - -.......... 23515 113 00 Machin ists............ 300 144 00 Workers in iron cooking-utensils. 140 67 20 Machine nail-makers-....... 120 57 60 Workers in iron and steel articles. 200 96 00 Knife-makers........... 102$ 49 12 Braziers.................. 200 96 00 Needle-makers -3........ 04 49 92 Tile-cutters............. 100 48 00 Lockamith............. 100* 48 32 Brass-foun)ders........... 104 49 9-2 Biacksmiths-........... 90 39 20 BSeil-founders-........... 287$1 139 24 Scythe-makers.......... 1533$ 73 68 The first part of the foregoing statement, shows that the daily wages paid for flictory labor were sufficiently moderate, but the yearly wages of mechanics and other skilled workmen exhibit such low figures, eveu 598 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. for the year 1870, before the general rise in the price of labor, that some explanation is required. Either the sums named must have been paid in addition to board, or the men worked but a portion of the year. From the following table, furnished to the author by the United States vice-consul at Trieste, it will be observed that the rates ot wages in that sea-port, in 1873, were in excess of those in most other continental cities: Rate of wages paid for mechanical labor in Trieste, Aust ia in, the year 1873. Daily Daily Occupatio wages. Occupation. wages ~~~~~~~~~~~~wagesO' Blacksmiths........................ $ 1 20 Plasterers............................... $1 00 Brick-layers or masons.-........... 1 00 Shloemakers..-................ 1 00 C(abillet-makers —.......................... 1 00 Stone-cuitters.-............... I 00 Carpenters.-................ 1 20 Tailors................................. 5 0 Coopers. —..................... 1 O 00 Tanners................. 1 20 Machinists.-..*.............. *2 00 Tinsmiths.....-.............. 1'20 Painters --------------------------------— 1 50 Wheelwrigbts........................... I 00 *And upward. Although the above wages appear lhigh, as compared with the rates paid in other European cities, yet the purchasing power of the earnings of work-people is by no means great, as will appear from the prices of provisions and other necessary articles in Trieste, given in the following table: PRICES OF PROVISIONS, GROCERIES, ETC. Prices of provisions, groceries, and other leading articles of consumption, and also of houserent, in the town of Trieste. [Furnished by Mr. Visich, United States vice-consol.) Articles. Retail-prices in 1872. Articles. Retail-pricesin 1872. PROVISIONS. GROCEI JES, ETC.-Cont'd. Flour: Wheat, superfi ne. $11.80 per barrel. Coffee, Rio: Wheat, extLra family $L2.80 per barrel. Green............... 30 to 40 oents per pound. Iye.................. $6 per barrel. Roasted............. 40 cents )er pound. Corn-meal............ i8.40 per barrel. Sugar, good brown...... 12 cents per pound. Beef, frIesh: Sirup -. —----—,-,, - 150 to 60 cents per gallon. Rtoastingr-pieces.. S cents per pound. Soap. common.-.. 0.. 9 cents per poun(d. Soulp-pieces.......... 22 cents per pound. Starch.................. 10 cents per pound. Rump-steaks.-... 24 to 25 cents per pound. Fuel: Veal: Coal................ $12 to $15 per ton. F~ore-quarters. —.. - 28'cents per pound. Wood, hard --- - $3 to $4.50 per cord. HItind- quarters....... 34 cents pe pound. Wood, pine......... $2 to $3 per cord. Cutlets. —------- 34 cents per pound. Mutton: DOMESTIC DRY-GOODS, ETC. Fore- quarters. — - 12 cents per pound,. Leg ---- 14 cents per pound. Shirtings: Chops................ 14 cents per pound. Brown, 4-4, standard Pork: quality........... 10 to 15 cents per yard, Fresh................ 20 cents per poundr. lle dched, 4-4, standBacon2..-........ 2'2 cents per pound. ard quality........ 12 to 16 cents per yard. Haims, smoked....... 50 cents p)er p)ound. Sheetings: Shoulders............ 40 cents per pound. Brown, 9-8, standard Sausages.....- -... 30 to 50 cents Per pound. quality........... 10 to 12 cents per yard. Lard-..................... 4 cents per pound. Blechled, 9-8, standButter................... 30 to 46 cents per pound. ard quality....... 11 to 13 cents per yard. Cheese....... - --- 35 to 50 cents per pound. Ticki-ings, good quality. 20 to 40 cents per yard. l'otatoes................. $1 per bushel. Mousseline deo laines _ 20 to 40 cents per yard. ]Rice................ - -.-.... 6 to 9 cents per pound. Satinets, medium qualBeans.................... 5 to cents per quart. ity --------- 6;0 to 90 cents per yard. Milk..................... 6 to 10 cents per quart. Boots, men's heavy...... $4 to $8 pei pair. Eggs.-.......... — 12 to 15 cents per dozen. GROCERIES, ETC. HSEENT. Tea, Oulong, or other Four-ronomed tenements. $1 to $1.50 per month. good black.-...... 80 cents per pound. Six-roomed tenements... $t.80 to $2 per month. In the following statement, translated from an official publication of Austria, )published at Vienna in 1872, the measiures and values are expressed in the respective standards of the United States: LABOR IN AUSTRIA. 599 Statement showing the price of provisions anil feel, and the daily wages, of ordinary labor, iM various parts qf th~ Austro-Hungarian toonarchy, in the mouth, of M arch, 167'2. Governmental districts and cities. Beef. Veal Pork. Mutton. Galicia: Cents per lb. Cents per lb. Cents per lb. Cents per lb. Letoberg..... 14.8 11.8 to 16. 6 15. 4 to 17.7.............. Tarnopol-............................... -9. 5 II. 8 14. 2.............. Military Border: Otoca-e -------------------------- ------- 11. 3 11. 8 13. 01 8. 3 Neiw Gradisca ------------------- - -in —. 6 11. 3 13.01 8. 3 WVcisskirchen- --------------------------- 14.2 15. 4 17. 8.............. Moravia: Briinn................................... 16.6 to 21.3 16. 6 to 20.1 18. 9 to 20.1 14.'2 to 17. 8 Kremsier. —----—....................... 16. 6 to 17.8 14. 2 to 15.4 16. 6 to 17. 8 13 to 14. 2 Neatit'schin- ----------------------------- 17. 8 15. 4 18. 96.............. Nikolsb'-g ------------------------------ 17.8 17. 8 18. 961.............. Oliitz-.................................. 17. 8 to 19. 5 15. 4 to 16.6 18. 96 15. 4 Teltsch.................................. 16. 6 to 17. 8 II. 9 to 14. 2 17. 8 to'20. 1 13 to 14. 2 Silesia: Zauernig............................ 13 to 14.2 9. 5 to 10.7 l. 96 11.9 to 13 Bohemia: Tabor................................... 16.6 to 17.8 15. 4 to 16.6 16. 6 to 18. 96.............. Lower Austria: TreismaUer.............................. 17. 8 17. 8 17. 8.'Viouna................................. 19. 5 20. 7 25. 5 20.'7 Vienna-Neustadt................ 18. 9 to 20. 1 22. 5 to 41. 5 20. 1 to 21. 3 14. 2 to 15. 4 Steiermark: G raz..................................... 17.2 27.5 123. 7 13 to 15.4 Kaernteu: Feldkirchen................... 14. 2 to 14. 8 15. 4 to 16 17. 8 to 18.96 10. 7 to 11.8 Kappel....15.4. 20. 7. Kla;enfurt............................. 14.2 to 16.6 16.6 to 17.8 20.1 11.8 to 13 Villach.................................. 14.2 to 15.4 15. 4 to IC. 6 17.8 to 18. 961.............. V61kermarkt.................. 14. 8 to 16 15. 4 to 16. 6.............. Krain: Laibach................................. 9. 5 to 10.6 15.4 to 17. 2 14.8 to 16 10. 7 to I1.8 U-pper Austria: Urfahir................................... 166t[1 1.4t 1-.8 1. to2........... —-- Urlkhr.. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~16. 6 to 23. 115. 4 to 17. 8 178to2.. Tyrol: Boshn.................................. 14.8 to 17. 2 14.80o16 18.96to20.1 11.8 to 13 Mer~an.. —-------------------------------- 14. 2 to 17.8 14. 2 to 17.8. Wood. Governmental districts and cities. Lard. Bread. ilard. Soft. Galicia: Cents per lb. Cce nts pee lb. Per cord. Per cord. Lem berg.................... 2.7 to 10.8 $6 12 to 7 93 $5 10 to $6 37 Tarnpol)q......................................... 2. 2 to 10. 8 6 37 5 10 Military Border: Olocae............................... 35.5 9. 5 to 10.7 306 200! New Gradisca....................... 29.6 3.6 to 5.9 3 06 to 4 0. 2 04 we uisskir'chen... 2.................... 26. 7.............. 8 16 to 9 17 4 08 to 6 12,5or,~vi a: ]3riiun. 28.4 4. l to 5. 3 7 90 to 8 46 6 1~ to 6 37 K nemsier -. —------------------------ 30. 8 to 33.'2 3.6 to 10. 7 7 65 to 8 6i 4 58 to 5 (I. 2eutitschin.........................- 27.5 5.3 to 1:3. 6 6 12 4 3 1 2Nikolslrig.... 27. 5 4.7 to 8. 3 7 15 5 06 Olumitz.2 9. 6 5.9 to 10. 7 7 39 to 7 65 4 59 to 4 8 1 Teltsch..............................'27. 5 3 to 8. 3 5 60 3 81 Silesia: Zanernig.......................... 30. 8 3 to 10.7 5 09 4 08 to 4 18 Bohroe-a: Tibor................................ 2o. 8 to 24 5. 3 to 20.1................ 3 31 to 3 57 Lower Austria:: Treismauer... 2...................... 27. 5 4. 4 to 10. 7 7 65 5 10 Vienna......................2 4. 3... 12 10 to 12 2:1 8 66 Vienna-Noustadt.................... 23. 7 to 26 7. 8 to 8. 9 8 66 5 61 Steterniark: Graz................................. 23.7 4.1 to 7.7 7 15 to 8 16 5 61 to 6 6C3 Kaer'ten: FeIldkirehen......................... 27. 5 3. 6 to 8. 3 4 08 to 5 09 2 55 t0 3 t6 K ap pI-l-........................... 26. 7 to 29. 0 5. 9 to 13 2 80 to 3 06 I2 14 to 2 23 1ilaoenfurt..... 2..................... 26 3. 6 to 9. 5 2 29 to 2 50 1 1 84 to 1 9 Viitaeh ------------------------ 27. 5 to 29.6 4.1 to 9. 5 4 4:1' 2 80 Vdikermarkt........................ 27. 5 4. 1 to 11. 8 3 06 to 4 0S 2 29 to 3 06 ].~rain: Laibach............................. 26 to 27. 5 4.1 to 5. 9 3 26 to 3 36 2 45 to 235 Upper A ustria. Ur~thr.............................. 27.5 4.1 to 8.21 8 66 to 9 17 6 37 Tyrol: Bezen.24............................. —1.0 to 26 4.1 to 7.1 z 9~ 2 6 63 Meran.......................... —-- 29.6 o:33. o2..1 Io 7. 7 7 15 to 8 16 4 84 to 5 01 600 LABOR IN EUROPEAND AMERICA. Price of provisions and fuel, and the daily wage of ordinary labor,.-Continued. Governmental districts and cities. Coal. Brown coal, Charcoal Average daily (peat.) wages.* Galicia: Per ton.t Per tn.t Per tont Cents per day. Lemberg............t.. $8 25 to $8 64 $28.8to33.6 Tarnopol.......................................... 72 38. 4 Military Border: Olocae........................................... 92to 240 38.4 Weisskirchen................... 8 64 to 9 60 78 to 864 960 to 1152 28.8 to 57.6 Moravia: Briinn........................... 9 60 56to 720 672to 864 24 to48 Kremsier........................ 7 65 to 8 641728 to 1824 28.8 to 33.6 Neutitschin...................... 9 22152 33. Nikolsburg...................... 8 649 60 34 56 28. Olmiitz........................... 8 0628.8 Teltsch..........................13 44 13 44 11 52 19.2 to 44 Silesia: Zauernig......................... 9 3124 Bohemia: Tabor........................... 6 72 to 7 20432to 480 19.2 to28. Lower Austria: Treismaner.................................28..... to 38. 4 Vienna-Neustadt................ 11 52 to 12 48 8 64 to 9 60 5 76 to 9 60 28. 8 to 48 Steiermark: Glaz.............................................8 to 48 Kaernten: Feldkirchen..................... 5....... 184 Kappel.......................... 17 28 to 19 20.11 52to 48 48 Klagenfurt...................... 6 5338.4 Villach......................... 5 9514 40 to 17 28 33.to 38. Vdlkermarkt..................................... 18 24 3 2 to 38. 4 Krain: Laibach.........................35 to 480 28.8 to 33.6 Upper Austria: Urfahr............................................ Tyrol: Bozen............................................. Meran........................................... 8. to48 For ordinary labor. Per metric ton of 1,000 kilograms. COST AND CONDITION OF LABORv IN AUSTRIA. As the authtor was unable, from want of time, to visit Autstria and make apersoncal investig~ation in regard to the cost and condition of labor in that emp~ire, and as his efforts to obtain from consular and other original soumcesthe ecesar infornmation were not attended with satisfactory results, he is undler tile necessity of drawing largely from the reports of the secretaries of legation. and consuls of the British government, It is to be regretted that this information was not gathered by them at a later pleriodi than. 1870, as in the following pages the rates of wages are given previous to the general. advance in 1871 and 1872. In the villages about Vienna there is a considerable number of weavers, who are also agricultural laborers; and in the mountainous woodlands of the Waidvientel, from Krems, on the Danuabe, north ward to ihe Bohemian, and westward to the Upper Ans.trian. frontier, the agfricultural laborer, when field-work is slack, earns fromi 15 to 19 cents a day by weaving. These weavers are able to compete with the power-looms, in consequence, of their extremely low wages and the coarse quality of the ware they produce, which cannot be made by miachine-work. Considerable quantities of cloth-stuffs thus manufactured, and of very inferior quality, are not ouly consumed in Austria, but also exported at low prices to the Danubian Principalities and other parts of Turkey. WAGES OF AGRICULTURAL LABOR. In 1867 the average rate of wages of agricultural laborers in Austria was from 30 to 40 florins a year, (from'$14.40 to $19.20,) of women, from 10 to 30 florins, ($4.80 to $14.40,) exclusive, however, of board and lodging, which is provided by the, employer. But owing, probably, in part to the construction of railways, and in part to the general rise in prices, the rate of wages for agricultural labor has risen considerably throughont Austria during the last three years, and is still rising. LABOR IN AUSTRIA. 601 PAYMENT OF WAGES IN MINES. Every mine-contractor is bound by law to settle with his workmen, at least, quarterly. Whenever a workman is discharged he must be paid at once. No outstanding claim on the part of masters against men can legally invalidate or qualify the above-mentioned obligation. The stoppage of a workman's wages by his employer for payment of debt contracted by the workman to a third person is illegal. WORKING-HOURS. In the steel-casting factories wages are paid by hundred-weight produced. In the iron and lead refineries wages are also paid by weight, and the average length of labor at the blast-furaes is twelve hours per diem. At puddling the men only work six hours at a time, with long intervals of repose between the different loadings of the furnace. At the end of every six hours one set of workmen is relieved by another. A rest every twelve hours is allowed in welding and rolling. For engine-waiters, and workmen employed in the refiin forges, the work is from eight to eight and a half hours for every four loupes or blooms, with a quarter of an hour's rest between each blom. The day's work in this department is reckoned at ten and a half or eleven hours on the average. Wire-drawers and benders, pin-makers, rollers and waterdrawers, work for twelve hours, stopping for breakfast and dinner. Coal-workers get their breakfast and dinner-our free when they work for twelve hours, but not when they only work for eight hours. The average length of the working-day, therefore, does not exceed ten and a half or eleven hours. THE HOURS OF WORK, WAGES, AND INCREASE IN THE PRODUCTION OF WOVEN GOODS. Work in the Austrian weaving establishments goes on throughout the whole year with the exception of Sundays, the church festivals, and certain national or local festivals. The number of working-days, therefore, in most manufactories is about 300. The daily hours of work amount to twelve here and there, more especially in summer, to thirteen in other places, and in winter to ten or eleven. The rate of wages varies according to the fluctuation of the average market prioe and the price of provisions in different districts. It adjusts itself further according to the description and sex of the laborer. In. the year 1870 the daily wages of a laborer employed in. the manufacture of textile fabrics, at their highest average, were as. follows: Districts. Kreutzers. U. S. cengs. Lower and Upper Austria-....................... 80 to 1 florin. 38 t-, 48 Voralberg-...................... 65 31 Tyrol-.................................. 60 29 Bohemia, (flat or low country)-..................... 50 24 Galicia..-............................... 40 to 45 19k tw 22 Other districts-............................ 55 26 Since then there has been everywhere an increase in wages, which amounts to atnd even exceeds 20 per cent. With reference to the question of the increase of the produce of the loom in Austrian mianufactories, no sufficient information can be given, because it is only latterly that statistical data have been collected on the advancement of industrial products. As far as can be gathered from them, the production of textile articles in Austrian establishments, during the year 1870 are: ValueArticles. In florins, (Aus- In U. S. gold. trian currency.) Cotton fabrics.............................. 35, 000,000 $16, 800, 000 Woolen fabrics —............................ 60, 000, 000 28, 800, 000 Silk-.................................. 7, 000, 000 3, 360, 000 Itibbon, (lace-work and manufacture of borders)-............ 10, 000, 000 4, 800, 000 Linen manufactures: The portion produced in factories is small and amounts to ------------------------------ 5,000, 000 2, 400, 000 602 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The cotton manufactures in the years 1870 and 1871 show a remarkable increase, which is principally to be attributed to the cheaper price of raw materials, and to the interrilption of French and German competition on account of the war. Woolen manufactures have also considerably increased since 166, on accout of the requirements of the tnrmy, and the increased consumption of such goods in the interior. Since, however, the foreign, and especially the Eglis, competition (favored by the lowering of the aTgis and the duties on imported woolen anuactures) has made itself felt to the most wonderful extent, the condition of this branch of industry has become less favorable. Latterly, indeed, these (being principally concentrated in and abot Vienna) have been injuriously affected by the great increase of ages, and some branches of the business have been afiected to such an extent as not to make any return. * The number of ilax-yarn ftctories at work in 1870 amounted to 62, with 370,790 spindles. The manufacture of linen, especially in Bohemia, Silesia, and Moravia, is carried on principally by means of hand-looms. Spinning by machinery is being very slowly established. The number of machine-looms in use amounts to 346, of which 294 are in Silesia, 30 in Moravia, and 22 in Tyrol. In I ungary there were in 1873 but four anufactories of textile fabrics, the highest average wages of male hands (at Losenz being 38 cents and tlhe lowest, (at Kismark,) 19 cents; of women, from 15 to 24 cents, and of childrenl, from 9 to 15 cents, per day. Further quotations are made ifrom the British consular reports, as follows: F'ACTORY HANDS AND TRADE-WORKEN. Under this head there is a great deficiency of trustworthy official statistics. The following statemnents are based upon information collected from the Chambers of Coiinerce and Indtustry; and as they only refr to the larger testablishments, they mst not be regarded as a compilete record of the condition of the Working-classe employed. If the scanty statistics which are, as yet, the only o accessible even to official inquhry, inacy be trustled there are in Austria about 6,310,000 workmen. Of this number 17,.2 per cent. (or F-9,'343) are provided with lodging lby 493 employers. The mnode of the provision made tortrh ir lodging is various; 1,348 workmen are lodged with their (euiiiloyers; 245 est iblishments provide free lodging only for 24.810 workmen; 4 establishmnetuts provide tree lodgxng only for married iena; 37 establishments furnish coinfortable lodgings for marnried mhen at a, low rent; 15 establishinents, employing, 2,290, provide beds at a smnall wxeelkly charge for 1,053 workmen, and beds free or all chlargeo forunmrrid wrkmn;87 litories, employing 8,512 hands, provide lodgingan beds, rent- free, for unimarried men, partly in workinen's barracks, p)artly in separtate cottages; 18 establishments give lodging to 60,000 workmen. Lodgings, rent free, for superintendenits, are provided by 28 factories, employing 2,607 hands. Allowance for rent is given by two establishments, employing 60 workmIenl. Some few establishnients unDdertake time constrUCtioti of houses, of which, by the annual payiment of a sitall rent, the workman can gradually purchase the ownership. Mlost of the Austrian railway companies, it may here. be mentioned, allow a discount on the pr-ice of railway-tickets for workmnen. The Sudbahn, for instance, is very liberal in this respect. Board is wholly or partially provided by 379 establishments for 46,739 workmen, or about 13.7 per cent. of the whole, working-class as above estimated. Many workmien. are boarded entirely by their employers; others receive, for the cultivation of garden produce, &c., pieces of land rent free, or at a very trifling rent. In some factorie's food is distributed at wholesale prices to the hands; arid in others, co-operative stores have been established by the workmen themselves. The capital for starting these stores is in many cases raised from. loans advanced by the employers, or by the sickrelief fund, and they are generally supplied with store-rooni, and office buildings, free, on the premises of the factory. in seine farctories married nien are siipplied withe food, anudsinigle menreceive an allowance for board. In others, eating)-hiouses are established, -where a good dinnier of sotih) meat, and vegetables can be got at a very moderate price. For the kitchens Of these eating-houses, the factories with whinch they are conlnected ge-nerally futrnish the fud anduso.-netimies thiecooks. Manyftactories have their own baking-ovens, and somne supply free ratiolts of rice aud potatoes to their hands. Sickc relijfcand contpcasatioiis c -.Sev en hundred and twenty-three establishmients, employing altogether 141,761 hands, (about 40 per cent. of the whole working-class,) afford sulpport, of one sort or other, to their hands in case of sickness, and comuipensafinn in case of accident or death. 1v 185 establishments (:30,493~ hands) the hospital fees for sick worknicn are paid eutihely. Ir five factories, 211I workmen, the expenses LABOR IN AUSTRIA. 603 for the care and cure of te sick are defrayed by the joint contribution of masters and e. In 496 factories (109,990 hands) relief societies and pension funds are establlished, to which the employers contribute a fixed sumn, varying in amount from 12 florins to 420 fors per annu, in addition to a contribution of from 920 to 30 per cent. on the contributions of the workmen. The contributions of the workmen are gradmited in proportion to their age and health, (on the life-insurance principle,).and vary from 1 to 7 per cent. of their wages. The majority of workmen pay only 1 or 2 per cent. Out of 64,0 hands, or instance, 16,000 are returned as paying 1 per cent., and 31,000 as aying 2 per cent. Those who pay only 1 per cent. receive, in case of sickness, medicine an medical attendance free; a small contribution to the burial expenses is also received by their families in case of death. Those who pay 2 per cent. receive, in addition to the above, support to the amount of half their wages, when they are on the sick-lis. The average length of time for which this support is conlinued is eight weeks. More extended relief and other advantages can only be secured by contributions at the rate of 3 or 4 per cent. to the relief-fund. Those factories in which the workan's contribution to this fund is fixed at 5 or 6 per cent., afford pensions and sall annuities to widows, orphans, and permanent invalids. The relief-fund itself, however, is rarely if ever able to bear these expensive claims upon it; and the system is only maintained by extensive assistance on the part of employers. In the government factory at Zeltwig, for instance, this annual assistance amounts to the thousandth part of the grss prolits. And by the Sudbahn eninle-factory 1.60 per cent. of the anal wages is paid to the same account. In the chemical-factories, where labor is especially exposed to accident and loss of health, the rate is generally 7 per cent. In the trades the care and cure of the sick is provided for by their respective "genosseseafren." Educational establishments for the working-classes have hitherto been insufficient in nmber and deective in quality. Seven factories support drawig-sools; fifteen support music-schools; thirty-nine afford gratuitous instruction in their own schools: thirty-one pay for schooling at the communal-schools; three factories pay only a certain annal su to the communal-schools toward the education of the children conected with them. Sewing-schools for girls and nurseries for worken's i ts are numerous. They enable, wherever they are established, every resectable working-woman to place her infant where the greatest care is taken of it, without arge, during the time she is at work. Such an institution would be a godsend to maiy honest and hard-working English niothers. As reg-ards the education of the working-classes in Austria, there can be no reasonable doubt that an immense and beneficent stimulus will have been given to it by the recent scLool-bill already described. Workbig-honrda-The statistics on this head are very incomplete. The average working day seems to be about twelve hiours. It mtust be reniembered, in connection therewith, that the working-classes in Austria at presemit enjoy no less than seventy-six whole holidays in the course of the year; and in some of the provinces the number of holidays is greater. SURVEY OF THE PRINCIPAL TRADES FROM A wORZKING-CLASS POINT OF VIEW. The great deficiency of official statistics on the subject here especially considered has obliged men tp confine the following short survey of the principal tra(1es established in Austria to the representation of those trades at Viennia. Turniers.-One of the niost important trades here represented is that of the turniers. Its princilial articles of manufacture are pipes amid walkinig-sticks, &C. The shoecmok(rs nuamber about 10, 000 at Vienmia. This trade, a very flourislhing one,, not only supplies all the Austrian and Hungarian markets, but also exports annually to the value, of from 5,000,000 to 6,000,000 florins. One Vienna house alone exported in the course of last year the value of 400,000 francs. A good journeyman should earn. as much as 2 flormns (96 cents) a day. Piece-work is general in. this trade. Joiners.-There are about 8,000 of them in Vienna, and the supply of Lbhor-in this trade is considerably under the present mlemandy which within the last two or three years has been rapidly rising, in consequence of the gTreat number of houses nowv bnildingr and furnuishinig at Vienna, and the large export of furniture to the principalities. The averag(e rate of wages in this trade, is from 21forims 60 kreutzers to 3 flormns (about $1.20 to ~1.44) a day for good workmen. Tailors.-This trade is perhaps the most prosperous of all. During the civil war in the United States a great part of the Utiion army was supplied with clothinig from Prague a'id Vienna. A little later a single Vienna firm provided clothing for the whole of the Egyptian army. Yet, in spite of these facts, the complaint is general that the AnMstrilan1 arniy, ~in. 1866, was very insnfficiemitly clothed, although, at the sameti, the Saxon araiy was provided with good and sufficient clothing by the Austrian tailors. The circuiistance comuplained of must be entirely attributed to the jobbing of conltractors, In this trade, also, the supply of labor is below the demand. Several master 604 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. tailors of Pesth, and other towns, recently endeavored to engage at Vienna 2,000 jour neymen workmen, but in despite of high offers they were unable to obtain half that number. The rate of wages in this trade is from two to three fors (96 cents to $1.44) a day. A system of piece-work carried on in this trade is very generally complained of by all the most respectable workmen in it. There are about 2,000 master tailors at Vienna, employing about 6,000 workmen and apprentices. They have good markets in the principalities and along the Lower Danube. The capital of the Vienna tailors is about 400,000 fors, ($192,000.) Weavers.-There are about 10,000 silk, wool cotton, shawl, ribbon, and lace weavers in the capital, residing chiefly in its western suburbs. Their average wages are low, and rarely exceed five florins ($2,40) a week. Lately, however, the trade has improved, and the present wages of the Vienna ribbon-weavers average at about eight fors, ($3.84.) Plumbers and lamp-makers.-With a considerable export market; average rate of wages twenty florins ($9.60) per week. Smiths and iron-workers.-Supply of labor below demand; wages from two to three florins (96 cents to $1.44) a day. The engine-factories of Messrs. Seigel, at Viena and Wiever-Neustadt, (which last year exported fifty locomotives to Russia,) employ upward of 2,000 hands. Carriage-builders.-Bnsiness brisk; good home-markets in Austria and Hungary. Considerable export to the principalities and Russia. Wages high. Tanners.-Work heavy and wages low. A strike of the tanners for higher wages in 1866 was summarily settled by wholesale imprisonment, and many of the men eigrated. But within the last year the rate of waes has been somewhat pushed up by thie determined resistance of all the men to the old rates. Sauw-grinders. —Men and masters together, this trade numbers about 1,200 representativos at Vienna. This year the men struck for higher waes, which has had the effect of raising the rate of wages in the trade from four to five fors up to seven and eight florins ($3.36 to $3.84) a week. Bilders.-Tho rapidity with which houses arenow being constructed at Vienna, to meet the wants of an enormously-increased population, has given an immense impetus to this trade. Although one establishment alone produces a million of bricks per die, the supply of material is very inadequate to the demand, and the price of bricks is twenty-three florins ($11.04) per thousand. The average rate of wages in this trade is, for a head workman, 62 cents a day; (the day's work being from a. m. to 7 p..,) for an assistant workman, 48 cents, and for a woman 40 cents. Brass, bronze, and German-silversmiths.-There are at Vienna about 900 workers ia bronze; $380 of themn are married mnen. About, 30 women are also employed in this trade. Of these 900, from $2.88 to $3.36 a week is earned by 200, from $3.36 to $4.32 a week by 500, and from $1.32 to $3.32 a week by 100. About 100 others earn by piece-work from $3.36 to $4.80 a week. The German-silversmiths number 300 at Vienna. About 200 of them earn from $2.88 -to 3.36 a week, and the rest from $3.36 to $4.80 a week. The working-hours in this trade are from 6 a. m. to 6 p. in., with only one hour's rest for the day's meal. Many of the men work extra hours,, at the rate, of from- 6 to 10 cents per hour. During the months from January to August, however, this trade is slack, and the masters themi d scharge the majority of their workmen. Au unmarried workman cannot support himself at Vienna under 40 cents a day for board, at the rate of $72'a, year for lodging and clotliing. Printers, setters, and ty~pe-founders, number a Vienna about 2,000 workmen, and from 700 to 800 apprentices. The apprentices, after two years' service, earn from 96 cents to $1.92 a week, but cannot become workmen until after four years' apprenticeship. The workmen and apprentices have their own sick relief-fund, to which the monthly subscription is 24 cents. The working-hours at the Vienna printing-offices are ten per diem, with extra wages for extra work. The menare now ag-itatinig fwrareduction toinine hours. The average wages of a type-setter are from $1.44 upward per diem. The number now employed at Vienna is 1,400. Bakers-Inferior workmen only earn about 72 cents a week, and head workmen about $1.68 a week in this trade. RAGUSA. The following is condensed from a report made by Mr.- Paton, British consul at Rtagusa, under (late of Feb~ruary 12, 1872: The chief cause of the miserable state of the agricultural laborer, and also of tlw embarrassed state of the proprietor, is the inequality of the olive-crop-one year most abundant, and then for two or three years not covering the expense of culture. In the good years, occasional olive-plantation labor is, relatively speaking, not ill paid, the LABOR IN AUSTRIA. 605 laborer reeiVig from 24 to 30 cents a day, without food; but when permanently empoyed ot more than 10 or 12 cents a day, with food. The followin are the present rates of wages of the town-operative class in Ragusa: Worken employed in the manufacture of the thick woolen long-pile blanket receive about 24 cents a day, without food. atters receive a little more; hoe-makers, about 22, cents. The pay of a timan, a plain ose-painter, or a plumber is 32 eents; shoemakers earn from 24 to 28 cents; women Who sew on the elastic part with the machine receive 16 cents; barbers, tailors, andsmiths, mostly natives, earn 30 cents per day. Amog the more highly-paid work-people are boatmen, who, if they own a boat, make 40 to 48 cents per day. Mos and carpenters are also paid about 48 cents a day. Skilled apothecaries earn about 84 cents per day; street-porters about 20 cents. The worst-remunerated condition is that of the seamstresses, who do not make more than 12 cents per day; but a female dressmaker earns 24 cents. The best-paid artisans are jewelers, who receive from to 7 cents per day. CONDITION OF AUSTRIAN INDUSTRY. Since this page was first put in type the following information has been furnished by Hon. Philip Sidney Post, consul-general of the United States at Vienna: During the years between 1867 and 1873, Austria enjoyed a high degree of industrial prosperity, but the year 182 was characterized by extraordinary speculations, consequent upon the acquisition of most of the industrial establishments of the country by joint-stock companies. In 1873 came a monetary crisis which deranged the entire industry of the country. In ome branches of production there is still (August, t1875) the greatest distress. At Brun the weavers, a particularly ill-paid class, whose codition has recently been endered worse by the introduction of new machinery and an increase in the cost of livi, have been on strike for several months, and a large body of military has been required to preserve the peace. The iron-industry of Vienna is now generally paralyzed. The railways are economizing and few orders are given. In the great works of the Staatbahn, where in 187, good workmen received from $3.36 to $4.80 per d-y, none are now paid more than $1.44, and it is feared that the establishment will close entirely. The workmen, attracted in good times to the manufacturing centers, are sent back in times of distrees to the districts in which t~hey were born or had acquired a residence, these districts beingI chargeable for theii- support. HABITS AND CONDITION OF WORK-PEOPLE IN AUSTRIA. The improvidence of the Austrian workmen is illustrated in the result of an effort to increase the production of pearl buttons, the demand for which in Austria has long exceeded the supply. An increase of wages produced an effect directly contrary to the one anticipated, for the inen finding it possible to live by three days' work per week, instead of the five to which they had been accustomned, devoted the other two d-uys to recreation. The people are industrious, but fond of amusement, and few of them work as energetically as do persons of their class in England or America, though when not interrulpted by the nuimerous holidays observed here, they are usually steady and methodical in their labor. They all driuk beer or wine, but there is nO such thing as intemperance in the American souse, and cases of drunkenness, if they occur, mu~st be rare indeed. In the large cities house-rent is high, and the houses of the workmen are far from comfortable. In Vienna the state and municipal tax on rent approaches 50 per cent. of the rent paid. It was a fraction over 42 lper cent. last year. The enhaDCncemet Of prices consequent upon an excessive paper currency has not been attended with a proportional increase of wages, and the laboring classes are nOW in a sufiering condition even when employed, while the unemfployed;nare dependent upon public assistance in the districts to which they beOD.ng Extract trom the Baltimore American of June 29, 1873: All the niost, menial work in Vienna is done by ivomen, such ais cleaning and sweeping the streets, gathering Up garbage, carrying water, and pumping it from. the cisterns to the reservoirs in the upper stories, sawing wood, spading the ground, the making and carrying mortar in buckets, and handling the brick used in building. There are, no doubt, many thousands of them to-day doing this species of laboring-work in Vienna. They are of all ages, young, middle-aged, and old; but all seem to be strong and healthy. The wages are one, florin (48 cents) per day. 60/~ LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. LABOR IN SWITZERLAND. The various industries of this little qtate, which, in its mountain home, has for nearly six centuries preserved its independence, are of deep interest to the citizens of a newer but more widely extended republic. It is to be regretted that the labor of so worthy and industrious a peopie should have received so inadequate a reward, for in few parts of Europe have the earnings of the working-people been so poorly paid. These low rates of wages have induced a comparatively large emigration, chiefly to the United States,* where the rewards of industry were inore abundant. EXPORTS TO THE UNITED STATES. The manufactures of Switzerland, which to any considerable extent find a market in the United States, are chiefly confined to two, viz, silk goods and watches. The following table, which gives the value of the principal articles of Swiss production which were exported into the United States in the decade from 1864 to 1873, is translated from a statement published by the Statistical Bureau of Switzerland: Statement showing the exports from Switzerland to the United States in the ten years from 1864 to 1873, inclusive. [Franc computed at 191 cents.] Articles. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868: Silk, and manufactures of................ $4, 963, 126 $5, 744, 240 $6,194, 491 $3, 669, 524 $4, 133, 531 Tissues of cotton and wool............... 321, 230 83-2, 436 1, 008, 793 397, 474 242, 367 Embroideries........................... 68, 694 220, 785 631, 047 615, 047 594, 775 Braiding straw and horse-hair.......... 157, 307 296, 631 620, 060 474, 319 409, 987 Watches and parts of................... 1, 653, 052 2, 203, 881 2, 553, 215 2, 020, 672 2, 041, 597 Music-boxes............................. 14, 134 21,138 58, 501.51, 713 67, 667 Cheese................................. 47, 107 95, 525 138, 525 161, 391 206, 200 Leather................................. 4,314 - - 21,623 30,563 42,508 Sundries............................... 36, 081 94 774 214,216 235, 058 316,342 Total.............................., 265,045 9, 509, 410 11, 440, 471 7, 655, 761 8, 054, 974 Articles. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. Silk, and manufactures of................ $5, 567, 81 $6, 989, 733 $8, 370, 963 $7, 948, 384 $5, 276, 881 Tissues of cotton and wool....... 439, 361 232, 996 385, 027 516, 414 572, 292 Embroideries -.......................... 759, 857 1, 357, 669 2, 007, 288 2, 230, 249 2, 116, 397 Braiding straw, and horse-hair.... 546, 539 757, 392 605, 805 258, 326 430, 879 Watches and parts of.................... 2, 597, 903 3, 219, 872 3, 335, 622 3, 570, 940 2, 545, 559 Music-boxes............................. 50, 454 66, 524 68, 374 86, 161 84, 547 Cheese.................................. 247, 341 304, 280 329, 223 434, 697 403, 261 Leather................................. 8, 698 113, 525 136, 768 87, 14L 83,160 Sundries............................... 298, 664 451, 108 492, 687 366, 504 263, 428 Total............................. 10,516,629 13,493, 099 15,-731,-757 15,498,-816 11,776,404 The number of immigrants into the United States from Switzerland daring the last fifty-four years is as follows: Decade 18.'21-1830.......................................................... 3,257 1831-1840.......................... 4,821 1841-1850.......................................................... 4,644 1851-1860. —------------------------------------------------------— 25, 011 1861-1870.......................................................... 23,839 Year 1871............................................................... 2,8'24 187'2..........................................4, 031 1873............................................................... 3,223 1874............. 2, 436 Total................................................................ 74,086 LABOR IN SWITZERLAND. 607 TheP following statement compiled from the records of the TUnited States Bureau of Statistics, shows the values of the principal articles which were i orte from Switzerland during the fiscal year 1874, and the countries thro whose ports the various commodities reached the United States: Satement of imports (indiret)from Switzerland into the United States during thefiscal year ended JuJe 30, 1874. ~-Commodities. Quantities, Values. FREE OF DUTY. ~~~~Boltincr-clotbs............................................... $133, 755 ooks, &c......................................... 1, 334 Chemicals, dyes, &c — 4...................................................... 4, 003 orse-hair used for weavig-.-.................. pounds 1,110 1, 486 Silk.,rw................................... do. 2, 658 2:3, 4:15 A other articles not elsewhe........................................... 2, (;52................................................................ 1(;6, 6(;5 Total-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,5866 DUTIABLE. Books, &e —-3......................8................................... 8.8...... 32, Brass, and manufactures of1.4....... 14, 7L B~uttons of all kinds........................... I........................... 9 ~~~~~Chemicals —-6 8........................................... 6, 5863 ~~~~Clothing --— 04J......................................... 94 Cotton lawifactures...............................................m......t... 2, 653, 831 ~~Fancy goods —-i) 166................................................ 9,:i66 ~~~~~~~~.............. 5....... D, 0 i, ~~~Flax manufactures —-....................................................4 Glass-ware ----------------------------------------,0%4 Hair maD~factures................................................... 68, 64 2 iron and steel manufactures........................................................... 39 Jewelry —-07................................................................ 27, 569 ~~~.Leather of all kinds.pouds - 119), 800 80, 010 maninfactures of ---------------------------—. —----------------—.................2 11 _Musical instrumeiits................................... 58,671 Paiuitiugrs, &C................................ —----- 8 Precious stones —-30.........................................................0.. 0, 1: Provisions -.................-............................. -396, Silk manufactures..........................-.......... 4,504 lit) Straw manuuictures. —--------------------------------- 2,";;~( W atches..-................................-....... 2,0c6,649 Wine and spirits. —----------------------------------- 18 Wood manufactures-......................... ---- -------- 1 1 881' W'ool manufactures................................. —...itt 10130 All other articles not elsewhere specified —........................ 1, 707 Total duntiable...................................... 10, 4~!4,l3t Total free of duty —l............................... 66,66 Total imports-.................................... 10,590,796 The above imports into the United States from Switzerhnd)( were made through the ports ofBelgium -------------------------------- $12, 545 France. 5, 285, 833 Gernany —---- ----------------------------------------- 3, 796, 114 Germlany-.................; —------------- 1, 488, 452 Scotland -------------------------------- 97 2 Net herlands-6 8~ Total-.............................. 10, 590,79-3 WATCH-MAKING. Although the exports of silk manufactures exceedI in value those of watches, yet the latter industry is more,widely extended, and of more atlvantage to the country, in consequence of tile eluployment which it affords to the people,7 especially to women and children. Geneva and Lodle are celebrated for the extent of tile products of watches, but the 608 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. principal seat of the industry is at Cbaux de Fond, which is the largest hettlement where watch-making is carried on. In the valleys of the canton of Neuchatel (in which this town is situated) you will hardly pass a tfarm-house without seeing one or more windows designed to let light fall upon a workman's bench. The statement above presented gives the value of watches ad watchmaterials which were exported to the United States during a decade; but the value of the whole annual prodction of Switzerland is stated to be $17,600,000. It must be borne in mind that this is but the original cost of manaufacture, without the addition of profit or duty. Indeed, the exports consist largely of watch-movements and, therefore, afford but an inadequate idea of the value of Swiss watches to the wearers, after gold and silver cases have been supplied, and the various (lealers and the government have imposed their respective tariffs. The following is the estimated production of watches: Estimated comparative production of watches in the principal anfacturing countri. Countries. Number of Vale. watchers. Switzerland.............................................600, 000 $17,600,000 France30, 000 3, 300, 000.......................... England........................................200, 000 3,200,000 United States...........................................000 1,500,00 Total.............................................2,200, 000 25, 600, 000 From the general census of Switzerland of December 1, 1870, and the report of Dr. Hirsch on the industry of watches at the Vienna Exposition, the following information is obtained: Number of laborers in the manufacture of watches in Switzerland, by cantons1 a2nd sex. Cantons. Males. Females. Total. Neucbftel-....11, 081 5, 383 16, 464 Berne-.................................. 9, 302 4, 743 14, 135 Vaud.................................... 2,439 1,31.3 3,752 Geneva-................................. 2,330 1,288 3,618 Total................................ 25,242 12, 727 27. 969 Dependent on these, 27,969 persons are about 47,000, making (in a round total) 75,000 persons living from the industry of watches in Switzerland. RATES OF WAGES. As the author was unable to visit the manufacturing towns of Switzerland, and make personal inquiries in regard. to the cost and condition ot labor, therein, he is able only to present such limited data in tha't regardl as has been recently furnished by the, consuls of the United States. For less recent but more full information he has drawn largely from the British consular reports. Owing to the varied sources of information, it is impossible to make the samne classification as has been made in the case of Germany and other countries. LABOR IN SWITZERLAND. 609 MECHANICAL AND FARM3 LABOR. The figures in the following tables were furnished by the United States consuls of the districts indicated, in November, 1873. Rate of wagespaid for mechanical labor in Chaux de Fond, Zurich, and Balse, Switzerland, in the year 1873. Chaux del Occupation. nChdaux de Zurich. Basle. Fonids. SKILLED WORKMEN, Y THE DAY ONLY. ~~~Watchma'~kers —.......................... $1 50............... $0 60 Blacksmiths 75 00........ Bricklayers or masos....................... 75 90 76 Caiet-makers-............................. 1 00 90 60 Carpenters................................. 1 00 90 1 00 ~~~~~~~Coopers ~...................................... O.......... 60 MAchinists-................................. I 20 $1 00to 1 25 1 20 Painters......................................... 1 00 90 73 Plasterers........1...00..1......................... 1 00 1 00 80 Shoemakers............................... - -... 75 70 70 Stone-cntters —1....00..1........................... 1 00 1 2) 90 Tailors.........80......................... 80 80 60 TII~anuners,~. -— (07........................................... 60 7 Tinmiths —.................................... -80 60 70 Wheelwrights —75......80........................ 75 80 70 PRICE OF BOARD. For workmen, per week, October, 1873........................ 2 50 2 00 to 3 00....... For workwomen, per eek, October, 173....................... 1 75 1 50 to 2 o00.... Rate of wagepaid forfar-labor in Bale, Zurich, and Chaux de Fond, Switzerland, in the year 1873..Occupation. CZ ad~~~ FARIM-LABOREIIS. Experienced hands in summer-.................$0 40 $0 45 $0 75 $120 to $160' Eixperienlcedl hands in winter-................. 24.................. Ordinary hauds in summer —.................. 3-2-.......... 100 to 120' Ordinary hands in winter — 2................. 0 -.................. Commoni laborers, at other than farm-work - -.......... 40. -......-. $0 50 to 65 -...... Female servants —....................... 16........... 50!to.6 WAGES IN A SILK-RIBBON FACTORY. Mr. Consul Erni forwards the following statement of the rates of. wages paid in 1873 by Messrs. Ficliter & Sons, ma~nufacturers of ribbons at Basle: Por week. Various inferior work done b)y girls from fonrteen to fifteen years-....$1 40 to $2 00' Ribbon finishers or cleaners, girls from fourteen to twenty years-....1 80 to 2 40; Work by the piece: Silk-winding, women and girls.. 2. 00 to 2. 40' W~omen preparing the warp..._3 20 to, 5 00' Weavers, both men and women....................4 00 to 7 20 WAGES AND COST OF SUBSISTENCE. The following letter from Mr. Consul B~yers, dated Zurich, March 29%. 1873, accompanying a statement of wages in 1873, and, the, prices of,, 39 L 610 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. articles of subsistence at different periods since 1800, affords some indication of the condition of the laboring classes: Sin: In accordance with your request, I have made out a schedule of prices for the leading articles of subsistence at this city dring th different decades of the last seventy years. I also include present wages paid workme here. The wages paid now are proportionately larger than the prices paid for provisios seventy years ago. The workmen's houses are good, built of stone usually, bt are poorly ventilated, and often crowded with many families ill a house. The distinction made here between common laborers, mechanics, &c., and the upper or non-laborig classes, is one not easily realized by an American. A gulf extends between the consumer and the producer. Tie simple truth of the matter is, the xorkingman lives very poorly here, as in Germany. I-He works ten hours a day, with ne hour's rest at noon, and has, until since the L. bor "strikes," been very poorly paid. Tl prices shown in the table, as well as the wages mentioned, are those of to-day in Zurich, and not of yesterday. Poor pay and poor living, as a rule, have not tended to make the best or te most rapid workmen. The dress of the working-classes is tolerably good. Many holidays are allowed, and this is a relief, of course, to the usual hum-drum life led by a common workingman. Much wine and beer is used by all classes, especially the lower, who make up in quanlity what is lacking (and there is a good deal) in qality. Drunkenness does not, I think, prevail among the working-classes as much here as in America or in England, but tipsiness is not always the exception. Since the great battle between capital and labor has commenced, the condition of the work an of Switz-.erland has been visibly, and I trust permanently, iproved. One ofte greatest influences at work here in behalf of the poorer classes, is placig authentic information in the hands of the people in regard to the opportunities that await indstry and honest labor in the New World, and I hold it to be a religious, as well as an official, duty of our consuls and diplomatic officials abroad, to scatter the truth regardin our country to the people here in Europe whenever opportunity is to be ad. The accompanyilug table will give an idea of the workiingns in Zurich, all of which are rapidly increasing. Daily wages of mechanics. Cents. Cents. Machinists..,..60 to SO Stonemasons...........90 to 100 Tinners.-_.....60 Bricklayers............ 90 Founders.SO 8 to 100 Saddlers —............ 60 Carpenters.SO0 to 90 shoemakers...........60 to 50 Cabinet-makers.SO....... to 90 First-class engravers and good jewelers earn much higher wages, reaching- sometimes from $L.20 to $2.40 and even $3 per day. Common laborers earn from. 40 cents to 60 cents a (lay. In silk establishment's anticotton-,spinning mills, &c., a large number of women are employed whoI earn daily from. 30 cents to 40 cents. Number of working-hours, ten a da,,y, with one hour's rest at noon. iRent for one floor of four to five-rooms for working-people from $80 to $120 per year. Stattntent of prices of articles Of smtlsistence in Switzerland from the, year 1800 to the present time. [The franc computed in U. S. coin at 20 cents.] Year. Two pounds of One pound of One pound of One quart of One pound of bread. beef. butter. milk, potatoes. 1800.... 11 cents.....7 cents...... 13 cents........................ 1825.....5 3 5 cents....5 1.5 cents....13 cents-........................ 1850.....1 3.5 cents....5 4.5 cents....14 cents....... 1 4-5 cents....3 3-5 cents.... 1873.....10 2-5 cents....17 cents. 2....~4 4-5 cents.4 4-5 cents....1 2-5 cents.... Flour, 6 cents a pound'; sugar, 11 cents a pound; cheese, 18 cents a pound; beer, 3 cents a glass; pork, 17 cents a pound; ham, 24 cents a pound; veal, 20 cents a pound; wine, 10 cents a bottle. LABOR IN SWITZERLAND. 611 INCREASE IN EXPENSES OF LIVING. The following is an extract from a pamphlet by Mr. A. Chatelant of the statistical bureau at Berne: The increase of expenses of living in Switzerland was a constantly progressive one from the. year 1840 up to the year 1850, and not an irregular augmentation. The total difference now amounts to from 75 to 100 per cent., as will be proved by the following statement, showing thile perceutage of rise in the price of each single article: Percentage of increase. Brown bread...............................................per pound.. 66.6 White bread.................................................. do...... 21 Middling white bread...........................................do...... 31.2o Veal...........................do...... 94.1 Mutton........................................................do...... 84.8 Beef........................................................... do...... 80.6 Bacon.........................................................do...... 49.2 Pork, (l i ve hogs)................................................do...... 54.5 Butter....................................................... do...... 61.6 Butter in bulk............................................do...... 64.2 Lard........................................................do.. 30.6 Potatoes, (white)..........................................per 15 liters.. 40 Potatoes, (red)..................................................do...... 46.3 Cabbage...................................................... per 25. 77.9 Eggs.........................................................per piece 55.5 Sweet apples..............................................per 15 liters.. 50 Sour apples.....................................................do...... 70.8 Pears.................................do...... 50 Sliced dried( apples..;.................d...... o...... 27.9 Sliced dried pears.............................................do...... 86.7 Pease.......................................................... do...... 88.3 Beans.......................................................... do...... 86.8 Oatmeal.......................................................do.. 56.5 Cheese......................................................per pollundL.. 80 to 90 Milk..........................the m easure of 4 pounds (Swiss "mass").. 166.6 The price of foreign provisions increased in nearly the same or even at a higher ratio than those of home production, as appears from the statistical price-lists of Hamburg: Percentage of increase. Wine........................................................................ 120.2 Coffee....................................................................... 71.9 Sugar....................................................................... 14.7 Tobacco..................................................................... 54.3 Rye-flour...:............................................................ 139.3 Beechen fire-wood........................................................... 101.6 Fire-wood of pine............................................................ 90.7 Coal........................................................................ 50 And there was also a great augmentation in the prices of clothing, shoes, houserent, light, washing, taxes, and medicine. In the period fronm 1861 to 1672, the general increase in the expenses of living was from 35 to 45 per cent., and of provisions from 30 to 40 per cent. Mr. Chatelant arrives at the conclusion that in the cities of Berne and BRsle, (expenses at Zurich and Geneva are fully as high,) an income of fromn 3,500 to 4,000 francs ($.-0 to $800) barely fmurnishes a tolerable existence without any aspirations as to comfort or any isavings for time of need. 612 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. PRICES OF PROVISIONS, GROCERIES, ETC. Prices of provi'ions, groceries, and other leading artiles of consuption, also Of e-rent and board, in the manufacturing towns of Bas, Zurich, and Chaux de Fond. Chaux dle Basle. Zurich. Articles. Retail prices in- Re pricei in- 1-4 1872. 183. 1872. 1873. 1872. 1873. PROVISIONS. Flour,wheat, super. perbbl $9 00 $6 00 - 0 07 06, 0. Flour, wheat, ex. family do. - 10 00 6 40 * 06 6 05. Fl,)u'. rye................ do. 6 00 5 60 * *5 04.. Corn meal... do 6 (0.......05 *04........ Beef, fresh, roast..per pound 15 1 18 18.. 0 17 Beef, fiesh, soulp pieces - do.. 12 16.. 14 Beef, fresh, rump steaks.. do 17 18 16 18 18 B3eef, corned.............o.........18 18 20 1,.... Veal, fore-quarters.......do1 2.1 15 2 120 Veal, hind-quarters......do.. 19 1617 20 0 Veal cutlets..............do. 18'21 17 20 1 Mutton, fore-quarters.. do.. 14 17 11 14 18 20 16 Mutton, lerg........... do. 15...14 25 I'uttoun-chops... 15........ do13 14 25 17 Pork, flesh..............do. 14 18 14 1 22 5' Pork, corned or salted... do 21 1..... 5 25 1 Pork, bacon.do... 18.......... 24 25 25 238 PoI k, hams, smoked......do. 26 28'185 Pork, shoulders... o.. 14.................4..... Pork, sausag(e. do.... 25....... 2.5 28 26.. Lardl (I.................... d 13 24 Codfish, dry.. do 04.... 10............ 07.. Butter......do 25 -26 26 30 28 30 27; Cheese................... do- 13 to 18 24 1 2 20 19 Potoes.....per bushel 95 01 1 10 01 50 50 74 Rice.........per poun d 05 to 06 06 08 06 06 06 06 Beans........... do. 04 to 05 06 04 05 08 06) 0 5 f Milk.........per quart. 034 06 05 03 05 06 644 Eggs........per dozen 36 20 1.8 20 18 20 22 GIROCERIES. ETC. Tea, Oolong, or other good black.......per pound 1 20..... 1 44 1 00 1 00 1 00 1 16 Coffee, Rio, green.....do. 18 to 20 24 25 24 to 28 20 215 25 Coffee, Rio, roasted....d o........... 30 29 32 24.... 281 SugI~ar, goodl brown.....do. 13 13 14..12..2..12. 8 Sut ar, yellow.......do. 13 01.........14 10 12 11. 6 Su..ar, coffee........do........ 10N 12 10 10 12 11 Molasses..........do...............16......... 09 081) 104 Sirup...........do.............. 16........ 08 10 11* Soap, commo.......do. 08 to 09 08 08 07 10 0S 08i Starch...........do. 68 to 09 08 10 08 10 18 104 Fuel, coal........per ton 8 50 8 50.................... 850 Fool, wood, hard....per cord. 8 00 8 00........ 9 00 10 00 ii 00 9 20 Fuel, wood, pine......do..5 60 7 00 IS 00 6 87 Oil, coal.......per gallon. 96 96.......................... DOMESTIC DRY GOODS, ETC. Shirting, hrown, 4.4, standard quality.......per yard. 21 to 24 21 to 24 23 24 20 20 22 Shi rting, bleached, 4.4, st and. ard quality.....per yhrd. 39 39 31......... 24 24 31. 4 Sheeting, brown, 9.8, standard quality.......per yard- 30 30 38 21.28 28 29.1j Sheeliug, bleached, 9.8 stand. ard quiality --— per yard 37 to 40 37 to 40....................... 38k Cotton flann~el, medium quali. ty.. —------ per- yard. 76 76 67................ 723 Tickings, good quality.., do............................... 50 50 50 Prints...........do. 19 to 22 19 to 22 24 224. 20 20 214 Mousseline de lamnes -do 15 to 45 15 to 45 25................ 28j4 Satinots, muedium quality-do_ 45 45 29......... 50 50 43. 8 Boots, men's, heavy....do......... 5 00.........5 00 5 00 5 00 *Per pound. LABOR IN SWITZERLAND. 613 PRICES OF PROVISIONS, GROCERIES, ETC. Prices of provisions, groceries, and other leading articles of consumption, d&c.-Continued. Baslo. Zurich. C Fond. e Articles. Retail prices in- Retail prices i Retailprices in- C 1872. 1873. 1872. 1873. 1872. 1873. HOUSE-RENTS. Four-roomed tenements, per mothi...................... $6 00 $13 30 $4 87 $3 00 to $4 00 $V 50 $14 00 $8 36 Six-tootned tenements, per month......................$10 00to1200 20 00 9 50 4 00tol0O0 10 00 16 50 12 33 BOARD. For men, (mechanics or other workmen)-...... per week. 1 70 to I 80 1 89 $1 90to2 28 2 00to 3 00 3 00 2 50 230 For women employed in factories............ per week 1 20 1 50 1 33 to1 52 1 40to 2 00 2 50 1 75 1 66 EXPENDITURES OF WORKEIGMEN'S FAMILEmS. Table showing the income and expenditures of the families of five workmen in Basle, Switzerland, in the year 1672. [Furnished by Professor H. Kinkelin, of Basle.] FAMILY~.-,-~;'. CZ —. C1 C. C;~ I —1 Weekly earnings: Man. —------------------ ---------------------- $5 88 $5 60 $5 70 $7 32 $6'0 Wif.......................................... 288 520 240 40...... Children -....................................1 80 —-— / —- 1 — ---— 1 so Total......................0 810 72 840 Total, say 52 weeks-. -455 52 561 60 421 20 401 44 436 80 Weekly expenditures: Flour and bread............................... 1 30 1 48 80 1 11 1 12 M,,~t.................................. —.. 60 48 109 1 12 56 Batter --- ----- 40 39 40 2. 22 Cheese- - - - 20................... Snu ar........................................ 10 i 13 milk.......................................... 100 1 26 70 53 48 (Coffee, and substitutes - 20 24 24 20 22 Sonap, starch. —-----------—................... 12 12 10 09 12 Salt, pepper, vinegar, olive-oil................. 20 08 10 06 08 Potatoes, vegetables........................... 54 80 50 52 40 Oil or petroleum............................... 14 12 [ 24 13 20 Wine, beer, tobacco --------------------------- -4 0 28 1 40 84 24 Other articles.................................... 20 40..... 16 Total- ----------------------------------- 5 00 5 56 62!8 4 99 3 93 Total for 52 weeks......................... 260 00 289 12 326 56 259 48 204 36 Annual expenditures: Coal and wood................................ 20 00 24 00 14 00 18 00 20 00 Rent of house................................ 60 00 88 00 52 00 60 1) 52 00 School and church.................1........... 1 00 6 00.I1 so 3 00 Clothing mnd shoes............................ 58 00 52 to so oo 66 00 30 0 Taxes......................................... 0 214 205 165 Total......................................-409 80 459 7-2 444 70 407 33 311 ot ~614 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. REMARKS BY PROFESSOR KINKELIN. Family. The weekly earning of the husband, as workingman in the factory, is o ly $2.80. He makes about $140 (luring the year, by extra work. The llother eas her oeybycleaningtwo school-houses. To the expenses must be counlted10forinsurance of the family in a society for relief during sickness, &c. Family. The mother works also as ribbon-weaver. Husband and wi work in the same faictory. Family III The mother works as ribbon-weaver; the husband as lechan. It is believed that the expenses are given very high, and the earnings too s ll. The husband has given his earnings as $4.20, but his emnployer gives it positively s $5.70. Family IV. It is ot known at what the wife works. Family V. One child wolks in the ribbon-factory. Boots, &c., worth about $20, are not in lunded. In families III, IV, and V, the weekly earning of the husband is given by the employers, calculated from the mouths ot June, July, and Angust, 1872. The expenses as well as the earnings are not at all times the same as given, but sufficiently accurate for comparative statements. Conc erning the exnses of the five families, I wish to state that the first estimate was given to me by te husband of the faumily in question; the second one was made by a competent and experienced man; the same as to the three others. I regard the same as good as can be made. An account of expenses is seldom kept by workigmen. (A exception seems to be family IV.) They use the money as as they have any. With little money they use little; with more money they live better. Mr. Cosul Byers, under date of Zurich, October 16, 1873, transmitting a sttement giving the cost of provisiotis an(l other articles of subsstene and another of the expenses of a family of five persons, makes the following -remarks: In the list of the weekly expenses of a teacher's family of five persons, the average is about the sae as for workingmen, and shows plainly that the income i less tha the expenses. There are cases authentically reported showing that an industrious orkingma cannot, even with the help of his wile's hands, earn nearly the amount required for the common necessaries of life, not to mention such a thintg as luxuries. The figures were exactly these: Earnings of man an~d wife, 1,7100 francs; expenses of the family, 2,212~ francs. These figures tell the simple tale for Switzerland, and no amount of fine-spun theories and loose assertions can alter them; they are there, and the workingman knows them. to be sober and fearful facts. The rates of wages now paid in Switzerland to all kinds of workingmen are very much higher than they ever were before. I might add that house-rent is continually on the increase, and the tent-ments that are renated at the prices stated, 15 to 20 francs ($3 to $4) per month, are by no means over-comfortable or pleasantly and healthfully situated. RATES OF WAGES AND COST OF SUBSISTENCE. Average rates of daily -wages in the cotton, flax, wool aend silk factories of the canton of St. Gall, Swvitzerland. [Condensed from the British consular reports.] Men. Women. Children. COTTON. Cents, Cents. Cents. Wadding factory.............................32 to 60 20 to 34 14 to 20 Cotton, thread, and knitting-yarn factory................14 spinuing-mitls..............................30 to 8o 22 to 30 15 to 20'Mechanical spooling and twisting mills.................20 to 30........... Ordinary hand-weaving mills: 1. Plain stuffs-............................13 to 50 12 to 30 4 to 16 2. Checkered-weaving mills..................... 15 to 50 12. to 36 4 to 20 3. Figured-weaving mills.......................37 to - 24 to -.7 to - Jacquard-loom weaving mills........................22 to 60 15 to 40 15 to 16 Power-loom weaving mills: 1. Plain stuffs-............................24 to 50 24 to 36 16 to 25 2. Checkered stuffs..........................40 to 50 30 to 40 14 to 20 Stocking and hosiery weaving mills................... 40 to tO 15 to 24...... Hand embroidery............................10 to 25 10 to 2') 4 to 10 Mechanical embroidery........................38 to 80 20 to 40 12 to 25 Linen manufactories (" singoerien")...................20 to 30........... LABOR IN SWITZERLAND. 615 RATES OF WAGES AND COST OF SUBSISTENCE-Continued. Men. Women. Children. LINEN. Cents. Cents. Cents................................................. 54 to 54'27 to- 20 toWeavin-lis, (band-weaving)t.................................. 11 to 40 10 to 40 10 to 30 WOOL AND HALF WOOL. iin i............................................. 24 to -............. ad-weavig............................................ 20 to 30 20 to..........Mchanical weaving.................................................. 30 to - 20 to-.......... SILK. Spinning an throwing mills.24t................................ 24 to - 20 to 24 10 to 14'Weaving imills Stuffs ------------------------------—.120 to 50 16to 30 6to20 bRibbos................................ 50.................... c Pocket-handkerchiefs.. 60............................. d Hall-silks..............,................................. 24. SINGEING, BLEACHING, DYEING, AND PRINTING. ~~~~~~Singeina....................t. 2............ 6 to 55 23 to26........................................40 tO 6;0 1i i... 20 toiiii. Ntal bleaching..40100................................................ 4 6 30 to -.......... Ar~tificial bleaching................................ 30 to 60 20 to 32 Trkey-red (dyeig..6.to.52.2.6................................. 3 to 52 4 to 6....... Checkered dycuL a Dyeiug st 11ff in the piece..........................................36 to 50 b Dyeing yarn................................................ 35 to 54 o0 to -. Printing.............................................. 40 to 50'24 to ~26 12 to 22 Cuig Off the speruous parts of the figure-weft on the wrong side of brochd goods: By- --- - —................................... hn10 to 32................. By machine........................................ 40 to 55 12 to 36.. NOTE-The frac computed at 20 cents United States coin. Average dai rates of -wages in various industrial establishments in the canton of St. Gall. Extraction of meta and manufacture of hardware- Cents. Copper and lead mines. —------------------------- 40 Ironmines............................................... 40 Forges and smeltig-fur.......................................... 40 children........................................ 20 soft pig-iron...........................................2....... 5 metid casting.................................................. 56 to 60 Engine factories, men.............................56 to 60 children.......................... 30 Machine-shops, men........................................... 40 to 80 Arms factories.40 to 50 Cooking-Utensils and stove-factories.....................40 to 44 Grinding and filing down..........................38 t o 60 Wire, tack, and nail factories........................34 to 60 Wire-mills................................. 40, Preparation of minerals and other substances for scientific, industrial,,and military purposesLime-kilus, men..............................40 to 60, children.~~~~................... 1-2 to 20 Brick-kiln, potteries, and drain-pipe factories, men..............30 to 50 children.20......... to 22 Powder-mills, men............................. 100~ Glass-manufactories............................ 60i Gas-works................................. 48 Color-factories............................... 40 Lacifer-match fttetories........................... Chemical laboratories............................30 to 60 616 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Factories of surgical and optical instruments. 50 to 70 W ater-color factories..................................................... Tool-factories............................................................ 60 Scythe-factories -40 Threshing-machine factories.............................................. 36 to 40 Furniture-factories....................................................... 72 Preparation of. vegetable and animal substances for industrial purposesOil-mills................................................................... 40 to 60 Tan-mills................................................................. 40 to60 Saw-mills..................................-.............................. 40 to 60 Hemp-crushing mills...................................................... 24 Frame-saw mills and parqueterie factories.................................. 40 to 70 Reed-makers, men..................... 40 to 60 women...................................................... 24 to 30 Bone-mills, men............................................................ 40 to 50 Tanneries................................................................. 30 to 60 Candle and soap factories.................................................. 40 to 60 Brnsh-factories 34 Starch.................................................................... 40 to 44 Dyed and varnished leather factories....................................... Oil-cloth and waxed paper factories......................................... 40 W axed goods factories...................................................... 40 Straw-hat factories......................................................... 30 Printing-establishments, &c.Printers, men............................................................. 44 to SO women......2................................................... 20 children......................................................... 20 Lithographers, inen........................................................ 50 to 80 children...............................................-.... 20 Photographers, men 40 to 80 Paper, wooden, and hardware manufactoriesPaper-mills, paper and pasteboard factories, men........................... 50 to 60 women.l.16 to'20 Maize straw-paper factories, men.... 40 women........................................ -20 Carpet and stained paper factories, men.................................... 40 Playing-card factories..................................................... 40 W indow-blind factories..................................................... Bone-turning mills 50 W ood-carving factories.................................................... 40 to 60 Gold-band factories........................................................ 50 Articles of consumptionIn corn-mills.............................................................. 40 to 60 In manufactories of Italian pastes, men.................................... 30 to 50 women................................. 20 to 40 children................................ 20 Chiccory-factories, men.................................................... 34 women.................................................. 18 children.................................................. 14 Mustard-factories, men.................................................... 40 Breweries................................................................. 36 to 80 Distilleries-................................................................ 40 to 60 Tobacco and cigar factories, men 35 to 80 women........................................ 18 to 40 children....................................... 15 Amount of daily wages in the canton of Valais. Vine-dressers, men 40 to 60 women-..................................................... 30 to 36 LABOR IN SWITZERLAND. 617 Agricultural laborers, men................................................ 24 to 40 Day-laborers.............................................................'20 to 40 Men enigaged in breaking up ground........................................ 40 to 50 M owers.................................................................. 60 to 70 Wagoners (with yoke of oxen)............................................. 80 to 100 Printers................................................................. 46 to 60 Bookbinders............................................................. 40 to 50 Watchmakers............................................................ 20 to 36 M echanics............................................................... 20 to 40 Tailors.................................................................. 40 to 50 Shoemakers-........... 30 to 56 Saddlers................................................................. 20 to 60 Locksmiths.............................................................. 40 to 70 Sm iths.....................................................-............. 28 to 50 Joiners................................... 2............................. 40 to 60 Tanners.................................................................. 20 to 36 Gardeners............................................................... 36 to 60 Bakers................................................................... 22 to 28 M illers................................................................... 40 to 60 Cartwrights............................................................. 30 to 42 Tinkers.................................................................. 36 to 60 Gunsmiths............................................................... 80 to 120 Cooks, men, engaged by the year.......................................... 20 women, for 250 days............................................... 8 Seamstresses............................................................. 20 to 22 M illiners................................................................. 20 to 36 M asons.................................................................. 20 to 56 Washerwomen........................................................... 36 Head waiters engaged by the year......................................... 20 W aiters.................................................................. 20 Chambermaids........................................................... 20 Parlor-m aids............................................................. 20 Hostlers -0 Maid-servants............................................................ 8 to 10 Carpenters............................................................... 40 to 56 Stone-cutters............................................................. 50 to 60 CANTON OF GENEVA. nAverage iHouse-rent Living per Occupation. wages per per week. week. weeki. W orking jewelers, (men)......................................... $6 60 $0 69 $2 80 W orking jewelers, (women)...................................... 4'20 69 2 0C Tinkers.......................................................... 3 00 69 2 25 Potters.......................................................... 2 76 69 1 68 Saddlers.......................................................... 3 12 69 2 23 Coopers.-........-............................................... 3 24 69 2 25 B akers..................................:........................! 2s 916 Bakers-.~~~~~~~~~~~~*28 69 1 68 Botchers......................................................... 3 60 69 2 25 Joiners.......................................................... 2 64 69 1 68 W ood-cutters.................................................... 3 96 69 2 25 Jouarneymen tailors.............................................. 3 60 69 2 25 Hair-dressers and barbers........................................ 2 40 69 1 68 Locksmiths...................................................... 2 28 69 1 68 Gilders........................................................... 4 56 69 2 25 W atchmakers, (men)............................................ - 5 40 69 2 25 W atchmakers, (women).......................................... 3 00 69 1 61 Bookbinders...........................................-.... 3 00 69 2 25 Gunsmiths....................................................... 3 60 69 2 25 Cabinet-makers.................................................. 3 60 69 2 25 Upholsterers..................................................... 4 32 69 2 25 House-decorators................................................. 3 36 69 2 25 Lithographers.................................................... 3 0 69 2 25 Blacksmiths...................................................... 3 24 69 2 25 ~ Employed seven days per week. 618 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. CANTON OP APPENZELL. Aver'ige House-rent LiVngper Occupation. wages per er week. perwe week. 1 week. Saddlers................................................... $2 52 $0 32 $1 40 Coopers............................................2 28 1 4 32 Bakers.......................................................... *2 16 32 1 40 Butchers....................................................... 2 40 32 40 Joiuers.......................................................... 2 40 32 140 Tailors........................................................... 2 40 32 40 T'inkers............................... 2 76 3 2 1 40 Silk-factories (men)............................................. 3 84 32 1 40 Silk-factories (women)........................................... 1 92 23 1 Ribbon-factories, (men)........................................... 3 96 32 1 40 Ribbon-fctories, (women)........................................ 1 92 23 Yarn-factories, (men)............................................. 3 84 32 1 40 Yarn- actories, (women).......................................... 1 92 23 12 Wool-f actories, (min)............................................. 3 60 31 40 Wool-factories, (women).......................................... 1 68 23 1 12 * Employed seven days per week. CANTON OF BERNE. dverage rate of wages of the working-classes, with and without board. Average Averao Occupation. wages per Occupation. wages per week. week. WITH BOARD AND LODGLNG. Cabinet-makers....................3. Glaziers............... 3 Working watchmakers........ *$1 39 Plasterers.........................3 42 Coopers........I 19 iHouse-decorators.................. 3 -2 Brewers............................ 4 00 Smniiths............................3 30 Shoepsakers....................... 1 40 Locksmiths........................3 30 Gardeners.......................... t 1 85 Toolsmiths........................3 30 Barbers............................. t 1 07 MAechanics..............4 0 Turners............................ 1 00 Brass-founders.....................3 4 2 Porters............................. 2 40 Founders..........................3 96 Office-porters......:................2 52 Tinmen............................ 3 60 Bak rs.............................. +1 19 Engravers......................... 4 80 Butchers........................... 1 49 Lithographers..............4 Farm-servants...................... 80 Lithographers.....................3 72 Women servants.................... ~3 30 Compositors......................3 Printers........................... 60 WITrHOUT BOARD AND LODGLN'G. Bobinders.......................3 Golldsmiths....... 4 20. MIasons............................. 3 00 Brush-makers..................... 3 11 Foremen............................ $4 20 to 4 80 Tailors............................20 Stone-cutters....................... 3 00 Sadd(lers...........................4 20 Foremen............................ Up to 4 80 Potters............................0 Carpenters......................... 3 30 Cartwrights.......................3 00 Foremen............................ Up to 4 80 Photographers, operators..........8 73 Joiners...........................3 00 Photographers, assistants.......... 3 13 * Provide their own tools. t Engaged by the mouth. Work on Sundays. ~ Per month. NOTE.-The above artisans often earn more by piecework. Table showing the average prices of provisions and fuel in the canton of Berne. Cents. ( Bread, rye mixed with wheat...................... per Swiss pound = 1.103.. $0 04 Beef, fir.-t quality do..do. 13 Beef,.second qtiality....................do........do.. 12 Veal...........................do.......do.. 13 Pork do.... do.. 19 Potatoes..do....do.. 6 Butter -do......do.. 20 Suet do-...._._ do.. 18 Lard............................do........do.. 18 Pine-wood.. -..per klafter. 5 80 Beech..o 9 20 Turf -per wagon load. 5 00 LABOR IN SWITZERLAND. 619 Table shoing the quality, quantity, and average prices of provisions consued perweek by an ordinary day laborer's fJamily at Berne, consisting of persons-2 adults and 6 children. Bread,.823 pounds English per day, at 4 cents per pound4..................... $2 24 Milk, 4 imperial pins per.......................................... 67 Coffoe, 1. 10i Ipoundls English per week —20 Coffee made of chiccory, ( sparkaffee,) a small packet per week............. 2 Cofeeessence.................................. 3 ~Flour, I ~pound er week, at.............. 5 cents per pound 5 Meat, pond Swiss, (about once a month,) of lean bacon, at 18 cents........ 4 Potatoes, 10t imperial quarters per month-22 th...........-.........................,24 Cabbagre, madle into sauer-kraut-4 Lard-... -20 ~Salt 3 ~cen:ts; fruits and vegetables, 10 cents................ 13 Total............................................ 404 Amount disbursed by the samefa ly for house rent, fuel, taxes, and various other necessary household expenses durivg the year. Rent for one large room for the whole family, and part use of a kitchen....... $30 00 Fuel fo cookig-purposes-a bundle of beech wood per day 18 25 Fuel o warm th room in witer-one large cart-load of tuif................. 5 00 Lighting, during the w ter months, a pint of oil p)er week, at 10 cents........ 2 60...Municipal g...............a.. 40 Blacki, one small box, per month, t 4 cents; soap and matches,3 cents.... 84 School-books an slates forchildren atteding school, per annum.............._ 4 00 ~Breakage, thread, needles...&., p_ ai. i- 3 00 Soap, odone at home, ( Swiss ndl,) 9 cents per week............ 4 (iS Pi's grease for boots and shoes, Swiss pound, 20 cents per month -2 40 ~~Total~~- -..-.......................7-............. 71 17 Table showting the annual average expenditure for-clothing of an ordinary workingman. Coat, price $6, usually lasts three years-....................$2 00 Waist1coat., price $1.40, usually lasts one year-................. 140 Trowsers, pr-ice $2.80 to $3-'.290 Shirt, pi1ce 6_5 cents; two required every year-1............... IW Stocking.s, cotton, price 40 cents, usually last one year. —-.40 Stockiings, woolen., price $t, usually last, one year-............... 1 00 Boots, lprice $-2.tr0, usually last one, year, require being twice resoled, extra expense $U'40-................................ 3 60 Shoes, puice, 80 cents, usually last, one year, resoled four times, extra, 68 cents.- 1 48 Neck-tie's.uc.1.ets...l as n ya. Felt hat, pi icet t60, usually lasts thri-e years —................ 53 Braces, pi-ic.20.ants, usually last, one year —................. 30 Trowsers, su~ienier, price $1.40, usually last one year -- 140 iUnder-wais- coat, pi-ce 69 c(-ntS, usually lasts two years —...... 34 Pocket-Lanohuichuet, puace 16 cents, two required every year.. --...... 32 Jacket, puice 61.80, usually lasts two years —.................. 90 Total-................................. 18 57 The lowest computation of the aunnual cost Of clothing for a, Workingman in this canton. is $14.32 provided ho does not wear second-hand clothes. Table showing the average annual e. rpenditure for clothing of a woman of the working-class. Dress, pri-e $8, usually worn three years.. —................$2 66 Petticoat, price $2.'20, usually worn two years.. — 1 10 Apron, pr-ice $1, two required eivery year.. —................. 200 Stays, pr-ice $11140, two required every year — 260 Shift, price 61 cecu s, two required every year —................ 1 22 Stockings, cotton, price 16 cents, two required every year.-.. -- 32 *1pound Swiss = 1.103 pounds English. 620 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Stockings, woolen, price 50 cents, two required every year.. 00 Underclothing, price 42 cents, usually worn one year.4 Jacket, price $1.60, usually worn two years....80 Neckerchief, price 60 cents, usually worn one year..60 Bonnet, price $1, usually worn four years..25.... Gloves, price 30 cents, usually worn two years.15 Shawl, price 40 cents, usually worn ten years..4 Comb, price 14 cents, usually worn one year...14 Shoes, price $1.80, usually worn one year, but require being twice resoled; extra expense $1.12................ 92......... Shoes, price 60 cents, usually last one year, but require being resoled six times, extra expense, 92 cents.....................1 52 Pocket-handkerchief, price 12 cents, two required per year..24 Under-waistcoat, usually wears one year..42.... Hood, price 60 cents, usually worn two years..30 Total...................................18 90 Table showing the average annual cost clothing for a boy under 14, be longing to the working-class. Coat, cotton-warp linen, price, including lining, 90 cents, make, and accessoties, 50 cents, one required per annum.......$1 40 Waistcoat of the same material, one usually lasts a year70 Trowsers, of the same material, $1.10 each, three pairs per annum.3 30 Shirt, cotton, 50 cents each, two per annum....1 00 Stockings, cotton, at 20 cents, two pairs per anum.40 Stockings, woolen, at 50 cents per pair, two pairs per annum1 00 Shoes, at $1 to $1.40 per pair, resoling them twice a year, 44 cents each time 2 28 Neck-tie........20....... Cap, woolen.................................. 2 Pocket-handkerchief, 8 cents each, two per annum.16 Braces, 12 cents per pair, one per annum...... 12 Total. 10 88 CONDITION OF THE WORKING-CLASSES. There is no establishment in Switzerland where workmen can obtain cheap clothing, at least at aill commiensurate with the small price of otherinecessa~ries. This is, no doubt, a sing~ular omnission in a country pre-eminently distinguished for its associations organized with a view of ameliorating the condition of the working-classes, and dispensing charity generally. On the other hand, there are to be found in nearly every town and village pniblic fountains and washing apparatus, protected by roofing, where linen caa be washed with ease, and at little or no cost. If it he a niatter of importance to the worknan to obtain food at moderate rates, it is of no less consequence to him to find cheap lodging, for the necessity of payingr rent is one of the severest, if not the heaviest load hy which his finances are oppressed. A society for erecting improved dwellings for the industrial classes was founded at Lausanne in 1860, with a capital of $40,000. Another more recently, with a capital of $60,000, at Geneva, where the charge for a single room and kitchen amounts to $30 a year, and 1 he rent of a kitchen, which can belet separately,,is aslow as $2 amonth. Agrain,at Neucha'tel, another society has erected a considerable number of lodging-houses, and proposes to build others for the working-classes. The apartments are grouped in fours, with a common entrance, two apartments being on the ground-floor, and two on the first floor. Each lodger has his own garden, and the rent paid is very moderate. As in other manufacturing countries, certain occupations are more prejudicial than others to the industrial classes. Dorriciliary labor, too, so prevalent throughout the confederation, andl which at first sight would appear to have a favorable effect in a sanitary sense, on the operative, has not all the advantages it is generally held to possess. It produces the evil effects of too sedentary a life, and also entails constant application to work subjected to no direct control. The manufacture of watches, both in this respect, atnd as regards the strain on the eyesight, is considered to he one of the most Injrins ccpaton, although the authorities have everywhere taken the hest precantiomiary measures, both to protect the workman, as far as possible, front its attendan vland to prevent children from being employed in this trade at too early an age. LABOR IN SWITZERLAND. 621 In the glass-blowing works, also, men are exposed to a very high temperahire, and to g igt-wates, both of which are very prejudicial to health, especially in the Valais and Bemeze Jura. In the potteries situated at Horgen, in the canton of Zurich, a'artilar disease is prevalent, called the "lead" colic. Again, wherever the straw-plaiting establishments most abound-in Fribourg and Ouseruone especially-the workman is subject to a disabling affection at the extremity of the fingers, in consequence of his bein repeatedly obliged to dip the hands in cold water, and keep them wet. In the northeast of Switzerland, where industry is most developed, the injry to health, resultig from manufactures, is naturally excessive. Thile only exception is to be found at Schaffhausen, where there are large iron and steel foundris, and where machinery, wagons, arms, and watch-cases, &c., are largely manufactured. In the deinr enerally especially in those where Turkey-red is much used, certain operations neprocessary in the proces of drying require a high degree of eat, which is held to be fatal to the lungs. In the cotton-printing establishments there is not sufficient ventilation to counteract the dangerous exhalations, arising from the colorig-substances in use. Cotton-spinning, moreover, produces a fine dust, which attacks the respiratory organs, and is found very injurious to health in Switzerland; while weavers, Who mostly work in cellars or on the ground-floor, are subject to diseases of the lungs, produced by damp.,p. * * ** * X * In Switzerland ariculture is carried on to the greatest perfection that the climate and soil of such a country will allow. By means of trenches and sluices, water is conveyed from the moutains to any required point; extreme care is taken to economize and render available the manure obtained from their herds, and great judgment is shown in the culture of the different kinds of soil. Even apparently sterile and unavailable slopes are made use of, mold being carried up from below and spread upon them in the form of terraces. The use of animal labor in agricultural operations is not extensive, iefly owing to the rugged surface of the country; and nearly everything is donebyband. Tegrai-cropsareinferior in quantity, but the pasturage isextremely good, and its brit verdure such as to render it a distinguishing feature of the country. The vine is cultivated in several localities, and some of the wines produced are of a very good quality. The cultivation of tobacco is undergoing great development, especially in the northern part of aud, which yields a cheap, though rather indifferent produce. The domestic economy of a Swiss country household is very simple; from their land and cattle they can supply nearly the whole of their wauts, and the profits of their dairy afford them the small sus of money they require. The quantity of timber at present exported exceeds 430,000 in value, but this must ultimately have a very bad effect on the country, as it is so far beyond the rate of growth. In 1861 an association was formed at Berne for the purpose of erecting workingmen's dwellings, with a capital of $60,000. It has constructed houses containing sixty-eight separate tenements, twenty-eight of which consist of only one room, a kitchen and its dependencies, with a garden attached, at a rent of $30, and the remainder at from $49 to $55 each per annum. A second society was started at the capital in the courso of the same year on a more extended scale, since its resources represent a fund of $QQO0,000, although the shares are not all paid up. It has built some forty houses, also divided into tenements, for which an annual rent (in round numbers) of $40 for each apartment is demanded. In the accounts hitherto given of the provision made for lodging the working-classes, those dwellings only have been mentioned which are constructed for married men and their families settled in lparticular districts, since this class of workmen, havingC the first claim on public solicitude, has naturally received the greatest share of public attention. But there are two other classes of operatives, the unmarried and the itinerant workmen, which must not be forgotten, and which, indeed, well deserve to be included among the objects of those philanthropic exertions which we have just been considering. It is to bereared that, as arule, both fare ill in Switzerland as regards lodging, their hardships in this respect being mainly caused by the. circumstance that they have no other resources to look to but those which flow from their daily wages. Yet it cannot be said that'charity is not largely extended to these less fortunate members of the industrial classes. The itinerant workmen frequently find gratuitous accommodation in some public institution, such as the "H 11spital des Bourgeois"1 at Berne and the old hospital at Staux. Throughout the communes, in the canton of Neuch~tel, beds are at his disposal free of charge. At the railway junction at O1ten, he is provided with food as well as with a bed for one night. Many other instances of siwilar hospitality might be cited. All operatives are, moreover, very considerate to each other, and are sure to give a hearty welcome to their itinerant fellow-laborers, in the fullest sense of the term. The International Workingmen's Association is particularly active at Lansanne, and has accomplished important practical results, such as findinlg labor, organlizing clubs, banks, &c., for its memb~ers. Omission must aot be made of the society of "VkUriitli," 622 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. which, tfhough of a more political character t]an the foregoing, is exclusively wiss and while constantly discussing the problem of capital s. labor," (for the reason that a large majority of its mlembers are laboring men,) and whose poitical character is closely allied to the question of labor, exercises, by its principles and popularity, a wholesome influence over the laboring classes. This association has founded many important institutions, such as societies of mutual support, savings-banks, cheap eating-houses, &c., and erected various resorts for instruct iou auld amusement. There are also other societies, purely religious, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, exercising special supervision over the education and ell-beig of the operative class. Simnjilar results have been experienced in other co ries, and led to the creation of the International Congresses of Brussels, Frankifort, and Lo. The Geevese "Society of Public Utility " early recognized the importance of the suggestios proposed at these congresses, and with a view to avert the evils of localization, and for te general disseminal ion ot knowh dge, have founded a library of 2,00 volunies o social questions comprisilg 11any books not found in other collctions. All tese various philahropic efforts to aineliora, e the condition of the Swiss popution at large, and of the operative ini particullar, meet with valuable aid Irom the native emp yers. A purely democratic spirit prevails, in this regard, among employers and employed. The employer would ot bte considlered by his subordinates, or even by hiiself, as entirely apable to conduct lhe affairs of his establishment, had he t i his younger days ascended, step by stel), the ladder m hich brought him up from a roo-seeper to the level of the most skilledl in the trade. In Glarus, which may be considered a model canton as regards the relations between proprietor and enrplo, and where a tird of the population consists of operat iv'es, the conmunes encourage every new enterprise, supied the schools and local libraries, and, i4 critical periods, id labor, provide soup kitches, and buy provisions for the purpose of reselling the at cost pice to their distressed worknlenl. At Olten, in the canton of Soleure, whee the copany of the Gret Central Railway gives employment to 700 workmen, we find perhaps the nost striki example t,f the prosperous condition of the operative in Switzerland. While the rate of wages is higlher in the company's woiks than it actoriessituated in other cantos the hours of lal)or are limtited to from ten a]ndl a half to eleven hours. I ase of sickness the operative is always certain of being kidly cared for; or if igh pices prevail, prolmlrt measures are taken to relieve his distres. Cases of ill behavior have inever teen known to occur at Olten. The operatives are much attached to eaca other, and look upon the director of the wvorks in the light of a father rather than a mraster. The lasof Switz rHand oblige every Swiss to -attend the " prirnaryl" schools for a certain nunuber of years; and it may be said here, the government has now under consideratzirn, also, a law regulating the hours of labor. So wile-spread, however, is education in Switzerland that every commune has its schools, anid absenice front these institutions is exceedingly rare. -Generally speaking, the laws obligre them to comunience attendairce at the age of six or seven, and they are bound trot to leave the primary school. until they are titteen or sixteen. The law which requires that children shottld a~tt~end thel~)rimiary,chools virtually iniposes an obligation on the state, or, imore correctly, on theco11ninirDes1, of eiudowing numerouis schools thrioughout thecortatry. These institutionsaire of a irsit-ra.te character, both as regarrls systemn and manageltrenit. It is generally allowed that the ptiatary schools offer a So~lidl basis to the education of the ieoitle. The itidubtri-al claisses here as elsewhere are better educated thian the agricuittiral population; brit Ott the whole few countries can boast of so gerreral a diffuision of knowliedge throtghoutt thpe rtiasses as is met with in Switzerland. What are called "1indlustrial" schools are, als~o very consid rable in mrrmber. There the subjects of study include drawing, niodeling, calculation, (especially in its application to indu stry at d commerce,) Getihan, French, the elements of gerunetry, chemistry, arid physics. There are ninny such institutions in the cantotis of Geneva, Vaud, Neuchitltel, Berne, Lticerne, Zurich, Tessin, St. Gall, &c., At Lugano gratuitous Instruct iont is given in the -application of chemistry to art and hidustry. Variotis other instit'utions of a like nature are found in different parts uf Switzerland, testifying to the genieral interest taken. in the educatiorr of the artisan and indristrial classes.'Lectures on scientific, Listorical, and social subjects are giveti in the different cauttons with beneficial results. The Swiss operative unidergoes his, aIpprentieeshrip, either under parental supervision at borne or more frequently undler the eye of his employer. Whenever any new branch of industry is introduced a number of apprentice schools are inttiidiateiy instituted. Antong other nunierous examiples, we find in the canton of Tessin a school where silk-weaving is taught. At Fribourg and Geneva there are institutions where apprentices receive instruction in plaiting straw, &c. But clock and watch amaking, demandin~g prolonged and difficult studies, is perhaps the branch of trarue, above all others, in which the practical education of the apprentice is carried to the Irigirest pitch of perfection. Schoolds have been founded for this purpose at Geneva, Chaux di- Fond, and Lodle, the establishments at the two former places being municipal institutions, and the latter exclusively ior the poor. The watch and clock LABOR IN SWITZERLAND. 623 institutions a Cax e Pond Was founded as recently as 1864. Instruction is given to pupils eiher devoting themselves xilusively to watch and clock m1akimg or to worken desiring to receive finishing lessons in any particular handicralt. They are, however, obliged to satisfy te examiners that their pievious studies in other schools have been sficiently complete. Prizes are given and certificates of general capacity on leaving the establishment. * * * * The fllowing from aother source affords information of an interestig chaacter in regard to he condition of the working-people of Switzedthitd., Perha s the Swiss artisan is the most fortunately situated of all the continental workiugm)ien. Thious is the result of varios causes. "In most countries," o serves Mr. A. G. G. onar, the laboring classes are, as a rule, wholly dependent for their means of existence upon that one department of labor in which circumstances have individually pced the, and are, therefore, exposed to the disastrous results of whatever fluctuations may affect it. In Sitzerland, this is happily so far from beillng the case that it ay almost besaid to costi the exception. The peasant, when not actively engaged in agricultural ursits, finds useful and profitable occupation in a hundred ifent ays, from felling tiber on the mountains to Ilnakiiig portions of the complicated and delicate wors f atches. The artisan, likewise in his leisure moments, or when unable to find work cultivates the small plots otf ground vwhich he Often ows, hile his Wife, and even his children, after schold-hours, contribute more or less retly to the sport of the fily." The Swiss is never ashamed of work, an if it be not obtainable in his own country he will seek it in others. Combined with his love of labor is to b found an habitual thriftiness which enables the Swiss workan although in receipt of lower wages than are to l)e obtained in many other coutis, to save oney, and even enjoy a state of comparative ease. Wee the E ish artisans, with their high rates of waages and abundant means of employment, to dispy anything like the economical prop)ensities of their Swiss brethren, the whole social c ition of te industrial classes in England would beconme completely revolutionize That low wages necessarily mean poverty and suffering is refuted by the examle of the Swiss. With wages frequently lower taan those of a Dorsetshire easat, e contrives, by the smallness of his wants, his indomilable thrift, and dislike of ileness. to acqir a more independent position than is possessed by many of our best-remunmerated workmen. In the history of the Swiss working-classes we have a significant view of the value of education, it not carried too far. There are comparatively few Swviss who cannot read or write, and not unf'requently we find the artisan rising to the post of manager, and froum thence to that of partner or employer, by reason of the educational advantages possessed by him). From his eamliest childhood lprinciples ot i he strictest economy are instilled in his ruind, and the habit of saving encouraged by every possible means. He ur (lerstanils thme inilnstrial value of education, and, consequently, never omits an Opportunity of extendhing his knowledlge. While our artisans are wvastingr their timne anti money at a, lublic house, the Swiss workman is busy withI hand or brain preparlug for time contingencies of the future. Compared with the wages obtainable in Englaindtflie a~veiarae earnings of the Swiss workmienimust appear very low. Inutme canton of Zurich, for instance, they range from 17 cents to 965 cents per (lany, the number (if working-hours beoing from 12 to 14. In the various cotton and silk f etories the rate of wages is far belo* those obtainable in Lancashire and W~arwickshire, although the quality of the labor is scarcely a whit inferior. In the canton (it Basle unskilled hands in the silk-trade obtain about $156 per week, while first-class dlyers average $4.54. Like the Germans, the Swiss have successfully adopted the principles oif co-operation, extendaiig their applicat ion to productive purposes, but the liberality with which most employers treat their workmen-a circumstance which renders strikes al most uniknown in Switzerland-tends to retard any extensive development of the latter class of coopmerative assoiieations. Owing- to the excel lent system of education among the Swiss, and their frugal and industrious habits, the workingmian has many advantages over his fellov-competitors in other lands. To provide the Swiss workingman with the means of spending his leisure hours pleasantly, and perhaps usefully, is the self-imposed ta~sk of numerous societies. niot a few of which are founded by workmen thenisolves. Under their auspices local circulatug-libraries have been formed in mamiy parts of the country, even in sonie of the mnost secluded rural comnmunes, the woiks oif which they are composed being carefully selected in order that they may suit, the, taste and position of those for whom they are miore particularly intended. hIn 1866 the canton of Geneva already possessed forty-three of these libraries, with. 39,000'wolumnes, and that of Lucerne forty-one. The number in thle remaining cantons has not yet been ascertained. There are also numerous other pulclbaiecnan oks of a much higher class, as well as museums in all the principal towns. Almanacs, reviews. itnd ~624 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. newspapers are likewise published for the special use of the workng classes, and many of the daily papers give out on Sundays an extra sheet with the object of affording them additional reading matter. Lectures on the social and political questions of the day and other attractive subjects are frequently given, not only in the great centers of population, but also in the remote communes, where, in the absence of regular lecturers, the village clergyman or schoolmaster, and sometimes even ordinary workmen, undertake this task. There are innumerable workingmen's associatios which have some regular place of meeting, where books, periodicals, games, and refreshments are provided for the members, whose time is chiefly engaged in debating, getIg up draatic performances, and acquiring a knowledge of miodern languages, book-keeping, drawi, arithmetic, history, &c. Much attention is also devoted to music, both vocal and instrumental, as a means of innocent recreation, singing being taught in all the primary schools. There is hardly a village which does not possess one or more choral societiesand in many cases a brass band. The rural districts of the canton of Lucerne may be cited as an example of the general taste for music, the beneficial effects of which canuot be too highly appreciated. In this little strip of territory there are no less than sixteen principal choral societies, seventeen musical socies, thirteen theatrical societies, and twenty-five brass bands. Lenzberg, a town of 2,000 inhabitants, could some years back, boast of possessing two hundred pianos. In obscure villages dramatic performances are sometimes given by the peasants themselves. In some parts of Switzerland pageants are periodically got up at considerable expense to commemorate some event of extraordinary interest in the local annals. Rifle matches and athletic sports are common throughout the country. All classes without distinction take part in these pastimes. The followin'g i's an extract from a letter to the Boston Daily Advertiser, dated at Zurich: THE SWISS WOMEN. There is sad enough need of the elevation of women even in Switzerland. One hundred women climb each day to the splendid buildings which overlook the city of Zurich, the first fountain of learning in ihe republic; one thousand women toil from sunrise till late evening in the narrow lanes below, dragrging heavy hand-cants, staggering unuder large burdens balanced -upon their heads, sawing wood, or gathering the refuse from the streets with basket and shovel; in short., performing the most men'ial service that the lowest class of male laborers are. condemned to do in America. I have often seenutwo slender women sawing oak anidash woodin thiestreet while astout fellow stood by leisurely splitting the same sticks. One poor old creature the other day sat upon the curb-stone holding her saw reversed between her knees, and in utter weakness was rubbing the istick of wood upon it to saw it in two. LABOR IN ITALY. 625 LABOR IN ITALY. In this ancient and renowned country there are few if any manufa6c tures which enter into competition with similar branches in the United States. The following statement shows the kind and value of the pro-, ducts of that kingdom which found a market in the United States in the year indicated: Statement showing the quantities and values of imports into the United States from Italy during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1874. Direct. Indirect. Articles. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. FREE OF DUTY. / Argols...................................... pounds.. 742, 412 $132, 356 217,584 $35, 264 Chemicals, dyes, &c........................................... 16, 173.. 1: 162 Gums ------- *.pounds.. 42, 193 5, 498........................ Hides and skins.................................................. 58, 557........................ Oils: Fixed................................... gallons.. 9, 650 5, 170........................ Volatile or essential....... ——...-.........do.... 35, 335 169, 573 6,091 3.2,39 Paintings, &c., of American artists............................... 141, 334...... 14, 464 Rags of cotton, &c.......................... pounds.. 30, 382, 421 1,473, 267........................ Seeds............................................................ 0280........ / Silk, raw..................................p ounds..............2............ 2524 21, 223 Sulphur, crude................................ tons-. 40, 897 1, 241, 740........................ Other articles, (principally tropical fruits, including olives)............................................2............., 373, 461............ 211,186 Total free of duty.......................-................... 5, 637, 409.............-315, 538 DUTIABLE. Books, &c........................................................ 3, 603............ 3, 220 Breadstuffs, pease, &c..................... bushels.. 1, 482 2, 065 589 834 Chemicals, drugs, &c............................................ 580, 377.... 45, 855 Fancy goods.................................................... 10, 349.... 14, 234 Fruits of all kinds............................................... 847, 990........... 114, 429 Hair, human......................................... 1............ 1 600......... 18, 598 Hemp, raw.................................... tons.. 244 50,450 181 40, 461 Jewelry......................................................... 1,137............ 26'999. Leather of all kinds......................... pounds.. 4, 940 3, 293........................ Gloves.................................. dozen pairs......................... 57, 838 197, 754 Marble and manufactures of..................................... 538, 088........................ Oils: Olive, salad............................. gallons.. 24, 637 38, 933 4, 336 5, 066 Olive, not salad........................... do.... 29, 260 20, 982 490 407 Volatile or essential....................... do... -. 68, 570 213, 000 13, 327 42, 985 Paintings..........'............................................. 150, 679............ 25, 865 Provisions........................................... -............ 11,275............ 4 550 Salt........................-................ pounds.. 53, 541, 474 4'2, 613........................ Straw, manufactures of.......................................... 178, 857...... 583, 197 Wine: In casks................................ gallons.. 66, 556 23, 435 5, 978 4, 702 In bottles............................... dozen.. 3, 053 7, 375 38 119 Wood, manufactures of.......................................... 2, 346............ 7, 259 Wool, raw................................ pounds.. 46, 691 5,837 52, 772 11, 876 All other articles................................................ 107, 601............ 42, 424 Total dutiable.............................................. 861, 885-..........,190, 834 Total free ofgduty......................................... 5, 637, 409............ 315,538 Total imports..................................8............, 499,'4............ 1, 506, 372 The indirect imports came through the ports ofBelgium3............................................................................. 3, 309 France............................................................................. — 593,214 Germany................1........................................................... 14,502 England. ------------------------------------------- 827, 536 Scotland............................................................................. 67, 483 Ireland. —---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22 Quebec............................................................................. 306 Total.......................................................................... 1, 506, 375 40 L 626 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. EMIGRATION FROM ITALY. The people of Italy, like those of the other Latin nations, are, as a rule, disinclined to emigrate. The following shows the total immigration into the United States from Italy during the past fifty-four years, aggregating but 47,409 in more than half a century. Nor were these all immigrants, as the figures in the table for the years previous to 1870 denote alien passengers, many of whom afterward returned to their native land. Emigrationffrom Italy by decades,from 1820 to 1870, and by years since 1870. Years. Number. Years. Number. 1820 to 1830.............-. 1239 1820 to 1830....................... 389 I[1872.................................... 7, 239 1831 to 1840............................. 2,211 1873.................................... 7, 473 1841 to 1850............................. 1,590 1874.................................... 5, 787 1851 to 1860............................. 7, 012 186i to 1870.............................- 12,781 Total in 54 years................. 47, 409 1871.....................................,927 1871-~~~~~~~~[2,9271 RATE OF WAGES. The following statements, in regard to the cost of labor in Italy previous to 1872, are taken from an official report 011on the state of the lead. ing branches of industry, which was made in the year 1865: Iron-minnes.-Number of mines worked, 44; numberofpersons employed, 2,212; adults, 1,888; children, 324. Average daily wages in iron- mines. Location. Adults. Chil- dren. dren. f. ~. 1 Piedmont...............................................................................1 50...... Lombardy..........................................................1.................... 33 70 Tuscany,' (adults and children).......................................................... 1 61...... Calabria...................... 1 25 85 Copper-mines.-Number of mines worked, 34; number of persons employed, 2,412. Daily wages. Location. Adults. dren. Piedmont...............................................................................1 73 85 Liguria................................................................................. 1 40 80 Lombardy - -............................................................................... 1 56. Venetia................................................................................. 1 2 73 Emilia........................................................................... 1...... Tuscany, (adults and children).......................................................... 1 76.... Galena-mines.-Number of mines worked, 13; number of persons employed, 4,105; adults, 3,417; children, 426. Daily wiages. ChilLocation. Adults. Cdren...~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.C Piedmont.............................................................................. 67 8 f. c c. Piedmont —1 67 85 Lombardy......-........................................................................ 1 46 Veuetia.................................................................................. 1 30 Tuscany, (adults and children together).................................................1 32 Sardinia......................................................................... 2 9 LABOR IN ITALY. 62T Zin.-Number of mines worked, 1 in Venetia; nlumber of persons employed, 23 adults Averag daily wages, 1 franc 30 centimes. Gold.-N ber of mines worked, 14, in Piedmont; number of persons employed, 635 Ladults and 7 children. Daily wages, (average,) adults, 1 franc 80 centimes; children, 91 centiines. Qicksir.-Number of mines worked, 2; number of persons employed, 288; adults, 274; children, 10. Average daily wages: adults, Venetia, 1 franc; Tuscany, adults and children, 1 franc 80 centimes. ickel.-Nuber of mines, 2, in Piedmont; number of persons eamployed, 24, adults. Average daily wages, 1 franc 70 centimes. iron irts.-Number of mines, 2, in Piedmont; number of persons employed, 36 adults. Averae daily wages, 1 franc 76 centimes. an nces.-Number of mines, 4; number of persons employed, 213; adults, 188; children,5. Average daily wages, Piedmont, adults, 1 franc 90 centimes; Liguria, adults, franc 43 centimes; children, 94 centimes. Anthrcite.-Number of mines, 2; number of persons employed, 4 adults. Average daily wages, I franc 38 centinmes. Lignitea-Number of mines, 20; number of persons employed, 750; adults, 579, and children, 3, (i.) Average daily wages: Piedmont, adults, 2 francs. Ligria, 1 franc 79 entiies children, 1 franc 15 centimes. Lombardy, adults, 1 franc 37 centimes. Veetia, adults, 1 franc:32 centines; children, 75 centimes. Emilia and Marches, adults, 1 franc 50 centimes. Tuscany and Umbria, adults and children, 1 franc 76 centiMes. t1Aur.-Number of mines, 379; number of persons employed, 22,935; adults, 13,678; children, 9,257. Average daily wagcs: Emilia, adults, 2 francs 61 centimes; children, 0 centimes. Marches, adults, 2 francs 48 centimes; children, 1 franc 40 centimes. Sicily, adults and children, 1 franc 74 centirnes. Ga-orks-Number of persons employed, 1,117. Average rate of wages, 2 francs 17 centinies. Peirol -sorLs.-Twenty-one men. Wages from 1 franc 25 centimes to 2 francs. Asalt-ors.-Sixty-tlhree men and boys. Wages from 1 franc 57 centimes to 3 francs 20 centines. Cheial cs. —Four hundred and twenty-six persons. Wages varying from 44 centimues to 4 francs. Coke-burners.-Thirty-eight; their highest rates of wages being from 50 centimes to 5 francs. Bell-founders.-Seventeen. Average wages from 1 franc 26 centimes to 2 francs 35 centimes. Porcelain a'nd earthenware.-Number of persons employed, 1,493. Average rates of -wages for skilled workmen, 2 francs 15 centirnes; for adult laborers, 1 franc 70 centimes; for children, 58 centimes. ASalt-w~orks.-Average wages from 1 franc 3 centimes to 2 francs 75 centimes. Somte useful data are contained in an interesting account of the pro-, gress and present state of the woolen manufacture in Italy, which was lpublished in 1868, by Mr. Alexander Rossi, a senator of the kingdomi and the'owner of extensive mills at Schio, in the province of Vicenza'. The total nunnber of persons employed was estimated A~t about 25,000, an~d the average rates of wages which they received were as follows: For men and children, from 14 cents to 25 cents per day. Foremen: Spinners, from 40 to 70 cents; weavers, fromt 45 to 60 cents; others from. 24 to 45 cents. These rates are said to be from 20 to 25 per cent. lower than in France, Belgium, or England. From a tabular statement, giving in detail the rates of wages paid for different kinds of work in the woolen manufacture in Italy in 1868, the following are selected: Occupation. Occupation. So1iterS, (WOMeD)..............$0 17 Finishers, (women) -..............$0 17 Rillsers-S.................. 34 Pressers-................... 3 Carders..-................ 35 Seamnstresses-.............. 215 Spinners-.................. 62 Menders, (women)-20........... Sconvers-.................. 50 Carpenters-................ 40 W arpers, (women)-.~............ 20 Smi-ths ------------------ 50 Burlers, (women)-.............. S Stretchers and shearars...-........ 30 WVeavers-.................. 52 Laborers-................. 24 IFullers-.................. 40 628 LABOR IN EUROPE AND ERICA. The lower price of labor is a set-off in favor of the Italian manufacturer against the higher price which hle has to pay for machinery. At the same time Mr. Rossi contends that, in spite of the difference of wages, Italian operatives are really not in a worse condition than those ef Belgium. House-rent in manufacturing istricts is 50 per cent. lower in ltaly than in Belgium, and food is also cheaper. The frugoal habits of the Italian operative, and the mildness of the climate in which he lives, tend to diminish his wants. Two-thlirds of the persons employed in manufactures are taken from the agricultral class. They live in houses, of which t1hey are someties theowers, in the coury, frequently upon the mountains, and their habits are those of agriculturists. They either leave their homes for the mill in the morig, and return in the evening, or, if the distance is too great, they go on Monday and return on Saturday. The amount of their house-rent cannot be calculated; but at any rate it is not a heavy burden. The rest of the operatives, who live in towns, are crowded toether in small and often unhealthy habitations, for which they pay a correspondingl oeafr b two or three persons, and more in proportion for a larger nuber. The food of the poorer classes is said to l)e exceedingly bad. By the exertions of benevolent persons, however, economical kitchens have lately been established for supplying wholesome and well-cooked food at moderate charges. The general condition of the habitations of worinpeople is described b those who have examined them as being most deplorable; wet, filthy, full of vermin, and confined. A company has been formed for the construction or purchase of substantial hlouses to be let out to workingmen at moderate rents. Two large houses for that purpose had been built in August, 1869. NAPLES. The following statistics of the worliing population of Naples were published by the municipal administratio of that city i 1868: Farnmers, 222 males; daily wages from 26 to 80 cents. Employed on railways, 231 males; wages from 30 to 93 cents. Workmen in iron-folluderies, 2,140; wages fro 32 cents to Workmen employed in soap-manufacture, 43; wa-es from 17 to 55 cents. Pipe-makers, 30 men; wages from 17 to 26 cents Potters, 313 men; wages from 24 to 54 cents. Shoe-mnakers, ~241 men, and 55 women; mnen's wages from. 34 to 60 cents; women's wages fromt 10 to 20 cents. Dyers, 117 men; wages from 20to 50-cents. Goldsmiths, 168 men; wages from 40 cents to $1.20. Iron-hedstead and spring-mattress makers, 67 Dien; wages from 20 to 50 cents. Hatters, 100 men, and 28 women; wages for men 30 cents to $1; for women, from 10 to 20O cents. Coppersmithis, 46 men; wages from 20 to 40 cents. Carpenters, ordinary, 38 men; wages from 17 to 42 cents. Carpenters employed in coach-building, 66 mnen; wages from 26 to 52 cents. Cairpenmters empluoyed in. furniture-making, 387 mien; wages from 26 to 70 cents. Men injiloyed in breweries, 31; wal~es from 130 to 80cents. Glovers, 80~ men and 313 womien; men's wvages from 26 to 50 cents. Laice-makers 34 men and 58 woumen; m en's wages from 37 to 60 cents. Taldors, 243 men and'27 women; men's wages from 40 to 72 cents. Sades17 men; wages from 30 to 80 cents. Linseed-oil makers, 41 men; w.ages from 20 to 40 cents. Men emiployed in the preparation of white lead, 9; wages from 20 to 40 cents. Men employed in glass-works, 2~8. Men employed in stearine niiainufctories, 10; wages from 17 to 40 cents. Persons wvorking in wax-manufactories, 54 men and 6 women. Printers, 341 mnen and 18 women; men's wages from 40 to 80 cents; women's wages from 10 to. 20 cents. Pian~oforte-makers, 66 mien; wages from 34 to 80 cents. Gilders, 53 men; wagres from 407cents to $1. Type-founders, 8 men; wagres from 30 to 60 cents. Gas-fitters, 5 men; wages fromt 30 cents to $1. Coral-workers, 195 mien; wages from 304 cents to $1.60. Employed in the tohacco-iuantimfiatory, 587 mien amid 1,2:39 women; men's wages from.68 to 99 cents; women's wages from, 14 to 50 cents. Chocolate-amakers. 5 men; wages froni 24 to 66 cents. Paste-makers, 24 men; wages from 24 to 40 cents. Lucifer-match makers, 8 ienc and 10 women; iena's wages from 17 to 34 cents; women's wages from 7 to 17 cents. LABOR IN ITALY. 629 Ml employed intallow-works, 5; wages from 17 to 40 cents. Men employed in lime-works, 12; wages from 20 to 60 cents: Employed in the anufacture of chemical products, 18 men and 6 women. Workers in tortoise-shell, 5 men. Seven thousand eight hundred and sixty-nine artisans that are enumratd-6,098 males and 1,771 females-out of a total estimated population of about 600,000. These statistics, however cannot be considered as complete. RATES OF WAGES IN 1872. Statement of wages paid at Milan, Italy, in 1872. [Furnished by H. W. Trimble, esq., United States consular agent.] Occupations. - F 4 a3 Blacksmiths...............-........................... 11 $3 42.$0 9 Carpenters ----- 1 42......................... 2 85.. M ~aseons-.....-..-......................................... 10 2 18 1 42 Paiters —.................................................... 3 42.................................................................. 3 42.. Plaserer.... -- 4. 11 45. Shoe-makers-1......................................... 1 2 5 1 - Tanners ----------------------------------------------------------------- 13 342 42 - Stonecutters1............................................ 3 70.. Tailors —3........................................................ 3 42 Glove-makers,............................................. 5 70 Factory operatives................................................. 10 3 42 2 --- WOMEN. Shoe-binders —1............................................ 11 1 71 Glove-makers, sewers..................................................................... tory-operatives....................................... 10 1 1 14 Silk-workers........................................ 11 91. Hose-servants*........................................................ 2 85 *Per month. MECHANICAL AND FARM LABOR. The following statements showing the rates of wages paid in the consula~r districts indicated, for mechanical and farm labor in the year 1878", were furnished by the consuls of the respective districts. Statement of the rates of daily wages paid for mechanical labor in the following-named cities of Italy in the year 1S8:3.........................................75 8 10 0 4.............. s......................... o 0 90.0 0 0~~~~~~~~~~~~ Cabne-maer...................... 0 Sto10 0 70 90 Carpenters — 80................. 0') 85 1 80 5r0 Coopers —60...................G 70 83 80 co Miner-s-..................... 4O0to 60 co 51 70 40 Machiniists-80.................. S to 1I00 80 1 0.2 1 20 co Painter's....................0...G 75 51 1 00 co Plasterers-.................. 50 to C0 Cl0 51 90 co Shaoe-makers..................-40) to 60 60 59$ 9 50 Scone-cutters-.................. 40 to 60 so 34 65 40 Tailors-.................... 40 to 60 80 68 1 20 GIJ Tanniers —....................60 60 59), 70 co Tinsmiths-......... ------- 40 to 60 70 68 CO 50 Wheelwrights-................. 4Oto 60 60 68 60 60 Price of b~oard1-. For workmen, per week, October, 3873 -..2 60 to 35t i-0 so.0 -.... 2 10 -...... For workwomeni, per week, October, 1873. J2 iS to 2 5O 1 -------- 160 -....... ':630 LABOR IN, EUROPE AND AMERICA, Rates of wages paid for farm-labor in the following-named places in Italy in the year 1873. Venice. Genoa. Brindisi. Messina. Pale. mo.* CZ~ Iz'Z ~ 1Z~~~~~' Occupation~ 15- ~. 7, a a.;'' T.~ 0 C) C)c1 a 4. CC-a z~ C'a'a' --':a'J' tic -' t t L V0'-5 tk. 0 - 5 tka-c - FARM-LABORERS. Experienced handsInsummer ------- $0 60. $0 40 $0 50 $9 00 $0 42-2 $0 30 $0 50 $9 00 $0 40 In winter........ 50........ 20 30 500 25 -.50 70 15 00...... Ordinary handsIn summer...... 40........ 32 43 6 40 421.... 20 30 6 00. Inwinter.. 30.20 30 4 00 25$.............. 25 48 7 50...... Common laborers at other than farmwork............. 40..... 51.15 38 4 50 32 Female servants....-......;$1 to $2 10 18 2 40 -......$1 70 to $3 40 15 30 4 50 20 Board is never given except during vintage, when they are allowed wine ad libitum. PRICES OF PROVISIONS, GROCERIES, ETC. The following statements, showing the prices of provisions and other necessaries of life, were furnished by the consuls of the United States at the several places indicated:Prices of provisions, groceries, and other leading articles of consumption, also of house-rent and board, in the Jillowing-narned cities of Italy, in the year 1873. Articles. a ~ aD'-~ a "5 PROVISIONS. Flour, wheat: Superfine............................ per pound.. $0 05 $0'06 $0 05 *$I1 25! $0 10 "$10 00 ~*1~2 50 Extra family............................. do... 07 05[ 06 to 12 "12 30 Beef: (14 50 ) Fresh, roasting-pieces.................... do.... 12 15 24 181 30 27 Fresh, soup-pieces..................... do.... 12 15 20 17 25 18 Fresh, romip or sirloin teaks -.......do.. -. 25 15 124 19 30 27 Corned................................... do... -. -20 10................ Veal: Fore-quarters............................. do.... 17 28 25 20........ 27 Hind-quarters -do... 17 2n 25 2 2........ 27 Cutlets-.................do.... t12.5 28 25'122.... 27 Mutton: Fore-quarters.........................-...do.... 10 15 10 133 20 14 LegI...................................... do. 18 1?7 10 15 [ 20 1 4 Chops.................................... do.. 17 17 10 13~ 20I 13 Pork: Fresh.................................... do.. 17 18 10 15 20 12. C~redor aled..........................do..,. 2 35.............. Corned or salted-do, - 5 35 rBacon....................................... 25 35 17 13........ 24 Haams, smoked.......................... do.... 34 45 ] 2 5 36 35 [ 30) Shoulders...............................do.... 34.... 25 14 2. 20 Sausages................................. do... to 35 34 36 25 15 L.-.rd................................... do.... 22 28 25 18 40 22 Cod-is, dry.... do.....10 10 08 -----—. 16 09 ratter ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ do.... 25 40 ~~~~~~~0 24 ID utter........................................ do... 25 40 34 to 60 30 0 40S ~017 0 21) Cheese.....................do.... 22 30 to I to 28 212 0 3 341 036 5 ~ Per barrel. t Without bone. LABOR- IN ITALY. t31. Prices of provisions, 4-., in thefollowing-namncd cities of Italy in 1873-Continued.,0 -' -'I - -=,c Articles.. ~ [ ~ = I _ Potatoes...................................... do... $0 02 $0 02 $0 02 $0 04........ Rice..........................................do 03 06 $0 05 041 10 $0 07, 0 03 ) Beans.do.. 02 03..to 05...................... 0 08 ) MIilk................................... t 03 05.. 3 20 17 Milk-~~~~~~per quart.. 03 05...... 03 20 17 $020) Eggs.............per dozen...... 14 22 17 to 36 20 0 30 GROCERIES, ETC. 1 00) Tea, OoloDng or other good black........per pound.. 1 42 160.... to 1 50 1 20 300) Coffee, Rio: 5 0 30 ) Green do.... 22 40 34 tto. 30 34 0 40 ) Roasted...........do 37.. 42 to 40 45 Sugar: 064 Good brown...............do.... 10 12i 10 65 15 12 Yellow C0.....................d.... 12 3........ 18. Coffee B..........do........................ do. 14 14 14......Soap, common................do.. 12 14 10 1. 09 11 Starch........................................ do 9~5 75 7k 1 Starch.......... do 10 25 75 071 15 13 Fuel: (11 002 v Coal..............................per..... 10 00 13 60 to 10 00........ Wood, hardper 220 pounds.. 78....................... I 0 Charcoal..............per boushel.. 20................. Oil, coale........................... per l DOMESTIC DRY-GOODS, ETC. Shirtings: Brown, 4-4, standard quality..........per yard.. ~17 20 20 12....... 14 Bleached, 4.4, standard quality..........do.0 25 2 13 16 Sheetings: Brown, 9.8, standard quality..............do.... ( 1T) 28 24 14................ Bleached, 9.8, standard quality............do.... T181- 25 15............... Cotton flannel, medium quality............... do...... () 22..... 21 Ticking.s, good quality........................do.......(1 34 75 30 Prints, Merlrimac.............................do.... 121 131 15 16 Mousseline de laines..........................do (1T) 35 29 30 20 Sitinets, medium quality................... do...... ()............................. 24 Boots arid shoes: Boots, men's heavy...................per pair.. 2 40 2 50 3 40 3 60....... 3 0 Shoes................... do............................... 1 00 Sh~~~oes.......do10 HOUSE-RENT. Four-roomed tenements................. per year.. 100 00 84 0) ** 50 **6 00 50 00 *.5 10 Six-roomed tenements........................do.. 150 00 120 00 **11 90 **10 00 7 00 *6 70 BOARD. For men, (mechanics or other workmen). per week.. (t) 2 00 3 40 to (1) -.. 3 50 2 15 For women employed in factories............ do... (t) 1 50 3 40 to (fIt)....... 250 + White. ~ Soft. II Olive. ~ These articles are mostly home-made, very coarse, cheap but of poor quality. **Per month. 4f The American system of boarding is not practiced; everybody keeps house. 632 tLOR / If EUROPE AND AMERICA. EXPENDITURES OF WVORKINGMEN7S FAMILIES.,Average iweekly expenditures of families living in Milan, Venice, Messina, Brindisi, and Sarnm piedara, Italy, in 1873. Milan. Venice. Messina. Brindisi. Sarnpiedara. Articles. 2 adults and 2 adults and 2 adults and 3 children. 5 children. 2 children. Flour and bread............................. $0 70 $1 70 $1 28 $0 90 FMlour, breatd, and rice... $1 53...........'i'i......................................... Meats...........10 1 00 143 10 Lard........................................ 08 15 09 12 Butter...................................... 30 09 Butter, cheese, and pork....... 51............................ Cheese..................................... 15 10 25 06 Sugar.. - —. 15 18 17 08 Macaroni................................................. 40............... Milk........................................ 28.............. 17 18 Coffee... 16 09 12 Coffee and milk............................... 30............ Fish and legumes..................................... 70 Fish........................... 14............ 43 12 Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, &.................................... 20 25 12 10 Eggs........................................ 10 10 25 06 Potatoes and other vegetables............... 14 15 60 25 Fruits, (green and dried)............................... 0 17.... Fuel.......................... 42 28.............. 43 28 Oil or other light.............. 25 12 60 34 12 Other articles................ 17 15 20 51 14 Spirits, wine, beer, and tobacco.............. 80 60 1 19 36 lquse-rent -. —----------- 87 1 10 1 50 2 72 36 For educational, religious, and benevolent objects..... —... —...-. 60. 40 1 70 Total weekly expenses 4 72 6 55 8 63 12 00 3 35 Total for 52 weeks....... 245 44 340 60 448 76 624 00 174 20 Clothing per year............................ 40 00 32 00 51 00 35 00 Taxes per year.......................................................... 2 75.............. Total annual expenses.. 245 44 380 60 480 76 677 75 209 20 Total weekly earnings. 5 10 7 50 8 85 -.- -- - 4 00 Total for 52 weeks....... 265 20 390 00 460 20.. 208 00 COST AND CONDITION OF LABOR IN ITALY. MILAN. The following report on the cost and condition of labor in Milan was prepared by Mr. Trimble, United States consular agent, and transmitted to the author September 24, 1872: Since 1860 wages have increased on the whole about 30 per cent.; the general strikes in August last will probably result in an additional increase of 10 per cent. Silk forms the principal item in the business transactions of Milan. During the year ending June 30, 1872, the amount of raw silk, tram, and organzine, seasoned, was 34,943 bales. Of this about 75 bales-invoiced value $110,000-were sent to the United States. The manufacture of gloves (kid and lanmb skin) has, within the last few years, attamined a great importance, and Milan now furnishes from 800 to 1,000 dozen per dayexporting to France, Germany, England, and the United States. Large quantities of buttons are manufactured. Carriages to a considerable extent are exported to South America, Egypt, and Switzerland. Conclusions as to the condition and well-being of the working-classes must, to a certain extent, be modified by considerations of climate, and of hereditary habits and tastes. Accustomed to and delighting in the open air, in-ured to greater exposure than ourselves, and at the same time possessing a climate less rigorous, they are comuparatively indifferent to the price of fuel, which to us is one of the necessaries of life. LABOR IN' ITALYt 6 So meat, which in our severer and more exhausting climate is a necessary, in theirs bescomes a luxury, not being required to sustain life, the place of which is, to a certaint extent, supplied by a greater abundance of natural products. Bread, wine, fruit, and vegetables, thus come naturally to constitute the main articles of food. The workingman takes for his breakfast a piece of bread, a few slices of sausage, or a handful of fruit; for his dinner, soup made firom pork and vegetables, or a dish of rice and a bottle of wine. And this, which to us would seem poor and meager fare, climate and habit render natural and satisfactory. On the whole, the working-classes here may be said to possess, in comparison with those of the United States, infinitely fewer moral and social advantages, and at the same time a lower average of physical comfort, with less extreme suffering. CARRARA. Report " on the cost and condition of labor in the Carrara consular distrit," by Mr. Consul Z'orrey. CARRARA, Jully 30, 1872. The price of daily labor in this consular district averages as follows: Marble-sculptors, from 77 to 96 cents; marble-cutters, from 39 to 58 cents; marble-polishers, fromn 35 to 48 cents; marble-quarrymen, from 29 to 48 cents; blacksmiths, carpenters, masons, painters, and shoemakers average about 39 cents per day; the common laborer earns from 29 to 39 cents. All mechanics work from sunrise till dark the year round, taking three hours a day for their meals in the summer months, and two hours a day during the short days of the autumn and winter. Boys and women earn from 16 to 19 cents per day in the quarries. The principal article produced is marble, which gives employment to nearly the whole population of this district. The silver and lead mines of Seravezza are very valuable, but not extensive. House-rent and living-expenses fot the mechanics and laborers are very low, quite in proportion to their earnings, but the average rent of a good house, containing ten rooms, is $289.35 per annum. The mechanics and laborers are very poor; they know not what comfort is. They usually have large families, and live in one or two rooms of a house, where they cook, eat, and sleep. I have known many instances where families of from five to eight persons-men, women, and children-lived and slept in one room. Under these circumstances, their education and morals may be imagined. Few mechanics and laborers over thirty years of age can read and write; the better class of marble-cutters only excepted. Since the revolution of 1859 common public schools have existed, and nearly all children learn to read and write. The value of marble, wrought and unwrought, exported to the United States direct during the year 1871 was $626,54~. A large portion of the most valuable sculpture and architectural work is sent to Florence, Rome, Leghorn, Genoa, and Marseilles, and from thence to the United States as productions of those places. There is also a large amount of olive-oil produced in this district, and exported to the United States via Leghorn. VENICE. Extract from a letter to the author from John Harris, Esq., United States consul at Venice, under date of December 12, 1873: On the condition of the working-classes in the Venetian provinces: As regards the moral state of the workmen, particularly of artisans and machinists, in the Venetian provinces, it may be said that they are generally moral, sober, and provident. They take pride in their work, but they study but little, and are unacquainted with drawing or chemistry, and are somewhat prejudiced in favor of the technical processes of ancient usage. Now, however, they frequent schools for drawing and chemistry which have been introduced in the towns and villages contiguous to the nlanllutactories and workshops. In general they execute varied, different, and new works with good will; they are of various and multiform genius, and it must be noticed that the system of division of labor as practiced in England and elsewhere is not here in general use. Here the same workman does many things, and passes from one work or operation to another which has an affinity with it. His habits of living being economical, he is contented with moderate wages. Although a company has been formed in Venice for the purpose of building good and suitable dwellings for workmen, these buildings are, as yet, but few in number, and the laboring-classes in this city live generally in poor, unwholesome habitations, damp and with bad odors. As the company continue their labors, this inconvenience will decrease. On the con, 634 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERI trary, in the great:manufacturing districts of the provinces the workmen -inhabit wholesome dwellings, contiguous to the manufactories. The best are in the province of Venice: Nadar6's paper-mills at Large, and Rossi's spinning and cloth inanufactry at Scip)io. These are clean, dry, large, and convenient residences. The workman pays the rent, and may eventually become the purchaser. It may be said that, as regards habitation, the workmen live badly in the city and well in the country, but the principal industrial establishments are in the country. BRINDISI. Extract from a letter to the author from the United States viceconsul, dated Brindisi, November 30, 1873: As regards the health, morality, and education of mechanics and workigmen, I beg to state that we have here a very sober and laborious class of people, of good principles and health, but not far advanced in instruction. GENOA. Mr. Consul Spencer, in apologizing for not furnishing the information desired, adds: I find, however, that any report that I could have made, based upon your circulars, would have been very unsatisfactory, as the conditions of life here are so different from what they are in the United States; the working-classes here rarely indulging in any greater-luxuries than poleata, (or mush,) soup, or minestroe, wine, and chestnutbread; meat, butter, and other delicacies mentioned in your list of provisions bein entirely out of the question. MESSINA. Mr. Consul Behn, under date of September 5, 1872 thus writes in regard to labor in Messina: There is but very little industry in this consular district; no manufacturing establishment except one small cotton-factory, two or three tanneries of no great importance, one flour-mill, and two silk-spinneries, the produce of which is sent to England, France, and Italy. The price of labor for workiugmen of all classes averages from. 50 6ents to $1 per day of twelve hours, and seldom overruns the latter price. In a more recent letter, dated October 16, 1873, Mr. Behn adds: In conjsequenDce of arise in the prices of the principal articles of subsistence, workmen's wages have been raised from 10 to 20 cents over those of last year, and they now vary from 50 cents to $L1.0 per day, not including board, as it is'not the custom in -this island to board workingmen. The education and morals of workmen is yearly improving, as they and their sons visit the day and night schools, and it is to be hoped that before long this class of people will occupy the same rank as the workmen of all other countries.'c [From the British Almanac for 1874.1 In Southern Europe the general rate of wages is on a low scale, although in some parts of Italy the remuneration obtained by several kinds of art-workmen is very good. In the ship-building, iron-founding, and other handicrafts, requiring a combination of manual strength and skill, the workmen can obtain from $4.38 to $7. 30 per week. There are also numerous trades p -:culiar to Italy, in which skilled work-men can obtain from $3.90 to $5.34 per week; but all descriptions of unskilled labor are very cheap. Strikes are infrequenlt, disputes between employers and employed rarely proceeding beyond the preliminary stages. Like the Swiss workman, the Italian artisan is patient, steady, and thrifty in his habits. He contrives to live well and to save money on wages which would scarcely keep an English workman from the work-house. If he were equally industrious with the Englishman, he would ta ke rank among the 6lite of the Eu'ropean. laboring-classes. But the influence of climate is too productive of indolence, although in some of the Italian sea-coast towns the workers display an anmount of energy which does them credit. The principles of co-operation areimunch practiced inlItaly, the working Of the -various associations being not unlike those in England and Germany, and care being taken to keep them free from those dangerous utopian ideas which ha-ve in Spain and France found practical development in the form of communism. The quality of Italian work is generally very good, but the principal difficulty of the workman is to gain decent lodging-acconmlodation at a moderate price and to avoid paying LABOR IN ITALY. too mh for provisions. These two drawbacks form serious obstacles, against which e is almost powerless to contend, save by living outside the town in which his plae of employment is situated, lodgings being cheaper in the outlying villages, where also food can e obtained at lower rates, not having to pay the obnoxious "octro demanded at the gates of the town. From additional information in regard to labor in Italy, recently received, the following facts are selected: PROVINCE OF PAI;A. Linen-The principal establishment for the manufacture of this fabric employs from 90 to 100 women; reelers receiving from 7 to 8 cents, and weavers from 13 to 23 cents pr diem. The highest prices are paid for piecework. Glass and earthen-ware.-The total number of hands employed is 67, of whom 23 (19 men and 4 women) are in the pottery department, and 44 (all men) in glass making. The waes of the potters are from 23 to 28 cents per diem, and for the women, 10 cents. The glass-makers rise from a minimum of 19 cents to a maximum of $1.15 per diem. They have work for only three months in the year. Aas.-The nail-makers of the city of Parma only supply local wants; wages about 32 to 48 cents for founders per diem, 24 to 48 cents for blacksmiths, 42 to 46 cents for coppersmis. Foremen in founderies, &c., received from 62 to 72 cents, and apprentices fr 10 to 15 cents. ap and candles.-Men receive 28 cents, and women 19 cents per diem. Paper.Te wages vary for men from 15 to 28 cents; for women, from 10 to 17 cents; for children, from 8 to 13 cents. Printing-offices-The wages of compositors are from 19 to 38 cents; of apprentices, from 6 to 12 cents; of printers, 33 cents per diem. Piecework is paid as follows: Compositors, from 3 to 4 cents; apprentices, froml ito 1j cents, and printers 4 cents per hour. Liqueurs, b~eer, and afrated water8.-The wages given in all these industries are as follows: Foremen, 38 cents and upward per diem; ordinary workmen, 28 cents; women, maximum wages 19 cents per diem. * * * * VENICE~. The Nerille founder-y.-This foundery employs upward of 300 hands, and turns out machinery of every magnitude, description, and quality. In spite of high duty on coals and iron, this factory is highly flourishing; the workmen are equal to the best in Eu gTland, and so well conducted that no strike has occurred since its establishment, and the men are satisfied with their wages and condition. Bronze-.foundery.-The bronze-foundery of Michieli & Co. deserves notice, and is ail establishment where not only the fine bronze works. of Italy peculiar-to the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries are perfectly reproduced: in all sizes, but even works of modern art are cast at the option of the sculptor, after the manner and the time of Michel Angelo and Benvenuto Cellini. Glass-works of Venice and MHurano.-For many centuries past these -works have been celebrated for the fineness of their products. In A. ID. 674 St. Benedict engaged Venetian artists to furnish the windows of Weremouth Abbey, and from that time, or even anterior to it, the same manufactory-probably the oldest in. the world-has had a continuous existence. The manufacture of glass is still an important Venetian industry, the export of this fabric in 1874 havi'ng amounted to ~313,200, or about $1,524,000 in gAd. In 1867 the exports of glass were more than twice the usual average, owing to the introduction of glass beads in the fashions of the day. 636 LABOR IN EUROPE, AND AMECA Burano lace.-The manuflacture of this fabric, which receives its nam from a small island formerly celebrated for its lace-work, has recently been revived under the auspices of the Princess Giovanelli and te Countess Marcello, who found an aged woman, the last of her craft, who still remembered the mnethod of mking this lace, and engaged her to instrucet a number of girls in this almost-forgotten art. The immediate demand for the first specimens produced was extraordinary. The cost of the fabric (about 100 francs per meter,of the width of 12 centimeters) i considered to be under its value. It takes 150 ays of five working-hours per diem for one workwoman to produce a single meter the woman's pay being one-half franc per diem. The "gros point de Venise is also to be revived at Burano. The distinguished engineer Dr. Fambri (six years a deputy in the Italian. Parliament) has published the following estimate of the labor involved in the manufacture of one meter of this lace of a quality never surpassed in ancient times: I. Three months' wages of one hand for the net-work. II. One, month's, wages of one hand for the flowers. III. An extra month's wages for the ornamental border. Dr. Fambri suggests that "1this industry shiould be developed, were it only to save the secret of the art, as no kind of manufacture exists more capable of giving sustenance to thousands with a merely nomillal calpital." LAR IN GREECE. 637 LABOR IN MODERN GREECE. In one of the introductory chapters of this work, under the above cap. tion, the condition of labor in Greece in ancient times, (labor then being of a servile character,) was presented. Modern Greece, retaining little else than its classic renown esents but few points of interest to the inquirer after manufacturing and mechanical industries. EXPORTS. The exports to the United States are of small amount, and consist chiefly of fruit and wool. In the fiscal year 1874 the value of the total imports, direct and indirect, into the United States from Greece, reached but $561,875, of which fruit amounted to $423,992, and wool to $105,325. on. John M. Francis, recently United States minister resident at Athens thus wrote in regard to the principal exports: )Greece exports annually from $6,000,000 to $8,000,000 worth of Zante currants. The larger proportion is shipped to England, but the demand for the fruit in the United Statesisyearlyinrasig. Herexports of olive-oil amount to nearly $4,000,000 annually; and of cotton and cotton yars, silk, and products of silk, coarse wool, wines, &., the value is quite large. The exportation of lead and other minerals is increasing. The production of cotton is also becoming an important interest in Greece. Previous to ou late civil war but little was raised; now the average crop amounts to about 5,500,000. pounds. Formerly the cotton was all exported; now a large proportion of it is manufactured into cotton yarn, no less than 16 factories having been established ifor this purpose, employing 25,40 spindles, the yearly manufacture of which amounts to 2,200000 pounds of yarn. Greek yarn is largely displacing the Ehglish article in many of the Levant markets. There are eight silk manufactories in the kingdom. The exports of these manufactories last year were upward of $750,000. Fish P. Brewer, esq., United States consul at Piralus, under date of June 29, 1872, writes as follows in regard to cotton and other exports: Six-seventhg of the cotton-crop is raised in the district of Lebadeia, where it is pressed and baled, and then hauled sixty or seventy miles on a macadamnized road to Pirwuus. A part of the cotton is bought by the Pirains twist-factories, of which there are three. One recently began operations; the other two have been making from 32,7000 to 35,000 bundles of twist annually. Nearlyr all of this is used in Greece,r but a little is shipped, free of duty, to Turkey. Various other raw products pay an export duty, as cocoons, acorns, figs, currants, and tobacco. Some products pay different rates, according to the district where raised, perhaps on account of an assumed difference in quality, as: tobacco from Argos, 4c. per lb.; from elsewhere, free; acorns from Athefis or Ken, ~c. per lb.'; from Peloponessus, or elsewhere, FUc. Figs pay le. per lb., but, if raised on public lands, double rates, apparently as including rent to the state. Currants pay a little less than le. per lb. Cocoons pay 1ie, per lb. Emery pays le. per lb. On the free list are wool, hides, cumin and sesam6 seeds, wine, olives,2 oil, and silk. No bounties are paid on any article of export, yet it is noteworthy that articles exported are exempt from local customn-dues in transit to the port, which would have to be paid if the same articles were sold in homne markets, for home consumption. These duties are levied to support the local governments, and their amount is very various. Mr. Francis states that the culture of the vine and the manufacture of wine and spirits are important industries: The vineyards cover about 500,000 acres of land, or one twenty-eighith of' the area of plantations properly so called. About 2,000,000 barrels of wine are produced annually, and of this aggregate. less than 100,000 barrels are exported. The gross value is about $1,600,000i The cultivation of the olive-tree is also a feature. The latest returns show that there are about 8, 000,000 olive-trees in the kingdlom, covering an area, of 350,000 acres, and producing annually 22,000,000 lbs. of olives.. The market reports of the Bulletin almost every day evidence the growth of our Mediterranean trade; and in that growth Greece, as we have said, is -a prominent participant. ~,638 LABOR IN'EUROPE AND AMEICA. RATES OF WAGES. Mr. Consul Brewer, under date July 30 1872furnishes the following rates of daily wages of mechanics at Pirus: Painters, $1.14; blacksmiths, carpenters, masons, and plasterers, 95 cents each; iferior hands as low as 57 cents; journeymen shoemakers, for each pair of country shoes, 57 cents, and a good workmeu will make three pairs in two days. Two boatmenwith a sail-boat, will earn $1.52 for a long day's work. Three dollars and eighty cents per month is fair wages for a servant girl. Most mechanics work from sunrise to sunset, taking, in summer, an hour for breakfast and two hours for nooning, drig which they generally take a nap. House rent is $7.60permothforafour-roomete ment, and $11.40 for six rooms. A workingman can get his meals for 20 cents a day. MECHANICAL AND FAR LABOR. Statement showing the rate of wages paid for nmechanical and farm labor in Athens, Pirces, and Syra, Greece, without board, in the year 1873. Occupation. Ates and Syra Skilled workmen: Blacksmiths..per day.............0 90 to $1 20 to $0 9 Bricklayers or masons.................................... 5 to 1 65 to Cabinet-makers.do............... 90 to 1 00 80 to 85.. Carpenters.do.......................... 90 to I 75 to o Coopers...............................................to 90 75 to 80 Miners............................................. to 130 to 85 Machinists do.... 80 to 1 40 85 to 90.. Painters............................................ to 1 80 to 85 Plasterers.d...... 75 to.. 00 70 to 75. Shoemakers.do.................. 65 to 6 to 70 Stone-cutters.do.... 90 to 1 40 45 to 50.. Tailors.............................................to 90 45 Tinsmiths.o....... 60 to 1 00 40 to 45 Wheelwrights,........................do.... 80 to 1 20 40 to 45 Shp-uidig { First-class...................do.... 1 00 to 1 40......... Carpenters. ISecond-class..................do.... 70 to 90......... Joiuers.(10.......................... d. 1 00 to 1 20......... Calkers............................do... 120 to 1 30......... Blacksmiths.........................do.... 70 to 80......... Farm-laborers: Experienced hands...................... do... 60 30 toq 40 Ordinary hands........................do... 50......... Common laborers at other than farm-workd.............d 66 3o to 40,Female servants................per mouth, with board.. 2 00 to 5 110 3 00 to 4 00 Price of board: For workmen......................per week. 1 50 to 2! 00 2 00 to 2 25 For workwomen.......................do.-.. 1 25 to 1 33 1 80 PRICES OF PROVISIONS, GiJOCERIES, ETC. Statement shiowing the prices of provisions, groceries, and other leading articles of consumption, with house-rent and board, in the towvns of Pirauos and Syra, Greece, in the year 1872. Articles. Piruns. Syra. Flour:PRVSO. Wheat, superfine, of Trieste......per barrel of 168 pounds. - $8 00 to $9 00.................per pound.......... $ Wheat, of the Pir.ens Mills.................do.... 04 to 0j$0 07 to 08 Rye —................................ None. _None. Corn-m~eal................................. bone. None. Beet: Fresh, roasting-pieces..................per pound.._ 11 to 12 12 to 14 Fres~h, soup pieces......................do.. lO, to 11 12 to 14 Fresh, rumpa-teaks...................... do.. -. 12 to 13 12 to 14 Corined............................ do.. None. bNone. Veal: Fore-quiarters........................do. -... 16 to 17 13 to 14 B3-nd-quarters........................do....- 15 to, 16 13 to 14 C utlets...........................do....- 13 to 14 13 to 14 LABOR IN GrIEECE. 639 Statement showing the prices of provisions, groceries, 4-c.-Continued. Articles. Piraus. Syra. Mutton: Fore-quarters.........................................per pound.. $0 101 to $0 11................ Leg.........................................................do.. —. l to 12 $0 13 to $0 14 Chops......................................................do... 1[ to 12 13 to 14 Pork: Fresh..........................................-............do... 10 to 11 10 Corned or salted.......................................... do.... None. None. Bacon......................................................do.... None. None. ilams, smoked, imported, foreign...........................do.... 36 to 38............... Shoulders, imported, foreign................................do.... 28 to 30. Sausages, imported, foreign.......................... do.... 40 to 45 28 Sausages, freshly made, in market..........................do.... 15 to 20................ Lard...........................................................do.... 20 to 25 16 Codfish, dry...........................................-do... 06 to 061 6 Mackerel, pickled..............................................do... None. 03 Butter...................................t.....................do... 22 to 24 24 to 26 Cheese: Produced in the country....................................do.... 10 to 14 15 to 17 Swiss and Dutch...........................................do.... 20 to ~25................ Potatoes........................................................do... 01 to 62 02 Rico, Genoa............do... 04 to 05 04 Beaus..........................................................do... 02. to 03 02 to 02j Milk......................................................per gallon.. 20 to 25............... Eggs......................................................per dozen. 14 to 15 12 to 14 GROCERIES. Tea, Oolong, or other good black...........................per pound. 85 to 90................ Coffee: Rio, green..................................................-do. 925 to 27 25 to 28 Rio, roasted.................. sold in extremely small quantities.................................. Sugar: Good brown —None None. Yellow C........................................................ None. None. White, crushed.......................................per pound - 10 12 M, olasses.............................................................. Non None. Sirup................................................................ None. None. Soap, common.............................................per pound. 06................ Starch..........................................................do. 07 to 08 07 Fuel: Charcoal-$ ~~~~~~per cwt.. 58 to 65 Charcoal............................................... per wton.......... per tori.- ------— 1-2 00 to 13 00 Wood, hard...........................................pet pound.. 1$1................. Wood, pine.................................................do.... Oil, olive..................................................per gallon.. 65 to 70 DOMESTIC DRY GOODS, ETC. Tcloth........................................per piece of 24 yards.. 2 20 to 2 60............... Shirtings: Brown, 4-4, standard quality............................per yard................. 20 Bleached, 4-4, standar(t quality.............................do.......... 20 to 25 Sheetiugs, bleached, 9-8, standard quality.......per piece of 40 yards.. 4 50 to 4 60. Cotton.flannel, mediurn quality.............................per yard... 30 Tickings, good quality...........................................do.................... 10 to 12 Mouseline do laines.............................................do............. 15 to 18 Satinets, medium quality.......................................do.................... 40 to 45 Boots, men's................................................per pair.. 2 00 to 2 50 2 00 HOUSE-RENT. Four-roomed tenements..................................per month.. 8 00 to 10 00 10 00 to 12 00 Six-roomed tenements..........................................do _.. 12 00 to 15 00 15 00 to 18 00 BOARD. For men, (mechanics or other workmen)...................per week.. 1 50 to 2 00................ For women employed in factories...............................do.... 1 20 to 1 25 - LODGING. Tolerable unfuruished lodgings canbe procured atfrom $1.75 per mouth................................ for one room and $3 80 per month for two rooms, a kitchen, and a ssmall court. No taxes, no water, nor gas laid on; plenty of public fountains with good water. 640 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. EXPENDITURES OF WORKINGMEN'S FAMILIES. Statement showing the average weekly expenditure of a family consisting of twio adults and two children in Pireus, Greece, in 1872 and 1873. Articles. 1872. 1873, Flour and bread....................................... $0 68 $0 80 Fresh, corned, salted, and smoked meats............................................. 57 20 Cheese, olives, and sundries 19 05 Sugar................................................................................ 17 30 Coffee......................................-............................................ 13..... Fish, fresh and salt.................-.................................. 19 15 Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, &c.................................................. 19 10 Potatoes and other vegetables..............................................39 18 Fruits, green and dried...... —- --------------—............... 09 05 Fuel for cooking only................................................................. 19 08 Oil or other light................0............................................................ 08 Other articles..................................................... 12 W ine................................................................................. 2 l0 Tobacco.............................................................................. 13. hIouse-rent95............................................................................ 95 64 For educational, religious, and benevolent objects................................... 11 10 Total weekly expenses.......................................................... 4 24 2 9 Clothing per year, (partly earned by wife)............................................ 44 00 25 00 Taxes per year....................................................................... None. o INone. Weekly earnings..................................................................... 13- -- The average weekly expenditures of a family of two adults and five children in the town of Syra were found to be $3.50, and the earnings of the same family from $3.50 to $4.50 per week. CONDITION OF THE WORKING-CLASSES. Mr. J. J. Bucherer, United States vice-consul at Pireus, under date of November 15, 1873, writes: The working-class of this town is, generally speaking, laborious, and of a quiet and peaceful character. They are not given to drinking and gambling. They live very economically, and like to send their children to school. LABOR IN BELGIUM. 641 LABOR IN BELGIUM. Belgium, one of the smaller kigdoms of Europe, is a perfect bee-hive of industry, both agricultural and mechanical. A historical sketch of the rise and progress of some of those industries would be extremely interesting, if space admitted of its )resentation. Although small in extent of territory, it embraces peoples entirely distinct in language and traditions. The Flemings (Teutonic) and the Walloons, (Celtic,) distinguished by their peculiar dialects, are still conspicuous among the pure Germans, Dutch, and French. Like the French, the Belgians are strongly opposed to emigration* the parents being unwilling to part with their children, who all contribute the proceeds of their labor to the common stock, and although the wages a'e extremely low, even after the advance in 1871 and 1872 as compared with those of England, yet the uite earningsofafamilya ount to a considerable sumn.t This stay-athome policy resltsof course, in an increase of the population, which, in 1871, was 5,113,680-a larger number per square mile than in any other country in Europe4t The government of Belgium is a limited constitutional monarchy, and was established in its present form in 1830. The country had been previously the theater of almost innumerable wars while under the dominion successively of Spain and France, and while forming a constituent part of Holland. Indeed, owing to its geographical position Belgiumn has been the battleground of Europe, more especially in the fierce struggles between the allied powers and the first Napoleon. Thle p)ossession of Belgian territory had always been regarded by Napoleon as The number of emigrants from Belgium during the past fifty-four years was but a little over 20,000, as will be seen by the following statement: During the decade from 1820 to 1830.......................................-28 During the decade from 1831 to 1840......................- 22 Dnring the decade from 1841 to 1850....................... 5, 074 During the decade from 1851 to 1860-...............t...... 4,738 During the decade from 1861 to 1870-..................... 7,416 During the year 1871-...........................* 168 During the year 1872-............................ 964 During the year 1873 —--------------------------- 1,306 During the year 1874 ---------------------------- 705 Total-................................. 20, 42 1 t The director pf the paper-mill at Huy stated to the author that the earnings cf one family, consisting of father and several sons and daughters, exceeded 10,000 francs ($2,000) in the year 1871. At Jumet, the seat of glass-works, mauy families own the houses in which they live; some workmen being worth 50,000 francs. t The following table shows the population of Belgium by provinces audl per square mile on the 31st of December, 1871: Provinces., n- C Antwerp —..........................2,8-31.73 497, 017 175. 52 454. 50 Brabant —........................... 3 282.96 887, 905 270. 46 700. 50 Flanders, West-..............13,234.67 670, 8-M 207. 39 5.37. 215 Flanders, East-....................... 2 9C99 (5 840, 5112 280'. 1 7 725. 75 Hainaut-.......................... 3,721.62 9910, 595 ~241. 72 626. 75 Li~ge-2............................ 893. 88 598, 458 1206. 80 5505. 50 Lim ornb................r............ 2,412.34 200, 668 8:3.18 215.50 Luxembourg............................ 4, 41.7 7 6 204, 037 46. 18 119.90 N'aam ar —........................... 3,660. 1 313, 635 83. 69 1222. 00 Total-.......................... 29,455.16 5, 113, 680 17.3. 60 449..50 41 L 642 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. of vast importance as an advanced post from which he might proceed to other conquests. Under the rule of France, Belgium suffered severely from the conscription laws, which deprived the country of its active laborers. The benevolent and charitable institutions of Belgium are numerous. To prevent the misery and frequently the crime arising fromn the want of employment among the working-classes, charity-workshops have been established in (Ghent, Liege, and other towns. The able-bodied are paid according to their work, and the aged and infirm according to their necessities. In each commune is a bureau de bienfatisance for assisting the poor with money, food, and clothing. Belgium is abundantly rich in various kinds of minerals, as coal, iron, calamine, &c., forming a valuable source of employment to many thousands of its inhabitants. Its iron-mines are extensive. Marble also is abundant in many parts of Belgium. EXPORTS TO THE UNITED STATES. The chief industries which enter into competition with similar productions of England and the United States are glass and glass-ware, iron, machinery, and various other manufactures of iron, paper, and woolen cloths. Its chief export to the United States is window-glass, the abundance of raw materials and cheapness of labor enabling them to compete successfully with New Jersey and Western Pennsylvania. In bar-iron and rails, and in some kinds of machinery, Belgium is able to underbid England in European and other markets. The extent and variety of the exports to the United States are indicated in the following: Statement showing the imports of merchandise from Belgium into the United States during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1874. Articles. Quantities. Values. FREE OF DUTY. Articles of the United States brought back............................................... $241, 897 Chemicals, dyes, &c...............-...2.............................. 27,333 Coffee. n............................ pounds.. 1,186, 550 245, 216 I' orse-hair, used for weaving.....o......................................... 19, 691 6, 729 Hides and skins...................................................................58, 474 Paper materials-po s 1....................................................pounds.. 0, 50, 0, 042 All other articles —s 2 0..5.................................................... 29,075 Total free of duty....................... 1,148, 766 DUTIABLE. Beer, ale, &c........................................................177 Books, &c.................................................................... 9, 568 Jrtass and manufactures of..................................... 6,138 Breadstuffs, barley.................................................. bushels. 92,518 95, 553 Buttons, &.................................................................... 2, 371 Chemicals, &c..................-.............................................. 33, 831 Chiccory............................................................. 4, 646 C cor-pounds..'"i08,i96' 4, 646 Cotton, manufactures of......................................................,151 Earthenware................................................................. 4, 085 Fancy goods................................-.-... 18, 559 Flax and(l manufactures of..................................................... 29, 012 Fruits of all kinds..........................................................-... 117, 664 Glass and glass-ware.........................................................., 047, 508 Iron and steel: Pig-iron................................................... pounds.. 9, 707, 221 292, 220 Barron................................................do 894, 828 21, 11 Sheet-iron..........................................................do. 114, 645 7, 267 Other manufactures of...................1 9...................................... 157, 942 Leather, manufactures of........................................................... 59, 089 PaintiTngs, &c................................................................. 47,519 P.tper and manufactures of................................................... 57, 712 Siik. lanufactures of......................................................... 30, 677 Spirits an(l wines............................................................ 126,191 A'Wocod uanuthectures...................................................................... 40, 700 LABOR IN BELGIUM. 643 Statement howing the import of merchandise from Belgium, 4c.-Continued. ~~~~~Articles.~ Quantities. Values. Wool-. Raw-............................ pounds.. 58, 717 $12, 090 Manufatures of.......................................... 42....... 9, 17 0 Zinc, spelter, &c........................ 104, 1 96 ~All other articles-....................-............. -.................. 796, 437 ~~~Total dutiable- ~......-................-.................-.................... 4, 578, 675 Total free of duty......................................................... 1,148, 76 Total imports of merchandise.............................................. 5,727,441 Total imports of merchandise, 1873.......................................................... $5,711, 077 Total irports of merchandise, 1872-............................................. 5,80, 461 Total imports of merchaadise, 1871-........................................................ 4, 178, 714 BELGIAN HUSBANDRY. Since 1830 the agricultural condition of the country has been much improved, and while it is not intended to enter at large upon this topic, yet the high state of cultivation, and the attractive appearance of the country presented to the author as he passed through it, in several directions, demands a passing notice. The golden grain was literally ready for the sickle, or the reaping-hook, for, owing to the cheapness of labor, the improvements in agricultural machinery were then used to but a liited extent in Belgium and the countries of Continental Enrope. The following paragraphs from Chambers's Journal afford interesting information on the subject under consideration: In Eastern Flanders, of a hundred acres of land, seventy-two are sown with cereals and plants used in manufactures; twenty-eight with roots and forage; but to the latter must be added thirty-one ac~res of after-crop, which gives fifty-nine as affording excellent food for cattle, superior to common rnead,,-ws, and which shows how poor land can paya rent oftfive pounds an acre. The second'sowing-consists of turnips and spergula, after colza, flax, and early potatoes; and the carrot, which is sold in the spring with'the preceding crops, and carefully hoed after they have been taken away. The clovers have occupied the ground during the winter, leaving it clear for April sowing; and the giant cabbage develops during the cold season, making a stem some six feet high, aud giving abundant and excellent leaves for muche-cows. Culture thus push-ed to the extreme necessarily requires some capital, arid it is reckoned that, through a system of rigoro us parsimony and saving, double the sum per acre is used in Belgium to that employed in England, and two-thirds more on the best farms. In this way the most dense population in Europe can subsist on a soilI so little favored by nature. Turning to One of the most fertile parts of Belgium, all, as has been said, is charming-every road is bordered with trees; not a rise in the ground is seen; all is calm, uniform, and presents an image of quiet. comfort, and peace. Each house is detached and surrounded with large apple-orchards hedged in by box, holly, or hawthorn, where, the cows are brought to feed every morning and evening. It is of one story only and thatched, containing four roomis-the first for meals, the second for the dairy and preparing the food for cattle, and the others for sleeping-rooms. The old-fashioned oak furniture is a model of brightness; tin and copper utensils shine on the walls, which are whitewashed. The garden is gay with wall-flowers, dahlias, and hydrang-eas, and the florists' flowers which are to be shown at Ghent. 1Outside, everything is in its lplace; nothing spoils the- greensward; the ditch and the manure-heap are banished; the latter is always under the roof of the stable or cowshed. In this stand five or six large cows, the constant care of the farmer's wife, who gives them abundance of green meat in summer, with straw, hay, and a kind of warm soup. mixed with carrots, turnips, or rye, in winter. Thanks to this nourishment, and the constant rest they enjoy, the animals give from fifteen to twenty-five quarts of milk daily. The tools are simple, but of first-class construction: the plow is ligh lt, drawvn by one horse, and -works with ease and regularity. The harrows are of various kinds, triangular, rectangular-, and parallelogram; 1)ut the special tool with -which the. Flem1ing has fertilized lands, dried up marshes, and forced back the sea, Is h e spade. The proverb onl the banks of the Scheldt is: "1The spade is a gold mine to the peasant,. and different kinds are nmade for light or heavy soil. 644 IABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The fields are mostly square, and rarely contain more than an acre; the ground is curved symmetrically, the center being the highest, so that the water drains down equally in all directions. Round the field, and a ot lower, extends a strip of grass three or four yards wide; still lower, a hedge is planted, which is cut every seven years; and finally, the plot is surrounded by a ditch bordered with trees of larger growth. Thus each piece furnishes rich grass, firewood every seven years, and timber for building every thirty years. The plow is generally used, but every seven years the subsoil is turned to the top by the spade, and thus it acquires a depth unknown to all but the best gardens; the principal object being to produce flax and butter, not cereals. The best farmers never sell their corn, but allow their cattle to cosume it. Unhappily, the farm-laborer there, as well as elsewhere, does not enjoy Much conifort; working harder than most men, he is the worst fed. Ryebread, potatoes, beans, buttermilk. without meat or bacon, is the usual fare; chiccory the constant drink; beer reserved for Sundays and fair-days. His wages vary from ten pence to a shilling, and he could never live upon it did not all the members of his family work without ceasing. When the day's work is ended,often by moonlight, the father cultivates his small field; his wife and daughters take up the poorly-paid lace-work, instead of the old spinning-wheel, which steam has superseded; his sos, when their field-work is done, bring up rabbits for the Lodon market. Their little ands pick up every tuft of herbage on the roadside, and open up a large trade of exportation not to be despised. From Ostend alone there come to s 1,2, rabbits every year; these are skinned and cleaned in Belgium, where the skin is used for the making of ats. Yet, although their life is so hard, the towns do not attract the rural population. Habit and family traditions bind them to the plow. While grain is the chief product, flax is largely cultivated, especially in Flanders. The quality and mode of dressing which is practiced there is considered superior to that of any other country, and no doubt the superior quality of the lace fabricated in Ghent, B ges, Malines, Mecliil, and Antwerp, as well as in Brussels, is in art due to the excellence of the raw material. The farmers who raise their own flax generally spin and weave a sufficient quantity for their domestic wear, nd sometimes for sale in the home market, while the principal part of the crop is reserved for conversion into fabrics as lace, ticks, checks, and thread for exportation. WAGES AND SUBSISTENCE Before presenting information in regard to the cost and condition of labor in Belgium, obtained in 1872, personally and through the assistance of others, the author submits some data of a similar character, but which were collected and published in previous years. It is to be regretted that the bureaus of statistics of Europe, while they have gathered, collated, and published dletailed information on various subjects, in many cases thoroughly classified, which, in this utilitarian age, may be regarded-at least in a country like, the United States, whose chief concerns are of a commercial and industrial character-as not of primary importance, have hitherto given but a limited. share of attention to the great industrial and commercial interests. All kinowledge, is valuable, but while we are members of civil communities, the material interests of these communities should not, it is submitted, lbe regarded as of secondary importance. It is true that commercial information is, to some extent, gathered and imparted by governmental authorities, yet it cannot be (Ieuied that nearly the. whole of the valuable facts relating to the industrial, and a large part of those relating to the commercial interests, of the various peoples, are procured by individ uials or by chambers of commerce and other commercial or industrial aissociations. With the exception of Great Britain, which country has made diligent inquiries into the rewards and condition of the working-classes of other LABOR IN BELGIUM. 645 countries, for the purpose of comparison with those of her own workpeople, and of occasional inquiries by other governments into instances of widespread suffering arising from the depressed condition of some particular industry, no official publications have been found from which to draw such information as was required in the preparation of this report. A notable exception to the above is here acknowledged with the more leasre as it affords occasion to refer to that eminent scientist, the fatherof modern statistics"thelate M. Adolphe Quetelet, director of the royal observatory of Belg o him, more than to any one else, is due the origin and successful establishment of the International Statistical Congress which held its first session at Brussels in September, 1853. The statistics of industry engaged the attention of the congress and some data were submitted the forms for which had previously been prepared by the central committee of statistics and approved by the minister of theiterior. Beforesubmittingthe plans to the congress it was deemed wise to subject them to the test of experiment; the blanks were transmitted to the provincial statistical committees with explanations as to the course to be ursued, and many took an interest in the kind of information to be obtained, and zealously set about gathering materilals; others recoiled before a task which they did noc think could lead to exact satisfactory results. In consequence of delays and hesitations inselparable from a new and difficult work. confided to the good will of persons absorbed with their own duties, the time rolled away, and whene the congress met the central committee had not received sufficient replies toinake their submissionito the congress practicable as atest. Later, however, the information was obtained and compiled by M. DuepetlianK, and was published by the central comniission ofstatisticsinl1855.* Whether in the value of the information afforded, in its fullness of detail or its,arrangement, this admirable work may be justly regarded as a model, and now that the mutations in the cost and condition of labor have destroye d its value for contemporary purposes, it is a subject of deep regret that it has not been periodically followed by publications prepared upon the same plan, in which full and trustworthy information of asimilar character might be broughlt down to the most recent date. As both labor and subsistence have appreciated in the two decades which have intervened since the pr-ices given in the work under consideration were obtained, the author of this report contents himself with the translation and presentation of a few of the tables published by M. Duepetiaux. Budget 6conorniques des classes ouvrie'es en Belgique, subsistances, salaires, popnlation, par. Ed. Duepetiaux, inspectenr g&&~a1 des prisons, et des 6tablissements de bienfaisance, rnembr6 de la commission central de statistque, etc., Bruxelles, 1835. 646 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. WAGES IN 1854. Average daily wages paid in various branches of industry in Belgium..~ ~ a Industries. a Industries. S _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~.... r Cents. Cents Cents. ents. Cents. a ents. Cents Cents. Coke and coal.......... 414 24.4 17 14.4 Silk........... 25 18.8 7.6 1. 8 Metallurgy: Ribbons, fringe, &c.... 26 1 2. 2 6.8 6.5 Chlief establishments.. 40.2 21. 4 13. 4 11. 8 Gas-factory........ 28 15.8 9.2 12. 4 Secondary establish'ts. 28. 6 14.4 9 8.4 Wood: Artisans*............. 25. 2 18. 2 7. 4 7. 4 Factory-hands........35. 6 14. 2 9. 2 5 Slate-factories, &e.: Artisans............. 24.2 10 7. 6 5 Factory-hands........ 31.4 2 11 12 Leather: Artisans.............. 29 14. 8 12.4 11 Factory-hands........ 29 22. 4 10 8.4 Glass-factories: Artisans............. 19.2 12.2 6.4 8. 4 Factory-hands......... 516 13.6 14. 8 14 Paper and printing: Artisans.... — 2 8 15 8........ Factory-.........28. 8 15 4 8. 2 8. 2 Manuf'toriesof linen,&c.: Artisans...:38.6 13.8 7. 6......6 Factory-hands........ 16 10. 8.9 9. 8 Chemical products: Artisans.............. 16 8. 4 7 6 Factory-hands.. 29. 2 17. 8 5 Wool................. 32.4 16.2 11.6 11.2 Artisans............. 29.6 8.8 7.6 10 Cottoll: Various trades..... 32 15. 8 9 5 Factory-hands............... 31 21.6 9.2 10 Artisans.............. 25 12.2 5 7.2 General average.. 29.8 14.2 108 7. / 2. 6 8. S|7 * By "artisans" here is meant persons working by themselves for their own account or that of the manufacturer. WAGES IN LIIEGE. Average wages per day paid to m;ale laborers in the following industries. [The franc computed at 20 cents.] Cannon foundery: Maximum. Minimunm Founders.............................-.... — * —-$1 00 $0 34 Laborers................................................. 35 30 Adjusters....... 60 32 Smiths............. 00 36 Strikers................................................. 40 34 Turners.......................... 50 36 Joiners... —----------------------—.................................. 45 35 Masons...................................... 50 32 Iron-works: Firemen.................................................. 85 Smiths.... -------------—''''50 Puddlers...,,,,,,,,,,,,,,................................... 70 Laborers................................................. 29 Zinc factory: Hours of labor. Maximum. Minimum, Foreman..................................... 12 $0 69 Laborers.................................... 12 47 Stone-cutters................................ 12 50 Machinist.................................... 10 $0 57 Joiner...................................... 10 40 Fireman..................................... 10 45 GHENT. Daily wages of factory hands in Ghent. Maximum. Minimnm. Males................................................... $2 00 $0 25.4 Females............................................ 41 18 Boys, (12 to 16 years)...., 26 09 Children under 12 years.................. 10 0O LABOR IN BELGIUM. 647 Taking the number of working dlays in a year at 278, (deducting for holidays, absence, accidental interruptions, &c.,) the average earnings per year would beFbr males at an average of 48 cents........................$131 44 For femuales at an averagye of 28 cents-.................... 75 84 For boys of 12 to 16 at an average of 174j- cents..-............. 48 65 The lowest possible weekly expenses of a factory laborer's family with four young children in Ghient are thus given: Bread, (wheat and rye)-...........................$0 92 Flour-..................................;.. 02 Onions-................................... 02 Potatoes-.................................. 45 Butter-................................... 48 Clothing.~................................... 16 Coffee and chiccory-.............................. 1 Fuel and light............................... 2.0 Soap and starch.................................. 07 M ilk-.................................... 04 R ice.................................... 05 Vinegar, pepper, and salt-............................ 0i Total-................................ 243-k ill cases of sickness aid is given by relief associations instituted among workingmnen, which pay during sickness to laborersFirst class, per week.......................$1 -50 Second class, per week-............................ 90 Third class, per week-............................ 45 INCOM1E AND EXPENDITURE. Average annual income of wvorkingmen's families in. Belgium. Wages or salary OfProvince of- 44Occupation. Total. Brabant......First....................$60 19 $17 40 $36 53 $14 6)0 $,128 72 Second —.................9.5 1 6 22 25 44 07 21 09 182:. 57 Third —.................143 38 31 50 55 00 28 68 125,~ 56 Flanders, East_ - -- irst --..................58 40 1 1 61 33 1 3 6 15 109 29 Second-................... 99 18 15 30 3 1 74 12 88 138 10 Third.. -.- 13..............M5 30 1 6 39 4 4 44 1 8 1-2 214 25 Flanders, West... First.- Farm-laborer. ------ - -----— 55 00 153 00 80 00 1 0 00 160 Go Second Shoemaker and one journeyman. 9:3 60 18 00 21 00 41 C0 174 211 Third. Journeyman-carpenter -......110 (0- - -....15 00 80 00 203 0 Antwerp —-— First.. Bay-laborer-.....I......60 00 10 00 12 00...... 82 03 Second Weaver. —----------— 74 CO 20 00 34 00 ------ 128 00 Third Carpenter~with son and two journeymen-............190 00 12 00 50 CO00 ---- 252 00 Limbourg-.....First.. Farm-laborer-...........52 40 27 60 40 00 3-2 00 12 0i Second Foreman of distillery -......109 98- - - —......61 00 16i 88 Th~ird. Gardener.........................-....- 238 (10 238 (0, Hainaut -.....First --..................79 50 19 08 50 88 7 42 156 PS Second Fireman...............160 16- - - - - —.........100 111 Third. Bhcl~ksmithb-...........222 60 76 32 Ill 30...... 410 22 Liege.......First. -Prin-ter-.............. I 125'30 46 99 20 87...... 193 181 Second Workman in warehouse-.....286 50 10 00. —----- 43 10 LIZ31 (60 Third. Coppersmith -........... 300 00 41 60 80 00...- — 421 80 Namur -......First.- Joiner-.............. 60 00 15 00 20 00 36 00 1:31 0 0 Second Gardener-62........... 60 4 92 40 49 31 91 139 92 Third.. Coppersmfith, family of six per - SODS.-...135...00.........229 40 364 40 Luxembourg -...First. Mason-..............68 00 20 00 10 00 68 00 163 00 Second Shoemaker -............174 772 8)_ 40 44 68 1`2 00 293 80 Third Car-peuter-.............208 40 60 00 44 80 20.) 00 513 20 648 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Average annual expenditure of workingmen's families in Belgium. Province of — Occupation. e - ~ Total. _, B3rabant........ First........................................... $122 60...... $4 00 $126 60 Second. —........................................ —. 172 04 $2 47 3 40 177 91 Third......................................... 237 48 8 14 5 98 251 56 Flanders, East... First............................ 114 63 1 56 1 73 117 92 Second-. -—. —-.-...-........ —-.... 159 80 1 50 2 15 163 45 Third............................................ 172 94 1 45 1 96 176 35 Flanders, West.. First.. Farm-laborer....................... 138 80 10 00 8 82 147 62 Second Shoemaker and one journeyman......... 175 21 2 28........ 177 49 Third. Journeyman-carpenter........... 192 10 5 90 7 46 205 46 Antwerp........ First.. Dy-laborer............................. 118 17.... 3 53 121 70 Second Weaver........................... 122 65 1 00 4 08 127 73 Third. Carpenter, with son and two journeymen. 216 40 3 80 24 95 245 15 Limbourg........ First.. Farm -laborer................... 170 12....... 6 00 176 12 Second Foreman of distillery............. 156 20 4 00 10 67 170 87 Third. Gardener.............................. 218 17 1 50 4 55 224 22 Hainat......... First............................................ 152 11 1 06 3 71 156 88 Second Fireman.-....... -...................... 146 02 3 20 10 94 160 16 Third. Blacksmith.............................. 368 88 11 66 29 68 410 22 Liege............ First.. Printer. —........ —... -...... —. 254 52 3 40 15 13 273 05 Second Workman in warehouse................. 239 57 6 20 5 49 251 26 Third. Coppersmith............................. 386 35 6 40 11 24 403 99'amur......... First.. Joiner.................................. 119 29 1 20 9 00 129 49 Second Gardener................................ 133 04 59 4 46.138 09 Third Coppersmith, family of six persons....... 325 40........ 12 00 337 40 Luxembourg..... First.. Mason................................. 156 50....... 9 40 165 90 Second Shoemaker — 22................... 222 68 15 04 15 08 252 80 Third Carpenter -............................ 306 52 57 87 23 20 387 59 Detailed statement of income and expenditure of a laborer's family of six persons in the district of Brussels. [1 hectoliter - 2. 84 bushels. 1 kilog. = 2. 2046 pounds. 1 franc 20 cents, in United States equivalents.] INCOME. From wages: Of husband, 270 days, 72 centimes (14.4 cents)................... $38 8 - 30 days, 2 francs (40 cents).........................12 00 Of son of 18 years, 270 days, 7'2 centimes (14.4 cents)............ 38 88 30 days, 2 francs (40 cents)................. 12 00 Of son of 16 years, 100 days, 54 centimes (10.8 cents).......10 80 ~ - $112 56 From other resources: 75 acres of land rented: 4 hectoliters wheat, at $3.60.................................... 14 40 4 hectoliters rye, at $2.20....................................... 8 80 500 kilograms potatoes, at $1.60 per 100 kilograms............... 8 00 78 kilograms butter, at 40 cents................................ 31 20 - 62 40 1 calf, $5; 1 fat pig, $25.................. 30 00 Products of garden: 170 kilograms hops, $22.88; fruits and vegetables, $9.60; tobacco, $1.40. 33 88 Total income........................................................ 238 84 LABOR IN BELGIUM. 649 EXPENDITURE. Provisions: 1 hectoliter wheat, at $3.60.................................... $3 60 20 hectoliters rye, at $2.20..................................... - 44 00 1,000 kilograms potatoes, at $1.60 per 100 kilograms.............. 16 00 Vegetables.................................................... 10 00 75 kilograms pork, at 18 cents.................................. 13 50 10 kilograms beef, at 20 cents.................................. 2 00 25 kilograms butter, at 32 cents............................ 8 00 Milk.......................................................... 3 00 400 eggs, at 80 cents per 100.................................... 3 20 Salt, spices, &c................................................ 6 00 25 kilograms coffee, at 40 cents................................. 10 00 10 kilograms chiccory, at 10 cents.............................. 1 00 150 liters beer, at 15- cents...................................... 2 40 $122 70 Rent: For dwelling, containing I kitchen, 2 bedrooms, 1 pantry and stable, also small garden..................................... $7 00 75 acres of farming land, and 20 acres garden...................'20 00.. — 27 00 Clothing: Husband-2 pantaloons, $2.60; 2 vests, $1.20; 2 jackets, $1.10; 2 blouses, $2.40; 2 cravats, 40 cents; 2 handkerchiefs, 30 cents; 3 linen shirts, $1.95; 2 drawers, 50 cents; 2 caps, 60 cents; 2 pairs socks, 45 cents; 1 pair shoes, $1.20; 4 pairs wooden shoes, 50 cents........... $13 20 Son of 18 years, $13.20; son of 16 years, $8.............. 21 20 -.34 40 Wife-1 cotton dress, $1.60; 2 petticoats, $1.60; 2 linen shirts, $1.20; 3 neck-handkerchiefs, 60 cents; 2 pockethandkerchiefs, 20 cents; 2 pairs stockings, 50 cents; 2 jackets, 80 cents; 2 aprons, 40 cents; 3 pairs wooden shoes, 30 cents; 1 pair shoes, 50 cents; 3 hats, 40 cents; pins, &c., 5 cents.............................. 8 15 Daughter of 13 years, $4; daughter of 10 years, $2.40.... 6 40 14 55 - 48 95 Bedding: 1 niattrass, $1; 2 sheets, $1; 2 covers, (cotton,) 80 cents; bolster, 20 cents; straw for mattrass, 20 cents........................ 3 20 Bed and bedding for sons, $3.20; bed and bedding for daughters, $2. 5 20 - 8 40 Sundries: Fuel-3,500 kilograms coal, at $3.05 per 100 kilograms........... 10 50 Light-10 liters oil, at 15 cents................................. 1 50 Washing-20 kilograms soap, at 10 cents....................... 2 00 Sewing-thread, needles, &c.................................... 60 Maintenance of dwelling....................................... 1 60 Purchase, &c., of furniture..................................... 60 Taxes and other contributions.................................. 1 93 Tools for farming.............................................. 1 36 Expense on farm for seeds, &c.... 8 00 - 28 09 Church, 30 cents; books, pens, paper, &c., 60 cents; amusement, 60 cents'; tobacco, $1.40........................................................... 2 90 Total expenditure................................................... 238 04 BALANCE. Income.................................................................. $238 84 Expenditure............................................................. 238 04 Surplus............................................................. 80 650 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing details of income and expenditure of workmen's families in te rovince o Brabant, Belgium, in 1854. (First class includes indigent laborers, partly supported by public charity; second class includes idigent laborers not supported by public charity; third class includes workmen in independent positions.) Amounts expressed in United States gold dollars-the franc computed at 20 cents. Commune of Borni- Commune of Hion. City of Nivelles. val. ta. First Second Third First Second Third First Second Third class class cl ass. class class class class. class class. Expenses..; E ~... ~~~~~~~~~~i cit I.-OF A PHYSICAL OR MATERIAL NATURE. Provisions: Wheat-bread................................. $78 Rye-bread........$30 00 30 00 30 00 b 52............... Mixed bread.................... c$78 62 d$87 36.....e72 f$72 Potatoes and vegetables........ g21 84 h17 6S i14 56 16 00 600 200 j32 76 k32 76 132 60 Meat. 8......................................... 5 Milk, eggs, and fish............ 3 64 4 37 5 2 00 300 400.. 4 16 Butter, oil, and lard............ 12 p8 73 7 Spices, salt, &c................. 1 66 1 66 12 Tea, cofife, and chiccory....... 3 33 3' 64 572 2 00 2 40 2 40 8 74 8 74 10 40 Beer, cider, and wine...... 2 4.....0............2 40 480 Rent............................... 206 1196 1560 12 06 11 96 81500 ('Clothing........................ -1 50.. 14 00 21 60 6 00 10 00 12 00 29 70 32 00 4000 Bedding............................ 1 60.2 00 3 Fuel................. 624 10 40 1144 800 800 800 400 800 832 Lig.ht............................... 3 12 4 37 416 120 200 300 156 208 208 WVashing........................... 400 3700 2 60 592 83 Care of health, bath, &c............ 1 041 66.. 11 00 Treatment in sickness.......2 002.................... 2 Repair and mainteniance of dwelling....- ---- ---- 80 1 20 1 20......... 5 00 Purchiase and repair of f urniture. 2 00 2 00 3 00 40 1 60 2 00 2 00 2 00 2 40 Contributions anti taxes................. 40 1 20 2 40 40 1 60 3 60 Post-age and other expenses....................... 60............ F or t oolIs., (excludling first purchase)........ 1 00 1 00...................... Coft of -arden or land.................. 1 60 2 00 2 40......... 600O Total..............164 14 171 77 186 80 92 40 116 20 137 60 161 58 180 26 230 33 II.-RELIGIOUS AND INTELLECTUAL. Church.................................................... School............................................. 3 40 4 40 Books, &c. —------------------- --- --- --- --- --- 60 1 00 Subscription, &c., in charity.......................................... Savings-hank....-...................................... Total.........................................4 00 5 40 M.-FOR LUXURIES. Coffee-houses,18aloons..........2 00 1 87 2 08 60 1 20 1 60 3 33 6 65 5 82 Tobacco............... 104 1 04 140 1 60 2 00 2 00 104 104 1 04 Ornament in dress.......................... 80 1 60............ Public festivities, &c............................................ Interest on loans............. 52....................... Total.............. 3 04 343 3 48 220 4 00 520 437 7 69 *686 Total expenses.........167 18 175 20 190 28 94 60 120 20 142 80 164 97 191 95 2!42 59 INCOME.._____ Father's wages............93 86 104 00 111 60 54 00'76 00 80 00 60 00 117 00 156 0Of) Mother's earnings.......... 45 08 30.00 54 00 10 00 10 00 12 00 16 00........ Children's wages....... 22 53 10 40 22,5,2 22.00 22 -00. 24 00' 52 210 78 00 93 60 From other sources..............28 00 4 00 10 00 20 00 23 00 6 00........ Total..............161 47 17-2 40' 19-2 12 96 00 128 00 139 00 134 20 195 tO 249 60 a IS kilogs., at.52 cent pee week; per pound, U. S., 3.8 cents. i 14 kilogs., at.e2 cent pee day; per pound, U.S5.,.9 cent. ii 21 kilogs., at.06 cent per day; pee pound, U. S., 2.7 cents. j 33 kilags4., at.018 cent per day; per pound. U. S.,.8 cent4 21 kilaca.. at.76 cent ce week; pee pound. U. S., 3.45 ce;,ts. 035 kitans., at.018 cent per day; pee paund, U. S...8 cent. d 20 kilogs., at.82 eut per week; pee pound, U. S., 3.8 cents. 13It kialga. at.18cen npe wesnak; per pound, U. S., S8cent. e20 ki;lgs., at.07 cent pet- day; per paund. U. S., 3.8I cents. m 3 kilogs., at.20 cent per day; pee paundj, U. S., 9 Cents. 1 20 kilogsa., at.07 cent per week.;. pee ps,.;n;i, UJ. S,3. IScents. ni bkilog., at. 0cent;,e-week; per pound, U. S.,9 cents. p 21 kilogs., at.02 ceot per weeck; per paund, U. S.,.9 cent. a 2 00il6g!, hic.20 vebii icer wi~k;Pe pac ound. U1. S.. 9 cents. A 17 kiloga., at.02 pee week.; 4 kidag., at.024 cenat pee day; pee pound, U..-S., 4.36 tents, LABOR IN BELGIUM. 651 Table skowing detail8 of income and expenditure of workmen's famtilie8, 4&C.-Continued. Commune of Wauthier Commune of Itterbeck. Commune of Leuw St. Braine. Pierre. First Second Third First Second Third First Second Third class, class, class, class, class. class, class. class, class. Expenses.__ _ __ _ __ ___ __ _ _ 54 0 Q a 8.8 ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~-4 Sk I.-OF A PHYSICAL OR MATERIAL NATURE. Provisions: Wheat-bread.......... $152 88........................... Rye-bread.......$87 36. $31 20 $31 20.....$52 00......... M~ixed bread...........$109 20................$36 40......$72 80 -$72 80 Potatoes and vegetables 26 00 20 80 28 88 20 80 20 80 20 80 15 60 18 72 18 742 M eat............... 624 16 64 10 40......10 40......2080 41 60 Milkeggiand fish. 2 08 1 04 416 4 68 4 68 468 4 99 499 10 00 Butter, oil, and lard - 15 60 15 60 33 69 16 64 9 36 16 64 16 64 31 20 41 60 spices, salt, &C ----- 312 3 12 333 1 56 1 56 156 3 64 832 -.... Tea, coffe e, and chiccory 5 20 520 1 124 3 12 3 12 3 12 8 32 8 32 12 48 Beer, cider, and wine - —......... 7~!................ 28 —562 14 56 Rent-............ 520 5 20 500 10 40 10 40 10 40............ Clothing..........21 52 20 80 46 80- - —............20 00 48 00 96 00 Beddino.......... 104 1 040 780 1 20- —........ 200 4 00 8 00 Fuel............. 873 8 73 873 4 00 5 20 5 20 8 00 960 10 40 Light -........... 4 16 4 37 437 2 08 2 08 2 08 1 60 284 3 20 Washing -.......... 104 2 60 2 60 1 25 1 25 1 25 4 00 600 8 00 Care of health, bath, &c-................... 1 20................. Treatment in sickness..............20 80.................. 6 00 8 00 Repair and maintenance of dwelling -......... 104 1 04 5 00...........- - -... 200 560 7 00 P1urchase and repair of furniture - -......... 1 04 73 500.............. 120 360 8 00 Contributions and taxes. -.- 33 83 3 60 - - —............ 80 5 00 8 tO Postage and other expenses 8 32..... 40.................... 40 80 For tools, (excluding first purchase)-............ 8 32 6 00....................... Cost of garden or land - -....... 63 2~00 - - —............ 2 40 5 20-5 20 Total.........191 78 224 85 376 20 107 33 90 85 112 53 143 19 267 01 I- 374 36 II.-RELIGIOUS AND INTELLECTUAL. Church.................... 3 12-........................ School.................... 520 -..... 188 -........ 4 80 6 40 Books, &c-................. 1 04 —............... 2 00 3 00 Subscription, &pi., in charity-..................................... Savings-bank-....:...................................... Total.~~~~~~~~~9 36 -..... 188 —------- 680~ 9 40 lIII-FOR LUXURIES. Coffee-houses, saloons -........ 1 04 2 60 -—.............. 2 08 41 60 Tobacco-...................... 1 25 -- 416..........5 20 10 40 Ornament in dress - - - - —....................................... Public festivities, & - - —.................................... 2 00-6 00 ]Interest on loans-.......................................... Total-~~~~ ~~~1 04 365 -......-....... 4 16 9 28 58 00 Total expense-....191 78 225 89 389 41 107 83 92 73, 112 53 147 35 283 09 432 36 INCOME. Father's wages........72 00 90 00 176 00 45 00 80 00 90 00 45 00 121 60 291 20 Mother's earnings-.....20 00 24 00 34 00- -.... 8 00 18 00 6'10 60 olO 72 80 Children.'s wages -......64 00 82 00 150 00 24 00..........43 00 91 20 79 20 From other sources-.....20 00 36 00 70 00 19 00 3 40 4 53 20 00......... Total..........-.176 00 232 00 430 00 88 00 91 40 122 53 114 00 273 60 443 20 652 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing details of income and expenditmre of workmen's families, J-e.-Continued. City of Aerschot. City of Tirlemont. Commune of Lubbeck. First Second Third First Second Third First Second Third class, class, class. class. class. class. class. class. class. Expenses. Cd C~~~ Ca da ae ci aa,...... -- I ~ ~ 0 - ].-OF A PHYSICAL 01 MATERIAL NATURE. Provisions: Wheat-bread............................................ $31 20........ $7 28 $10 92 Rye-bread.$.......... 20 39 $20 39 $20 39 $52 57 $52 57 11 24 $57 20 52 00 49 40 Mixed bread.......... Potatoes and vegetables 20/60 20 60 20'60 10 20 15 28 27 20 9 12 29 12 30 92 Meat..................- ------- 19 40 18 20!.... 20 80 31 20..... 3 12 21 84 Milk, eggs, and fish.... 2 92 3 20 584.. 1100 510 1020 9 99 Butter, oil, and lard._ 4 00 7 80 11 65 10 40 26 00 62 40 4 26) 16 12 24 96 Spices, sal, &c..... 167 167 400 291 291 582 Tea, coffee, andchiccory 11 65 11 65 11 65 6 88 20 80 10 40 4 37 9 67 12 89 Beer, cider, and wine --........- 14 00........ 6 24 24 00........ 8 73 16 64 i'ent...................... 10 00 16 00 19 00 14 00 20 00 40 00 18 f20 15 00 22 00 Clothing.................. 35 00 35 00 42 60 3'20 20 00 20 00 16 00 28 00 40 00 Beddiung 0. 00 3 00 12, 60...............2....... 500 700 1000 Fuel. —------------------- 600 600 600 1 05 700 1500 8 l00 12 00 2000 Light..................... 100 120 120........ 2 00 10 40 2 00 3 00 4 00 Washing.300 340 400....30.. 6.03 6.03 Care of health, bath, &c.................................................... 1 00 1 60 6 00 Treatment in sickness.... 2 00 2 00 3 20 —... 6....- -------- 60 2 00 10 00 Repair and maintenance of dwelling..... 6 00 I 00 2 00 6 00 Purchase and repair of furfituro. —----------------- 200 2 00 5 00........................ 2 00 4 00 5 00 Contributions and taxes...... 80 1 4) 6 00 Postage and other expenses................................................ 40 1 20 1 20 For tools, (excluding first pu c as )................................................. 2 40 [ O0 purchase).......2...40..8..00. Cost of garden or land.....'...- 9 00.....20 6 00 7 0J Total............... 56 142 64 194 93 99 97 192 36 304 04 141 18 230 78 334 61.I.-RELIGIOUS AND INTELLECTUAL. School....... 4 80.............. 17 Books, &c....1 20 Subscription, &c., in charity..... 1 20 Savings-bank'...................... Total.......... -........ 4 80................. 11 57 II. —FOR LUXURIES. Coffee-houses, saloons 5 20 7 80 15 60. 10 40 12 00.. 1 25 1 2 Tobacco..........145 145 145........ 125 300 1415 1415 1415 Ornament in dress -........ Public festivities, &c.............. Interest on loans................... Total...........1705 1165 1500 1415 1540 1540 Total expenses. 1~27 21 151 69 216 78 99 97 204 01 319 04 155 33 246 18 361 58 INCOME. Father's wages............ 54 00 100 00 15000 73 00 146 00 219 00 50 0| 73 00,124 00 Mother's earnings........ 18 00 14 28 11 00 14 00 29 20 36.50 10 00 16 00 36 00 Children's wages.36 00 37 60 35 20. 36 40 36 50 16 0. 24 00 54 00 From other sources........ 19 21... 67 12 97 - 25 03 6 00 18 00 40 0 Total................ 21 151 88 216 87 99 97 211 60 317 03 82 00 131 00 254 00 LABOR IN BELGIUM. 653 IRON GLASS AND OTHER INDUSTRIES. The following extracts from the report of the Chamber of Commerce of Charleroi, in May, 1872, frnish valuable information in regard to the most important industries of that part of Belgium: Stat cs of metallurgy. ~~Works. ~1869. 1870. 1871. SMELTING-WORKS. Workshops, (No. 1)...................... 3 13 13 Active furnaces, (N. 1)..................... 25 25 27....Inactive furnaces, (No.. 1).. 13 25 14 Number of workmen.............................. 2,340 2,283 2,312 Manufactured products......... tons.. 307, 446 327,743 528,120 Molding-iron................ do... 19, 642 30, 520 31, 520 Refining-iron................ do... 300, 774 297,228 327,600 ROLLING-MILLS. ~~Workshops.................... 20 20 20.Puddling-furnaces.................... 333 365 394 Reheaifrnaces..................... 132 149 162 Steam-engines.......................... 190 209 223 Horse-power ofsea-egi................... 5 939 6,338 6, 587 aulic wheels3....................3 3 3.Horse-power of hydraulic wheels.....115 115 115 Workmenepoe.......................... 7,182 7,119 7, 139 Products...........-............. tons.. 261, 938 283,495 236, 441 FORGING AND CONDENSING ESTABLISHMENTS. Workshops-...................... 20 20 21 Furnaces with reverberators..17 19 23.................. 17 19 23 Open furnaces...................... 42 39 41 Steam-engines —..................... 5 5 5 Horse-power of steami-engines -- 63 63 63 Hydraulic wheels —........................ 34 34 34 Horse-power of Hydraulic wheels —................. 249 419 429 Workmen engaged........................... 196 203 222 Products...........................tons.. 2, 904 4, 023. -....... FOUNDERIES. Workshops in action........................ 39 43 42 Cupolas —............................. 79 85 80 Steam-engines —...............I.......... 39 36 39 Horse-pow'er of steam-engines.................... 320 209 318 Workmen engaged.......................... 889 944 993 Products...........................tons. - 16, 538 18, 486 20, 337 TOTALS. Workmen engaged.-....................... 10, 607 10, 609 10, 672 Cast iron produced —......................tons..- 336, 984 346, 234 380, 157 Value of cast iron produced................francs. - 25, 826, 930 27, 2173, 645 30, 578, 224 Wrought iron produced...................tons.., 264, 442 2!87, 518 240, 702 Value of wrought iron produced..............francs..- 44, 319, 300 50, 883, 608 44, 320, 040 CONSTRUCTION WORKS. The works, or establishments for the construction of machinery, participated in the general favorable movement of the latter part of 1871. The demand for stationary Inachinery, apparatus, and tools for the coal-mining and for metallurgical workshops, exceeded the ordinary means of producing them, and resulted in the rapid extension of business, which lairgely benefited our working-classes. This ben —eficial effect made itself also felt over the repair-shops of our country. In our last report we had to call attention to the limited relations our works had with foreigrncountries. Thlis year we are enabled to make thet most satisfactory statements on this point, as orders of imaportance were transmitted to some of our principal constructors from Russia, Germany, and France, and everything tends to indicate that these relations will continue and increase. A considerable number of pieces of machinery and locomotive-wheels, of wrought iron, were delivered to Prussia, although they were taxed at the rate of 4.35 francs (87 cents United States coin) per 100 kilogramas on entering thu German Zollvercin. 6 ~54 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. NAILS. The wrougt-ail manufacture continues in the state of half existence mentioned in our last report, and threatens to decline more every year to finally be reduced to a few specialities for exportation. The buyers, foreseeing the rise in the prices of split iron, hastened to secure the stock on hand, thus still more advancing the prices which, together with high labor, rendered difficult the manufacture of this article. The machine-nail manufacture has maintained itself during the past stormy period in good condition, not having had to contend with French competition. It is expected to continue to prosper, owing to the perfected and economical modes of fabrication acquired by the Belgian manufacturers. There is but the slightly advanced price of raw material, which could in any manner affect the position of the Belgian trade in this article. GLASS-WORKS. The disastrous events which have so strongly marked the last months of the year 1870 continued to exercise their depressing influence on the commencement of 1871. Notwithstanding this, the situation of the window-glass industry could be called a relatively good one. Owing to the small exportation to France and Germany prior to the war, our manufacturers suffered less during the same, and survived without much difficulty the terrible days of 1870, and while the fears of a general European conflagration were about being quenched, the furnaces recommenced work. Their number ad sunk to 89 during the war, but by the 1st of January, 1871, there were 118, and a short time after 128, in activity. The number of active furnaces before the war was 119. First-quality glass found ready sales in England and the United States, which are still our best customers. S. The statistics of the window-glass exports for 1871 show a large decrease on those of the previous years; the quotations show a constant rising of the prices, both on accont of high wages for labor and the upward tendency of the market fluctuation as l as the deective quality of the raw material. The sulphate of sodawhich rose from 9j to 10, 11, and even 12 francs, and the impossibility the manufacturers are placed in to procure the necessary qualities for the manufacture of a good article-an impossibility arising from the poor means of transportation-are serious obstacles to the prosperity of the window-glass trade. TOTAL EXPORTS OF WINDOw-GLASS. 1869. 1870. 1871. Kilograms-.................45,898,254 40, 847,!233 28,487,933 It will be seen that the increase of 1869 over 1871 amounts to 17,410,321 kilograms, and is consequently yet greater than that of 1870 over 1871, the latter heing of 12,359,300 kilograms. There was a marked decrease in our most important outlets. Countries. 1871. 1870. 1869. Kilograms. Kilograms. Kilograms. England —..............................12,664, 179 18, 194, 241 19, 231, 047 United States --------------------------- 5, 369, 775 8,167, 166 9, 906, 334 Sweden and Norway —....................... 17. 350 56, 587 10, 604 DenDmak. —------------------------------ 329, 146 796, 050 758, 942 ilauseatie cities-..........................2, 082, 571 2, 536, 118 3, 660, 21n8 I taly —............................... 138, 663 447, 145 373, 245 Switzerland —........................... 83, 362 204, 024 395, 327 Austria —............................. 186, 091 403, 405 498, 682 Turlkey —----------------------------- 962,688 2,481,210 2,164,393 Egypt-...................... 2114, 020 346, 555 590, 104 Brftish possessions.......................... 720, 8t0 1,3333, 464 1, 239, 101 Cuba and Porto Rico —....................... 202, 962 320, 538 56, 573 Brazil —.............................. 155, 534 336, 272 545, 40.5 Thuio (lIa Plata-.......................... 317, 324 b82, 438 755, 470 Chili and Peru —.......................... 532, 680 596, 658 431, 882, All other countries —----------------------- 163, 616 207, 024 751, 137 T'he greatest occupation of the manufacturers during the last winter was the. difficulty of obtaining the necessary coal for the supply of their establishments. Notwithstandling all the steps taken l)y the special delegates of commerce and industry to the government, or the repeated reclamations made by ali the heads of workshops, LABOR IN BELGIUM. 655 the state of affairs at our establishments remained in the same critical condition. The want of the material did not only prevent the shipment of the products to Antwerp at ertain stipulated dates, but, and what is worse, caused the forced interruption of work at the shops. Such was the position the owners of our glass-works were placed in for several months; expecting to be forced to stop their establishments at any moment, and in lthe mean time continuing to work with coal of improper quality, procured wherever it could be had. BOTTLE-MANUFACTURE. The manufactre of bottles has kept pace with the movements of the window-glass industry. Under the influence of the general resumption of business, the last month of 1871 brought with them a more favorable situation. There are in this country fourteen bottle-works, twelve of which were in operation during the year 1871, and each of them produced an average of 900,000 to 1,000,000 bottles per year. Each of these kilns consumes some 200,000 kilograms of coal per month. JUET, BELGIUM. Jmet, the seat of the window-glass manufacture, a village somle four miles distant from Charlero, was visited in September, 1872, by the author, some of whose notes are appended. He regretted his inability to see Mr. Andr, to whom he bore a letter, but that gentleman subsequently furnished the desired information in regard to the glass industry of Belgium in a letter, extracts from which are here presented: JUMET, loember 18, 1872. DEAR SIR: Urgent business prevented me from answering your inquiries before this day. I inclose herewith, 1, statements of the rates of wages, &c., paid in this country to blowers, gatherers, teasers, flatteners, glass-cutters, packers, pot-makers, laborers, cekforemen, maunagers-, &c., in window-glass works; 2, the percenta (re of the cost of manufacturing 100 feet, &c.; 3, names and number of establishments which are owned and worked by glass-makers. You are no doubt aware that the Belgian window-glass manufacturers export their produce to all the markets of the world; and they are able to undersell anly nation that exports glass. I should think the fact that the Belgian manufacturers can sell their glass cheaper than any foreign manufacturer, is mainly owing to cheap labor and large production for each man. For, (except this year,) coals and sulphate of sodabhave always been much cheaper in England than they were here; the former:30 per cent. to,50 per cent. lower for coals used in glass-works, the latter 10 to 12 per cent.. lower. Now, coals and sulphate of soda are used in very large proport on in glass-making. The Belgian window-glass manufacture has not been a profitable business for ninny firms during a great number of years. Of thirty-six estabiishmients which have failed or suspended with loss of money since the year 1842, fifteen were owned and worked by men who had, previously been employed as glass-makers, foremen, managrers, and clerks. Rates of wages paid to w'indow -glass makers in Belgium in 1872, per calendar month. occupation. N~o. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Occupation. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Blower-............$180 $120 $100 Glass-cutter, (supplies his own $20 $20 $16 Do —---------— 110 100 80 diamonds.) D)o -80 —-------- 80s 0 Sorter, (to select the qualities of 32 30 24 Teaser, to melt........35 35 30 gjhtS.) Teaser, to' refine........40 40 40 1:Packer. — --------— 20 18 16 Teaser. —--------— 32 3,2 30 Miller, (to grind materials, &c). 18 18 18 Teaser helper -------— 18 18 18 Mixer, (to mix material)..... 18 18 i8 Flattener...........40 36 30 IPot-maker.............40 30:30 Do. —------- — 36 3-2 28 Pot-imsker helper.........20 20 16 Do.30 —--------- 30 6 Blackismith ------------ 5 25 21.J Flattener helper........16 16 16 C arrer. —---------— 20 20 20 Flattener, 5 lads. —---— 12 12 12 1:Laborer in the yard - 18......i 18 1 8 Glass-cutter, (supplies his 30 30 26 Girls in the yard.........10 10 10 owNn diamonds.) I Forenman..............40 36 30 Do.............26 24 22 Manager-.............110 70 50 656 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Percentage of cos8t of window-glas. In 1860. In 1872. Per cent. Per cent. Labor................................................... 3 Materials...............................................2 Fuel....................................................20 25 Packing................................................10 Pottery................................................. General expenses....................................... 100 1C0 REMARKS BY MR. ANDR. Each blower employs his own gatherer, and pays him his wages out of his ow earnings, at the rates of $40 for theo very best; $35 for good ands; $30 for second class; and $26 for third-class gatherers. There are ot above ten blowers whose monthly wages average $180. They blow very largo and heavy pieces; whi article is in very limited demand. Glass-makers work about forty-eight to forty-nine weeks a year; the three or four weeks remaining are required to repair the furnace. As a matter of course, managers and clerks earn higher salaries in large glass-works than those employed in small concerns; with regard to the salar of foremen, there is little difference in large or small establishments. Window-glass blowers, gatherers, flatteners, and tesrs work on Sundays and feast days. The Belgian window-glass manufacturers do not lodge their workmen, nor do they supply them with any fuel, as the English manufacturers do. There are no unions among the Belgian glass-makers; and there has been no strike among them since the year 1826. Though the Belgian glass-makers are not now so ardworking, so steady, so saving, or so sober as they were twenty or thirty years ago, yet I consider them superior in the above respects to the French and the English glass-makers. When I was manager of glass-works in England I used to employ English, Belgian, and French glass-makers; and it is from the experience I have of them that I give this opiniou. I may observe that I am not biased by any national partiality or prejudices, as I am a native of France. Among the saving Belgian glass-makers, there are several who are now manufacturers. These firms are the following: N{ame of firm. Cs FormerlySchmidt, Devilley & Co.............................. 6 Blowers. Joseph Devilley & Co -—............................. 5~ Teasors. L. Mondron.....................................5 Blowers. Schmivdt Vr~mres............. 5 Do. Bastin & Wilhelims.................................2 Managers.'Schmidt, Bratten & Co.............................. 2 Blowers. M ouoyer Fr~res —................................ 3 Glass-cutters. Monloyer, Defer & Co................................ 1 Do. A. Andris & Co.................................. 2 Blowers. Mauderlier & Co................................. 2 Do. 1. Greff &Co...................................2 IDo. Mlayem & Co........................................ 2 Do. E. Dbeweyre & Co.................................. 2 Do. Dellent Frlires...................................... 2 Glassecutters. A. Missone...................................... 2 Do. Deulni....................................... 1 Do. Goffe &Co..................................... 1 Blower. Coquiamont, & Co................................. 1 Do. Laurent, Lettines & Co............................... 3 Do. Total....................................49 The foregoing information from Mr. Andr6, who has had experience 215 a manager of glass-works in France and England, as well as in Belgium, and who has a thorough and practical acqnainta~nce with the riubject, renders any extended extracts from the notes of the author LABOR IN BELGIUM. 657 unnecessary. A few facts may, however, be presented from the author's note-hook: Jnel, September 24, 1872.-Came from Namur to Charleroi by rail, 36 miles, passing through the southeastern part of Belgium, which is devoted to the manufacture of iron and glass. Fro Charlero, came out to this place in a carriage, and visited the large glass-works of essrs. Benet & Bivort. They employ nearly 1,000 work-people, some o whom have been with them for twenty years, and have laid by considerable money, some beigworth 0,000 francs. Mayof them own the houses in which they live, and even where this isotthecase each family occupies a whole house. If otherwise, there a separate entrance to each tenement or suite of rooms. The rental of dwellings is as follows: For four or five rooms, 20 francs ($4) per month; larger houses, 40 francs, ($8.) For the very best, only 60 francs, ($12,) each house having a piece of land for a garden attached. WAGES. The earnings of the workmen are as follows: A few blowers of great skill earn as igh as 40 francs ($8) a day, or 1,000 francs ($200) per month, out of which they pay the gatherer. The net earnings of blowers average 7 francs ($1.50.) per day. Those who press the gl'~~~~;rea mass average 4 frcs,(80cents.) The greaassofteworkmen, including those who C~ut the y~linders intopaneseachfrom to 4 trancs (72 to 96 cents) per day. Unskilled lborers ro 2 to 3 francs (40 to 60 cents) per day,. Women and girls earn but 1j francs (0cets)perday. IntefieldsearJumet, and in the towns on the railway where they ae employed in shoveling coal and in other unpleasant work, women earn almost. j francs (30 cets) per day. Here, as elsewhere, there has been a considerable advance fro the rates forerly paid. The price of provisions is moderate, though much higher than formerly. Went into a little shop which sold bread and ascertained that the price of a loaf of good white bread (weighing 2~ kilograms) was one franc, (20 cents,) beialittle nder 4 cents per pound. This firm does a very extensive business, and sells largely to the United States. hough there is no passenger railway to Charleroi, they have built a railway on which they transport their merchandise to the station. The facilities which Jumet presents for the manufacture of glass consist in the abundance of raw material-sad, lime and coal-all being int the vicinity. Coal has doubled in price, costing now from 2 to 25 francs ($4.40 to $5) per 1,000 kilograms, (about aEnlish ton,) the price a year or two ago being but from 10 to 12 francs, ($2 to $2.40.) I did not stop, as I intended, at Floreffe, where most of the plate-glass used in the, United States is made. PAPER-MARING. The manufacture of paper, although now one of the large industries of Belgiumn, was not introduced into that country until toward the end of the seventeenth century; its progress was not rapid during the eighteenth, but during the last fifty years it has so much developed that the exports of papier have since that time been very extensive, especially to E'nglaind. Although the exports to the United States have been greatly curtailed by our high tariff:', yet they reach a considlerable aggregate. Tue extent of the paper industry, and the extremely low rates of wages which prevailed in 1849, are indicated in the following statement: NYumber of work-people employed.-Adulfs: males, 771; females, 789; total, 1,560,. Children tinder 16: boys, 23~8; girls, 152; total, 384. Aggregate, 1,944. Daily wages.-Uuder 50 centimes, (10 cents:) 6 men, 24 women, 158 boys, 115 girls; under 1 franc, (20 cents:) 121 men, 756 women, 70 boys, 37 girls; from 1 to 1lt francs: 442 men, 3:3 wonton, 4 boys; from 11 to 2 francs: 173 men; above 2 francs, 35 men. Percentage of adults earning less t hanl 1 franc: men, 15.7; women, 96. Percentage of adults earning under 1-~ fiancs: mten, 7.3; women, 100. Percentage of adults earnlinlgover 11 francs: men, 27. It appears, thrfrthat all the women, an 3per cent. of the men, received, in 1849, a daily wage of less than 30 cents, while 96 per cent. of the women earned less than 20 cents per day. The advance in the rates of wages paid in this industry in 1872 over 1849 was nearl-y, orquite, 100 per cent. GODIN AND SON'S PAPER-MILLS. In the exhibition of the World's Industry at London, in 1851, Belgium, 42 L 658 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. was only represented by one firm, Messrs. J. L. Godin & Son, of u and attention was particularly called to the extent and excellence of their collection of paper of every description. A prize edal was awarded to them'" for a large variety of printing, writing, and drawing papers, in all of which great perfection was attained." Since that period the products of the mills at Huy have obtained a igh reputation in foreign markets, especially in England, to which country large exports are made. As it was deemed important to ascertain the cost of labor in an industry whose products enter into a spirited competition ith similar productions of the United States, the author took occasion to visit y for that purpose in September, 1872. The following extracts from his notes are presented: Hiny, Belgiaum, September 23, 1872 —Came here frm Lige and Serai on Saturday and remained to visit the paper-mills of Messrs. J. L. Godin & Sonwhich are said to be tte largest in the world. I was cordially received by Mr. Dsenbur, the director, who courteously gave me the information asked for, and sent a clerk to show me through the mills which are close to this old town, the other mills bein some six or seven miles distant. The senior partners are deceased, and the mills are owned by a company, which retains the name of the firm, which ad obtained a high reputation. The daily production is about 25,000 kilograms, (nearly 25 tos.) saw the record of three machines which made last year (1871) 3,192,103 kilogras f paper. They are now working to full capacity, running on Sundays, or abot 363 days in the year.:Limestone abounds in the neighborhood, and the cl is brought fron near Seraing. The price of coal, which was formerly 6 francs, is now 18 francs ($360) per ton, of -1000 kilograms. The water is said to be excellent for the purpose desired. They make w hite, colored, and blue writing-papers, (th latter chiefly for the English arket,) and fine printing-papers, for illustrated journals. Also, straw paper, using 6,000 kilograms (6 tons) of strawv per day. They also use esparto grass extensively. Besides the fabrication of writing-papers, they make and sell ruled paper, and are extensively eLgaged in the manuifacture of envelopes. Tbey export tteir products to England, Canada, and other countries, butnot much to tim United States, owing, as the director alleged, to our high tariff. The machinery was chiefly uiade in this town, though some of it is of English make. The nulls are very clean and sweet, and everythiiig is done to render them healthy for the wovk-people. They employ in all about four hun~dred persons, chiefly women and girls. The latter are cleanly, neatly dressed fo6r work, (except the rag-isorters and cutters,) bright, intelligent, and apparently happy. iLTie pitie which the company pays for rags was indicated on a card, of which the following is a vt rhatim, copy: Cotons hrut, 40 fr. p. 100 kilos. "Toile A voile, 55 ""100" WIt'icii, in United States co:n, is.3.628 cents per pound for common cotton rags, and about 5 cents (4.99) for old sail-cloth. EARNINGS.'Nearly all the employds are paid on a basis established by the late Mr. Godin, after years of stndyafnd computation, each receiving pay in proportion to the work performed. The daily earnings are as follows: United States Francs. coin. Women, the most industrious and best skilled.2+, $0.50 ordinary........................2 0.40 inferior, and girls.. 11 0. 30 rao-~sorters and cutters-'................ 2 0. 40 Men, engine.nien and machinists......... —----— 7 to 8 $1.40 to $1. 60 assistants............................4 to 6 $0.80 to $1. 20 other workmen.-4 0.80 Some laborers and youths as low as, but none less than...... 3 0.60 The foremen or superintendents of machines receive about 15 francs per day, or by the year,_ 2,ZC10 fran)CS, ($500;) first assistants, 10 franacs, ($2;) other assistants and paper-cutters, 6 francs ($1.20) per day. Tne average earnings Of the women are nearly or quite 2 francs per day, the larger part receiving that amount. Wages have greatly increased, of late, in thi's and other industries. Pronounced "1We."l LABOR IN BELGIUM. 659 r. Dennrg stated that there is but little emigration from this part of Belgium, parents eing unwilling to part with their children, although they can (to better in the United Sates. As the cost of living is small and families usually large, the earnings of families amount to large sums in the aggregate. He mentioned the case of one family, of which the father and several sons and daughters worked in the mills and to whom e paid last year 10000 francs ($2,000) as the result of their earnings. Houe-rent is low here, four roos costing from 12 to 15 francs ($2.40 to $3) per month, as I learned from some of the work-people who paid these prices. Others paid from 10 to 200 francs per year for tree rooms. The price of provisions here is low, indleed the whole cost of living must be low, as indicated by my bill at L'Aigle Noir, the best hot-l in the place, which for an excellent room and good fare was abot th same for two days as was charged for one day's accommodations elsewhere. In the earnings of the employes in the Gqdin paper-mills, as given above, it must be borne in mind that the figures do not indicate the regular rates of wages, but the respective aumounts which were earned by women of skill and industry. However unlfavorable a comparison may e me between the indstry of the work-people of Belgium and those of England an the United States in some industries or in the paper Manufacture else ere, it is certain that in no mill or fictory which the anthor has visited O either side of the Atlantic have the ativity and industry been more apparent than in the Godin papermills. Sall in territory as Belgi is, there are marked differences between the inhabitants of the different provinces. The condition of the working-casss of Antwerp and of tan. parts of Flanders, as described in succeeig ages, is ch worse than in man)y other portionsof the kingdom. The iustry a thrift, the neat appearance and good conduct of the employ6s of th aper-ills at Huy are more apparent when contrasted with those of THE PAPER-MILLS AT DUFFEL, NEAR ANTWERP. Being unable to visit this establishment, the author is under obligations to J. Riley Weaver, esq., United States consul at Antwerp, for the following translation of'a statement, prepared by the proprietor, Mr. De Knyff Detneurs,7 dated 187.2: My ma~nufactory employs about 130 operatives, men, women, and children, producing about 70,000 kilogramis of paper per month. These work-people are grouped into umore than thirty different classes. They are all Ipaidl by the piece, that is to'say, thcy are paid mnre or less according to the quantity and quality of the work effected at the end of eaech fourteen dlays, It would require tseveral tables to explain the regulations; and persons unac~quainied wiih our indlustry wonuld not readily comprehend them. Sonme of our special workmen rumke from 3 to 10 franc.s (60 cents to $2) per dlay. Ordinary laborers make from 1j to 21 francs (30 to 50 cents) per day, and the women earn fr~omi 1to1.420 frances (20)to ~4 cent~s) per day. Thle fa-ctory goesntigh~tand da-y, the operatives attending every six hours. The workmen observe fe'te days, Sundays, the great church festwvals, andl two annual fote dlays of the commune. They are in general ignorant, poor, anid miserable; but few can read; none have any idea of hygiene, of morals, or of economy. They are all atidicted to drink, and carry to the ciamrivet (liquor-shop) a large p~art of their earnings,, which they ought to bestow upon the well-being of their families. It is only by the stricte'st supervision that we can secure thle proper execution of the work. As to the, expenditure necessary to sustain one of our werk-men's families, I am unable to give y-ou Vny indication, as t hat depends upon and varies accordin g to t he ha-ibits of the family. A goodl wilb, is the providence of the workingman. hlere the wives are not, in general, much superior to the macn. As comIpared with the mills at Huy, it will be observed that the earnings are much less, the women in the onIC receiving, on an average, 40 cents, andl in the other but 22 cents, while the (lifferetice in time wag-es of the men is equally marked. In the relative condition there is also a wide divergence; in the one place good conduct and thrift, in the other intempercance and poverty. 66.0 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. ANTWERP. Antwerp is the principal sea-port of Belgium, situated on the river Schelde, where magnificent steamers and sailing-vessels from every part of th'e world are to be seen in its commodious docks. It was formerly one of the most important commercial cities in Europe. In the height of its prosperity it is said to have contained two hudred thousand inhabitants. An old author says that twenty-five bundred vesselswere to be seen at oe time at its docks, laden with the productions of all quarters of the globe. It is said that Napoleon endeavored to make Atwerp the rival of London in its commerce and the rival of Portsmouth as a naval establishment. He regarded the ftontier of thle lhinewithAntwerpasindispensable to the prosperity of France. Antwerp, though not celebrated for its manuft'actures, enjoys a high reputation or its encouragement cf the arts. It is either the birth-l)lace c' the home of IbeS, a Dyke, Teniers, Jordaens, and Quentin Matsys, whose great works still remain in their n ative or adopted city. I n l)ast centuries tere were over thrty silk-factories in existence, employing more than four thousand operatives. In the manufacture of sewing-silk the city is still conspicuous. COST AND CONDITION OF LABOR IN ANTWERP. The following letter and its accompanying statements were transmitted, at the date indicated, by Mr. Consul Weaver: CONSULATE oF THE UNITED STATES,.Antwerp), December 23, 1872. DEAR SIR: In response to your request I inclose a tabular statement showing the average weekly wages earned by the laborers in the several trades, and also a statement showing the average prices of provisions, groceries, and ouse-rent for laborers at Antwerp during the year 1872. Upon a superficial examination of this entire question, I found it utterly impossible to doairvthiug like justice in reference to it, taking into account the difficulty of getting at the facts, and then dedncing correct averages; hot the question is one of so much iniportan)ce that I thought it best to let you have what facts I have personally collected, and such suggestions as have occurred to me. I have been aided greatly by the reports for 1871 and 1872 of Mir. Grattan, British consul at Antwerp, with which I have compared and verified My figuIes. You are aware of the almost distrust that is Mauifestedl by the laboring people of this country when you question them as to their wages or imode Of living. Even peo-ple of the better class have to be approached very judiciouisly to get anything like the correct prices. Either from fear or shamie, they lirefer not to disclose their actual condition. To give the various rates in each trade would be extremely interesting, but I have not the inians of doing Eso accurately enough to be valuable. The rate of wages depends entim-ely upon the ability of the laborer and the time 6nmployed. Generally they work twelve hours per day in snmmer and ten in Winter, and are paid by the hour. A record of the time, worked each day i's kept, and at the close of the week they are paid. Day-laborers are paid daily, but in the regular eniploynients weekly; boys, girls,women, and men are employed, and receive wages as various as the number of hands employed. In hot a tew employmients can the workmen be induced to work by the job; they prefer the hour system. As a general thing they are very deficient in skill, and very slow; one hand in the United States, pertoiming easily the wvork of three in Antwerp, and doing a better job. The manufacture of cigars is quite a specialty at Antwerp. At one of these factories they employ chiefly women and girls, and I am informed that they succeed fully as well as the men. They usei-umachinery in making the filler or "poupon," whichfor conimon cigars, works well and rapidly. I am informed by the proprietor that lie employs seventy women and girls, and ten umen and boys. Thirty girls make the "1poupons,"1 and forty vomjen put on theouter wrappers. The placing of the upper wrappers pays from seven to forty francs per thousand, averag~ing fifteen francs. ($3.) A good hand makes about three thousand common cigai-s per week, and the average week's wagres is about twenty-.five francs, (.$5;) but out of this she must pay her "1poupetier," (the little boy or girl who naiaes the center and puts on the inner wrapper,) and this costs on an average hive framics per week, leaving for the week's earning twenty francs ($4) for a good averagre hand. They pay thirty centimes (6 cents) per thousamid for making "1poupons by machinery. One girl can make twenty-five thousand per week, earningr seven and a half francs, ($1.50.) T'o those who work by the hour, he pays from 4 to.i0 centimes per hour, the work LABOR IN BELGIUM. 661 ing time averaging ten and one-half hours in winter, and as the wages average 5 cents per hour, the eainings are 52' cents per day. These are the wages of packers, boxers, and carters It has been compnted that a workman in Belgium cannot, on an average, make more than 500 francs ($100) per year. How he makes both ends meet is a profound mystery. But the wife and each child, as soon as at all able, counts as a producer. They live very poorly, not being able to indulge in even the necessaries of life, such as butter and meat. The workmen have meat perhaps about once a day in the shape of soup, but for the other meals they have principally bread of the cheapest quality. Sometimes to give it a relish they sandwich two pieces of bread with a slice of apple or ginger-bread. Clothing costs very little, and nearly all wear the wooden sabots,* which cost from 50 centimes to one franc. As for f 1t, they never hink of the luxury of a wood fire. Even the wealthy could not afford to burn wood, it being employed only by the bakers. In the table I have calculated board per month at from 60 to 120 francs, but this is for the middie class. It is somewhat remarkable that we have no "pensions" (boarding-houses) in Antwerp. Outside of the hotels there are no places where you can engage respectable board and lodging. Work-people are compelled to hire lodgings with breakfast, and go to the restaurant for luncheon and dinners. Put the workman cannot afford this. He is generally married or lives with his parents, and he cannot spend inore than 10 francs ($2) per week for all. For a family of five persons the weekly wages are perhaps about 20 to 25 francs, ($4 to $5.) They can save but a few francs out of this. DRINKING HABITS. Drinking is a terrible misfortune to the workingmen of Belgium. They not only drink beer but gin; and rum being so cheap, thousands of laborers go reeling home daily from their toil. Especially upon the docks women hawk the accursed liquid from man to man, and on Saturday nights begin the revels that often continue until tho middle of Monday. The people of late are making an effort to d(lo something to stop this scourge of the poor man, this chief source of ignorance, superstition, and crime. I regret that lack of time prevents me from placing before you the actual c ndition of the working-class in this country; such information should be systematized to be of use; to do this demands labor and time. * * * I am, sir, very respectfully, JAS. RILEY WEAVER, United 6tates Consul. WAGES IN ANTWERP IN 1872. Statement showing the average weekly wages paid the various classes of workmen at Antwerp during the year 1872. Occupation. Weekl Occupation. Weekly wag. _.wages. Bakers.........-....-.......-...... ---- $3 30 Paper-makers........................... $3 30 Blacksmiths..... 4 20 Plaster-ornament makers... 6 60 Boiler-makers.........-......... 4'80 Plumbers................................ 4 08 Bookbinders........... - - -............. 4 50 Painters................................ 3 P0 Boot-makers........... —-........ 5 40 Ratttan-workers.......................... 3 72 Brewers....-......... —-.......... 3 00 Rice-mills.............................. 3 76 Cabinet-makers.... —- - 3 78 Salt works.............................. 2 76 Carpenters................................ 3 72 Saw-mill................................. 4 6 Cigar-makers............................ 3 90 Sewing-silk makers...................... 3 60 Coopers............ —----—. 4 80 Shi t-makers............................ 2 0 Distillers...... —-................ 3 36 Sperm-candle makers.................... 3 60 Dyers.... -............ —. 2 82 Stone-cutters............................ 4 2 Engineers. —------------ - 4 80 Sugar-refiners........................... 3 ( Enigine-drivers. - - 6 50 Tilors.......................... 5 10 Hair-dressers...................54 po.......... 4 80 La' —makers —............... 1 98 Weavers................. 1........... 3 G0 Lochsmiths4 20 Weavers.......of Antwerp silk................ 4 20 Marble-cutters —--------- -5 10 White-washers............................. 3 60 MLasocnks..3............................. 3 30 Woodcavers o A nter s................... 6 a0 Oil-refiners............................ 3 78 Wool-washers...............-...........- - 4 30 Printers....... —........................... 4 50 * The anthor paid. I1 fra-ur~s (2 cents) for a pair of the best quality; common, stron6 sabots for working-people cost 75 centinies, (15 cents.) 662 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. STRIKES IN BELGIU Having devoted considerable space to a history of te strikes in Eglalnd, the following condensed account of thel strikes of the workmen employed in several branches of industry, cely in Atwerp, is presented. It was prepared by Mr. Gratta, British consul in Antwerp, who formerly occupied the same position in Boston, a gentleman whose long experience and mature judgment eminently it him for such an investigiation. The author personally visited Antwerp, but after consultation with the United States consul, Mr. Weaver, it ws deemed unnecessary to make an original investigation. The Belgian manufacturers have, in general, always endeavored to conciliate the interest and well-being of the workiug-class with th exigencies of the times, and it may be affirmed that within a few years past there has been a rise i wages of about 25 to 30 per cent. Nevertheless, the operatives are ar from beig satisfied, and their demrands, on the contrary, increasing friom day to day, strikes ve taken place in the different industrial centers. For some time past strikes bad occurred among the workmen of varios trades, with the limited object of demanding an increase of wages or a reduction'f hours of labor.'The masters, being unable to resist, were compelled to yield; and thus, t Antwerp the masons. shipwrighlts, tailors, and others have been engaged in disputig the increasilig demands of their men. The masters in these various trades, not havig mch capital at their command, and unable, firom the nature of their business, to close their esabshents, have been precluded from resisting the, strike by a suspension of work. At the same time the so-called "nationis," or associations of workmen who supply hands for the loadig and unloading of ships, and for other commercial operations in the ort of Antwerp, intred the nmercantile body that they would no longer work either at night or on SUDay, although it nmust be stated that numerous exceio to this general rule took plaexce in consideration of extra pay. Strikes had also taken place in Brussels and het among the mechanics, which offer much analogy to the STRIKE OF THE CIGAR-MAKERS ANTWERP. There are in Antwerp abont 45 to 50 establishments exclusively devoted to the manufacture of cigars, andl eniploying altogether a-bout 10,000 workmnen and mtpprentices. The wages of a workman anionmit to from 25 to 35 liancs ($5 to $7) a week; those of the apprentices to 5 francs, ($1,) which are deducted from the wages of the workalan. These apprentices, termied "-ponpetiers," are children of from ten to fourteen years of agre, whose business it is to make the inner roll, the workman's task being the more difficult aeid complicated one Of completing the cigar by means of the exterior leaves. The preparato'ry labor thus performed by these'1 poupetiers"1 tends very considerably to diminish and simplify the workdcone by the mnen, and leads of course to a. proportionate increase in. the productive power of the factory; and hience it -follows that. the manufacturers attach great importance to having this preliminary work performied by children or apprentices, who by this means also acquire a knowledge of the trade, and become ultimately available workmen. The rate, of wagres being very hig,,h in proportion, and the competition extremely active, especially in respect, to low-priced cigars, it is a matter of considerable imaportance that the factory should be made, to yield as much as possible, as it is only through large sales that a profit can be realized. During the summer of 1IM the operatives of all the cigar-factories struck simultaneously. They had formed a considlerable reserved fund, and it is also understood that they received pecuniary assistance from England and Germany. They r, quired, independently of a reduction of the hours of labor, that, the wages of the " poupetiers" should be paid by the manufacturers, without deduction fromt their own wages, and that thie "1potipetiers" should in fact be employed by the manufacturers; whereas, a~ccording, to the -systemy hitherto -prevailingr, every workman brought his own "1poupetier," for whose work he was responsible. The effect of the changes demanded would have been not only to increase the wages of the men considerably, but to relieve them of a larg-e share of their responsibility as to the performance of the work, a's it would have been in the -power of the workman to attribute any imperfection in the article prodluced to the "1poupetier " appointed and paid by the manufacturer himself. They at last went, further, and their demands embraced the eventual (lismissal of the "1penpetiers."1 This pretension was entirely new, and reveaLhd a settled pOrpose, of diminishing the unumber of operatives, and preventing the instruction and training of apprentices. Their power wasno longter toreside intheir nuambiers, but precisely the contrary; for, according to. their calculation, the less abundant the supply of workmen the more indispensaole do their services become. * * * LABOR IN BELGIUM. 663 Not bei able to enter into factories either in the capacity of apprentices, in consequence of the opposition of the ea, nor ultimately as workmen, from the fact of their not possessing the necessary qualifications, it is evident that the enormous number of unemployed hands will contitute a real danger to social order and public security. * * * This movement toward the suppression of the apprenticeship system, is doubtless favorable to the present operatives, who will profit by it for a time; but were the tendency to become general, ad to be applied to all trades, a most lbormlidable crisis would be the result. This danger was at once clearly recognized by the Antwerp cigar manufacturers, and they took immediate measures to resist the demand. A league was fored amog the employers, and it was agreed that in case the operatives should cease work and leave ay One factoy, all the other establishments should be imuneadiately closed, and hence ihe strike becoe general. The masters were quite prepared to coset to a reduction of the hours of labor and to a reasonable increase of wages, ut they entirely refsed to agree to the new conditions, as far as the "poupetiers" were concerned. This state of things lasted for some weeks, but it could not be indefinitely prolonged; the workun, subsidized by foreign agetcies, stoutly refused to abate any of their pretensons; While the masters, seriously crippled in their resources by the stoppage of their works, found themselves in danger of being supplanted by foreign com.petition. The result was what t have been necessaily expected. Certain manufacturers, beig no longer able o maintain the unequal struggle, ended by ire-opening their establishments, and yielded, to a considerable extent, to the (lemands of the workmen. The resistance of the employers was thus weakened and disorganized, while thestrike acquired ireased stregth, and was the better able to persist in its pretensions and demands. Some f the anufacturers endeavored to introduce workmen from Holland, in order to be enabled o resaml e work. Soe cae but the Antwerp operatives resorted to intimidation and violenceLor the purposeof compellg the intruders to return to their own country; collisions and encounters occurred, which in some cases necessitated the enmplomnjmet of coercive measures, but the work of intimidation had produced its effects-the Dutchmen quit the town. Other manufacturers went to Metz and to Strasburg f,,r the purpose of engaging women to do the work, but this attempt was equally unsuccesslul, inll coueqene of the number of the feale operatives, coupled with the inferiority of their work, having always been insufficient to mlake utp for the deficiency of mnale hands. The resistance of the workmen was so well organized, their resources so varied, that, they were able to Prolong the- strike fo~r the period of four months aiid a half-, during which time the great mass of the operatives tn.d their families subsisted without wvork, no doubt owing to assistance obtained from abroad. The result has been a slight increase of wages to the workmen engagred iu sonic of the branches of the cigar trade, but in some of the principal establishments the "1poupetiers"1 have almost entirely disappeared, and will not, it is said, be replaced, and the hours of labor have been reduced from 11 to 9j hours a day. The resistance they were for so long a period enabled to make has tended to encourage the pretensions of all the operatives engaged in the cigar-factories, and leaves room to fear that renewed attempts may cre long be mnadc to en~force their ulterior views. These men make a good living, earuingr On the average about 30 francs ($6) a week for five days' work..- They desire, it is said, to obtain the same amount of pay for four days' labor. Work was resumed in all the factories, but the Antwerp cizar trade had received a. serious blow; and as far as cigars of ordinary quality are concerned, it would appear that the native manufacturers are no longrer able to make headway against foreign. competition. STRIKE OF MECHANICS IN BRUSSELS AND GHENT. Somne time after these events, a strike of mechanics occurred in Brussels. The artisans asked for a reduction of working-hours, additional pay for all extra work, and a. general increase ot wages. They announced at the same time -that the strike was not to be a general one, but that it would be carried on from one workshop to another, so, thtwhile economizing their own resources, the men might compel the masters, one by one, to accept their termns..,The employers deterumined to resist, and decided that, upon the occurrence of a strike in any one establishment, a general lock-out should at once be proclaimed. The strike, took place, and, whether from want of union among the masters, or from a feeling Oil their part that the demands put forth were, to a certain extent, well founded, it had a, pacific solution, and ended by a compromise between the parties. A short time later, another strike of a very similar character took place at Ghent Thanks to the conciliatory intervention of the burgomaster of that t-own, a mutual. unders-auding between the masters and the workmen, based also upon a compromise,. was promptly and peaceably attained. 664 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. IRON INDUSTRY. The report of the Charleroi Chamber of Commerce, extracts from which appear on preceding pages, shows the extent of the various branches of the iron industry in that part of Belgium. One of the first objects which attracted the attention of the author on his first visit to Brussels was a statue of John Cockerill, an English engineer, the founder of the works at Seraig, who received posthumous honors, although in his lifetime he obtained ut a small portion of the material reward to which his eminet abilities and enterprise entitled him. The works were estab)lished in lI6,andoccupyteforerplace of the Prince Bishop of Liege, with the enormous costructios since added to fit it for its present purpose. The vast ile of buildings forms a little town of itself. Iron and coal are extracted from mines wiin its walls, which also inclose a canal aleading down to the river. Blast-furniaces, puddig-fraes, rolling-mills, and forges ouac py the interior, where iron is wrought into articles of all sorts, from pen-knives up to steam-engines and locomotives, some of them of twenty-five hundred horse power. The lion on the field of Waterloo was cast at these works. Mr. Cockerill was originally in partnership ith the King of Holland, and after his exulsio from Belgi in 1830, purchased his share and became sole proprietor. The works are ow carried on by an association known as the Socit John Cockerill." As these celebrated works require more than a passing notice, the following extended and more recent account than that contained in the note-book of the author, extracted from the London Engineering, is here presented: TIHE COCKERILL IRON AND STEEL WORKS SERAING. Since the death of John Cockerill the works at Seraing have been further enlarged, and at the present time they occupy a position perhapsisecond only to those of Krupp at Essen. The collieries are tonr in number, and are woiked at depths of about 5(00 yards by the aid of twenty-four engines, giving a total of 900 horse-power. They give eniployment to 2,400 workmen, and their annual production is:350,000 tons. The coiiipany always keep from fifteen hundred to twvo thousand tons of coal on hand in ca se of astrikel or ofany other emiergency. * The coke-furnaces consistaf four groups, comprisling 14:3hor-izonital kilus,,and twelve grouips, com~prising 216 Appolt kiilis. Connected with themn are six washing-machines, and thirteen steam-engines of 168 horsepower collectively. The, number of workmen is 140, and the annual production of coke is 140,000 tons. The blast-furnaces are five in nnmber, with stoves for heating the blast and tappingsheds for ordinary pig-iron. In. this department are fifteen engines of 480 collective horse-bower- andl 300 workmen, the annual yield being 55,000 tons. I I I There are four more blast-ftirnaces now in course, of construction for prodncing Steel pigs. There are two founderies for iron anld one for copper, emnployingT 280 workmen, and six engines of 90 horse-power collectively, the annual yield being 5,000 tons. * * The founderies are large and commodious, and. are wvell fitted with cranes and other appliances suited for the heavy work turned out there. The castings in and about the founderies were decidedly good and clean. In the wrought-ironl department there are 75 heating-furnaces, 7 steam-bammers,12 rolling-mills, and 55 engines of 1,900 aggregate horse-power; the workmen nunmber 1,240, and the annual production is returned as 40,000 tons in rails, girders, bar and. sheet-iron. A very fine mill, by Collier of Manchester, was at work rolling tires for railway wheels, and a noticeable feature here -was the care taken to insure the identification at any time of every tire rolled in this mill by impressing it with no less than fourteen stamps. *** * -* In the steel-works are ten Bessimer converters of from 5 to 7 tons, (six of which are in course of erection,) 16 heatingo-furnaces, 7 steanm-hammers, 4 rolling-mills, and 46 engines of various kinds, of 3,0;9 horse-power collectively. This department employs 560 workmen, and turns out 17, 000 tons of steel annually. In the forges are 12 heating-furnaces, 7 steam-haminers, 70 smithis' fires, and 5 engines,of 2563 horse-power, the number of workmen being 200, and the annual production 1,500 tons of large and Small work. * LABOR IN BELGIUM. 665 The maine-sops are well arranged and appointed, and contain 368 tools, including planing, slotting, drilling, boring, and other machines. There are two ydraulic-presses, a number of e fixed, and overhead-traveling-cranes, and 20 steam-engies representing 264 horsepower. The workmen here number 1,400, and the weight of the machinery produced annually is put at 7,000 tons. * * * In the bridge-buildig department and the boiler-shops are 55 drilling, bending, searin, planing, riveting, and other machines; 3 hammers, 54 filrnaces, and 11 engies of 0 collective horsepower, with 500 workmen, the annual production being 6,000 tos. The work turned out in the boiler-shops is very good, the marking-off being done in a systematic and workmanlike manner. The iron-mines belonging to the copany, by which they have secured a supply of iron for one hundred years, are not at Seraing, as already observed, but in the Ligee and Namur districts, as well as in Luxembourg and Spain. They are 30 in number, and those in Belgium employ 17 engines and 800 workmen, the annual yield being 150,000 tons. The company's sh ding yard is at Antwerp, where they construct both ocean and river steamers. It will thus be seen that, so far, at the Seraing works alone more than 7,000 hands are employed, while the engines reresent considerably more than 7,000 horse-power. But this is not all, for there is a brick-field producing 15,000,000 of bricks per year, and giving work to a large number of hands, besides which there are 15 locomotives of small power for ing purposes, and 420 workmen employed on the system of railways by which the works are traversed, and thus connected with the main railways of the country. Besides the locomotives, there are also 80 horses employed about the works, 15 of them being in the collieries. From the annual report for 1872 it appears that there were 8,912 persons employed on the works; 254 steam-engines of 7,834 collective horsepower; the wages paid amounted to 8,500,000 francs, ($1,700,000;) the fuel consumed amounted to 30,000 tons, and the produce is put down at $6,000,000. It may readily be suposed that an establishment like that at Seraing does not consist wholly of worsop and machinery, but that in such a community the interest andwelreoftheemploysrec e consideration. This is especially so here, fobr houses have bee built for workmen and attached to each department of the works is a large diig-room, with a kitchen, proper arrangements being made for the custody of each orkman's provisions. Similar arrangements are carried out at the collieries, where there are also baths for the use of the miners. There is likewise a dispensary, fronm which medicine is delivered gratuitously to all those employed on the wcr).ks and their families. On the heights of Seraing, a short distance from the works, and in an elevated and healthy situation, is a hospital built by the company. It has a special physician attached to it, and will accommodate between 80 and 90 patients, the staff Of nurses aned attendants consisting of nuns. There is also an orphanage near the hospital, at which 45 children of both sexes are now being brought up, most of whom lost their parents during a visitation of cholera at Seraing. Besides all this, the company extends its care to the future as well as to the present welfare of the workmen, and has established a society for relief and pensions. It is not compulsory on the workmen to belong to the society, but they are expected to join it, and every inducement is offered to them to do so. The company, however, in really deserving cases, grants, out of its ow udtemporary relief and pensions to those who do not belong to the society. We thus have 4in establishment possPssing enormous resources, and being entirely selfcontained afnd self-supplying, and independent of external aid, except in the umatters of copper and timber. The company is managed by a board composed of five members, the active supervision of the works, devolving upon M. SadIoiDne, as director-general, who is assisted by twelve chief engineers, each of whom is placed in charge of a distinct department. The working staff have suites of offices, besides which there are arrangements for facilitating engineering studies; there is also a library aned laborato~ry attached to the establishment. One thing which strikes the visitor to Seraing is the extreme neatness and order which prevail throughout the works, and which is rigidly insisted upon. The author's visit to these celebrated works was inopportune, as the Count de, Flanders, brother of the JLing of Belgium, and, as is commonly believed, a large stockholder, was on that day making an examin-ation of the establishment, accompanied by M~. Sadoine, the director-general, (on a previous attempt to personally examine the works the presence of the king caused a suspension of all business at Seraing.) From one of the chief engineers inuch information was obtained in regard to the extent and production of the establishment, which, however, it is unnlecessary to present, as the foregoing statement is more complete. From the author's note-book the following is selected in regard to-. 666 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Wages. —The men work chiefly by the piece, and their earnings, on-,sequently, depend upon their industry. The price of pudling was stated to he 1 franc 56 centimes for 350 kilograms, being 90 cents for a ton of 2,240 pounllds, an(l 97 cents for 2,400 pons, which latter usually constitutes a-ton in English iron-mills. At this rate the men were said to average 7~ francs ($1.50) per day. The price seemed remarkably low, but the gentleman who gave the information asserted that it was entirely accurate. In the rolling-mills men earn from 5 to 6 francs ($1 to $1.0) per ay. In machine-shops, the foremen earn from 6 to 7 frans, ($1.20 to $40,) the skilled workmnen average 31 francs, (65 cents,) and common laborers from 2 to 3 francs (40 to 60 cents) per day. the coal-mines men average about 5 francs ($1) per (lay. ours of labor: from 6 to, 9 to 12, 1 to 4, and 4.10 to 6 o'clock, being nearly 10 hours per a. Only about one fifth of the workmen are residents of Seraing; the principal part of the remainder live in the villages of Engis and Amay from which they come daily in the cars. Rents in Seraing: Two or three rooms, 20 francs ($4) per mo. Price of coal: 26 francs ($5.20) per ton of 1,000 kilograms. The ore used in the works is chiefly brought from the vicinity of Namur. Engineerinq-shops at Antuwerp.-For the purpose of building marineengines and other machinery, the Societ John Cockerill s shops at Antwerp. If all the engines built there are equal to the owerfl one which propelle(l a steamboat from Ostend to Dover, in a terrible sea, after the equinoctial storm in September, 1872, the author can commend them-the only thing connected with the boat or passage indicated which deserves commendation. LMtGE. Lie'ge is finely situated at the junction of the Ourthe with the Meuse, in a fe~rtile valley. The clouds of smoke usually seen. from a distance hanlging over it lproclaim. the manufacturing city, the Birmingham of Belgium; and the dirty houses, murky atmosphere, and coal-stained streets are the natural consequence of the branch of industry in which its inhabitants are engaged. The stap~le manuf'acture i. that of fire-arms, employing at least 20,000 persons in and about the town. Lie'ge is, in. fact, ond great armiory, and has produced nearly a million fire-arms annually for somie time past. * The saddiery is also very good here, and a coarse cloth is manufactured in large quantities. There is a royal cannion-factory and a small-arm factory in the suburb of St. Leonhard. The cause of this commercial prosperity is the presence of coal in great abundance close at hand. The mines are worked upon very scientific principles. Some of them are situated so near to the town that their galleries are carried under the streets, so that many of the houses, and even the bed of the river, are in some places undermined. Here, as well as at other places on the Meuse, at the mines in. the, district of Charleroi, as well as in many parts of Germany, women are employed in various occupations, which arppear, to Amnericans at least, * T1e number of fire-arms made at Lie'te in 1872 was as follows: Single-barreled fowling- pieces, 179,806; double-barreled, 154,170; barter guns, called "1bords,' 49,471; holster-pistols, 17,6134; pocket-'pistols and revolvers, 326,181; muskets, 29,841. Total, 757,133. LABOR IN BELGIUM. 6 6 7 entirely unsuited to their sex. The author noticed that manure was swet from the streets and the markets by women, who earned thereby 30 cents er day. In the coal-mining regions of Belgium some were seen shoveling coal, others carrying coal on their backs in baskets made for the urose. Their work is however, now confined to the surface, and they do not as was formerly the case in some places, work in the mines. WAGES IN MAUBEUGE. On entering Belgium from France, the rail-mills at Maubeuge, on the French side of the line, were visited, and the rates of labor ascertaed. Puddlers work by the ton, and, alter paying assistants, earn from 8 to 9 francs ($1.60 to $1.80) per day. Other workmen not skilled earn, on an average 3 francs, (70 cents.) From fam-laborers a work in the fields cutting grain it was learned that during harvest they received 3 francs (60 cents) per day. SUGAR-INDUSTRY IN 1872. There were 174 manufactories of beet-sugar and 41 sugar-refineries in 1872. After balancing the imports and exports, there remaile(l for homeconsuml)tion of refinedsugar and treacle 19,5t99,731 kilograms, which is an average consumption of 4.05 kilograms, or nearly 9 pounds per capita. n egard to this industry the British minister writes: Thesugar-inustryisprodctiveofunmixed advantages and profits to Belgium. It enriches the farmer, the ndlor, and the treasury; it provides good wages Jor agricultural laborers near their own homes during the winter months, thus counteracting the oxious temptations offered by the great towns, and promoting, thie interests of social order as well as of agriculture. This industr-y doubles the produce of' the land in cattle and corn, it thus supplies man with hread and meat, as well as with sugar and alcohol. BRUSSELS. At Brussels, the capital of Belgium, French is the prevailing Ian. guage; and those who are acquainted with the French metrol)olis will find here many familiar features which give Brussels the character of Paris onai a small scale. It has its picture-galleries, its opera, its c'afls, a palace-garden in imitation of that of the Tuileries, and boulevards inierior only in extent to those of its great p~rototype. The Bois de la Caiabi-e is to Brussels what the Bois (le Bou.logne is to Paris. The most remarkable manufacture at Brussels is that of lace, which is celebrated all over the world. The, peculiarity which distinguishes it, in addition to its fineness, is that the patterns are worked separately with the most microscopic, minuteness aind are afterward sewed on. The flax empl)oyed in the manufacture grows, near Hal; the best comes from a place called Rebecque. The fintest variety of the manufactured article is worth. its weight in. gold. The persons who snin the thread for Brussels lace, and also for the French cambric of Saint Quentin, are, oblig-ed to work in. confined dark rooms, into which light is admitted only p)artially by a small aperture; anid thus, being compelled to pay the most constant and minute attention to their work, they discipline the eye, and attain the faculty of sp~inning the flax of that web-like fineness which constitutes the excellence of these fabrics. Kid-gloves, which are also made at this place, may be purchased cheaper here than elsewhere. Dur-ing the Franco-Grerinan war, when trade was diverted from Paris, there was an increased demand for the products of Brussels, which con 668 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. sequently increased in price, and there was also an increase in the expenses of living, and these rates are still continued. Brussels derives substantial benefit from the permanent and temporary resience of large numlbers of English-speaking people, who purchase largely of the laces, gloves, and other products for which this "Petite Paris" is celebrated. To statisticians and scientists it is known as the home of that eminent man, Adolphe Quetelet*, recently deceased adthecitywherethefirst international statistical congress was held, (in 1853.) GHENT. This was formerly one of the largest manufacturing towns in Beliu, and is still a place of considerable manticturig idustr, the principal product being cotton goods. It is chiefly known in this country as being the place where the treaty of peace was signed in 1815 between the United States and Great Britain. In 1804, while united to France, it was rated as the third manufacturing town after Lyons and Rouen. During the discontents which broke out in Belgium in the fourteenth century, Edward III invited to England many Flemings, who brought over with them the art of manufacturing the finer woolen cloths, previously unknown; and by their assistance the English manufctures soon surl)assed those of Flanders in point of excellence. In 1801 Lieven Banens, a Fleming, brought English workmen and snig Alanchester to Ghent, and their work becae so popular that in a few years 30,000 workmen and 80 steam-egines were emploed. In 140 the city of Ghent is said to have had 80,00 men capable of bearing arms. The number of weavers at that time amounted to 40,000. Ghent is es)ecially noted for its celebrated prison, La aiso de France. This prison was visited and approved by Howard, and has been the model for most of the improved penitentiaries of Europe. Capital pu-nishment is abolished, and as there are no colonies to which convicts can be trausported, offenders are condemned to imprisonienet in proportion to the atrocity of their crimes. As the rations of food are so calculated as to he barely sufficient to sustain life, the prisoners are thusr compelled to contribnte to their own support. Accordiung to the nature of their offenses, the proportion of earnings they receive is more or less lib~eral. Part is paid to them at once, with which they are allowed to purchase such articles of convenience or comfort as the governor is authorized to supply at prices fixed by tariff, and the reutainder is placed in a savings-bank, in order to accnmulate until the lperiod of their liberation. Three meals a day are the allowance, and the hours of work are never more than twelve nor less than six. On his dis barge fromn confineilnent, the prisoner is frequently in possession of 250 francs from. the pro. duce of his industry; and a society has been formed for the purpose of procuripg the employment, and thereby guarding -against the relapse into crime, of liberated convicts. The lirison now contains 1,200 convicts, chiefly employed in the manufacture of linen for the use of the army. One of the latest novelties in Glient is the introdnction of penny. bankis for the children in the schools-an innovation which is already doing mouch to give the workmen of the future provident habits, anid is being introduced into England with good results. B3RUGES. Early in the thirteenth century Bruges, among the cities of the Ilanseatic League, was the pritlcip~al tuart o1' the English wool tradle andl became the chief resort of the Lombard and V/enetian traders, who brought th~ither the manufactures of India and the produce of Italy to exchange for the merchandise of Germany and the Baltic. Ships froin Venice, *M. Quetelet, director of the Royal Observatory, died at Brussels, February 17, 1874. LABOR IN BELGIUM. 669 Genoa, and Constatinope might at the same time be seen unloading in its harbor, and its warehouses were filled with wool fromnt EnglandlienromBelgiumadsilk from Persia. Bruges is the cheapest place in Europe in point of ouse-rents. A first-rate house may be had for $90, and a very good house for $60 per annum. The chief manufacture carried on is that of lace. INDUSTRY OF BELGIUM IN 1872-73. [Condensed from a report by the British minister, Sir H. Barron.] The year 1872 has given the most brilliant results in most branches of industry. The prosperity which set in after the peace of 1871 became further considerably increased. Some trades, Iowever, suffered partially from. not having been able to command prices commensurate with the enaceent of materials and labor. The working-classes found in the great rise of wages ample means of comfort and savings. But their improvidence increases with their prosperity, as is proved by the actual decrease in savigs-bank deposits. On the whole, the activity of all branches of trade in 1872 was rare and unparalleled. Above all, th trades connected with the manufacture and working of iron enjoyed an exceptional prosperity. All the sneltingr-furnaces, iron-works, rolling-mills, maie-works, fouderies, and ail-makers worked without intermission during the whole year. Many new factories were erected; many of the old ones were enlarged. At the sae time the prices of iron and of its pro(lucts rose without a check from the beinning till the end of the year to figures previously unknown. Pig-iron doubled in value during the twelve months. These prices left the producers good profits during the first six months; but the prices of labor and of coal rose to such exorbitant rates as to absorb finally the whole profits of the iron trade. Thus the year which began so rich in promise ended in disappointment. The masters now find that they cannot tpt buyers at the prices Of iron, and canot reduce those prices on account of the excessive cost of production. Many works have been closed and furnaces blown out in 1873, so that this trade is falling into a state of general stagnation. The present year will leave no profits to the iron-masters in general, save to such as possess collieries of their own; as, for instance, the mionst er establishments of Seraing, Couillet, Scheim), &c. The zinc anld lead works are passing through a real crisis. The former industry, long a specialty of Belgium and a staple element of Belgian trade, employs an immnensecapital and working population, It is becomtingoquite crippled bythie graduial exhaustion of the zinc-mines of the country, especialty of the once rich deposits ot Moresnet. The zinc-works thus losing their Main source of profits are obliged to look for supplies of ore to Spain, Italy, and Sweden, and have to struggle against the English zinc-trade which has sprung up within the last few years. The English zincworks, now seventeen in number, producing about 18,000 tons of metal, are better circumnstanceed. for procuring the ore at cheap rates from distant countries. This competition has run up the price of ores, while at the same time all other raw materials and labor have risen by 50 per cent., without a corresponding progression in the price of zinc. The glass-trade began the year 1872 favorably, and continued to prosper till October. The demand was abundant; the prices were improving as well as remunerative. But here again the prices of coal and labor outstripped those of the manufactured article. Suddenly, in November, the orders from abroad ceased entirely; the warehouses became encumlbered. with stocks; the manufacture had to be partially suspended; prices had to te lowered; buyers continued to hold back. The trade is still passing through a crisis, oWing, in addition to other causes, to the increasing competition of the French glass-blowers in the London market, aided by the superiority of their coals for thi's industry. TNhe year 1872 was, on the whole, disastrous for the woolen-trade. An extt eme and unnatural prosperity had marked the whole of 1871 and the beginning Of 18i2. The prices of wool and of all its products were run up beyond all reasonable limits by a speculative mnania. The reaction set in at the end of March, followed by an intense crisis of a year's duration, which caused heavy losses to the trade of Verviers. It subsided gradually in the spring of the present year. The factories have resumned their usual activity. The linen-trade has had a calm and prosperous year. The flax-crop of 18772 was one of the most abundant on record. The stalks grew to the unusual height of from 3j to 4j feet. The bulk of the crop was sold rapidly at high prices, varying from 1,400 francs to 1,800 francs per hectare. The steeping of flax in the river Lys takes a greater development every year. The year was a good one for all the trades connected 670 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. with this textile, notwithstanding the enhancement of the raw material. Some complaints emanate fironom the makers of flax sewing-threads that this product is losing ground in fbreigli markets, owing to the increasing u of sewing-machines, and consequently of cotton threads. COAL TRADE. Statement showing the movement of the Belgian coal-trade dring the following ears. [Quantities in tons of 1000 kilograms = 2,04 pounds English. Produce. ______________Impots._Exorts.Home conImports.?Exports. sumption. Tons. Value. 1860................................... 9, 610, 895 $107,18,2823, 450, 306 1865................................... 11,841, 703 13,896,17 76, 044 4, 440, 488 090, 000 1866................................... 12, 774,662 153,758 8,109,000 1867................................... 16,'55, 822 158,252,893 461,: 4, 400, 364 8,816,594 1868................................... 12 298, 589 13:3,38 1869................................... 12 926, 894 136,116,076 239, 362 4, 606, 946 8,57, 29 1870..................................., 3 697, 1 18 19,67, 54 1871................................... 13, 733, 176 153, 03,361 204, 583 4,158,569 9,779,190 1872.................................. 15, 658, 948 208,559, 221,890 5,630,197 10,672,024 * In this table coke is included under the imports and exports, ein reducd to its estimated original weight in raw coal, at the rate of 100 kilograms of coal to 70 kilograms of coke. It will be seen from the above table that the production, the export, and the home consumption of coal attained their climax in 1872. The quantities raised wereTons. In the province of lainault.................11, 6, 166 In the pi'ovince of Liege....................353094 In the province of Namur....................389,688 Total.................................658,948 This is an amount never previously recorded, bein an increase over 1871 of 1,92,772 tons. In 1,872 the total exports of coal and coke exceeded those of 1871 by 891,800 tons and 259,007 tons respectively. One ext11raorinlary phetionienon of the year has been the shipment of many cargoes of coal to England, even to Newcastle itself. PRICES OF PROVISIONS, GROCERIES, ETC. The following statement indlicates with but approximate accuracy the prices of groceries, m-eats, and the various articles of ordinary con sumption by the famiflies of work-people. The blank form was originally prepared for the United States, and therefore the namies and classifications are not iu all respects suited to Belgiumi. Price of provisions, groceries, and other leading articles of consumption, also of house-rent and loard, in, the towens of Antwerp and Chtarleroi. Anwr. Charleroi and vicinity. Q Articles. - ___ ___ ___- ___ 187-2. 1874. 1872. 1874. Flour: Wheat, superfine-..................per bbl. - $6 00 $7 60 $8 20 $8 20 $7 50Wheat, extra family.................do.. 9 09 to 8 40 8 80 ii 87 (960 Rye..........................do... to.... 400 82..... 5 500 409 4 10 Corn-meal........................do-... to... t o 47 Beef: 7 00 4 28 4 20 Fresh, roastingr-pieces...............*per lb.. 17 18 171 18 171 Freshi, soup-picces.....................do.. 15 1 4. 1 8 1Sf Fresh, rump-steaks....................do... 17 16.... 18 17 Corned........................do...- 11 16 171.... 15 * I is probable that in this and other tables the " pound s is really 1 kilogram, equal to 1.1 pounds. tPer pound. LABOR IN BELGIUM. 671 Prices of provisions, ic., in the manufacturing towns of Antwverp and C'harleroi-Contiuned. Anwr. Charleroi and ~ Antwerp viinty Z Articles.;.___ ___ 1872. 1 87 4. 1872. 1874. Veal: Fore-cquarters-.................per lb.. $0 14 $0 19 - - $... 0 18 $0 17 Hind-quarters-..................do-.. is1 191.... 18 l83 Cutlets-.......................do-..- 18 20 ----- 18 i8* Mntton: Fore-qnarters-....................do... 17 18..... i 18 7 Leg-..........................do —- 18 18 $0 24 25 21d Chops-........................do. — 16- - —........ 215 20: Protk: Fresh-.........................do..- 17 18 17i 18 17J Corned or salted-................. -.. -do... 16- - - 18 17 Bacon-.......................do..- 15...... 151 16 1 q Hams, smoked-d...................(o... 25 25 30 20 25 Shoulders-......................do... 15 20......... Sausages.do-.. 14 17 19 20 17f Lard..........................do-. - 20 12 10 20 15i Codfish, dry-......................do... 05 - -.... 10 10 OttI Mackerel, pickled...................... do... 04 - - —............ 04 Butter-........................ do.... 313 38 34 35 35 Cheese ---------------- -------— do -. 20 20 23 24 -21* Potatoes-.....................per bush. 75 so.....0.... 77 Rice-.........................per lb.. 06 08 08 07 0 -~ Beans-........................per qt... O) 10 08 08 Ott -Milk-..........................do. -. 04 0:3 04 04 031. Eggs-........................per doz.. 28 24 23 24 24* GRtOCERIES, ETC. 60 Tea, 0olong, or other good black - -...........perlb.. 80 to 76 80 79 Coffee:'1 00 Rio(, green -do.. 2!6....... 23 24 24* Rio, roasted -- cdo. 32.... 27 28 29 Sugar: Good brown —.....................do... 15 16 -- 5 YellowC —.......................do... 16- - -.... 15i 16 16 Coffee B —......................do- s..... 18 l1 18 18 Molasses —......................perlb.- - -.... 08 09 0ti Sirnp —........................per lb..- 05 ----- 07 07 06* Soap, common.. -....................do... 12..... 04 04 00* Starch —.........................do. —---—. ——. 10 10 10 Fuel: $800) 5*1600 Coal —.....................per ton.. to >760 5 85 to 6 644 90 oi) 600) $5 00 Wood, pine —...................per cord.. to ------------- - - 6 00 7 00' Oil, coal —.....................per qnart.. 09 10.. —...... 09i DOMESTtC DaY cOOnS, ETC. Bhrtins:4-4 standard quality..........per yard. 16 to 18 10 15* Bleached, 4-4, standard quality-...........do-..- 19 -..... 20 15 18 Sheetinigs: Brown, 9-8, standard quality-.............do... 34..... 13 13 20 Bleached, 9-8, standard quality -d............. o. 36 ~to 27 28 28* (0 16 Tickings, good quality-.................do.. 25 to 15 15 181 (0 20 Prints-.........................do-..- 10.......... 15 12j Mouseline de laines...................do-.. - 25..... 27 28 261 Satinets, medium quality-................do............. 48 10 49 $300 3 00 Boots, men's heavy-.................per pair.. to to -.-. 4 00 3 77 4 00 4 60 ) HOUSE-RENT. Four-roomed tenements-.............per month.. 8 00 10 00 9 59 10 00 9 37j Six-roomed tenements-..................do... 20 00 5 00 14 23 15 00 13 56 BOARD. For men, (mechanics or other workmen) -.....per month.. 6 00 7 50 7 60 8 00 7 27j For women employed in factories -............do - -......4 20 5 70 6 00. 5 30 Pe 2,000 pounds. 672 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. PRICES OF FARM PRODUCTS AND MEAT IN BRUSSELS. Mean price of the principal agricultural products and meat during five years, terminating with 1870. [1 kilogram = 2.2046 United States pounds.] Articles. 1865. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. Farm products: Francs. Francs. Francs Francs. Francs. In U. S. currency. Whea;t............per 100 kilograms.. 23. 11 36. 92 35. 22 27. 61 29.34 $2.67 per 100 lbs. Rye...-............ do -- 15. 80 25. 43 25. 97 21.02 21. 10 1.92 per 100 lbs)8. Mleslin....................... do...... 18. 44 29. 82 30. 35 23. 69 24. 5-2 2.04 per 100 lbs. Spelt......................... do...... 17. 41 25.07 25. 31 20. 65 20. 76 1.89 per 100 lbs. Bulckwheat................... do -- 18. 34 24. 39 25. 46 25. 49 24. 40 2.22 per ItO lbs. Oa.ts..........-...... do.... 17.77 22. 30 23. 51 21.58 21.24 1.93 per 100 lbs. Ba]ley....................... do...... 18. 25 27. 14 25. 54 23. 13 22.49 2.04 per 100 lbs. Peas.........................do5.. 21.54 26. 66 27.53 24. 80 24.59 2 24 per 100 lbs. forse-beans..................do..... 20. 10 24. 11 25.21 24.72 24. 79 2.25 pet 100 lbs. Flax........................ do...... 37. 22 38.37 38.59 38.85 36. 01 3 27 per 100 lbs. Rape-seed -.................... do.. 45. 24 38 61 36. 56 39. 90 45. 04 4.09 per 100 lbs. P(,tatoes......................do..... 5. 00 9. 76 8. 20 6.06 S. 47 77 per 100 lbs. Straw........................do...... 4.98 4. 29 4. 63 5. 73 6. 37 58 p)er lO0 lbs. Ilay......................... do...... 10. 40 6 88 7.05 9. 09 10.39 94 per 100 lbs. Hlops......................... do 25.00 230. 0 135. 00 112.00 88. 0( 8.00 per 100 lbs. Butter.......................do 2.55 2.36 2. 66 2.63 2.97 27 per lb. Meat, (in Brussels market:) Oxeef. On loo' -— per kilogram...71. 83 80. 80.81 07.36 per lb.. Slaughtered........do...... 1.38 1.56 1.42 1.41 1.50 13.64 per lb. ulieat- On f0oot...........do....... 60.68.60. 69.68 06. 18 per lb. ~ Slaughtered.....do...... 1. 14 1..37 1.13 1.17 1.28 11.64 per lb. Cfobef SOn fot.do......62. 3.64.66.71 06 45 per lb. ow- ee Slaughtered...... do...... 1.16 1. 45 1.21 1. 29 1. 33 12.69 per lb. Veal O Sdfoot............... do.......97.97.94.97 1.01 09.18 per lb. I Slaughtered..........do...... 1.28 1.50 1.50 1.53 1.61 14.64 per lb. Mutton On foot....do......63.58.71.71.73 06.64 per lb. Slaughtered.......do. 1. 22 1. 32 1. 21 1. 36 1. 33 12.69 per lb. Pork ~On foot.....:........do....... 82. 97 1.14 1.15 1.11 10.09 per lb. ~t}Slau-htered........... do........26 1.46 1. 1.62 1. 57 14.:27 per lb. EXPENDITURES BY WORKMEN'S FAMILIES. The difficulty of obtaining from workingmen the amount expended for provisions and other necessaries of life was felt in Belgium as in other countries, arising chiefly from the fact that the laboring classes keep no account of their expenses. The following indicates a larger outgo than the ordinary workingman can afford, and it must have come from one of those large families whose aggregate earnings amount to a conlsiderable sum; for the amount expended is in excess of thie ordinary earnings of the head of a family. it is to be regretted that the weekly earnings were not stated. Average weekly expenditures of a family consisting of two adults and four children in Charleroi, Belgium. Articles. Cost. Articles. Cost. Flour and bread.................. $2 10 Oil or other light, (in winter)............. $0 20 Fresh, corned, salted, and smoked meats.. 2 23 Spirits, beer, and tobacco, (if any). 40 Lard.....: 40 House-rent.............................. 2 00 Butter.................................... 70 For educational, religious, and benevolent Sugar................................... 18 objects................................ 05 Milk............. 16 Coffee................................... 28 Total weekly expenses.............. 10 65 Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, &e...... 40 Eggs..................................... 48 Potatoes and other vegetables............ 60 Clothing per year........................ 40 00 Fuel...................................... 50 Taxes per year.......................... 8 00 LABOR IN BELGIUM. 673 The following statement comes fromn Juniet, the seat of the windowglass industry: The cost Of necessary provisions, such as bread, butter, cheese, coffee or chocolate, apples, vegetables, soup and meat bfor Sundays and fete days, fr a laborers fily consisting of two adults and four children, $5 to $6. The same for the family of a skilled workan, the number being the same, from $8 to $10. CONDITION OF THlE WORKING CLASSES OF BELGIUM. In addition to the facts already presented, the fw ig condensed statements from the report of Mr. Grattan, British cosl t Antwrp, )in regard to the condition of the working-classes of Belgium, will be read with interest. I considering the economical causes which militate against the wellbeing ofthe working-classes of Belgium, thle following are especially to be -noted: 1. The low rate of wages. 2. The want of prudence, foresight, and economy. 3. Habits intemperance. 4. Th tedency to have recourse to coalitions and strikes. 5. Certain defects in the mode of taxation and in economDical science. As respects physical causes: 6. Wars and sufferings caused by armed peace. 7. Unsatisfactory relations subsisting between masters and men. 8. Unwholesome nourishment, insalubrious dwellings, and absence of home life. 9. Defective organization of public charity. Among the moral causes axe the following: 10. Ignorance, prejudice, sophisms, and social errors. LOW RATE OF WAGES. The, standard of wages, taking all degrees of labor into consideration, is undoubtedly insufficient to satisfy the legitimate wants of the. laboring population, and adopting, as an illustration, the position of workmen employed in manuliaeturing establishments, the following, facts are brought to lighty. The average daily wages of mill-operatives do not exceed'2franes (40 cents) a day. Setting aside Sundays, holiday.s, aniddays on which the operative remains idle, either on account of stoppage of work, or by his own default,. the working-days will hardly exceed 2550 in the year, making a maximum. wag-e of 500francs ($100) a year, 412 francs ($8.40) a month, or about 10 francs ($2 toer week. Addin~g, in the case of a married operative, with wvife and three children, 1 franic a day earned by some, member of his family, a weekly budget of 16.50 francs ($3.30) willI be reached for five people. The expenses of this famuily, calculated at the lowest possible rate, will be the foltowing: Artilcles. C Bread, (211 kilograms per day for five persons, at 30 or 50 centimes)-........... 1 05 $1 75' Potatoes, (3 kilograms a daiy, at 10 or 15 centuimes) —------------------ 42 631 Coffee atld ebiccory, (beverage) —--------------------------- 40 50'. Vegetables. —------------------------------------- 40 50 Butter or dripping-................................... 20 30 clothiig-........................................ 40 40, W ashing, soap, &e-................................... 20 20 Rent-.......................................... 40 40 Total weekly expenditures-............................3 47 4 68 There is no mention here of beer, meat, sugar, or of anything beyond the, bare neces~saries of life. Dimiinish the fatallyby one child, or add one-third even to the wages of the operative, and it still remains next to impossible that he can make both ends meet. This is by tno means an exaggerated statement. There are probably 10,000 or2,0. workiugmilen',shouseholds in Belgium in this sad position. 43 L 674 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. ABSENCE OF PRUDENCE, FORESIGHT AND ECONOMY. N.- economical truth is more evident or more amply ved by experience than that reckless and improvident habits indulged in by the workin-classes inevitably lead to nuisery and ruin. No artisan can cherish the hope of raising iself in the social scale, either in a moral or physical point of view, who is unable, when circumstances are propitious, to put by some of his earnings; and there is probably not one man, however hardly dealt with by fortune, who has not at some time or other of his life had sch an opportunity. A small beginning made at an early period i life may bear marvelous fruit in ihe course of time, and there are workmen in Belgium who can easily earn 3,4, or 5 francs a day. How mnany are there of those who actually do lay by money It is estimated that about 200,000 workmen in this country are certainly in receipt of the lowest, of the above-mentioned rate of wages, nd yet probably not oe-fifth f them are in the habit of saving money. It is stated that only about 40,000 workmen in the whole country have accounts in the various public or private savigs-baks, or hold public securities. A great cause of misery to the workingman is the loss of one day's work in the week, Monday being almost invariably an unemployed day in Belgium. May not the loss of this one day's wage suflice to put a stop to all possibility of saving, or eve in some -cases be sufficient in itself to throw a family into inextricable difficulties? TENDENCY TO HAVE RECOURSE TO STRIKES. According to a very prevalent opinion, the almost invariable result of coalitions and strikes on the part of the working-classes has been to aggravate their misery and distress. Workingmen, however, do not, as has been seen, admit these argments and, following the lead of the English trades-unions, strikes and combination have acqired of late a wide-spread and cosmopolitan character. It was said, it is true, that at the workingmen's congress held at Brussels in September, 1868, an opinion unfavorable to strikes had prevailed in the assembly; but this was not the fact; thefollowig declaration, among others, relative to strikes, having been unaniously adopted by the congress: "The congress declares that strikes, though not an infallible mode of remedying the evils to which the working-classes are exposed, are nevertheless, in the present situation of capital and labor, a necessity." UNSATISFACTORY RELATIONS BETWEEN EMPLOYERS AND THE EMPLOYED. One of the greatest drawbacks to the prosperity and well-being of the industrial classes consists undoubtedly in the absence of good-will and confidence between themi and those by whom, they are employed, particularly in the, great industrial centers. This especially applies t~o the case of large joint-stock companies, where the ties exist,ingy between the operatives and the managers are of the slenderest description. So many men are wvanted to-day, and they can be supplied at a mnoment's notice. When their services- are no longer required, they are turned off. What becomes of them? They go to the "1estamninet,"1 and there their schemes of resistance are concocted, disturbances are organized, and riots planned. Suich is probably the real history of the disturbances in Ghent, the Borinage, Marchiennes, Chatelineau, and Seraing. Independently of the -evil influences exercised by the leviathan establishments above referred to, M. IDauby does not hesitate to throw the immediate responsibility of this unhappy state of things upon the middle and higher classes, and the spirit of speculation p~ushe~d to the extreme which characterizes the present period. The apparent disregard of the rights and interests of others involved in the reckless pursuit of wealth has embittered the feelings of those who have been its victims, and a character of extreme gravity, fraught with much future danger, has been imparted to these recent popular outbreaks. UNWHOLESOME NOURISHMEl"NT-INSALUBRIOU-S DWELLINGS-WANT OF HOME LIFE. Workiugmen in this country are, as a rufle, very ill-housed and badly fed. Improvidence and carelessness combine to keep them anid their families in a position of inferiority and discomfort, if not of absolute misery and want. A little more experience and knowledge of household economy on the part of the female population might avert in, this respect an infinity of mischief. The evils of bad cookery have formed the subject of many a bitter diatribe, but they cannot be too frequently pointed out and n.sisted upon, especially in connection with the industrial classes, to whomn an economidcal and skillful employment of their slender stores is so important a consideraton'l. That ibe well-being of all classes of society depends, to a very considerable extent, upon gpod and-wholesomne nourishment cannot be contested; but it is not a little surprising LABOR IN BELGIUM. 675 ta so small a sare of attention is in reality bestowed upon the proper education of ~~~~~~~women in th alimentation and the preparation of food. Society at large suffers more seriosly from this cause than persons who have not devoted soae consideration to the hygienic questions involved in the matter would be disposed to believe. Suitable and convenient habitations for the working-classes, at reasonable rents, are of the utmost importance also to their well-being. Fortunately this want has been partly et at Antwerp, ad t-houses erected of late years have contributed greatly to the comfrt of their occurants, besides affording a fair interest upon the capital invested in these beeicet enterprises. It is to be inferred that commodious lodgings may have a tendency also todevelop among the working-classes a greater love of home life, ( sprit de famille,") the absence of which has been so often and so justly deplored in this country. HABITS OF INTEMPERANCE. Among the causes wich tend to aggavate the situation of the working-classes, intemperance may be placed in the first rank. The allurements of the estauminet, (public house,) combined with the cheapness of spirituous liquors in this country, form an attraction which the majority of wokiugmen ale unable to resist, and hence flow incalculable dangers and mischief to themselves and their families. All efforts to extirpate or modify this evil hav hitherto proved fruitless. According to calculations wich ave not been contradicted, it is estimated that there are about one huledrethousand licensed public hoses in Belgium, for the supply of five million inhabitants, a proportion wich is generally exceeded in the industrial centers. The evils resultilng from. this state of things were fully exposed in the report submitted to the House of Representatives durnng the session of 18617-'68. It appears, however, that no thing was done to check this terrible eviis, for in a report to the British government, dlated Brussels, December30, 1873, Sir HI. Barron says in reference to this subject: Nothing whatever is done to check the consumption of spirits, a main source of Pauiperism, crime, disease, and insanity. On the contrary, the authorities vie with eachother in multiplying kermesses and festivals of all kinds, which are mere excuses for dissipation and drunkenness. This vice more than keeps pace with the national prosperity, and completely prevents any improvement of the working-class. No temuerance societies., licensing acts, or liquor-laws exist. The authorities shut their eyes to all abuses and disorders. The number of drink-shops goes on increasing in the following ratio: 1866..- 91,671 1867............95,754 1868.~~~~~~~..................... 96,990 1869....................................99, 214 1870....................................100,763 There, is now one liquor shop for every forty-eight inhabitants. The official record of the average home consumption of spirituous liquor (proof-spirit) for the ten years 1861-1870 was 396,t5-2 hect-olitres - 8.7 t5,344 gal lons, being 1.80 gallons per head of the population per annutm.. This large figure is, however, really munch below the trufth, as time quantity produced is, as shown above, certainly much understated. 676 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. LABOR IN SWEDEN AND NORWAY. The following information in regard to cost and condition oflabor in Sweden and Norway is condensed from a report made to the Departnient of State by Hon. C. C. Andrews, minister resident of the United States at Stockholm, under date of September 24, 1873: In my report of May 10, 1872, I had the honor to report that there ad recently been in Sweden an almost general increase of the wages of mechanics 2 per cent. Since then a similar rise of wages has extended to about all other industries. In some, in the immediate neighborhood of the lumber-sipping ports, it has amounted to upward of 100 per cent. Substantially the same may be said as to Norway. The principal causes of this increase of wages have been the excellent agricultural crops for four successive years; the remarkable rise in the prices of iron and lumber, and consequent increased activity in those industries; the emigration, which from both these countries to the United States has reached in the aggregate about 150,000 persons; the demand for labor in constructing new and extensive lines of railway, and the influence of M orkingUlen's organizations. Asteimportaeofthelaborquestion seemed to render it proper that I should take more than ordiary pains to collect reliable data on the subject, I began, personally, the collection of facts bearig On the matter as early as January last, since when I have visited a large number of leading industrial establishments, as well as dwellings of workig-people in various parts f Sweden and Norway. Although both of these countries annually publish very thorough statistics-Sweden having annually collected and published population statistics for a cetury and a quarter past-there are none in either country as to wages of labor, except in Sweden as to the single industry of agriculture, which fact has made it necessary to resort to special and personal investigation. I now have the honor, therefore, to transmit herewith1. A table showing the wages of labor in Sweden in Swedish money, and also in money of the United States. 2. A table showing the prices of the necessaries of living, which, in the main, will answer equally well in respect to Norway; also to submit some facts and remaks on the condition of the industrial classes of Sweden and Norway, separately as to each. country. WAGES IN SWEDEN. Table-showing the rates of wages in Sweden (in Swvedish and in United State8vmoney) in 1873. [NOTE.-3.76 rix-dollars (3 rix-dollaris and 76 iire) are equivalent to $1, United States gold. Gold dollar's (if the Un~ted States sell in Stockholm at 3.75 rix-doilars each; but in buying~ them at a banik in Stockholm one must pay 3.h3 rix-dollars. Exchanige on New York, payable in go~ld, is at the same r-ate, inaimely, 3irix-doltais and53 dre for $1. Where Swedlish moniey isreduced ito moiney of heUnited States in this and the following tables, as well as in the text, I have assumed 3.76 rix-dollars to he equivalent to tIin gold.]I Wages per day. 4a o4-i Occupation. Remarks. Agricuture: Winter. 7 to 10 1.15 $0 46 Bes mae hndsSumumer. 12 to 13 2.50 66 Bakiers: Bes t........... 121) 2. oo 53 Free board and lodgings. Average-.......... 12 1. 50 40 Free hoard. Basket.-makers: Beat............ 10 3.00 80 Average........... 10 1.25 33 Beet-sugar operatives: IBest............ 112 1. 75 46 Technical director, $975 a year. Women - -.......... 12 1. 00 26 Engineer, $530 a year. Blaaksmitbs - -......... 1:t. to so Bane-nmeal-factory hands.. 11 1. 50 to 2. 50 $0 40 to 66C Free rent and fuel. Book-binders: A verage........... 11 3. 00 so VWomen, heat —....... 11 1.40 37 Book-keepers, average............ $525 to $S00 a year; cashiers, $1,000 to 01, 000 a year. LABOR IN SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 677 Table sowing te rate Of wages in Sweden, 4c.-Continued. Wages per day. 4a Q~~~~ o - Occupation. 0 C 6Rmrs Boota ad o kRemarks. o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 5, 0.0~ ~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.~.. Best........... 12 3. 00 $0 Po Generally by piece. Averae........ 12 2. 50 66 Appretices...... 12 2.00 53 women, with machie.. 12 -2.50 66 20 per cent. of those working on ~~~~~~~~~~Brewers: ~shoes are women. Foreman.12 to 13 4. co 1 06 Paid monthly; free room, fuel, C nt2.00 53 lights, an(l 8$ bottles beer daily. Buthers.................... $80 a year; free room and washing. Cabiinet-makers: Best.10.............2. 86 76 ) Generally work by hour; several Average.1.........I0 2. 3 62 hands at one shop save 200 rixApprentices......... 10 2. 00 53 ) dollars a year. t 00 53 to 0 Nearly all free rent; tlhe work. 1Candle (stearine) makr 12 2.00 to 25 2630 5 to 33 master has $900 a year and perCandle(stearne) woen 12.00 to1.25 ~26 to 33 etae centagre. Capenters, house... 12 3. 00 80 Generally by hour. Carers in wood.10 5.00 to 8.00 1 32 to 2 12 Carria-.e-makers: Foreman.......... 3.00 80 Average......... 11 2. 50 66 Cigar-makers: Finishers.......... 4. 00 1 06 By piece; free allowance of cigars to males. Average.............. 11 3.30 87 Boys.............. I1.75 20 Woe.Best........ 11 3.00 80 Woen Average.... 11 1.25 33 Chmnysweeps, foreman...................... $12ayabard and lodgings; best boys, $53l a year, board and Cloth (W'oolen) factory weav- logns osunder 14, only. ers: clothes, board, anrd lodgings. Women............ 11.84 to 1. 33 22 to 35 Foreman, $800 a year; overseers, $265. Girls............. 11.66 16 Boys............. 11.75 20,Spinners, male........ 1i 2. 00 53 Cbiuna-ware, factory: Best men.......... 10- 7. 00 1 85 Those with families, free rent and doctor Average.......... 10$ 2. 25 to 4. 00 66 to 1 06 Rorstrand factory. Boys.............. 101 1.00 26 Women.......... 104 1.50 to 3.00 40 to 80 Confectioners: Best............. 11 1.6644 Feboranldggs Averag-e...1..45....Freebe.rd lodgings Coopers: Best............. 12 6.00 1 59 Average........... 12 3. 00 80 Coppersmiths: Best............. 12 3.60 96 Average........... 12 3. 00 80 Cotton-spinnDers, male..... 11 2. 00 53 Free doctor and medicine; wages Cotton-weavers: likely to rise 20 per cent. Females.......... 11 1.33 35 Over 8S, avera -e....... 11 1. 00 26 Girls under 18....... 11. 65 17 Door and sash makers... 12. I 3. 50 93 Dyers: Foreman.......... 11 4.16 1 10 Journeymen, averag.e 11 2. 50 66 Engineers oni sea-steamers....................... $320 to $530 a year and board. Firemen on sea-steamers........................... 10 to $12 per month and board Flowu r (artificial) makers......... 1.00 26 FemaleOs paid by the mjonth. Furriers: men............. 12 3.00 80 Woe.Best....... 12 2.33 62 Woe.Ordinary.... 12 1.33 33 678 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing the rates of wages in Sweden, c.-Continued. _~~~~~~~~ Wages per day. Occupation. e cS ~~~~~~~~ Gas-makers: Foreman.................. 12 6. 00 $1 59 Stokers................. 2. 50 66 Free doctor and medicine. Mechanics, fitters, &c 12 2. 50 to 3. 00 60 to 80 Free doctor and 13 cents a day when sick. Common laborers......... 12 1. 75 46 Gilders: Workmen................. 10 2. 00 to 2. 66 53 to 71 Foremen.................. 10 3.25 86 Glass-makers: Workmen................ 10 5. 00 13 Free rent, fuel, and lights. Common laborers......... 10 1.00 26 CGlaziers..................... 11 2.00 t 50 53 to 66 Mostly by piece.5 Glycerine-factory: Men...................... 12 2.00 53 Women................... 12 1.25 to 1.50 33 to 40 Gold and silver smiths: Best..................... ll. 1 to 12 3. 3590 Averae...... tto 12 2.50 66 Foreman.................. 11 to 12 3.5 3and 6 per cent. of profits. Hair-cutters................. 11 1. 663Paid by month; free board and lodgings. Harness-makers............. 11 2. 50 66 Hat-makers: Best....................... 11 5. 00 132 Average.................. 11 3. 01 8 Female assistants. 11 1. 60 41 Instrutiment-makers: Cbem'cal-.......... O 2. 00 to 8. 00 53 to 2 12 Su~rgical.......... 10 4. 00 to 5. 00 1 06 to 13-2 Free rent. Apprentices........ 10 2. tO 53 Irop-foulndery: Best hands......... 12 3. 00 80 AVeraOge -12..... —- 2. 00 53 Common molders & found- 12 2. 75 72 Free lodging. h-on-production: Master at refining-heater. - 12 6.60 1 75 Master at rolling-mills. - - - 1-2 4. 75 1 26 Master at blast-Furinace -... 12 3. ~25 86 Mjaster-mechanicis ----- 12 5. 00 1 32 Workmen at blast-furnace. 12 2.00' 53 Lodgings and fnel free.. Workmen at roasting-fnr...... 2.00 5 nace.Workmen at rolliu.g.mills. 2. 40 6 Sm iths.........2.. 137 6 Laborers, common —----- 12 1. 25 to 2. 00 33 to 53 Lamp-lighiters, (60 lampseach) -..... 200 53 Lithogfraphers: Best. —---------- 9 5.00 1 32 Average.......... 9 2. 00 53 Ste'vedlores........... 12 4. 44 1 18 Are paid 37 6re (10 cents) per hour. Lumbermen:Cutting trees in winter...... 2. 00 5:3 In saw-mills, average 12 3. 00 80 Free rent and doctor. Macbinists: First-cla ss......... 10 3. 2Z5 86 Secoudeclass........ 10 ~ 2. 75 73 Apprentices. —------ 10 1. 25 33 Ma.sons: Best..... 12 4. 21 112 By hour. Bricklayers Average 1-2 3. 60 95 Tenders to. 12 02. 50 66 Women tenders....... 12 1. 50 40 Plasterers —------ 12................4 to 7 cents per square foot. Masters of steam-vessels: First................................ $13.125 to $16 per month and 5 per cent.. of' gloss earnin~gs. Second ~.............................. $53 to $60 per month and 8.10 per cent, of net earnings. Third............................... 26.50 to $40 per month and no ip centage of earnings; generally small vessels. LABOR IN SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 679 Tableshowing e,ratesof ie Si weden, 4-c.-Continued. Wages per day. ~~2Occupation. M Remarks...Mates-.Fish steam-coasters.................. $16 per month and 1 per cent. of net earnings. is seavoyages........................... $6 50 per month. Se noil................................... $20 to $s2 per month. ~~~Masters of sailinc......................... $1.25 to $16 per month and 5 per ~~Mates of sailf~i-~vessel~s: ~cent. of gross earnings. i........................................ $20 to $2l pef month. Second............................................... $13.2.5 to $16 per month. Mat-li factory:tiled han(is.... 11 4.00 $1 06 And free rent. Ordinar.y hands —-- - 2. 00 80 Women.........t 1. 25 33 (18 years old.1 1.25 33 Bos14 years old. 11.... 80 21 (12 years old... 11. 60 16 Musket-factory: Skilled aiids....... 4.00 1 06 Averae hands..1..i 2. 50 66 painters: InDG fresco-........ 6.00 1 59 Common, first-class. 11 4. 0o) 1 06 Average......it 3.00 80 Apprentices.....i 1. 00 26 Photographers........4. 00 to. 00 1 06 to 2 12 Piano-akers..................... About the same as cabinet-makers. Planing and molding with 2. 00 53 Free doctor. asachine. Priniters:' Best.... 10 5.0 *O 133 CmoiosAve-age. 10 3. 00 80 On Bci est ------ 10 4. 00 106 On macine Avra~re 10 3.600 80 Rope-makers: Best............ 11 3. 00 80 Averag(e. —------- 11 2.50 C6 Boys under 18........ 11 1. 75 46 Also $10 a year clothing. Saddle-makers. —------ 11 2. 00 to 2. 50 53 to 66 Seamen: Oii steamers.......................... 8 to $10 per nionth and board. On sailingy-vessels.. —------ ------- ----------- $12 to $14 tier nionth and tmoaiid. Ordinary.............................. $8 to $10 per month and hoard. Shirt-mah ers:IBest, with mia- 10 3. 33 90 One-half of the operatives in a fac. chindI. tory of 400 sew at home. Women Averag e, with 10 2. 33 64 Imaclime. On coll~ars, aver- 10 2. 75 73 age. Shirt-sewino, by hand: Over 16 years5liest 10 2. 20 58 Ove 16yeas IAverage 10 1. 00 26 Gil-s under 15 years.... 10.50 to. 80 13 to 21 Generally at home. Ironies: Best —----------- 10 2. 00 53 Average - -......... 10 1. 58 41 Servants: Male- - - - - - - —..........................20 to 60 nvx-dollars ($5.30 to $16) per month and board. Feniale --------------— I.................8 to 30 nix-dollars (- 2.14 to $8) per. Ship-builders;, li-on: month and board. Most skilled —-- ------ i 5.tO 1 32 Less skilled.. —------ 11 4. 00 1 06 Second-class......... it 3. 00 80 Shop-gii Is, best............... 2.00 53 Paid by month. Silk —fiactory: Work-master.. 12 5. 00 13 32 An-d free rent. -Best......... 3. 00 80 hand-looms, by piece. Wea~ers~women Average..... 1. 33 35 Hand-loomus, my~ piece; free doctor.., Stone-emitters: Letterers on monuments....... 5 75 1 51 Best cuttlers --- -... - 12 4. 50 to 5. 50 1 18 to 1 32 Generally by piece. Average on granite.... 12 3.50 93 680 LABOR 1N EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing the rates of wages in Sweden,.-Coti ed. Wages per day.'~ o a Occupation. = Remarks. a B 2f 2 Stone-blasters................ 12 3. 75 $1 00 Stove-makers, earthen: Summer.. 10. 00 2 64 Artistic hands Winter... 60 1 0. Average workmen1........ 11 3. (0 0 Women Summer. 12 1. 00 26 1 Winter......... 9 0 21 Straw-hat makers: Foreman.................. 11 5. 032 Average male hands.... 11 4. 00 6 Women SBest, by piece.. 1 3. 00 Wor Average........ 11 1.66to2.0 44to 53 Tailors: Best cutters................ $400 a year..... Male sewers.............. 12 3. 00 Women, with machine... 12 1. 25 33 Tannery: Tanners.................. 11 3. 00 Common laborers......... 11 2. 00 53 Tin-piaters: Best...................... 11 5.00 13 Second-class.............. 11 3. 00 Boys...................... 11 1. 25 3 Women................... 11 1.00 26 Trunk-makiers.............. 12 2. 33 61 Upholsterers:;.:............... 12 2.00 to 4.00 53 to 1 06 Washing and ironing....Finest shirts, per dozen, 3.60.ixdollars, or 96 cents; ordinary shirts, per dozer), 3 rix-dollars, or 60 cenis; miscellaneous, per 20 Wine-factory: poun~ds, 3 rix-dollars, or 80 cents. Work-master........................... $4.25 a year. Average men....... 1O- 2. 00 53 Women.10......... 1.25 33 Statement of the standard retail pr-ices, in, United Stales coin, of subsistence and other necessaries, at Stockholm, Jor the yea)- 1873. Articles. Value. - Articles. Value. Flour, best..............per bbl. $11 00 Tea................per lb $1 10 Wheat-mneal.-:........... per -20 lbs 7 opd.. 1 1Rye-flour...................do _. 53 Starch................do... 12 Rye-meal................do...- 40 Stearine candles...........do -_ 20 O1ats grits: Kerosene oil...........per gall. 66 Swedish.............per lb. 4 Wood: English..............do... 6 Birchin common use.....per cord 6 00 Barley grits......... do... 31 Pine and spruce.........do... 5 50 Rice, Carolina.............do.. 8 Shirting: Pota'toes...............per bush. 60 Bleached-............per yd 2 Pease-...........~...per qt. 6 Unbleached —--------— do.. 11 i Fresh beef, mutton, veal, an pork.per-lb. 14 Calico-(10...............do - 14 Salt pork, American-.........do.. — 14 Linen.................. do.- 45 11am, smoked..............do... 20 Mixed half wool and cotton checkered Lard-.................do... 36 cloth, in common use for workincrwoBaltic herring, fresh -........per 60. 40 men's, dresses; —-------— per yd 35 Salt herring. - ------------ per- lb.- 4 Black woolen cloth, double width, suitsSalt codfish.............-....do... 6 ble for trowsers and coats --— ptr yd 2 65. Poultry, undressed -..........do... 35 Shoes: Butter...................do-. - 28 Plainbut durable, forwomen. per pair. 1 75 Cheese-................do...- 20 For- ladies-............do... 4 00 M1ilk..........-..-.....per qt. 6 Boots: Eggs................per fez 20 Plain, but durable, for workmen -do -. 3 75 Sug-ar: For geutlemenu - do........ - - 5 50 Lump..............per lb. 14 White woolen unudershirts. —.. — each 2 50 Brown..............do... 10 White woolen drawers-......per pair 2 50 Molasses...............per qt. 12 Woolen stockings - (10.........do 53 Ginger...............per lb. 37 House-rent, two rooms, for workingr peoCoffee, best Java...........do..., 27 pie-.............per month 4 00 LABOR IN SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 681 WAGES AND THE PURCIIASE-POWER OF M0_NEY. It seems natural and just that a man's labor should be worth, and that his wages should be, as much as, with economy and prudence, will comfortably maintain himself and family, enable him to educate his children, and also to lay by enough for his decent support when his laboring powers have failed. Whether wages are high or low, of course, depends not on their absolute amount, but on their purchase-power. If in one country a dollar will go as far in procuring ecessaries as two dollars will in another, other things being equal, then a dollar a day in the first country is equally as high wages as two dollars a day in the latter country. AGRICULTURAL LABOR. As to agricultural labor, it may be said that in 1871 the average wages of best workmen by the day in summer was 1 rix-dollar and 85 ore, and in winter 1 rix-dollar and 18 re; and of best female hands, in summer, 96 ore, and in winter, 64 re. During the pastthree years agricultural wages have risen on an average 36 per cent Assuming that they have risen 25 per cent. since 1871, the average day-wages for best ile ands in summer would now be 2 rix-dollars and 31 ore, (61 cents,) and in winter I rix-dollar and 45 ore, (38 cents;) of best female hands, 1 rix-dollar and 20 e (31 cents) in summer, and 80 ire (21 cents) in winter. It is common to employ men, women, and children in agricultural labor. Sometimes a dozen or twenty su iands will he seen at work together in a field not larger than twenty acres. Sometimes a gang, one might say, of women may be seen hoeing all abreast, with a male overseer standing in front and facing them. And here I may say that generally, i Sweden, the earnings of workmen's wives will average 150 rix-dollars each a year, though, ofcourse, in most cases, for a woman to work out who has young children must be at a sacrifice of true domestic economy. I estimate the average wages of mechanics to be 73 cents per day, equal to $4.38 per week, or for a year of 300 working-days, 825 rix-dollars ($220.) COST OF LIVING. As to the expenses of living, there are no published statistics which go into details The average value of the allowance of subsistence among agricultural employers for a family, say of man, wife, and three children for one year, is 283 fix-dollar's, ($75.26.) But this would furnish too uieagyer a dliet to admit of its being adopted as a stanidard. To bring it up to what is reasonably nourishing, there should first be added to it 25 per cent, on account of increased prices in towmis, which would make it 3"53 rix-dollars and 75 6ve. There should then probably be added the retail value of the meat-ration of a garrison soldier for a year, namely, 85 rix-doll-,rs and 31 Sre, which would bring the sumn up to 439 rix-dollars and 6 ike, which must cover all expenses of provisions and groceries. The average value of the ration of a garrison soldier at government price is, as above stated, 56.12 ikre (14.9 cents) per day, or 204 rix-dollars and 47 ike ($54.471) per year. (The coin mutation value of a single ration in the United States Army (luring the civil war was 30 cents.) Allowing that the family of a Workman, wife and three children, will consume double such a ration in a year, the expense of so much subsistence at government p ice would be 409rix-dollars and 67 ire, ($108.94.) But aworkmanuwould need to exercise extraoidilnary foresight, and buy his, (subsistence at wholesale, in order to get so niuch for that sum of money. If we allow, then, for such a familyRix-dollars. For subsistence.~~~~~~~~~~~~.409.6(7 $108 94 House-rent —--------------------------— 140.00 37 33 Clothing ------------------------------ 180. 00 34 50 Fuel ------------------------------— 70.00 18 25 Miscellaneous............................ f50.00 13 25 Total.............................799.67 212 27 We have, say, 800 rix-dollars as the total annual livingr-expenses of afamily of five members. This would answer tolerably well out of Stockholm, but here one shonld add the sum of 60 rix-dollars on account of rent, in order to procure two reasonably good roouis beside a sm-all. kitchen. This would then mmake an allowance for the expenses of living in. Stockholm, for such a family as above mentioned, 860 rix-dollars, Which, with prudent Malnageument, would be sufficient to carry them through the year in. a tidy and wholesome manner. But the wages of an averagre mecMl nic hav~ing constamit employmnent will, as we have seen, amount to but 825 rix-dollars per year, so that if lie has a family, they will have to live sparingly, in order to get along. As a general rule, the 682 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. families of workmen do not spend 800 rix-dollars, nor even perhaps 700 rix-dollars, for the necessaries of living. On the whole, considering present prices and the ackowledged scarcity of suitable dwellings for working-people, wages cannot be considered as more than living wages for men with fanmilies. A single man, however, can make good savings, and ought to lay up money enough for a good support when he becomes unable to work. The larger mechanical and manufacturing establishments usually clear from 10 to 25.per cent. on their capital. CERTAINTY OF PAYMENT OF WAGES. Wages are paid with certainty, and either weekly or sei-montly. Not unfrequently they are paid on a Friday, partly that the family can have the money fr Saturday's market, and partly to prevent the money from being dissipated away by the workmren on Sunday. In trade. the cash-system generally obtains. In the larger towns it is the same here as everywhere else, that a certain class will pay cash at a shop till they can manage to run up a bill, and then will go to another shop to trade. Of course all such losses compel shopkeepers to charge higher prices, and the dihonest purchaser, in the long run, gains nothing by his tricks. As to the legal collection of debts, if one desired, for instance, to collect a demand of 20 rix-dollars, he would, in the country, sue before the "rads-rtt, or district court, or before the provincial executive court, and in a city, before the city executive cort. It is not requisite that an attorney be employed, though it is more convenient to have one. His charges in a city would be about 10 rix-dollars, ($2 65). In the city a defendant must answer in eight days; in the country, fifteen days, or three weeks if out of the district. Appeal to a higher court may be ad in the smallest matter. Fees of witnesses depend on their occupation, and vary from 1 to 10 rix-dollars a (lay. Everything, except actual or necessary clothing, bed, and necessary tools, can be taken on execution. Half the salary of an official maybe attached in the hands of the governments. Imprisonment for debt is allowable, but not often resorted to. A poor debtor can swear out. CLOTHING. As to clothing, it may be said, in brief, that the Swedes take a pride in being tidily dressed, and th~at the clothing they wear is generally serviceable. In the priovince popularly known as Dalecarlia the peasantry of each parish have a different and fanlciful style of dress. A sort of blouse worn by women, and coats worn by men, are trimmed with sheep-skin with the wool oim. The mien there still adhere to the fashion of tight breeches. Wooden shoes are worn a good deal by working-people in the country for every day, also leather shoes soled with wood. A common article for dresses amnilg working-women is a home-woven cloth of half wool and cotton. There is a large shoddy manufactory at Stockholm. Operatives at most of the larger establishments have either a voluntary sick-fund of their own, or else a small amount ofl their monthly wages is retained by their employers for a fund for the payment of a doctor for medicine, and if need be the expenses of burial. At the Stockholm gas-works the men have their own fund, to Which they contributel1rix-dollar amonth. In case ofsickness a manreevsrxdlarswe during Six weeks, and after that time 4 rix-dollars a week, if he is sick so long, and in case of death, 100 rix-dollars for funeral expenses. The book-binders of Stockholm have an old fund, so that by contributing 5 rix-dollars per -year, a member can receive 5 rix-dollars a week when sick, and 50 rix-dollars for burial. It does not appear to be usual to inlcur extravagant expense for funerals. There is s-till a great supply of labor of certain kinds, and especially of house-servants. People in rather humble life employ one or more servants; and probably the average of families do not pay for a house-miaid'over 75 rix-dollars ($20) a year and board. The 24th of October is the usual time of changing help held by the year. In the summner the number of hours for actual work often exceeds twelve per day. For the whole year eleven hours per day is probably the average of actual work. There is a desire among workmen to hate the time reduced. The tendency to work by the piece or by the hour is rapidly increasing. Some employers -have, with advantage, introduced the practice of allowing their workmen a percentage of the whole earnings; for example, as extra compensation, to divide 10 per cent. of the gross earnings anmong their hands. The leading printer in Stockholm pays compositors 30 8re per 1,000 ems, and every three months adds 5 per cent. additional on what has been earned. The Swedish "1Patriotic Society" makes numerous awards of medal's every year to persons in humible life who bmqve performed muany years of exemplary service. A&s the most of the railways in Sweden belong to the state, there are many men thereby employed by the government in their construction. LABOR IN SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 683 SAVINGS. The Swedes are naturally inclined to free living, and are less sparing than most of the Oher ctiental nationalities. The practice of saving is, however, much on the increase, and is undoubtedly considered among the more intelligent as a moral duty. The first savis-bank started in Stockon was in 1823. The whole number of such banks in Sweden in 1865 was 186. In 1870 they had increased to 235. The number of new depositors duri 1870 was 66,0; the amount deposited during the year was 19,409 657 rix-dollars the amount taken out, 12,033.056 rix-dollars. At the end of that year 354,357 persons had deposits in the savings-banks amounting to 57,376,611 rix-dollars, of which 276,863 rix-dollars were in deposits (the whole amount the party had on deposit) of from to 10 rix-dollars, belonging to 80,477 different depositors; 631,624 rix-olars i deposits of from 10 to 25 rix-dollars, belonging to 38,410 depositors; 1,119,479 rix dollars in deposits of from 25 to 50 rix-dollars, belonging to 30,825 depositors; 2,363,874 rix-ollars in deposits of from 50 to 100 rix-dollars, the largest proportion being in deposits of upward of 500 rix-dollars. It is estimated that at the end of the preent year the amount o deposit will be 80,000,000 rix-dollars. MEANS TO ENCOURAGE SAVINGS. There is an association in Stocklm called the Fosterlands Union, for the purpose of ecoragin savigs. During the few years it has been in operation it has gratuitously circulated about twenty thousad pamphlets and circulars, explaining the advautges of even small savings it also awards premiunms in money for exemplary permanent savigs, such as investments in the annuity and capital institution of Stockolm, which has branches in various parts of the country. In this institution, for example, if 25 rix-dollars be deposited at the time of a person's birth to procure him a fe a ity when e arrives t the age of fifty-five, it will yield him from that age as og s e shall live 100 rix-dollars a year. In 1872 the Fosterland Union awarded 1,06 premiums, amounting in all to 2,884 rix-dollars, for exemplary investments in this annuity institution; that is to say, for the most regular and praiseworthy deposits of working-people. The highest premium awarded was 75 rix-dollars. No premium has been given for depots aouting in any year to over 500 rix-dollars; and hereafter none will be given for deposits amounting to over 200 rix-dollars in a year. Savings-banks can be established i-n any province (tbe Swedish counties, being large, are habitually called provincesy by the consent UOf the governor of that province. The depositors or shareholders have right to choose the directors of the bank, and there are no o-ther guarantees of security. The government appoints on'e director or inspector of the, annuity institutioni of Stockholm, but the other members of the hoard of direction are chosen by the investors. There are no other guarantees of security. The following are a few of the instances of savings that have come under my knowledgre: The operatives at tbe Gustafsberg china-factory have a union store, to the fund of which each operative is required to contribute one rix-do~lar a month, his. whole share not to exceed 100 rix-dollars. The sale of goods out of the store last year amounted to 100,000 rix-dollars, with a profit of 25 per cent. on each one's stock. A private savings-bank con1nected with the factory, which has been in operation less than a year, bas deposits of the operatives aniounting to 1,000 rix-dollars. The hands of the government machine-shop at Stockholm have a private savingscompany undter their own control, the treasurer being chosen froni amnong their nulnber. The moniey isloaned out at 8per cent., generally to such workmuen asare erecting houses of their own, and the income divided pro rafa. At, Eshilstuna, where, the government musket-factory is situated, and where the number of people working for wages is about 2,000, and the unumber working at cutlery on their own account is about 500, the cashier of a savings-baimk, in which 88,920O rix-dollars were deposited in 1872, estimates that about 1,000 of the depositors were working-people living in town.A second-class workmani in the match-factory at J~nk~ping earns 700 rix-dollars a year; has a family of wife, mother-in-law, and three children, the eldest a boy ot ten years.~ld, who goes to school. He has a kitche-n 14 by 12, a sitting-room 15 by 15, a cellar, and shed-room for three cords of wood. His expenses for subsistence are 370 rix-dollars a year; taxes, 6 rix dollars 63 iire; and total expenses about 630 rix-dollars. He lays up annually fron, 30 to 50 rix-dollars a year in the savings-banjk. A workman in a foundery at Stockholm, who has a fumily of wife and three childrena boy thirteen years old at school, a girl seven, and. the youngest a boy three years old-lives in a second-story room up a steep pair of stairs, (down which the youngest child has fallen several times,) which is 10 by 10, and 7 feet high. H-e earns 2 rixdollars a day, has worked at the same place ten years, and since the eighth year has had 684 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. free rent. They have fresh meat three times a week. He has money in the savingsbank, and saves annually about 100 rix-dollars A book-binder in Stockholm, who earns 1,060 rix-dollars a year has a wif and three children, pays 200 rix-dollarsa year for a fair-sized living-room, a smaller room witot windows, an(l a kitchen, all four stories up. His annual expenses are 876 ix-dollars. His wife earns 150 rix-dollars a year, so that their clear income is 334 rix-dollars. These are all cases of temperate men, who hwives, and they show that where people have the disposition, and do not meet with erious isfortue, they can most always make savings. Many an employer or anaer has remarked to me, "Everything depends on the wife," which shows ow important it is, by education and otherwise, to improve and elevate the codition of wome. At the Motala Iron Machine Works, where 1,100 ads are employed-eleven hours a day, working by the hour, 300 workmen have ive bank, with interest at 5 per cent. A leading workman has 10,000 rix-dollars in bak. About 150 workmen own the dwellings which they occupy and a piece f ad. A few own small farms. The workmen have a union, with a buildig, which cost 10,000 rix-dollars, paid for by a loan, one-thi~d of which has been redeemed. When I was at Sundswall last summer, and was paying a porter for briig MY baggage from the steamer to the hotel, our consular-aget remarked, That young man has 5,000 rix-dollars in the savings-bank. Everybody has confidece i hi, and likes to employ him, because he keeps his word." A ember of the Diet livi at Sundswall assured me that workmen there could earn 10 rix-dollars a day, ad, in respect to wages, could do as well as in the United States. VENTILATION. As to ventilation, and the quantity of atmosphere allowed to adult persons in sleeping-rooms, 1,000 cubic feet, equivalent to a room 10 by 10 and 10 feet hih bei the acknowledged standard allowance, it would seem that the care in such matters taken by the state for its best soldiers, bhould afford fair means offorming a judgment as to what is general. At a shirt-factory in Stockholm, 40 young women sit trough the day sewing in a room 24 by 24 and 12 feet high. At a large paying factory of another kind at Stockholmn, 12 fimale operatives are lodged in oneroom, two together, in beds only 3 feet wide. At the quarters of chimney-sweep boys it is usual for about 8 to lodge in a room 15 by 12 and 9 feet high. These boys seem to be well fed but poorly paid, though their employcis derive a good income. USE OF SPIRITS AND BEER. The reports of district physicians to the board of healthb, for a few years precetling 1870, mention a (fliuliutOn of whisky-drinking, which probably was partly owing to the scarcity of money caused by several failures of the crops. During the past year or two of fluish times it has seemed as if the copious use of spirits was again increasing, and yet there are evidences of a steadly abatement of intemperance, In 18-29, when the p.-opulation was a million less than it is nOW, the annual production of whisky was. 32,000,000 gallons, while now it is 10,500,000 gallons. The actual production in 1872 was 16.678,364 kannjor, or, in round nunibers-, 10,500,000 gallons. It was distilled from potatoes, and contained 50 per cent. of alcohol. About thei same quantity was produced in each of the imimnediately-preceding, years. Very little is exported. The most, or say 2j gallons in lpr'portion to every inhabitant, is consuimed as drink. By the license-act any one can sell quantities of gallons and upward without a license. Two classes of licenses are issued: one for selling quantities -not less than three-tenths of a. gallon, another for selling by the glass; and both classes are disposed of to the highest bidder. The local authorities can grant all the licenses to a single company, or many even prohibit the sale entirely. It is illegal to sell to minors under fifteen years of age or to persons who aire intoxicated. The number of shops licensed to sell whisky by the glass in Stockholm for the year 1872 was 3-22, which was 5 less than for the year 1869, and 150 less than for the year 1845. Beside these licensed shcps there are places which have old and permanent privileges to sell by the glass. The licensed shops are also a cheap sort of restaurants. The, applicant for license in Stockholm must pay to the city 40 aire on every kaunor (2j quarts) lie,asks the privilege of selling. The income to the city from licenses was 350,407 rix-dollars. The public expenses for its poor in 1870 were 637")374 rix-dolla-,rs. The ordinary Swedish whisky-glass holds a fifth. part as much as a common tumbler, and asumuch whisky as it will contain is sold at 6 tire, (lj cents.) Five such dri-nks, in the cour-se of a d ny by a workman, or 30 5res' worth, is not considered an immoderate quantity. The'exp~ense of so much whisky in a year, at that rate of use per day, would be 109 rix-doliars at 50 6re. LABOR IN SWEDN AND NORWAY. 685 The Gotenburg plan for retailing spirits appears to have operated favorably, and is attractig uch attention. Tat city puts the busiL ess into the hands of a (comp)any of philanthropic gentlemen, Which as it sold in orderly restaurants witlhout a view of proit. The theory that te use of beer has conduced to temperance is llardly sustaed by experience in Sweden. A great deal of beer has been consumed in late years and though it is not so strong as the English beer, it isnevertheless intoxicating. The report of one of the official physicians to the board of health in 1869 mentions cases of actual delirium tremes fro excessive use of beer. Another physician states that en a doctor visits a easant family the man of the house always urges him to take a glass of whisky, an is astonished when told that its use as a beverage is unhealthy. The sight of drunken ormen in the streets of Stockholm, especially on Saturday evenius, Ou Sunds, and On Mldays, is common. Tie phraSe Fee Monday"cesm the customn of men engagred in sedentary and manl tr'i spending~ Moday as ll as Sunday in drinkingr and frolicking. There are shps eplo'ing froml sixty to one buded hands which on Monday will only have a tii of tt number. There a also shops which have their priva.te temperanlce cicet At tin. Mtala Macbut 1(:ks is a society of 100 members-workmen pied( to absin fron whis' At work-shop emlploying workmen is whisky dS. alowed -to be obroughlt upon the lwienises. Am the causes which ma th use of spirits so common may be mentioned the fashion' utop classes of he po)ulation to partake of a glass of whisky imedia bfort diijni; the co~runi ppractice, even among the young, of drinking beer it ame the comon ns of tohan)l o among males, in smoking and snuffing, and an th orer classes of ie of chewilig snuff; the lack of sources of reercatio etinI s hours; nd istly, and perhaps t he most important of all, the insulicit dit of the workiia, his lch of elevation, and of home attractions. DW/ELLINGS. In the lge ces the oses are of unpressed bricks; the walls over a foot thick, plast o id w in a, sort, of cream color. The roofs of the larger ones are covered with st(etiroti thse of the cm -sizedl dwellings in city and country are covered with ls In the larer houses each story is finished as apartments for a family. There s spacus ire-proof stairway common to the whole house. Neither balconies nor outer Windl s!are in use. The windows are in two parts from top to bottom, atd op~en ontwmatt onl hinges. In the winter double windows are universally -used, with a roll of white cotton laid between at the bottom, openings of at least one large pane oa hinges being piovided for in each room io the better houses. In the country, among the wvikkit-class, it is common for the double windlows to be pnt in so as not to be Opened. Tie umanner of warming is by an earthen stove in. each roomi, geuerally reachlug, fro a the floor to the ceiling, and usually standingi in a coriier. They belon1g to antI are fixtures of the house. Near the Norwvegian frontier iron stoves are used, which is the habit in Norway. Au average earthen stove in the Stockholm houses costs 500 rix-doliars, ($132,) and4 the most elegant on)e-s as high as 2,000 rix dollars, (80p530.) The interior of the stove is of brick-masonry Work, the exterior of white glazed earthen material its the form of hollow panes. The whole can be taken apart asid put uip with but little labor. Their Swedish na~me signifies literally earthen-pane ovens. In shape they are about as frequently oval as square, hut sotnetimes are highly ornamented, occasionally having a fine mirror for a part of their surface, and being so put up as to appear as iiierely a part of the wall of the, room. Wood is used for fuel, being cut in pieces about a foot long. All that can be con vesijently put in at once, say as much as would ordinarily be taken in one's arnis, is laid in at oxie heating, and after it has burned to coals, and the gas has all escaped, the, stove-door is shut and a daniler drawn at the top to prevent the heat escaping. In an ordinary-sized room, and if the weather is not excessively cold, such a healing will answer for twenty-four hours. Some of this sort of stoves, front the Stockholm factory, hssve been imported to the Utnited States. It is probable they are more comfortable and conducive to health than iron stoves. Among most of the peasantry in the country, and among many workingpeople who only occupy a kitchien, the rooms are warmed solely by the kitchen fireplace, the hearth of which varies in elevation from one to two fteet above the floor. Its, hearth is often of iron. There is a damper in the chimney to prevent the heat from escaping. It. is rare to see squLalor in the homes of the working poor. Generally, even in the pborest cottage, there is an indication of pride, tidiness, and taste. AVERAGE DWELLING OF WORKINGMAN. The average apartments of a Swedish workman, having a family of wife and three or four children, consist of a liviiig-rooul and a kitchen, with dimiensions and furniture 686 L.ABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. about as follows: The kitchen is 9 feet high. Initstandasmllpboadadabox for wood. On the raised hearth of the open angur fire-place are some cooking-utensils, among them a copper coffee-boiler. On a pole ha under the ceiling are strung some thin cakes of rye hard bread, about a foot in diameter. The floor is unpaintedl, and whlile not actually dirty, is not whlite. helivig-roois6feetby4,and the same height as the kitchen. The floor is of spruce or pine, the boards closely matched, and scrubbed clean. A couple of strips of home-woven carpet are laid across it. There are two windows, with cheap, yet clean ad tasteful, lace curtains ng on each side. On one side of the room is a plain sofa-bed, which can be drawn out so as to make a double bed four feet wide, something over a foot higher than the floor. Commonly in Sweden beds are shut up during the day to half their length. The bed(ding is laid together on the single breadth of the soa, resembling a high single bnk, over which is laid a white cotton spread. On the opposite side is a wooen sofa of stained birch, the bottom of which can also be drawn out so as to form a double bed; and th. we are three or four wooden chairs. At one corner of the room is a plain stained bureau. A white cotton crochet is spread over the top, and on that are some little articles of china-a cup and saucer, or a vase, aD a couple of plated cadlesticks. Between the windows stands a table with a red woolen cover, and above it is a giltframed mirror. On the walls are two or three framed pictures, some little shelves for books suspended with a cord, and a cheap clock. In another corner of the roo is a small cupboard or dresser. In still another corner stands the earthen stove, and on the floor against it is placed a spit-box, the bottom of which is covered with spruce twigs. On the window-seats are several pots of flowers-theoleadertegeraniu,&. INFLUENCE OF A WORKMAN'S HOME. The influence which a workman's homre exerts on his own and his family's welfare is becoming inore and nmore recognized. Employers begin to uderstard that, in proportion as a workman's dwelling is ample in size, neat and attractive within, and wholesome in its surroundings, does his efficiency incree In Gothenburg, and perhaps in some other p)laces, share-companies have been formed for the building of model teements for the industrial classes, and a few buildings of the kind have already been putl up there. In all parts of the country a few of the principal employers are preparing to erect model dweliings, with the intention that their workmen may ultimately, by alnnual payments, become the owners of them. Sonic of the best model d wellings thatlIhave seen are at the china-ware factory at Gus. tafsberg, about two houra' distance. by steamer from Stockholmn. About a (lozen have already been erected, and it is the purpose of the proprietors to continue-their construction till the most of their hands-400-are supplied, thoug(h the old accommodations are as good as the average. The factory is situated in a retired and somewhat romantic region, on. what seeins more like a lake than a bay, yet with navigable communication witch the sea, and the model dwellings are five tyinutes' walk distant, with a view of the water, and 30 feet above its level. The land, of which 2,000 acres belong to the factory-owners, is zeoder'ately rolling, mostly open timber of birch and oak, w ith here and there a smiall pon3d, arid the, balance fields. The dwellings in question are pleasantly situated on,each side of a graded and mia~eadamtized roa, -~land:30 feet from it. Each house is designed for only two fammilies, arid is 46 feet long, 28 feet wide, and onle and a half stories high. They are, built of pine or spruce timber, in tasteful cottagre style, and are of light-brown color, being rstained so as toleave the grain of thiewood visible. They rest on solid stone or brick foundations. The walls are three-qtnarters of afoot in thicknaess. The outer boards are planed clapboards, two-thirds of an inch thick; next is a thickness of paper, such as is uased in house-building, then battens three inches thick, then paper, then boards, arid again thick paper, uhe latter forming the interior walls of the rooms, so that the~ whole constitute exceedingly dry and warm walls. The roof -is covered with wooden shing~es steeped in iron vitriol, which gives them a dlark color, and projects from the ends two feet from the walls, with sonic ornamental work on the ed(les. There is a brick chimney for each family near each end of the house. Each family has two entrances, at their own end of the house, fromt a veranda 18 feet by 5, two steps from the ground, and along which runs a neat balustrade. One door opens into the kitchen, the other into the sitting-room. There are three rooms to a family, namnely, kitchen, bed-room, and sitting-room. The kitchen is 13 by 13 feet, 9 feet high; bedroom ditto, with one wvindowa. The sitting-room is 18 by 15 feet, and 9 feet high, with, in sonic houses, one large window, in others two windows. Under each kitchen i~ a small cellar., There is also a garret for each family, reached by portable steps fromt the verantla. Good water is obtained from a well 5 feet deep on each lot. Trho closets stand several rods in rear of the houses, at the farthest edge, of the premises. The dwellings being partly experimental, the relative size, of the rooms varies in somne, thouigh each famnity has the Pill space as above given. But what is most striking atiout these dwellings is the land which each family has connected with their part of the house, and the beautiful flower-gardens, and nice, thrifty vegetable-gar LABOR IN SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 687 dens wi rrond them. Each family has the use of a quarter of an acre of good smooth grond, which is divided into a vegetable and a flower garden. There are no fences between the different gardens, but instead hedges have been planted between te different lots. There is a sipe rustic fence between them and the road. The gardener of the principal proprietor comes in the spring and assists the people in laying out their ardens, and the rest of the work is done by the housewife and children. The flower-gaes are prettilylaid out, with grass margins and graveled walks, and contain an abundance of nice flowers and shrubbery, also fine-bearing apple and l)ear trees. I noticed on September 8, on a young tree, handsome ruddy apples 2} inlches in diani. eter. Shade-trees have been planted on each side of the road. The occupants are charfed but 60 rix-dollars (16) a year for.rent, and this sum is about covered by the icoe from the vegetable garden. They also have free use of a nice hilly park, close to their prmises. The cost of each ose, exclusive of land, is $1,322, or 5,000 rix-dollars. Everything aot them is thorough and neat, and, with the ample space about them, their attractive surroundings of flowers and shrubbery, and their white lace curtais at the windows, they ight readily be taken as the homes of the well-to-do middle-class. Of course the oldest and best hands have the preference in obtaining such dwelling~s. FOOD. It can truly and happily e said that there is scarcely any adulterated food used in Sweden. The poorest people in tecouIry sometimes mix burnt-bread crumbs with their coffee, or use hiccory, of which there were 446,485 pounds imported in 1871, while the import of pure coffee in kernel was 20,693,734 pounds; but, with such slight exceptions, the food is pure. One ears no complaint of adulterated milk being sold in the arket-squares of Stockholm. A person may travel all over Sweden, atd find at convenient distances on every public road hotels that furnish clean, good, and palatable food. So of them, even in remote places, will be found luxurious. The meals at railway eatingstatios and on steamboats are habitually good. The pincipal articles of diet for the working-class in scarce times have been potatoes, rye-read, milk, salt herring, and a porridge of rye-meal, called " velling." In he past year or two, as wages ave risen, it has become common to consume salt pork fro the United States, which is considered a luxury as compared with salt fish. Mc of the rye-bread is of unbolted meal, and after baking is dried hard, so as to last many umonths. The herring used on the eastern coast, and perhaps half way to the Norwvegian boundary, are from the Baltic, Sea and Bothnia Gulf, and called "4striinioning."1 They are, about eight inches in length, and covered with sniall scales of a, shining, bluish color. When broiled quite fresh their flavor is not much inferior to that of a brook-trout. They are salted at home, and often, in the north part of the coun1try,,beconie half decayed during sonie days' transportation before getting to their destination. The Swedish working-people may be regarded as hearty eaters; yet, if their fare is copious, it is at the same timesimrple. In the towns it is perhaps an unfortunate habit of very niany workmen to take their meals and lunches at the common whisky-shops, wh-ere cold meats, sausages, and the like are always at band. The import kf Coffee shows an allowance of over five pounds to every inhabitant, and its use is excessive among a goodl many of the comrriou class, especially among the women. It is almost always well antl strongly made. It is common to take coffee soon after rising in. the inoruii~g. Breakfast, amoiig the industrial classes, is eaten at about 5 o'clock. B3y many coffee is taken again at I11, also at 4 p. m. Dinner is eaten at I p. ini., when the drink is usually beer. Bavarian becr, so called, though brewed in Stockholmn inl large quantities, is much liked, and sells by the dozen at S iire, say 21 cents per half bottle. There is, however, a cheaper and weaker beer, called "1svogdricker," wholesomely brewed, reasonably palatable, and used by poorer people. The sU1Pper will be taken at 6 o'clock, when oat or barley grits, thoroughly boiled, will be eaten with a little sugar or butter. In thelong sum miier days working-people usuially eat fouirtimes a day, a lunch being taken at 4 p. iu. Neither hot bread nior pies are ever eaten, nor is saleratus used in bread-mnaking. The practice of frying instead of boiling meat is universal. The "1smsrgasbord" is peculiarly Swedish. It is preliminary to any formal sittingdown meal, and answers for sharpenin~g-SOMetinies for satislyimig-the appetite. It is a daintily-arranged side table, oin which are set some small, thin slices of cold umeat, varieties of pickled fish, bread and butter, pickles, and, with very rare, exceptions, "1branvin," (Swedish whisky,) a white and somewhat flavored spi it. Medium-sized wine-glasses are set around the decanter, and after the mnen (for Swedish wonien 04o not dr-ink whisky) have taken a few mouthfuls of solid food, they pour out andl drink at a swa-llow a glass of whisky. While eating at this table, on which generally, in private families, there are also milk and beer, people stand or walk about. This table and the glass of whisky-sometimes two glasses-are in daily use among peoplei comfortable circumstances, and by the industrial classes on any syecial occasion, or 688 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. when their means will allow. At dinner-parties, among the more geteel, instead of the table being set, a part of its contents in ore delicate form, yet including the spirit, are passed around on waiters befbre the guests go in to dinner. RATION OF GARRISON SOLDIER. The rations for one hundred soldiers in the Swedish garrisons for one day, for example Sunday, are as follows: Soft rye-bread, 200 pounds; potatoes, 2 bushels; butter, 14~ pounds; salt herring, 18} pounds; fresh meat, 75 ponds; pease, dry, 10 quarts; bulled wheat, 10 pounds; barley-grits, 35 pounds; flour, pounds; a little pepper and salt. The ration varies in kind during the week, but quantities are issued averagig with the above. It will be seen that two pounds of bread are issued to each man daily, the Swedish pounld being a trifle less than the udavoirdupounis. Fortebreakfastthere are salt herrings four times in the week; boiled cod-fis, which has been dry-cured, twice; stewed pease four times, potatoes three times, butter three times. For dinner, fresh meat three times in the week, corned meat twice, salt eat once, fresh pork once, stewed pease every day, potatoes four times, ulled wheat three times, with a little flour, pepper and salt. For supper, daily, boiled barley-rits, with butter and salt. This ration is considered here as a strong one, and is sufficiently ample to admit of the exchange of a portion of it for coffee anted sugar, as the regulations perit, and the men in that way obtain coffee with loaf sugar every ornig before breakfast. No company savings are made from the ration. Its average cost per ay, singly, at government prices, is 56.12 5re, or 15 cents in gold. At retail prices, an in the quantities which working-people usually purchase, the cost would be 20 per cent. additional, namely, 67 ore, or 18 cents. The daily ration per man for such men as perform labor in the public workhouse of Stockholm, including those sent from the institution to clean the streets, is as follows: 1 pound of rye-bread, or as much as is required. Breakfast: pound pickled rring, l pound potatoes, + pound pease, 1 enyweigt butter, 3 pennyweights our, pints light beer, "svogdricker;" in winter, rve-porridge instead. Dinner: pound fres meat fr'ee of bone, I pound potatoes, 1 pints soup. Spper: 1 pint rye or barley grits, I pint light beer, with some variations i nd during the week. The following shows the daily fare for each boy at te Stockholm Istittion for Orphan Boys: 1 pound soft rye-bread. Breakfast: 1 pint rye-.eal porridge, 1 ounce butter. Dinner: 1 pint soup, J pound fresh m-eat free of bone, j pound potatoes. Supper: 1-1 pints barley-grits, j pint milk, with changes in kind during the week. The average cost of maintaininlg sick persons in all the public hospitals is 92.5 are each per day, or 25 cents. As a general rule, working-people do not consiume fresh meat oftener than once or twice a week, and it may fairly be assumed that subsistence, amountingr to double the quanitity of the ration of a garrison-soldier, as above specified, sonicwhat exceeds whrat an average industrial family, of husband, wife, and three children, are able to procure. A very common, nutritious, palatable, and at the same time cheap article of food consists of boiled oat-grits, eaten with milk; also, oat-meal porridge, made with milk and slightly sweetened. CITIES. Stockholm, the capital, has a population of 150,000, with a picturesque situation on the outlets of the Miilar Lake, and twenty miles from, the Baltic, with several ample, and charming1 parks in its environs; the deer-park, for example, being pronounced by competent judges as naturally the finest in Eur-ope. With numerous benevolent and learned insltitultionis and i-ich collections of art, with a fine opera in the Swedish language, with a fair commerce and growing mianufactures-a city founded on granite and built of bricks and of stone-it is the capital of the North, of which every Swede is proud, and may well be supposed an agreeable winter home for many of the country gentry. IGotbenburg, on the western coast, has 60,000 inhabitants, a good harbor, and comnMUnication with the interior by a canal, and two lines of railway, and without exaggeration may be pronounced a model city. Malm6i and Norrkbping have a population of about 30,000 each. Ten other cities have a population each of 10,000 and upward, while there are twenty others that have from four to ten thousand each. About 13 per cent. of the whole population live in towns. POPULATION AND RESOURCES. According to the census of 1871, the whole population of Sweden was then 4,204,171. It has trebled in the, last one hundred years. The commercial marine of Sweden in the saine year consisted of 3,495 vessels, with an aggi-egate tonnage of 367,614. The LABOR IN SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 689 ae of its imports the same year was $45,260,372, United States gold, and its exports $42,25,. The value of the exprt of grain was $10,791,600; of lumber, $17,446,576; of etal, $100,000. The production of pig-iron amounted to 337,363 tons. Thle value ofmanufactures and fabrics was $8,000,000, which sum, however, is under the actual value, and is exclusive, also, of the products of hand-trades, which are considered eqal in lue to "manufactures and fabrics." The agricultural crops in 1871, according to the statistics for that year, which are considered to be rather under the actual figures, were as follows: Wheat.................... imperial bushels. 589, 288 ~~~Rye ~~......................... — do.-.. 17, 92:1, 180 ~~~~~~Barley......................... do... 14, 443, 312 Oats-............................... do...... 37,063, 669 Mixed grain-.......................... do.. 4, 818, 605 ~~~Pea-se~~.......................... do.-. 1,639,384 ~~Bean~~s-............. do...... 227,524 B kwheat-d.......................... do.... 15, 277 Potatoes-o - 418............................ o................ 41, 48, 692 Other root-crops-do -4.........................do...... d, 40:1;, 677..Vetches, fodder of pea species. do.... 651,199 Hemp-................................... tons. 4, 720 ~~~~~Hay- ~~................................ do. 1,768, 2'20 SOCIAL STATISTICS. The number of households in 1870 was 1,017,323. Of these the number having but a single member was 131,565, a proportion that appears to beon the increase. The averae number in a household was within a small firaction of 5. In 1860 the average number was 6.80 The rate of mortality was 1.98 per cent. Eighteen per cent. of the morality was of infants under one year of age. During the ten years 1861 to 1870 the number Of ig children orn annually in proportion to every 1,000 inhabitants was' 3. Of these, the proportion of illegitimate births, including the whole killgdomn, was.85; but including only cities, the proportion of illegitimate was 14.32. Three and a quarter pr cent. of all births were still-born. During the ten years 1861 to 1870, the percentage of legitimate still-born was 3.13; of illegitimate still-born, 4.82. During the same period the average number of marriages annually in proporminr to every 10,000 inhabitants was 65.44 For the same lperiod the whole -number of divorces from marriagre was 1,301; of dissolution of betrothals, 1,549. The average number of suicides per year in piroportion to every 100,000 inhabitants was 8.04; numnber of deaths from drowning, 1,13; from accidental burning or scalding, 153; from accidental pi soning, 20;0from"I accidental suffocation, 146; from accidental shooting, 32; fromt cnmtu — sions, breaking of bones, and the like, 461. In 1870, the number of blind under twenty years of age was 400; of deaf and dumb, under the same agre, 1,500. The number of patients at the insane asylums was 1,247, of whomi 46 belonged to the first paying-class, 154 to the second, and 920 to the third, while 127 were at public charge. The number of poor wholly supported by the public was 85,147; the number assisted, but not wholly- supported by the public, was 119,'231. The average number of convicts in all the prisons In 1870 was 5,951. EDUCATION. Previous tol1842 there were as many as 786 schools; withb30,773 pupis. Compulsory education was established in 1842, and has operated very snccessfully. La the more sparsely-settled districts there are "1movable"1 schools; that is, the teacher holds a school for a few days or weeks in one part of a district and then for a certain time iu another part of it, which shows that there is always a way for a people tc be cdiicated, if they only have the disposition. In 1870 there were 1,164 such movable schools. The whole number of "folk " or common district schools the same year was 7,:303, attended by 555,595 pupils. In 1871 the number of male teachers of such schools was 5,029, of whom 52 were clergymen and 1,057 church clerks. The nember of femnale teachers was 2,7J76. Of the whole number of teachers, 838 were extra or assistants. Of the regular or ordinary teachers, 2,455 received the mDIinimum pa~y of 400 rix-dollars, a year, besides apartiments for lodgings, a piece of ground, and hay for a cow, which; minimum, beginning with next year, is to be 500 rix-dollars, and in five year's thereafter 600 rix-dollars, and only 715 received over the minimum pay. The number of schoolhonses was 4,413, with 2,166 gardens attached. The amount expended in 1871 for the, support of these schools was 3,537,968.62 rix-dollars, or nearly $1,00-0,000 gold. Of this. the principal part, or'2,573,927.58 rix-dollars, was contributed by parishes, 842,907 81 rix-dollars by the state, nnd 121,133.13 rix-dollars from interest on endowments. In 1870'' there were 98 high schools for boys, having 756 teachers and 12,755 pupils. 44 L 690 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. CLASS-DISTINCTIONS. Aristocratic birth here gives a person great preference socially and politically. The better offices are almnost exclusively held by theenumberofpersonsin Sweden of noble birth in 1855 was 11,742. Their political power as a distinct class ceased with the new constitution of 1866. The titles of count and baron, which of themselves are influential, are still used. In one ofthe guard-regiets the custom is still adhered to of appointing only noblemen as commissioned officers. There are five different orders of knigbtood, of which one confers rank equal to thatood of a cabinet minister. Tjtl, s are much used. In addressig a person i ritig his title, profession, or occupation is prefixed to his name so that if a an is a shoemaker it is as natural to address him by that title as to address a captain as captain. Even the surnames of peopl)le have a signification of caste. Thenoblesgeerallyhavenamsborrowved from animals, as "Lionhead," or from some heroic device, such as a shieldu while the names of the unnoble are more frequently taken fromobjects ofnatre, such as Meadowstl camrn," "Rockstream," and the like. On theoter andtepeaatsverygeneraly have theword " son"attached to their namnes. Itwouldbesingularpeapsiaperson should rise to the rafik of prime minister with an uoble nam. If we go a g the peasantry, we shall find that even they are a sortof aristocracy as compared with a class below them..What is technically the peasant is in Swedish onde, and implie one of the class of countrymen who own and cultivate moderate-sized farms. Below him in social rank is the "torpar," or cottager, a man with family, who hires a house and small patch of land, which he pays for by so ny days' work every week. A house man-servant is called a "betjent," and an otdor hired man a A servant-girl of lowest rank, who does some otdoor work, is a pia" the ordiary house-maid a "jungfru,"' and a maid intrusted with some responsibility and workig with a seamstress a " lamsel." A young unmarriedladyisaddressedas"rikente wife of a workman as "madam," and of a gentlean as f. Fashion seems more favorable to youg men than to young women. The latter, if,emnployed as kitchen or house servants, generally wear black silk kerchiefs closely,pinned over their heads, but not hats or bonnets, notwithstanding that the law prescribing their dress was several years ago repealed. Yougmeninthehumblestocpation can appear, when wearing their best clothes, in thedressofagentlea. thecountry the workingnitan, of whatever trade, wears a leather apron, which extends from over his breast to below his knees. The relations between the higher classes and those in humble life, and between employer and employed, are decidedly kind. Indeed, it is almost universal to address srator those of whom any act of service is desie,as"ill"mcnngvrcpble and serviceable, and in rather a beseeching tone. In the winter, family-servants among the.wealthy are allowed fires in their rooms, two servants generally occupying a roomn together. The whipping of persons in service was abolished by lavw in 1855, and the whipping of soldiers in 1868. SALARIES. The highest salaries are paid to foreign ministers. The annual salary of the minister to. London is $17,011, and the same for the minister at, Paris;- the m nister to St. Petersburg receives $15,957; to Berlin, $10,000; to Copenhagen, $10,000. The minister of foreig-n affairs receives a salary of $6,3871 an~d a furnished house. The other members Of thle cabinet who are chiefs of the departments receive $4,000. a year; those not chiefs of departnients, $3,500. The pay of first under-secretaries is $1,462 a year; the King's attorney-general, $1,835; judges of the supreme court, $2,127 each; flhe directors-general of prisons, posts,, telegraphs, and the president of the board of health, $2,127 each; the director-ge~neral of railways, auditors-general, and directors-general of customs, $2,393 ea~ch; the chief engineer of railways, $2,659; the surveyor-general, $1,595; the director-general of forests, $1,835; the attorney general of the Diet, $1,835; accountants, Irom $500 to $930; copyists, $267; a general in command, $2,393; colonels, from $1,433 to $ 1,962; captains, from $319 to $1,117; lieutenan ts, from $80 to $516. In most cases pensions, after long and meritorious service, are paid. The constitution prohibits removals froam —ofilce without, good cause, excepting those officers of a confidential character, such as the heads of departments or bureaus and first uindr-secretaries. IThe latest published statistics on this head are for the year 1866, those for 1870 being in course of publication. IIn 1860 the number of persons of both sexes employed in the various occupations were as follows as to each: Agricultu re, iencuding fisheries, 664,063; mining and productive industry, 1744,073;-commerce and trade, 210,431; transportation, 21,054; personal service, 93,350; -sick care, 2,371; instruction, 7,400; church service, 5,773; state and local administration, 9,392; army and navy service, 39,690. "The miore thoroughly labor is divided, the higher naturally will he the degree of skill.'In the goverunment musket-factory, and, indeed, in all inustisweeahg LABOR IN SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 691 degree of skill as been attained, the division of labor will be found very extensive. Sweishskillintheprodctionofiro nd steel is widely acknowledged. In the maiinufacture of chinaware, of paper from wood, and of matches, much skill is shown. A match-factory at Jkping Consumes 40,000 worth of timber, principally poplar, yearly in matches, and ships Off oe and a half car-loads of matches daily. It pays every yearearly$100,000inwages. TeSwedish laws prohibit the employment of children uner twelve years of age in any factory. Operatives under eighteen years of age are prohibited from being eployed in any factory at night. It is in only a few had-trades as yet in which m( re than ordinary skill is to be seen. BootshoweverearlyasgoodstheFrench, are ma(le in Stockholm. Agreat part of teclohusedythecoutry-peoleiswoven at home by women. Co-operative labor has ately been introduced with success in the production of butter and cheese. Sewing-nchinesarecomon. Durigthepresent year a number of American agricultural machines have bee introduced into the country. u out-doorworkisstilldoebywomen. Besides d(oing certain kinds of farming work, they are also geneally employed as tenders to bricklayers; they prepare the moa and carry it in buckets. Tey sometimes carry bricks, which is done with a rope over their oulders. Tey are freqnently to bt- seen hauling small carts in the street, and especially in hauling washing to an(l fioom the quays, it being the practice al over Sweden to take clothes, att r they have been partly washed, to some stlream or lakeandthereinseadbeatthem. Sunmer anld winter, thereftore, women mtay beseen on their knees ow by the water's edge, on platlorms specially designed for the purpose, in this occupation. In most of the large manutfactories the coarsest ofithe drudgery is done by women. The law has not yet given the wife control of her earnings. MINING AND MA FACTUIRING INDUSTRIES IN 1871. The following statement of the preducets of the mining and manufacturing industry of Sweden in 1871, was obtained firom another source: The number of iron-mines in operation in. Sweden during the year 1871 was 487, from which n36,453.15 tons of ore we- btied, (besides 15,509.54 tons of argillaceous ironstone.) This is the largest annual yield ever recorded in that country. The products of the iron Manufacture were as follows: Tons. Pig-iron.........29:3, 968.85 Bar-iron-184, 696.45 Cast, iron. —......12, otr16.45 Steel..8, 3t*J05 Sheet-iron..6, 455.66 1Nails......................................6, 0316.83 Ocher manufactures of roo..14, 079. 72 Of gold, silver, copper, nickel, and lead, the foll1owing quantities were produced: Gold.......................... 13.38 pounds avoirdupois. Silver.-2,147.78 pounds avoirdupcis. Nickel...40,568 86 pounds avoirdupois. Copper...1, 398.18 tons. Lead...87.67 tons. The total number of factories in operation during the same year was 2,205, employing 40,4-~0 hands, andl the aggreg-ate value -of the manulactured products ot these amonntedl to $29,002,7930, of which the, percentage from each of the principal branches is exhibited as follows: Per cent. Cotton-factories................................:. 0 Sug(ar-refineries.16. 2 Woolemn-umihls. 10. 8 Iron-works -...................................10. 3 Tobacep-fiactorlies.. 6. 7 Leathei-fatctories.......5. 0 Paper-miills......................5.0 Match-tactories..................................2. 5 All other branches...............................20. $ 100 3 692 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. CONDITION OF. THE WORKING-CLASSES IN SWEDEN. Although Mr. Andrews has indicated in the foregoing report the con. dition of the laboring classes in Sweden, yet the following categorical replies to the questions submitted by the author afford, in a concise form, information of value: A report on the condition of the working-people of Sweden in reply to questions from the Chief of the Bureau of Stattistics. I. They are industrious. II. Probably 40 per cent. of the males are intemperate. III. They lose about two days a week in consequence. IV. The comforts of their families are seriously abridged by the loss of time and money occasioned by drink, yet more, probably, by that moral degradation and wretchedness occasioned where the head of the famnily is a drunkard. V. The condition of the rooms of the working-people is in general tidy. VI. It is common for one family to occupy one room besides a small kitchen. V1Ii. The advances in wages which have occurred in the past two years have on the whole resulted to the advantage of the families of the workmen. STOCKHOLM, December 15, 1874. NORWAY. The manufactures of Norway are unimportant. Wood and fish are the chief products of the country; and these find their way to every part of Europe, chiefly in Norwegian vessels, which in return bring home whatever foreign articles are required at the cheapest possible rate of freight. The import duties are very moderate. Before the importer pays his duties he is allowed to take his goods to his own warehouse or shop, on giving security for the amount of the duties ascertained by the custom-house officers on landing. le also keeps an account of his sales, and pays the duty every three months on the quantity which appears to be sold. Coffee, sugar, tea, liquors, tobacco, and some spices, are the principal articles for which the housekeeper has to disburse money; the other necessaries of life are produced by themselves. Shoes, furniture, clothes, and the like, are all made at home. Looms are at work in almost every house in the country. Carding, spinning, weaving, trimming, constitute the occupation of the female part of the household. Woolen cloth, substantial but coarse, excellent bed and table linen and checked or striped cotton or linen for female apparel, are the ordinary fabrics produced. These home-made stuffs, including boots, gloves, and, in bad weather, great-coats, clothe the greater part of the inhabitants with more comfort than is the case with the lower and middle classes of people in most other countries. The upper classes dress as in other parts of Europe. The principal articles of export are timber, bark, iron, copper, fish, and some others. The principal articles of import are corn, colonial produce, woolen, linen, and cotton goods, wine, brandy, and some others. RATES OF WAGES IN 1871. The following statements, showing the rates of wages paid for farm, mechanical, and factory labor in Norway in the year 1871, were chiefly obtained from the British consular reports: LABOR IN SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 693 Table showing the weekly earnings of work-people employed in agriculture. [Computed in United States gold.] ymmMini- Maxi- mployment. Mini- MaxiEmployment. Mini- Mai m. m MUM. murn. Inurn. mum. Agricultural laborers.......... $1 26 $1 92 Man, horse, and cart............. $5 10 $5 76 ead-ard.................. 2 70 3 72 Dressing wood for shipment.. 3 84 4 26 Laborers........... 1 94 2 12 Common laborers at dressing Women weeders................. 1 26 1 60 wood for shipment............ 2 12 2 54 Weekly rates of wages in woolen-factories. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~... Mini- Maxi-. Employment. mum. MUM. Employment. Mn. Maum.i Wool-sorters, women.................. $2 12 Dressers: Wool-washers.......................... 3 20 Foremen............................ $6 40.Overseers........................ 6 40 Fullers...... 3 20 Assistants.......... $3 20 4 26 Dressers or giggers............. 3 20 Carders.................... 3 20 4 26 Finishers: Men................................. 3 20 Spinners: Women.....................2........ 12 Bo........................... 2 12 Press-tenders........................... 3 2 Fore.......................... 6 40 Drawers......................-.... 3 20 Warper and beamers........... 3 20 4 26 Brushers............................... 2 12 eelers................ 2 12 Packers................................ 3 22 verseers, (British)............. 14 40 Overseers............................... 6 40 Assistants.................. 3 20 4 26 Assistants...................... $3 20 4 26 Weavers................... 2 12 3 20 Engineers-foremen............. 4 26 Blers........................... 2 12 Mechanics..................... 4 26 6 40 Overseers.......................... 6 40 Laborers................................. 3 20 Weekly rate of wages in cotton-mills. Emlyment. Mini- Maxi- mploymeMini- Max, Employment.mum. mum. Employment. Mini- MiUi. mum. mu m. ~~~~mum, mum. Carding department: Dressing department-Cont'd. Oveseer..................... $6 40 Drawers and twisters........ $2 12 $3 20 Picker-tenders...................... 2 56 Dressers and twisters....... 3 20 4 26 Drawin-frame tenders............... 1 70 Weaving department: Picker-boys.......................... 1 48 Overseers................... 5 32 6 40 Grinders................... 3 20 WVeavers.................... 2 12 3 20 Strippers................... 3 20 Drawers in hand............ 2 12 3 20 Spinning department: Repair-engine room: Overseer.................. $4 26 5 32 Iron-woikers........................ 4 26 Mle-spiners....................... 1 70 0 Engineer............................ 6 40 Mae-bacside piecers............... 1 48 Laborers........................... 3 20 Frame-spinners................... 1 48 Cloth-room: Dressing department: Overseer.................... 4 26 6 40 Spoolers, women............. 2 12 Second-hand -...,. 3 20 Warpers........... 320 4 26 It is to'be observed that cotton and woolen goods in this country are all of a second or third rate quality, none being manufactured of a firstrate quality. Weekly wages in paper-mills. Employment. Mini. Maxi-Emlyet ai mum. mum. Epomn.MiUM- MaUi. Machine-tenders-.........$3 87 $5 37 Bleachers-............$2 58 -.... Assistant tenders-........ 2 58 3 22 Sizers................-. 2 58..... Rag-cutters: Carpenters-............ 3 87. —-- Men.............. 2 58 -.....Blacksmiths........... 3 87.... Women............ 1 28 2 14 Carters-.............. 2 58..... Enginemen-............ 3 22 3 87 Boiys 1.............. I61.... Assistants............. 2 58 3 22 694 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Weekly wages in sail-cloth manufactories. Employment. Ep.Mini- ax Employment. Mini- Maxi- M Mu. mum. mum. mum. MU Hacklilers..................... $3 87...... Weaving, by the piece, 36 Womlen, spinnters, twiners, and yards -......................... $0 19 $0 21 preparers................... $1 53 Hushing or crashing, by the Children................................ 76 piece, 40 yards........... 19 21 The sail-cloth manufactory in (Christiania employs about 500 people and appears based on the Dundee system; earnings much the same as in Scotland, but skilled labor proportionately not so good. Two English ibremen receive, respectively,. ~200 and ~300. Weekly wages in iron-founderies and machine-shops. Employment. Mini. Maxi. Employment. Mini- Ma mum. mum. Mme. M MM Skilled draughtsmen............. $9 68 $17 42 Pattern-makers................. $5 16 $5 97 Mechanics: Molders...................... 3 22 5 97 Best......................... 5 16 6 45 Joiners.......................... 3 87 5 16 Second..................... 3 87 4 96 Joiners' assistants............... 2 56 2 90 Ordinary..................... 56 2 90 Laborers, carters, &c............ 2 56 2 90 Blacksmiths..................... 5 16 5 81 Apprentices and boys............ 1 29 2 1 Blacksmiths' assistants.......... 2 56 3 i4 Brass-loundlers.................. 3 22 4 29 Riveters............ 2 56 3 14 Brass-turners................... 3 22 429 Holders, &c...................... 2 8 2 78 Millwrights..................... 4 29 5 36 Boiler-makers.................... 4 29 5 36 Millwioights' assistants...... 2 56 3 22 Boiler-makers' assistants......... 2 56 3 22 Engineers...................... 6 17 12 90 Weekly wages in the building-trade and its branches. [Working-hoars per day, 10. When-on contract, in the summer, men frequently work from 14 to 16 hours per day andl receive wages in proportion.] El mployment. Mi mployment. MM ii- M mumum.um. mulle. MnilMi Honse-carpenters, (according to S miths.......................... $3 85 $5 36 proficiency) ---- ------------ $3 87 $6 45 Brick-makers.................... 3 22 3 8 Sawyers and timber-huggers, (ac- Brick-makers' foremen......... 4 29 6 45 cording to proficiency). —-- 2 56 5 14 Common laborers................ 1 94 2 56 Joiners, (according to proficiency) 3 87 5 14 Builders' foremen............... 6 45 9 68 Common joiners.................. 3 65 4 49 Journeymen cabinet-makers..... 4 49 7 7 Stonecutters ---------- 3 87 6 45 Plasterers............... 3 2'2 3 87 Quar rr ymen, (furnished with tools) 2 56 3 87 Cornice-makers, &c.............. 5 36 8 06 Bricklayers....................... 3 87 6 45 Shipwrights..................... 5 14 6 45 Masons.......................... 2 86 3 22 Painters......................... 2 56 3 87 Tile-layers... -................... 3 87 6 45 Plumbers....................... 3'22 4 29 Monthly rate of wages of railway-officials, 1870. Emlyet n-X~x-Employment. Mini- Maximum, mum. Epomn.mini- MaxiTraffic, department: Locomnotive-dipartment-Cont'd. Station-masters, (some with Firemen-..........$19 36 $2-2 50 percentages) -..__.~.....$16 13 $43 0-2 Mech;,uics, smiths, carpenGood clerkOs at principal sta- ters...............15 00 123 72 tions ----------— 14 03 26 86 Labhorers-...........10 65 15 00 Chief' telegraph and booking Foremen.. -.........26 -86 37 51 clerks —---------- 8 47 23 72 Permanent way: Telegraph-clerks at interme- Foremen plate-layers-.....15 00 21 54 (1iate stations -........ 4 96 8 47 Plate-laycrs....1-.... 2 83 14 03 Porters —...............13 07 Laborers...........10 89 1-2 83 Foremen of goods stations.... 12 83 17 18 Steamhboat-service: Horse dirivers-.............. 14 03 Captains-...........26 86 44 77 Head gunards, (with mileage Mates -—.............. 21 54 anid extra tOr Sundays)....- 15 00 26 86 Engineers.. -........32 18 37 75'Uniler-grrards, (with mileage Firemen-...........14 03 36 21 and extra for Sundays) -...12 83 17 18 Sailors-................12 83 14 03 Locomotive (l(partment: Clerks in chief office and workEngine-driv~ers-........37 51 45 25 shops-.............12 83 43 08 LABOR IN SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 695 Weekly ages of shipwrights, rope-makers, and sail-makcrs. [ m ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. _nl.iim Formn........$6 46 $12 90 Calkers......................... $1 70 Assi'stant foremen.............to.n5 14 lalaborers................-........ 2 54....... Master-rig-ers -.......... 6 46 ------- Boys-1.............. 29 $18 ~~Shipwrig8hts -- 3............................ 23 3 879 onthesly rate of ae of miners, quarrymen, 4-c. Mini E- Maxi- l Mini- MaxiEmployment. intim mpm. Employment. mm. mum. Miners.. -$.... 7 74 $8 59 Quarrymen (working per fath- Miners e tuwork or otrat 8 59 12 ) of stone................... $S 59 12 90 Cobbersa splrs, (per barrel) 4 29 6 45 Smelters....................... 9 6t 12 90 Common labores-5 12 5 36 Chemical-workers............... 18 14 56 Weekly waes of gas uworkers and fitters. almMum. mum. Employment. Mini- Maxi]L IH. u..IIMUM~. 1LI1illll Ei~~~~p~~~oyment. M~ ~ ~ ~~~~~3ini- Maxi- unmm Firemen — $.......... 3 2-2 3 75 Gas-fitters...................... 2 90 $5 14 P-iiers — 2.......... 56 3 t7 1Layers of main gas and water Engineers - - —............ 4 49 i pip, s......................... 3 87 5 14 Carpenter............... 3.... Lanp-lighters................... 1 09...... Bricklayers —....... 3 87- -... ILaborers........................ 13 2 56 Elach s........... 9 Boyas............................ 1 61 1 94 Pipe-layers —...2 90 3 55 Foremen........................ 3 87 4 29 eekly wages ofjourneymen-hatters. Employment. Mini- Maxi. Employment. Mini- Maximum, mumU. mumr_. MUM. Hat-makers —...........$3 75 $4 29 Common workmen -........$-2 38 $3 22 Finisihers, blackiers, &e -....... 4 29 5 36 Foremen-............. 6 46'7 52 Engrineer-workwen - -........ 4 29 5 36 Weekly soages of printers, bookbinders, and type-founiders. Employment.Mini- Maxi-Emlyet Mini- MlaxiEmployment. m~~i urn,.t muM. EM loyentlmu. mlluM. Printers: Bo o kbi nd(e r s-Con tin ued. -___ Type-setters -.........$4 29 $5 3 6 Journeymen -......... 3 6:3 - 4 84 Printers.. -.......... 3 23 5:36 Girls-............ 1 7-2 I 2 36 Boys-............. 1 07 2 13 Type-forunders: 64 Girls. —---------------- 1 2 9 Journeymen......... 42 64 Bookibinders: I Griniders-........... 2 14 2 92 Gliders-............4 84 5 36 Boys-............. 54 1 61, W~ages'in iniscella'oeonts tr-odes. Employment. Mini- Maxi- Employment. Mini- Mr-ximum, mum. MUM. mnump. Tailors and shoemakers: Dress-mnakers, (ueedle-wo-men,l Journeymen ---— per day.. 0O 64 $0 84 pinr day ~.. —......... $0 10 $920 Workmen -.......do. - -. 30 4-2 Office-clerks...... —-per annum. 5 421 5:1 52 Apprenltices -......do. -- 18 26 Sh~opmuen.-d —----— (o. - _.. 5 4-2 26 64 Painters and glaziers: Footmen, (with board and livJourneymen -......do... 42 54 erv)peanu. 3 20 4 36 Boys-..........do....- 20 34 Coachmen, (with board andi liv. Bakers: cry) -........per annumn. 3 15 4 36 Journeymen -......do.... 66 84 Women-cookis-.......do.. - 2 4-2 3 59 Bovs -..........do.... 18 24 MAaid-servants.. —---— do.... 9:3 2 18 Elrrand-boys.........do —. 18 24 jCartman and horse. per day..' 90 1 32 696 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. CONDITION OF THE INDUSTRIAL CLASSES IN NORWAY. The following is condensed from the report of Hon. C. C. Andrews, TUnited States minister resident at Stockholm, under date of September 24, 1873: Th'e fact that Norway is united with Sweden under the same crown seems to have led many people into a misapprehension as to the true political situation of the bformer. Nerway is a perfectly independent state, having her own separate written constitution, her own separate legislature, cabinet, administration, system of revenue, army, navy, and flag. Even if Sweden stould be engaged in a foreign war, Norway would not necessarily be involved. The Norwegian language, though similar to the Danish, diffie(rs much from the Swedish, and it can be said that Norway has a literature peculiarly her own; so also of her coinage, weights, and measures. The population (of Norway in 1871 was 1,753,000. The number of landed estates in 1869 was 147453, an(l the number 6f such estates cultivated l)by owners was 131,780, which shows a fair division of property as compared with many European statt s. The sanme year the public expenses for the support of the poor was in country districts 883,000 species, (dollars,) and in the cities 454,000 species. In the country districts the number (f poor was 38 to every 1,000 inhabitants. During the period, 1862-'66, the number of convicted criminals was 11 to every 1,000 inhabitants. The classification of persons who had the right of suffrage in 1868 is as follows: Farm-owners, 95,764; tenants, (husmen,) 237; nomads, 172; mill and facteory owners, 128; artisans, 6,907; journeymen, 394; merchants and shilppers, 5,509; clerlks, 2::3; masters and mates of vessels, 3,784; sailors and fishermen, 4,188; wagonlers, 164; laborers, 5,023; officials and pensioned officials, 2,265; persons in public service, 2,(t;I, of whom 877 were in church and school service, 216 in the military, and 1,572 in other service. Next to agriculture the principal industries are navigation, the fisheries, lumbering, riniingr, and the common hand-trades. The state industrial exhibition ab Dramuien, which I visited, showed a creditable development of mechanical industry. AGRICULTURE. The common farm-owners in Norway till the soil themselves, with the assistance of their tenants, a class of people called "husinen." The number of husmen in 1865 was 60,330, of wl om many since then have emigrated to the United States. They hire froimn the "gIIardman," or farm-owner, a patch of land that will keep one or two cows and a few sheep, for which and the simple cot in which they live they have to pay a certain number of dlays' work in each season of the sear. The manure made at their barns goes upon the farmer's land. They are so much in the power of the owners that they cannot make reasonable bargains for the payment of rent in money. At home they and their families live chiefly on herring and( barley-bread. In most of their houses a barrel of sour whey is kept over for the winter, with which to mix their barley-meal. They scarcely have fresh meat, except perhaps at Christmas, and their diet is extremely frugal. In 1869, when Rio coffee was cheap, it was used by them, but since its rise there are many who have to abstain from it. The cots of these husuhen will somnetimes be seen far up in a little scallop or natural shelf on the steep mountain side,.where it seems daogerous to attempt to dwell. Not only are sheep and cattle pastured wherever there is a green patch on the acelivities of the mountains, but even grass is cut and hay made and lowered on ropes or wires. The condition of the agricultural laborer, as well as his wages, varies, of course, according to whether he is located in a secluded, a poor, a fertile, or a wealthy region. About the Miisen Lake the soil is so rich as not to require manuring. Undoubtedly there are several districts where the condition of the agricultural laborers is better than that of the husmen above described. But generally their homes are very seantily provided. In sonie localities, such as Setursdal, in the south central part of the country, people are said to live in the same manner they (lid three centuries ago. A good deal of agricultural work all over the country is done by women. As in Sweden, women have not by law control of their earnings; and here it may be said that the practice of so much field-work by women causes the house to look less tidy. The practice of scrubbing floors is not so common as in Sweden. In Norway, too, the roofs of the dwellings of the poorer country-people are covered with turf; on which the grass springs up. At Vossevangen, during the present harvest-season, good agricultural workmen earn at day-work in the field 31 cents a day and board; without board, from 42 to 55 cents a day. At Gudvangen, in the same section of country, the wages of a capable lad of nineteen years at miscellaneous work were 12 species and board for six monLths, including the summer. In Laerdal, the wages of good farm-workmen are seven species a LABOR IN SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 697 month and board during the su er, and 5 species a month and board during the winter, which would be at the rate of 28 cents per day in summer and 21 cents perday in winter with board. In the vicinity of the larger towns wages would be from 50 to 75 per cent. higher. FISHERIB S. The two Principal fisheries are the cod and herring. The latter, carried on along the western coast south and north of Bergen, has from the oldest times been considered one of the chief resources of the countr. The so-called spring fishery, beginning iD.January, eploys50,00 persons for about two months, with a product usually of 800,000 barrels. The autmn errig-fishery is less productive; the sprinlg-catch of 1870 was only 160,000 barrels; that of 1869, 680000 barrels, valued at 24 species a barrel. A m te calculation of the expenses Of the fishery for that season, made by the governor of the South Bergen Diet, shows that the earnings of each fisherman in the lastmentioned catch were only 3 cents a day, and that the industry is a loss rather than a benefit to the country. The cod-fisheries appear to be more profitable. They are divided into the sea-cod fishery and the ba or fjord fishery. The latter, of less extent, is carried on during all Mots of the year, though least in summer. In this division may be classed the Romsdal cod-fishery, which occupies the latter part of the spring, and which in 1870 yielded 3,000,C00 fish. The two great sea-cod fisheries are the Lofoden and the Finmark. The former begins about the middle of January and lasts till the middle of April. The average number of persons emloyed in it is 22,000, with 5,500 boats, and the average catch,00000 fish. being the lagest cod that are caught. The Fiumark fishery begins later in the spig ad finises about the last of May. The catch amounts to from 11000,000 to 15,000,000 ish which are smaller than the Lofoden, and resemble those caght of Labrador. * * * * * The Cloti of the Lofoden is coarse woolen; also, goat-skin coat and trowsers, and long bos up to their hips; usually a tarpaulin-hat, sometimes a red cap. Fishgano is ade from the ead and back of the cod, and has become a considerable article of export to Germany. In 1869, 117 vessels and boats, with 558 men, engaged in the shark-fishery in the Arctic Sea, taking 7,277 barrels of liver for oil, worth 44,000 species. The same year, 268 mon with 27 vessels, ammerfist, cleared 45,000 species in seals and walrus oft Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen.' The product of the seal-fisheries to the Ice Sea is estimiated at 400,000 species a year. WAGES OF MECHANICS1 THEIR HOMES, EXPENSES OF LIVING, ETC. In Christiania, ship-builders earn 3 marks, (64 cents,) the highest 3J marks, (75 cents,) a day, (it hours' actual work;) gas-workers, 2J marks (52k cents) per day, working five days in the week; best bricklayers, by piece, 4 marks (84 cents) to 1 specie ($1.06) per day. One or two fishing-stations in the south part of the island have nearly 4,000 fishermen. In the large cotton and woolen factory of Mr. H. Schon, employ ing 600 operatives, of whom. two-th~irds are women and one-third are men, the latter earn from 3 species to 6 species a week, and on an average 4 species per week; the former firom 2 species to 4 species a week, or on an average, 3 species a week., One-third of the, operatives are Swedes, and are more economical than the Norwegians. Not more than. 10 per cent, of the operatives make deposits in the savings-banks. Perhaps two dozen own the dwellings which they occupy. The lproprietox donated 1.0,000 specie dollars as the basis of a fund for the benefit Of aged and enreebled operatives, on the condition that each operative who is to have the benefit of it shall contiibute 21 skillingos on every 120 skillings (1 specie) of his or her earnings. Four hundred out of 600 operatives are contributors to the fund. At the iron mnachine-foundery and ship-building works in Throndhiem, employing, 300 hands, (with a branch acarer the sea employing 90 hands,) and where the actual working time is 10 hours a day, the work-master has (iOO species a year and 12 skillings (11 cents) an hour for extra time. The foremnen-one for every shop-have 400 species eac year providing 50 men are under him, and 300 species each a, year if less than 50. The highest wages paid to a few skilled workmen are 1 specie ($1.06) a day; the average wages of workmj~en are fr-omlhalf aspecie (54 cenits)to 3 irarks (65 cents) aday. Boys receive15 skilhu~gs (11 cents) a day. Omme day's wages are retained by the employers every week to insure the giving eight days' notice of leaving; the rule as to notice being mutual. Four skillings a week are retained from each man's wages for the sick-fund; and in case of sickness a workman geti 1 specie dollar a week for six weeks,, and in case of death 5 species for burial. There is a singing-class connected wvith the shops. Only a few ot the workmen are absent on Monday on account of' drink. The manager at the works stated that the nuamber so absent was not enough to cause complaint 698 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. The average cost of rent in the neighborhood was stated to be from 2 to 3 species a month for a kitchen (by which is meant a very small cooking-room and not large enough to live in) and living-room. The following is a brief description of some of the homes of these workmen which I visited in company with the shop-mnanager, Mr. Olsen: 1. Quarters of a workman about forty-six years old, earning species a week, having a family of a wife and five children, three of whom are small avd at home, the other two, respectively sixteen and eighteen years of age, earn their oard but not their clothing; all live and lodge at home. The apartments are reached by some rather steep stairs outside of the house from the yard. There is a small etry, a kitchen used by two families, and a living-room 12 feet wid3 by 15 feet long and 6 feet high. There are two windows, with short lace curtains across the top; a clean scrbbed floor; a bed made up as a single one; a woden sofa or settee that could be sed for a bedstead a table, cupboard, clock, pictures, flowers. There is a cellar to the premises. The et is 18 species a year, which is cheap, and the sane family have occupied the apartments ten years. It requires all he can earn, the wokmanstatestospporthisainly. 2. The quarters of another family include the sae kitchen as the last, a living-room 9 feet wide by 10 feet long and 6 feet high, with close, sfocating air. The workman's family consists of a wife and two small children. He earns 3 pecies a week, but lays up nothing. He pays 14. species a year for rent. The floor is clean scrubbed there are short lace curtains at the window; a white knit cotton over over asall bureau; also flowers and plants, as in the last family; the housewife had a tidy apper ance. 3. The third quarters visited were in a wooden house, owned by the workman, occupant. The house is one and one-half stories high, has a cellar, yard with tidy graveled walks, and out-building or shed. There is a fair-sized kitchen and comfortable liviroom, with painted floor, hair-cloth sofa and chairs, remarkably neat white bedspread and calico curtains, many pictures and photographs on the walls, plants in pots, three windows with lace curtains, a very bright, nice-lookig wife,-ad four handsoe children. The man pays 10 species a year ground-rent and 3 species for taxes. e lets another of his ro ans to a tidy mechanic for lodging. His house cost 0 species; li owes about 100 species on it, and pays 20 species a year. Fuel costs 20 species a year. In his house, as in all others, high, narrow iron stoves are used. 4. The fourth home visited was at a house owned by its occupant a orkn, who earns 6 species a week. There are six rooms, two kitchens, a cellar, out-houses, ard yard. Tile sitting-room 10 feet wide 18 feet long and 6J feet high, painted floor, strips of caipet over it, neat table and cloth cover, mahogany secretary and drawers, blackwalnut-vencered bureau, black hair-cloth chairs and sofa, pictures, lace curtains at the -windows, neat and tasteful in all respects; his family, a wife and twQ children. At the iron machine and ship-building works at Bergen, wvhich were visited in August, 500 men are euiployed eleven hours a (lay in actual labor. The foreman receives 30 species ($31.80) a month. About 20 of the more skillful hand s receive from 4 marks (86 cents) to 1 specie ($1.06) a day. The average pay of workmen is 3 marks 12 skilIlings, (76 cents,) to 3 marks 18 skillings, (81 cents,) which is probably as high an averagre for mechanical labor as is paid in any part of the country. For overtime 12~ skillings an hour are paid. Three days' wages are retained by the employers at each weekly payday. Twenty skillings (18 cents) are retained for the sick-fund, and in case of sickness a worl~nian receives 6 marks ($1.29) a week when sick, and in case of death 10 species for burial. A couple of skilled workmen concurred in the statement that fresh meat is used by the families of workmen two or three times a week, and costs 12 skillings (11 cents) a pound; that coffee is used there three times a day; that tobacco for chewing (for nearly all Norwegian workmen chew tobacco) costs twenty skillings (18 cents) a week; that workmen, on an average,, spend 3 marks (65 cents) a week for spirits or beer, the greater part of the sumi being for beer; that some Workmen spend 2 species ($2.12) a week fex drink; that including Sundays, holidays, and the time the shops are closed for repairs, usually at the time of the mid-sumnmer or Christmas holidays, there are eighty non-wrorkitng days in the year, which the workman loses; that a majority of work-.men do not attend any church; and that. only a few save money'. The homes of a. foreman and a workman were here visited. The first was in a house owned by the foreman himself, whose family consisted of six members. Their apartnients were three rooms, the larger one used for a sitting-room, being 141 by 12, and 8 feet 1igb; the floor was painted; here were nice-looking lace curtains to the windows, a neat sofa, table, &e., and were better apartments than, working-people usually have. Other rooms in the house were rented out. The other apartments were occupied by the fa~mily.of a workman, who earns a speciedollar a day, aiid were in a cheerless frame, building, having no fence about it, tier trace of cultivation, even to a shrub. The apartments were in the second story, and reached by a steep pair of stairs from the rea r. First was a fair-sized entry, used by diflerer-t families; next was the kitchen, 4 by 9, and 8 feet high, in which was a small LABOR IN SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 699 iron stove; one window; the floor unpainted and unscrubbed. The living-room was 12 by, and 8 feet high, with twoindows, but no curtains. 0u o}ie of the wiudowseats were several pots of plants. There were some cheap pictures on the walls; a bed made up singly, an iron stove, a small cupboard. There was another room, 5 feet long by about 4 feet wide, without any window or any light, and on the floor, in a heap, were some loose straw and what seemed to be a bed-quilt-a room used for sleeping. There is no cellar to the house. The workman was a man of fair appearance, and apparently well disposed; the wife was of ordinary appearance. They have five children the eldest a daughter, about eighteen, earns 24 skillings a day in a et fi.ctory; a son, fourteen years old, 6 skillings a day in a machine-shop. There are three other smaller children. The rent is 22 species a year. These'apartments and their appearance were not as good as te average homes of workmen. There were a few other similar tenement buildings a few rods apart, built by the company owniDg the shops, and intended for four families each. They stand within a few rods of each other. The closets are built only a few feet in rear of the dwellings. The workman just entioned said his apartments were quite cold in winter, a statement which the appearance of the building seemed to verify. od-The following is a good specified1 statement of the ration for a garrison soldier at Christiania for each day of the week and its cost: SUNDAY. Breakfast: Coffee and bread and butter, and the same for breakfast every morning. Diner: Beef and porridge. Supper: Milk and bread and butter. United States cents..pound fresh meat, at 12 skillings.......................................... 7.87 pon potatoe........................................87 pond hulled barley......................................... 44.....pound coffee.... 87 ond butter........................................ 1.97 Veetables...........................22 ~ 44 11- pints milk...................................6..............................6..........................................6G ~~~~~Bread ~................................................................. 3.72 17.06 MONDAY. Dinner: Cod-fish and milk broth. Supper: Boiled barley-grits and milk; and the' samle for supper every week-day. Uie ttsC~$ jpound cliff fish, at 7 skilliugs.-..3.06 pound potatoes...................................87 TT pound bre-rt.-...44 Ij pounds milk.................................1. 53 T~pound coffee.................................87 poun ni butter.................................2.30 ~.pound barley-grits................................7 Bread......................................3.94 ~gilf creame...................................44 1.4. 32 TUESDAYi Dinner: Salt meat, (pork,) and porridge, with pease. j pound salt meat, at 10 skillings........................4. 37 J pound pork, at 16 skillings —3.50 pound potatoes-............................... 87 pound of barley................................-87 Rf pound hulled barley...............................~22 pouind lpease. 87 -12,w pound coffee.................................87 ~-h pouunl butter................................1. 53 ~pint milk...................................67 -,ie gill cream..............................a. -.44 Bread......................................3.94 18. 15 700 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. WEDNESDAY. Dinner: Hash and porridge. i pound salt meat, at 10 skillings.............................................. 2.25 pound salt pork, at 16 skillings............................................. 1.75 - pound potatoes............................................................ 1.50 pound barley-grits...................................87 - pound hulled barley.......................................................44 T pound coffee............................................................87 -~ pound butter..1.53 -Jae- pound sirbup............................................................. 67 -332-pounad siup67 Xr pound dried plums.........................................................32 9- pound onions.........................................11 ~- pound pepper......................................................... 04 9z pound juice...............................................................87' pint milk.....................66 96 gill cream.................................................................44 Bread....................................... 3.94 15.89 THURSDAY. Dinner: Beef and porridge. pound fresh meat, at 12 skillings...................................... 7. 87. pound potatoes...........................................................87 ~J pound hulled barley................................ 44 z pound barley-grits...........................87 i pound coffee..............................................................87 s pound butter............................................................. 1.53 Vegetables...................................................................2'2 1 gill milk....................................66 -l' gill cream. 44 ~-~ il ra..............................................,..................,4 Bread.......................................3.............. 3.94 17.71 Friday, the same as Tuesday. SATURDAY. Dinner: Soup made of beer and pickled herring. United States cents. pound herring....................................................1........ 1.31 1 pints beer.......... *...................................................... 1.09, pound wheat meal........................................................-.33 A ponild sirup............................................................... 44.' pound barley-grits........................................................87 TPW pound coffee..................87 -2 pound butter............................................................. 1.53 I. pound potatoes............................................................87 1j pints milk............................................67 * gill cream-......44 Bread...................................................................... 3.94 12.36 The average value of the ration is 18 to 19 skillings, or say 16 cents; but at retail prices it would be about 25 per cent. higher, which would make it cost the workingman 20 cents. Such a ration is, however, a considerably larger and better supply of food than workmen generally have. At the penitentiary at Thron(lhjem the fare for each convict on Sunday is: For breakfast, 1 pints beer, I pound rye-bread; for dinner, 11 pints pea-soup, i pound pork, i pound rye-bread, I pint potatoes; for supper, 1j pints barley-meal mush, 1l pints beer, i pound bread. The samne quantity of bread, 2} pounds, is allowed every day, or in lieu thereof one-half of the quantity in bolted rye-flonr bread. The meat or fish allowanqe is, on Monday, 2 ounc(es of herring; Tuesday, 3 ounces of meat; Wednesday, 3 ounces of herring; Friday, 2 ounces of herring; and Saturday, 5 ounces of herring, which are generally made into soup. The supper for every day, except Mon LABOR IN SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 701 day and Fridy, is barley mus. The daily allowance of beer is about the same as for Suday The cos of the ration, per day, for each man is 12 skillings; au.d it was the opinion of the superintendent that at retail prices it would cost 24 skillings (21 cents) a day. At Trodhjem is a public eating-house for poor people, where nice barleygrits, excellently cooked, can be obtained very cheap. A portion which when dry is a fraction less than pound of barley-grits, after being cooked by steam three hours, makes one Norwegian potter, or 1 pints; but it is the practice to deal out even a larger measure. For such a quantity one pays 2 skillings. If eaten at the house 2 skillings' worth of beer or sirup had to eat with it; so that for little less than 4 cents a palatable and wholesome meal can be obtained. People are accustomed to send to the establishment for boiled grits to eat at home. If we assume that an average workma's family of five members will consume twice the quantity of the ration of a garrison soldier, his subsistence will cost for a year $146. Rent of dwellings in Christiania is at the rate of 30 species a year for one living-room and a small kitchen in sby anoter family; and that sum is none too large an allowance to procure such quarters in the larger towns as a workingman's family needs. Allowing $15 for fuel, $30 for clothing, and $15 for miscellaneous, we have in all the sum of $236 to cover the whole annual expenses for such a family. The average wages of mechanics, probably, cannot be pnt higher than 60 cents a day, which, for 300 working-days, would amount to $180; which is $56 less than what has just been estimated for his expenses. It is therefore obviouts that the estimate for expenses is considerably higher, especially in the item of subsistence, than the average mechanic actually incurs. The supply of necessaries must be still further diminished if we take into account the items of $9.36 for tobacco, and $33.69 for spirits and beer, which, taking the Bergen workman's estimate, are the sums spent in that locality each year by the average workman for those articles. The same incentives to drink prevail among workmen in Norway as in Sweden, though it is not the practice in Norway to use whisky in the house audjnst before the meal. The Norwegian whisky is a third stronger than the Swedish. Undoubtedly any thorough reform as to the use of such drink must come from a fixed habit Of not drinking; which, if formed at all, is generally in early life amid the influences of a good home. When these continue the habit is likely to continue. As in Sweden, companies are now being formed in various parts of Norway to build bet-. ter dwellings for the working poor, which is one of many indications that juster notions of their real needs are becoming prevalent. 702 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. LABOR IN DENARK. Although Denmark is not extensively engaged in manufacturing, yet the inlorniation in regard to labor which appears in the following pages, and which was lurnished by the minister residet and the consuls of the United States, will prove interesting. The following infi-rmation wias prepared for this report by Mr. ViceConsul Hansen, under date of September 20, 1872 COPENHAGEN. Copenhagen, which is the capital of Denmark, and a considerable pace of comerce in Scandinavia, had, according to the last census of 1870,181,291 inhabitants, (84,326 of the male, and 96,965 of the female sex;) of these, 18,039 are dependent wokers, besides 9,915 day-laborers, and 839 servants without xed service. Of the 18,039 14,686 are mechanics, and the rest, 3,353, employed in co erce. The ordinary time of la]bor is twelve hours, fro 6 o'clock inthe morning till 6 in the evening, with a leisure time of two hours for the meals. The wages for mechanics are about as follows: Mainists, 871 cents sits, 61 cents; carpenters and(ljoiners,611 to 871 cents; painters, 611 cents;s shoemakers, 521 cents; tailors, 431 to 52J cents; country workmen and other daylaborers, from 35 to 70 cents a day. Wmin working in manufactories are paid 21 to 261 cents a ay. Children do not genierally find much of any occupation in the metropolis, bu in retrn they receive a cheap, and in part a free, alnd good education at the public schools, which are partly free anid partly payment schools. At the pxayment-schools of the community 261 cents a month is paid down for each child. and they are taught, in their mother-tongue in writing, arithmetic, and religion The going to school generally commences at the age of seven years and closes at the age of tifteen. At the beginning of 1871 the number of children attending and bound to go to school, in the metropolis and the subuhb)s, were 25,191 above the age of six years; of these, 3,262 were above seven years without going,) to any school, but were taught either at their horines or did iiot receive any instruction at all, fo~r which reason 1,391 out of 3,'262! had to be dirrected to the public schools for a trial, if it was necessary to direct thema to goiiig to school. It wvas proved that the, remaininig 1,87-1 received a proper instruction at their homes; 9,4090 children were taught at the free and payment schools of the conimnnity; 1,2?41 at the charity schools., the rest at grammar and other schools subordinlated. to ditffrent authorities. At the Royal Orphau Asyluim, 240 orphans, or at least fatherless children, are instructed without paytuent;andl of these 78 are educated till the fifteenth, sixteenthI, or seventeenth year of their age, after which time the hoyus are bound apprentices to shopkeepers or mechanics by the association, and the girls placed in good fanmilies as servan ts. The metropolis has several evening and Sunday schools for adults, wbere mechianics and laborers receive various instructions, partly without payment and partly for a -very small contribution. With regard t o the comfort of the laborers, their state of health, &c., it must he remarked that the Danish laborer generally lives airy and cleanly, for which reason many have taken up their abode in the suburbs, where many dwellings for laborers ha e been erected, the rent of which is from $2?.361- to $2-621 a month for two rooms and a kitchen. The state of health is generally good, and the district physicians, who are Ilaid by the comnmunity, afford medical assistance to the laborers who are not members (,f the sick-associations, which they can hecome by paying a small contingent, whereas the hospitals also afford free cure and attendance to poor people. The educational coercion creates a generally good moral education. Drunkenness i's unfreq nent, among the Danish laboring- classes. With respect to the piresemit prices of the necessaries of life, as well as the weekly expeiuscs for a family, the two filled-np blanks hereto aninexed are referred to. The expenses of a family of I le laboring-class vary much according to the earnings, as the savingy of anything hut small amounts is seldom thought of. The diversions are cheap and useful, and very munch frequented. The establishment employing the greatest number of workmen in this country is the ship)-building and enigineering conipany of Burmeister & Waimi, where fromr 900 to 1,000 workmen find continual employment. Five iron steamships, of about 1_,200 tons, with engines of 120 horse-power, and two smaller ones of 300 tons, with engines of 70 horse-power, will, in the course of this year, have been delivered from this establishment, the laborers of which have founded various useful institutions; for instance, a LABOR IN DENMARK. 703 buildin-fund, a sick-fnd, &.; and, as it perhaps may be of some interest, I hereby annex two originals, with translations, of the laws of the building association, and. last year's acc~unt for the same. Denmark's direct commerce with the United States is very inconsiderable, as the imports and exports, with the exception of petroleum, generally are going via England, &cL., and Denmark being no manu turing country, the chief export consists of grain, flour, butter, and raw produce. Thenigration from here to the United States amounted in 1871 to 1,760 males, 895 ~~~~~~~fe~, males, 765 children, Danes, and 1,065 ales, 524 females, 483 children, Swedes, &c.; and to Canada, Australia, &C., 514 ales, 230 females, 186 children, Danes, &c.; and the same number is likely to be the result of. the emigration this year. OLAF HANSEN, United States Vice-Consul. COPENHAGEN, September, 187'2. NOTE- Danish rix-dollar (6 a 16 skilliugs) equal to 52J cents American gold. ELSINORE. Extract of a letterfrom. C. Carey, Uited States consul at Elsitore, Denmark, dated October 30, 1873. "Th laboring-classes live, very frugally and quite differently to what the same classes are acsored in the United States or in England, where animal-food is more genly csued. Here the chief food consists of milk-porridge, rye-bread, salt or fresh fish, wit ow and then a piece of smoked bacon, with coffee mixed with chiccory, and beer of a liht description, at about 1j cents a bottle, as beverage. Education for the children of these classes is free, and their house-rent may be put down at $30 to $40 per' annum. Elsinnore is not a manufacturing tow, but is mainly dependent upon its traffic in frnish supplies of provision, &c., to the large amount of shipping annually passing throh thesound on its way to and from the several ports in the Baltic. From the ost reliable information I have been able to collect, the average weekly expenditure of these worki-classes may be placed, I should say, fior a faltily of two adults and two children, at $4.50 to $5.50 per week, which amount is eked Out, together with the workman's wages, by the earnings from. washing or other work done by the wife. "The monthly wages paid to seamen sailing from our port may be stated as $1i6 for able seanten anid $12 fo6r ordinary seamen, whilie the wages paid to captains or officers may be ran~ged into two classes: For those employed in the coasting-trade or short -voyages the inaster generally receives $45 and the inate $30 per month, whereas those enndi tastati rln voages are paid differently, the, i-aster usually receivlug aI nominall l)aV Of $20 imer monith With 4 per cent. of the gross freight earnings, and the miate, a fixed pmsy of $35 to $40 per month. "While the constantly-recurring strikes among the laboring-classes in Englanld and other countries in Europe have been continually dLsturbing the labor-market, such has not becin the case here to any extent worth mentioning. A small increase has in. many eases been granted. by the masters, wvith which the laboring-classes here seem to be quite satisfied."' RATES OF WAGES IN ELSINORE. Daily wages of thme following laborers at Elsinore, Desmtark, in tihe year 1872. Blac'ksmiiths.$0 85 Ship-carpente-rs.-..85 House painters.........-............................ 8 House-carpenters.-..65 M~asols -65 Shoemakers-................................. 70 Tailors.................................... 7 5 Dock-laborers, from $1.20 to $1.60. Hours of labor, 10 per day. It must be observed that the employment of the dock-laborers is of very uncertain nature-, (depending in great measure upon. the number of vessels entemiing our port under averagre, attended with dischargingr and reloading of theim- cargoes. There lmave been thimes when these laborers have earned as much as $2 per day, hut again there are several days when they are without eumployment. ~704 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. ateof agespaidforfarm and mechanical labor in Elsinore, Denmark,.in the yearl873. Daily wages. wg Occupation. With Without With board board. board. FARM-LABORERS. Experienced....................................... $0 54 $0 so $5 50 Experienced hads in win....................................... 40 60 Ordinary hands in smmer........................................ 36 60 4 00 Ordinary hands in winter............................................................................ Common laborers at other than farm-work..Noe 60 None... Fenmale servants, (cooks).................................................................... 300 Female servants, (house-maids)..............................................20.............. 2. SKILLED WORKMEN.* Blacksmiths..................................................... 85 Brickla er or masons....................................................... 80 Cabinet-makers........................................ 85 Carpenters-80..................................,.......................... 80 Coopers.........................................85 ~~~~Miners.....................on................... None....... ---- Machinists................................................................... 1 00 Plasterers............... 8................................................................ 80........ Stone-cutters.................................................... 85 Tailors. —ti~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~f O0 to1 50......................................................... tl 00 to 1 50 Tanners-80...................................o...... ~Tinsmiths ~........................................ 8 Wheewrights................................................................ 85 * By the day only. i Piece-work. Price of board for workme per week, October, 1873, $2.50. HENRY CHARLES CAREY, Vice-Go sl )ana Acting Con sl. ELSINORE, November 1, 1873. Prices of prorisins, groceries, and other leading articles of consumption, also of hous~e-rent and board, in the iotwas of Copenhagen and Elsinore, Denmark, furnished by Mr. Olaf Hans~ent, United States vice-consul. Retail prices in 1872. Articles. Copenhagen. Elsinore. PROVISIONS. Flour, wheat, superfine...................per barrel*.. $4 72k $8 50 Flour, wheat, extra family.....................do... 4 20 9 50 Flour, rye-.............................do... 3 02 7 00 Corn-meal-............................. do................... Beef, fresh, roastirg-pleces..................per ponndt- Ii J2 Beet; fresh, soup-pieces-......................do..... 10kL 10 Beef', fresh, rump-s4teaks......................do....-. 13k 12 Beet; corned............................do -...14....... Veal, fore quarters —.......................do..... Ik 1.0 Veal, hind quarters —.......................... do. -13k 11 Veal-cutlets............................do... 13k 11 Mutton, fore quarters —......................do-.. il 10 Mutton, leg -............................do... 13 12 Mutton-chops —...........................do... 13* 12 Pork, fresh............................do... 09 it Pork, corned or salted........................do..... 12J 12 Pork, bacon............................do... 13k 14 Pork, hams, smoked........................do..... 15k 18 Pork, shoulders...........................do... 09....... Pot-k,sausages...........................do... 141 16 Lard................................do... 14k 16 Cod-fish, dry............................do... 05i 06 Mackerel, pickled..........................do................... Butter................................do... 26 27 Cheese...............................do... 9 to 14 12 Per 100 Danish pounds. t Danish weight. LABOR IN DENMARK. 705 Prices of provisions, groceries, and other leading articles, 4c.-Continued. Retail prices in 1872. Articles. Copenhagen. Elsinore. PROVISIONs-Continued. Potatoes............................................ per barrelk*. $0 70 $0 40 Rice............................................ per poundt - 07 06 Beans................................................ do.... 08 ~Milk-.............................................. pe r quart.. 03 03 Eggs-............................................... per dozen. 16 GROCERIES, ETC. Tea, Oolong, or other good black........................... per pound.. 52 63 Coffee, Rio, green................................................ do..-. 21 25 Coffee, Java, roasted............................................. do.... 35 Sugar, good brown, candy....................................... do.. 16 Sugar,............................................... do... 14 to 15 12 Sugar, coffee,..............................................do... 14 to 1 12 Molasses, New Orleans....................................per gallon................. Molasses, Porto Rico..........-................... do.......... Si rup —........................................................... do....5............ Soap, commo............................................. do08 06 Starch —............................................ per pound1 5. 0......................,........... do1.... Fuel, coal............................................... per ton 7 35 7 50 Fuel, r........................................ per fiathom~n~ 8 40 8 00 F, wood,................................................. do.. 6 30 Oil, coal - -...................... —....................... per gallon.. 5 DOMESTIC DRY GOODS, ETC. Sirtings, brown, 4-4, standard quality......................per yard. 1l1 to 13 18 Shirtins, bleached. 4-4, standard quality -...........do.. 12 to 14 Sheetings, brown, 9-8, standard quality......................... do.. 201 to 21 22 Sheetgs, bleached, 9-8, standard quality....................... do.. 1-2 to I Cotton lannel meditum quality.................................. do.... 2t to:30 Tickins good qality.......................................... do..... 21 to 30 Prints, Merrimackil.............................................................. Mouseline do lamnes-........................do..- 20 to 30...... Satinets, medium quality-.....................do..-_ 24 to 353...... Boots, men's heavy-........................do-.- 4 20 - 500 HOUSE-RENT. Four-roomed tenements-...................per month.. 7 50 to 10 50 4 50 Six-roomed tenements........................do-... 16 00 to 26 50 7 50. Two-roomued tenemnonts-......................do-.- 2 50 to 3 00....... HOARD. For men, (mechanics or other workmen)-...........per week. 2 10 to 3 00 2 50) For women employed in factories-.................do-.- 1 00oto 1 50...... Per 100 Danish pounds. ~ Per fathom) of 6 feet by 6 feet by 2 feet. - tDanish weight. II Not manufactared. t+ l August. Average weekly expenditures of two families in Copenhagen, one` consisting of two adults and two childr-en, the bead of which is a. mechanic, and the other consistiug of two adults and three children,, the head of which is a shoe-maker.* TWO ADULTS AND TWO CHILDREN. Weekly earnings in 1872, $5.25. Cost or value.Flour and bread-..............................$0- 44 Fre~sh, corned, salted, and smoked meats —................... 44 Batter and lard..-.............................. 671+ Cheese-................................... 0. Sugar —................................... 21 Coffee........................................ 17 *lFrom the above list will be observed, that the tamily in question do like many ormost others, live upon bread, butter, and coffee, with milk and sugar, in preference' to, meat and potatoes, but the wife is often engageti in-larger houses for washing, cleanin&. &e., where, she will get a little substantial food. 45 L 706 LABOR IN LUROPE AND AMERICA. Tea-.....................................$0 07 Fish, fresh and salt...........................17 Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, &c.........1 Eggs.........................................5 Potatoes and other vegetables.................16 Fuel..........................................48 Oil or other light. - —.... Other artichls -.................. Spirits, beer, and tobacco, (if any).............50 House-rlent...................................87 For educational, religious, and benevolent objec13 Total weekly expenses..0.........3 Clothing per year................25 TWO ADULTS AND THREE CILDEN. Weekly earnings in 1872, $3.90, besides the earnigs of the wife, amounting to 75 cents. Cost or value. Flour and bread.............................. 82 IFresh, corned, &c., meats..........15 Butter.......................................71 Cheese-....................................... Su'ar................................... j Milk............................................... ---------------------------------------- 35 C off ee...... 61................................. Fish -.-1 —...............5 Soap, salt, pepper, vinegar, &c......... —Potatoes and other vegetables................-1.. Fuel1..1.............._... Oil or other light-............ —......-5 O her articles.........-7..............-.... Spirits, beer, and tobacco............................17 House-rent- 65 For edlncational objects, (one child at school) —................. 13 Total weelkly expenses.-14 l4,Clothing per year. _ -20 00 ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE WORKINGMEN OF DENMINARK.,Dispatch of lion. Jill J. Cramter to the Departmnent of State. LEGATION OF THE UNITED STATES, Copenhagen, N~ovember 9, 1874. SiR: Under the title of "1information concerning tile econorme con.dition of the workinginen of the kingdom. of Denmark," the Danish minister of the interior has published the result of inquiries made iii three Classes of circulars issued by him under date of October 11, 1872. The first class of these circulars was prepared with special reference, to p)rocuring information concerning the economic condition of artisans, mechanics, and factory-hands, and was intended to be filled up by the, emplo.) ds; the second was designed to procure information concerning the economic condition of the laborers in the country, and was intended to be filled up by thepIarislI and town councils. The intention of the.third class was to procure information: 1. Concerning the amount necessat-ily required annually for the support of a workiugman with a family, and for -other necessiary expenses, snch as taxes, &c. 2. (ioncerning the debts of workiugmen and the causes thereof. Although the information obtained is inot as full and complete as.couldl be desired, yet it furnishes a tolerably reliable insight into the economnic condition of the. laboring classes in the kin gdom of Denm ark. LABOR IN DENMARK. 707 have, therefore, prepared a condensed " statement" of this information, which I have the honor to tr nit to you, herewith inclosed. I have the honor to be, &c.7 M., MI. J. CIRAMER. Hon. HAMILToN FISH, Secretary of State, Wahington, D. C. THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE LABORING CLASSES IN DENMARK. From the returns mae under the first class of circulars it appears that there are 40,209 laborers, viz:,01 ales over eihteen years of age, 3,428 females, 6,811 youths from thirteen to eighteen years of age, and 1,949 children. Of the males, 14,'t65,are married; of the females, 1,904. AVERAGE EARNINGS. The annual average earnigs i large factories in Copenhagen was: for men, 410 rixdolars ($2.5;) for wome, 169 rix-dollars, ($8,.72.) For other mechanics, artisans, &.: for n, 357 ix-dollars, ($187.42;) for women, 143 lix-dollars, ($75.07; and in the provincial citiesand towns, nder the same livision, respectively, 300 ($157.50) and 135 ($70.87) ix-dolars, an 357 ($17.42) and 96 ($49.87) rix-dollars, and in the country nder the sae d visions, respectively,$116.10 and $49.14, $105.30 anud $43.74. The average umer of daily workinl-hours for bolh children and adults is from twelve to thirteen, icluding the time consumed in short rests and for meals. In some instances it is, however, higher, and in some cases it is higher for women than for men and r children I er in the country I han for children in cities. The average time allowed for meals is about two hous per (lay. The total amount of aes pai, annually, to the 40,209 laborers is over eight millionsofiixdollars,(4,00,.Suposing this number of' laborers to be only one-half of the number of I res in Dnnak, it will then appear thtat sixteen millions rixdollars ($,400,000) are paid to them annually as wages, that is, according to the rate of aes paid in 72, which now issoewhat hilgher than then. As to extra earnins, very ineaer information has been received, yet in many instances such extra aes by extra labor are made. Besides, lhe housewife, in mnany cases, earns something which. contribtes a not inconsiderable amount to the Support of the fansily. It does not often happen that laborers comningr under this class of circulars have a, share in the psrotit6 of factories, &c. In place of this they have a share in. a fnnd established to reunler theni assistance in case of sickness or deathl. The information comning under the, second class of circulars may he grouped as follows: The total number of teniants, subtenants, &c., within the kingdom is 101,,832, makingr about 15 per cent. of the miale inhabitants. This, it munst be remembered, has reference only to the, population in the country, and not in cities and towns. Under the tertu tenants are inclnuled those who own their cottages, with, _perhaps,, one-third of an acre of laud connected with it. Amongj~ the l01l782 ten ants, &c., are about 23,7n5 traders an d ehnc, &C., or about 2~5 per cent. of the entire class. WAGES OF FAIRM-LABORERS. Wit-h regrard to the average wages paid to farm-hands it may be -observed that those iB Jutland receive (luring the, summer season higher wages than tho-se in other parts of the king(dom), while the contrary is the case during the winter season, with the except ion of fomale labosers, who, in Jutland, receive, without, boarding, 35 skillings, (17 cents, gold,) and in other pavets a little over 23 skillings (11 cents) per day. The average smumber of working-hours per day is, (hiring the summer season, about 14, and (luring the winter season abont 10. Deduicting from these the hours devoted to meals, &c., and the average number of hours devoted to actual labor throughout the kingdom will be abont 11 during the snmmer season and 8 dnring the winter season. With. regard to the question: Do these farm hands receive other emolumen ts besides their regular wages, snch as milk, pasture for a cow, turf, &C. lit may b~e said that in a few counties they (lo receive such. em,)1nments, averaging, from 10 ($5.20) to 40 ($21) rix-dollars pe annumn. And yet, properly speakingr, tnese emoluments cann~ot be regarded as extra wages, for they are generally stipulated in the contract as part of the wages. The question: Do the laborers carns anything by extra work; andl, if so, how muchliis partly answered in the afLrinar~ive aa(l partlytintthe negrative. Some, besides their ordinary (laily work, spend a few extra hounts in miaking baskets or plaiting mat's, *,A rix-dotlar is equivalent to 521 cents, gold. 708 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. &c., and earn thus from 5 ($2.62) to 40 ($21) rix-dollars per annum. Likewise, many housewives, by extra domestic industry, such as washing, sewing, knitting, spinning, &c., earn ifrom 20 ($10.50) to 40 ($21) rix-dollars per anum. To the question: How much of their time do these housewives devote to labor outside the house the answer isthat only during the time of the harvesting,,of taking p potatoesandof turf-cutting, they are employed out of the house. The question: At what age and to what kid of work are the children hired out? has been answered thus: They are hired out from the seventh to the tenth year of their age, principally to watching cattle in pastures. The total number of children thus hired out is 33,436. Besides watching cattle, they are also emloyed in potatodigging, fruit-plucking, turf-cutting, &c. The question: Whether the farm-hands. &c., have employment the whole year round? has generally been answered in the affirmative. There are some districts, however, where during the winter season labor is rather scarce, and where, consequently, they can earn little or nothing during at least one Month of the year. The question: Whether there are, in the various districts, endowment funds for assisting the sick and the aged? has been generally as ered in the affirmative; the question: What proportion of the laborers become self-supportig or independent of assistance? has been misunderstood, and hence no reliable data have been furnished in regard to it. EXPENDITURES. The information sought under the third class of circulars relates to the necessary expenses for support, 4-c., of the famtlies of the laboring-cla For those in Copenhagen the mninimum may Ie placed at254 rix-dollars, ($133.35;) that is, for rent, 36 rix-dollars, ($18.90;) for food, 192 rix-dollars, ($100.80;) for clothing, 15 rix-dollars, ($7.87;) for tobacco and whisky, 11 rix-dollars, ($5.77;) and the maximum at 615 rix-dollars, ($322.87;) that is, for rent rix-dollars, ($63;) for food, 365 rix-dollars, ($191.62;) for clothing, 78 rix-dollars, ($40.95;) for tobacco and whisky, 52 rix-dollars, ($27.30;) while in most cases the expenses vary from 350 ($183.75) to 405 ($212.62.) rix-dollars per annum. To the question: In what proportion are the earnings of a laboring family sufficiet to afford the a support aequate to their condition? the answers received fro both the employers and cmploy vary greatly. The former believe these earnings to be generally sufficient, while the latter contend that they are not. This difference of opinion is accounted for partly fro the fact that five among the employers show special care for the well-being of their - ploy6s, (the latter of whom earn enough for a decent support,) and partly fromt the fact that some of the latter send their children to paid-schools, and partly from the fact that a part of their earnings is applied to pay interest on debts incurred in the course of time. The question: To what extent do the laboring-classes participate in public amusenients'? has been variously answered. It appears that in one district they engage in them very sparingly; while in nine other districts the young people are said to engage in themi to a very considerable extent. Some of the people, in themselves filling up these circulars, put down their expenses for pubic amusements from. 4 ($2.10) to 6 ($3.15) rix-dollars per annum. The preced.ing account of the exp enses of laboring-fainilies refers only to those in the city of Copenhagen. The annual expenses of laboring-families in provincial towns and cities range from 21-0 ($ltO.-5) to 365 ($191.62) rix-dollars; that is, for rent, from 20 ($10.50) to 40 ($21) rix-dollars; for food, from 150 ($78.75) to 250 ($131.25) rix-dollars; for clothing, from 30 ($15.715) to 50 ($26.25) rix-dollars; for tobacco and whisky, from 10 ($5.25) to 25 ($13.12) rix-dollars. The question: How far are the earnings Of the laboring-classes in these cities and towns sufficient for their support I has been answered that in most eases such earnings are sufficient; though the answers receiveti from. several cities and. towns show that they are insufficient. With regard to the question, Whether these laboring-classes are in debt'? the answers are very unfavorable; and only very few incur any expenses whatever for the education of their children. With r-egard to the amount of expenses for the laboring-families in the country, the information obtained shows that it ranges annually, for rent, from 10 ($5.25) to 16 ($8.40) rix-dollars; for food, from 150 ($78.75) to 180 (94.50) rix-dollars; for clothing, from 20 ($10.50) to 50 ($26.25) rix-dollars; for tobacco and whisky, from 10 ($5.25) to 15 ($7.87) rix-dollars. The question, Whether the earnings are paying the expenses' i.s generally answered in the affirmative; though in a number of cases the answer is, "Cscarcely sufficient." As to whether the laboring-clas,;es in the country district's are in debt, the information received shows a large number of them. to be in debt. They spendi nothing extra for the education of their children, nor do they often engage in public amusements. As to the agre at which laborers marry, it may be said that the majority of both sexemarry between the twenty-fifth and thirtieth year; some even below the age of twentys five; and in most cases before they had "laid up" anything. Hence, many commence their married life with deobt. LABOR IN THE NETHERLANDS. 709 LABOR IN THE NETlERPLANDA The Netherlands, or Low Countries, so called from their natural conformation, now composed of North and South Holland, have a op lation o3,515,360. The commerce of the country, though not as great as formerly, is still quite extensive. There are important silk anufac tories at Amsterdam, Haarlem, and] Breda. Woolen is principally manfactured at Tillburg; linen and cotton in many parts of the two provinces. The earthenware works at Delft are extensive and celebrated. Schiedam is noted for its production of ardent spirits, particularly of gi. Butter and cheese are among the chief articles of export. An interesting branch of industry is the manuftcture of paper, and the manufacture of bricks and tiles is also worthy of note. This remarkable countrylargely rewards the skill and labor of the agriculturis the annual production of cereals amnounting to 16,000,000 b)ushels, and of potatoes 20,000,000. But the fisheries are the most hmous for their extent and productiveness, especially the herringfishery, which has been carried on since the twelfth century, and has been termed the Dtch Gold Mine." The Netherlands possess little or ro mineral wealth. Among the various branches of ind(ustry pursuedl ship building holds the first place. The Dutch East Indi-amen, in the time of wooden ships, were justly renowned. Societies "for the promotio of the public good," as they are styled, abound throughout the lrovinces, for the establishmenit of schools, hospitals, asylums, and other works of public tility. Institutions tor the relief of the destitute and suffering are abundant, though in geJeral the poor are taken care o by the churches to wvhich they belong. There are forty institutions for employing poor laborers. Education is provided for by the government. in Uolland the laws of nature seem to be reversed; the sea is higher than the land. The greater portion of the coiuntry has beeii perseveringly rescued from the water by the continued effrts andl ingenuity of man. The (likes andl hydrographical works between IDallart and the Schelde are estimated to have cost $1t,5j0, 000,7000. The people of the Netherlands, though lplaced apparently uinder circumstances the most unfavorable for the accuniulation of wvealth, overcame one difficulty after another with matchless perseverance, until they rendered their country the center of European commerce, and (liliused the appliances of comfort and the'means of enjoyment among the lowest orders of the people. RATES OF.WAGES. As the author was prevented by want of time from visiting this inter esting country, he is indebted to others lor even the meager information in regard to labor which appears in the following pages. Wages in Nor2th Holland. Place, occupation, &c waeser. Hours of labor. H1ELVERSIN. Steam spin-ning,-factory: Weaver's..-.......................$3 20 to $4 00 Spinners-........................ 4 40 to 5 60 Fivedy f1 o n Boys under 16 years-.................. 70 to 2 (30 Five days of 12 hours an Women-....................... 2 00 to 3 20 1 oedyo fhus Girls under 16 years-.................. 60 to 1 60 Carpet nmanufactorics: -Men',i average salary-2.................. O 8 to tO hours pcr day. Bny).s' average -salary-..................1 50 Mauufactory of inoltons: Avera-e rate of wages................. 5 00 ~710 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Wages in North Holland-Continued. WVages per ousf] Place, occupation, &c. e per Hours of labor. week. LAItEN. air floor-cloth manufactory:'Iers............................................. $5 00 131 hours per day. S rs............................................. 3 hu 2 NAAIRDEN. Bale-goods factory: en............................................... $6 00 to 9 00 1 Boys and girls........................ 2 00 to 3 00 12 to 15 hours p ZAANDAM. Spini-factory: Piece-work............................................ 6 cts. for j kilog. 12 hours per day. XROM3MENIE. Macine-yarn-spinning factory: Weavrs............................................. I florin 10 c. 14 hours per day. he weavers who work at home firom four to seven days receive from................................... $2 00 to $3 20 HAARLEL. Gaze-factory: Weavers.............................................. 2 40 to 2 52 Soakes.............................................. 24 to 54 Ribbo-weaving factory: Weaveis............................................. 1 60 to 4 80 Return respeeting the spinning and weavin)g factories in South Holland. Commune. Kind of factory. Hours of labor. Rate of wages. Produce. Alblaaserdam-_ isteam spinnDing 12 hours aday. Average full-grown men, 44 Inthelastfewyears and weaving cents per (lay; for children rather- decr-easing factory. and spinsters, 8 to 24 cents than increasing. per day. Griessendem. - - 2 hand weavin,'Winter 8 a. m. Winter, 50 cents per day; sum- Asthemanufact-ure.. factories, prin- to 8 P. i.; mer, 70 cents per day. is on a small scale eipally for sail- summer 5 a. -noparticularsean clods.- M. to8 P. Il. be given. Gouda...... I sti-am cotton- 12 hours a day. For men, from $2 to $6 per Increased at the spinning lac- week; for women, from $1.20 rate of 15 per itory to $2.40 per wveek. cent. in 1871. Do......30 cotton - facto- Summer, 13 to In this factory work is done by Decreasing. ries where the 14 Iio u rs; piece, ab the rate of from $2 40' yarn is spun winter, 10 to to $3.20, for some $3.60, per by hand. ii hours. week; turners and childr-en receive 3-2 to 60 cents per week. firimpen on the 2 tow -spinning From sunrise 40 cents per day...-.._.. Toler-ably regular. Lek. factories, to sunset. Leyden - 1 —- layet factory. 11-Iihours aday From $0 80 to $3.60 per week..- Increasing. -Do -..... Ilayet factory.- litboors a dy Fr-om $0.00 to $6840 per week.. Fairly on -~he increase. Do -.....1 grain seed and 101 hours a day For all laborers, average rate Increasing. damask fac- deducting 21 of wages $1.60 per week. tory. hours rest. Do -.....1 flag duck fac- 10 to 12 hours From $0.80 to $4.80 per week - - Regular. tory. a day. Do -.....1 blanket factory 12 hours a day. Boys and girls, $0.60 to $1.20 Increasing. per week; work-people paid by piece,$1.60 to-$4 pei- week; weekly wages, $2_.40 to $4.80. Woolen-clothand 1 1 hours a day. For isen, $2 to 68 per week; Increased by 2!0 per blanketfactory. boys from. 14 to 16, $1.020 to cent. in the last $1.-60 per week-; women, $1.20 five years. to $l.80)per week; girlsfrum 14 to 16, $0.00 to $1.20 per week. Nienwerkerkon 3 fine-cottonspin- 11 hours a day Averag-e 60 cents per day-....Moderate. rfe Yasel. iing-fictories. Rotterdam.._ -.I sail-,cloth weav- 10 hours a day. Paid by piece, on an average Increasing. ina, factory. $3 20~, per week. 2 hair-cloth and 10 hours a day. Paid by thle piece, the wages Increasing. jute - weaving on an average $4 per week. factories. LABOR IN THE NETHERLANDS. 711 Weaving -factories. ] Number of workmen. Average wages per day. i Districts. 4 n Above 16. Below 16. Above 16. Below 16. 0 ~ M. F. M. F. -M. F. M. F. z~~~~~ i Cents. Gents. Cents Cents. Aalst................................ 19 10 60 16 6 7 28 16 12 8 Asten, (woolen and cotton). 10 26............ 12 48... 14 Bladel....................1:. 10 1...... 40-.. 12.. Boxtel............................... 18 9-10 156 28 64 11 4-2 28 18 14 Breda, (carpet-weaving).1 11 3 3 56 Geldrop.............................. I 13 395 95 97 30 40 26 20 16 Gemert.8 10 50~~~~~~~~..... 28.. Ge e t..................................... --- --- --- 28 ----------- Ileeze, (edgings)...... 2 9 14 ---- 13...... 20 14 Helmond............................ 13 10 384 115 26 88 66 26 26 16 Nertogenbosch, (5 ribbon, 4 lace, 1 11 10-11 137 43. 44. 14. lamp-cotton, 1 carpet-factory.) Oirschot.............................. [ 147 —-- 2 1 2 3......... Oirschot-1 10 ~~~~~~~~7 [..... 2 J1 32 32.... Oosterhout............................ 7 3 2 3 36 20 24 14 Stratum, (woolen)..................... 13 105 10 4 4 40 30 14 12 Stryp, (linen)......................... 10 18 12 40 34 16 16 Tilburg'............................. 727 10-11 1,600 160 44 26. Tongelie..............................- 1 i1 8- 32...... 44...... Uden......2 10 24 10 1 6 28 24 16 12 Veghel................. 1 10-11 29 9 1 1 2 19 120 20 Waalze.............................. 14 10 5 4 12 3 27 16 12 8 Woensel..2.............. 10 1.4........ 1 34 --- ---- 20 Zecist................................. 9 10 63 11 18.... 28 16 12 Spinning-factories. Breda................................. 1 15 5 4 ------ 6 25 25...... 38 ongen-.. 1 12 17 26 5 30 54 40 20 26 eindhoven, (wool-spinning).1 13 22 3 3 1 32 20 1( 16 Geldrop.............................. 4 13 44 26 24 13 38 28 16 16 Stratum, (wool-spinning).2 13 4 6 5 50 30 14 12 Tilburg................ 52 10-lI 1, 25-2 646 288 177 46 26 2-2 20 Woensel.1............................ I 10 8 —-.4 34......20 *In these numbers are included tbe weavers who work at home. RATES OF WAGES IN AMSTEIRDAM. Statement llowing the rate of nages and the hours of labor of some of the principal factories and tiades in Amwsterdam in 1872. Hours of ~Average ain't Occupation. laour.o Paid per- of wages per Remarks. labor. ~~week.' Blacksmiths: Ordinay workmen...... 10 Hour........$3 16 to $3 78 Competent workmen. 10$ -.-do.....4 40 to 5 08 Bread-fa ctories: Thsmewok7(lypr Bakers' foremen ----- 1201 Week....5 04(Teemnwr7daspr Workmen......... 12.. - do.....3 40 to 4 20 wee'k, Sundays included. In Millers: I one particular establishment. Foremen.......... 12 -..do.....6 84 to 8 04 they have a small shna-c in Workmen........ 12 - -- do.....3 40 to 3 60 the profits, amounting to, Builders............ 12 -..do.....6 84 about ~4 per annum for orLdinary workmen. Breweries: ('These men are pirovided with, Foremen, (Germans).U~nlimit'd Month....7 88 to 13 92 Jlodgines and have their vieC. Brewers, (Germans)....12 to 15 _.-do.....4 62) to 6 52 tuals (which are hi-ought by themselves) cooke1 f.;r hem,,independent of' their wages.-, Engineers, (Dutchmen) - - 13 Week 6 04 Carters, (Dutchinen).. 13 to 14 _-do.....3 84 to 6 04 Tbese men have enly their, Laborers, (Dutchmnen) -- 1-2 -.- do.....3 60 to 4 84 (wages. Carpenters, (Dutchmen)i it...do........ 4 40 Bricklaying: (These men, dur-ing the sum- - Bricklayers.12 Hour.4 32 to 5 ~ mer months, often work 15. Brickyers~c l.............. 12 Hour................ 5 08 1 hours per' de...d1........ 3 60. Assistnts - 12......do.2.88.to3 24 r, i bard f-osts, they are Assistatemnts...............h 12 dow.........2 toe rate 24 wagsometimes eoti-ely out of; L work. 712 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Statement showing the rate of wdges and the hours of labor, 4c. —Continued. Hours of Average ain't Occupation. labor. Paid per- of wages per Remarks. week. Brushmakers -............... 10 to 12 Piece...... $2 40 to $4 84 Cabinet-inking: Cabinet-makers.......... 11 Hour........ 3 60 to 5 32 Superior workmen, (carv- 11 do....... 6 64 to 7 96 ers and upholsterers.) Candle-tactories: Foremen —...- -..... — -- 12 Week....... 4 32 Workmen...... -..... 12 Piece....... 3 36 Femalcs................. 10 Hour........ 1 20 to 2 40 Engine-driver............ 10 WVeek.. 4 84 CB~~~~arpeHu u YnfRteo ~rs: ~The men employed in the arountese-12 Hour. 3 60 to 4 3-2 government-yar d are, for the House.................... 12 Hour........ 3 60 to432 ir Sip1.484 nest part. engaged permaShip..................... 10 Day......... 4 84 Dewl narried men \ nemlv4, and th hrl;married men Ship, (in governm't-yard) 10 Week....... 4 00 y and th have to pay 40 ets. per week to the widows' fund. Coach-builders: Smihs m.i...a....... —-—. 11 Hour....... 2 64 to 7 96 Builders, painters, and up- 11.-.do..... 2 64 to 6 64 holterei s. D)iamond cotters and polish- 12 Karat&piece 10 08 to 32 24 eris. Distillers..-................ 11 Week. —. —- 2 40 to 4 84 These men are often out of iDockf-florers............... 10 Day —......... 4 84 to 7 24 work. Gas-woirk,: Foreiren............ 12 Week....... 4 84 to 7 24 Stokerns --—.. —-—. —--- 12 -. do. —..... 4 40 to 5 08 Puifies. —.. —---—.. 12..do........ 2 60 to 5 64 Coal-ca:ters.i......... 12.(do. —...... 3 60 to 4 04 These men work 7 days per Coal-qoenchiers --------- 12.. do........ 3 14 week, Sundays included. Sypton-puumpers.. —.. —. 12. do. —..... 3 20 to 3 72 Gatc kiepers........-. 12...do........ 3 20 Lamp-lighters. —-...6 --- do....... 1 80 to 2 64 Smiths...-........... 10.do....... 2 64 to 4 84 Hininier-men-...........o. d 92 to 2 40 1 ieklayers.............. 10...do...... 3 12 to 3 81 ]0odien. ——...... ——.. 10 -do........ 2 40 Carpeiters.............. 10. do........ 2 88 to 3 36 Coopers................. 10.- do........ 2 8 Tinmen. —0........ do........ 2 40 to 4 24 Tnr-aers................. 10...do. —----- 3 00 to 3 36 Fitters.- -...........-.. 10..do -..... 2 00 to 4 08 Meter-inspectors...... 10 - do........ 3 12 to 3 36 Oecasionallabourers..... 10. do...... 2 00 to 3 60 Gunsmiths. ----- - - 11 Day- --......... 3 60 to 4 84 Hatters... —...... —......... 1 Piece........ 4 00 to 4 84 iron-works................. 11 Day.72 to 4 84 From 7 cents to $616 when Lumpers.-..-........ —....... 8 to 12...do -....... 4 84 working extra hours. Navvies.........- - 11....-... —. 4 84 to 6 04 Painters and glaziers 1....... 0 Hur 4 20 Plufibeles................... -1 Hiourandday 2 40 to 3 20 Printing; - Conipositors............ 10 to 400 Pressmen -1............... Oor piece. 360 to 10 08 (These men work 7 days per Railways: week, Sundays included.Watchmen.............. 15 Day..-...... 2 80 to 3 The engine-divers are erployed two-thirds of I lie, week Pointsmien............... 15 -.- 1o........ 3 08 GUait.C1Y da - - 15 Week - 3 80 to 5 12 in driving engiines and are Guard(s.................. 15 Week....... 3 80 to 5 1'2 e Ezl~~irle-dr~lvers..-,,,..,,. kept in reser~ve the other En-ine-drivers........... 15 Day......... 3 78 to 7 04 kept in reserve the other tbird. Every third week Eng~ine-fitters............ 11 our 5 44 to 6 20 th E er t i e the engines are examined, Laborers................. 15 Day......... 2 80 to 2 98 and duiing that time the drivers are paid as if actively employedl. (Of ordinary kinds, a man can make fro)mn 500 to 700, and of the better sorts from 200 to Segar-makers................ 10 1,000....... 3 60 to 7 24 31;0 per dlay. He is assisted by a boy, to whom hlie has to pay from 40 cents to $1.20 Shoemakers: per week out of his wages. Ordinary workmen..... Unlimitd Piece....... 2 40 to 3 20 Superior workmen........ do.. - do........ 3 60 to 4 84 Stone-nmasons.-.........-...... 11 Hour........ 4 84 $ugar-refiners.............. 11 Week....... 5 00 to 5 24 Tailors...................... Unlimit'd Hour& piece 4 84. to 5 6 TaUners.................... 1 Week....... 2 40 tO 3 40 Upholsterers................. 10 Hourand day 3 60 LABOR IN THE NETHERLANDS. 713 Statement showing the rsate of wvages and the hours of labor, 4c.-Continued. Hours of Average ain't Occupation. Paid per — of wages per Remarks. week. Workmen employed on the Amsterdam Canal and Harbor Works: Divers -.... —.. -11 Day. - - $7 24; 36 cents per hour when under water. Maasons................. 11...do........ 4 84 ] Plaste-layers.............. 11..do....4 56 Trimimers.....-....... 11 ( d.o....... 4 84 Blacksmiths............. 11.. do.... 6 04 Strikers - -....... —.. 11 do 4.... 4 44 During the summer months Stokers —..... —... —-. 11 -..do....... 4 84 these men often work 14 Carpenters.............. 1...do....... 5 32 hours per day, and then Sailors................ 11..do....... 4 84 earn abollt ~1 per week. Sawvyeras...... 11...do....... 4 84 When employed on extenLaborers....... 11 do........ 4 3'2 sive works they are usually Horse-keepers... II.do 4 84 paid per mile, the wa.es Horse-drivers............ 11.do........ 56 varying accordling to the Horse-drivers, (English- 11.do....... 5 44 nature of the soil. men.) Watchmen, (Englishmen) 11..do.. — 4 08 Boys, lEncglish).......... 11 do........ 1 68 Piie-drivers, (Englishmen) 9 do........ 3 12 In consequence of the continually increasing price of food and house-rent, a general rise of wag-s has been effected during the last few months, without causinlg any illfeeling between the employers and their workmen, and in many instances the former, well aware of the evil results of strikes to both parties, have anticipated the reasonable wishes of the latter by allowing th-mul a higher rate of wages, without awaiting any demonstration on the part of the men. Ot late the system of payment bly the hour has become pretty general, and works well, as by that means there is hardly any fear of conspiracies or combinations of workmen for the purpose of coercing their employer to reduce the number of hours of labor, the nen having an interest in working as long as their employers will permit. The question then naturally arises how do Dutch workmen and their families managre to live on these small itcomes in such an expensive place? In reply I nmust, in the first place, explain that to the industrial classes in Hlolland, animal food, cheese, eggs, beer, currants, raisins, sugar, &c., are luxuries of which they partake only on Sundays, and then but sparingly, and in some instances not at all. They live chiefly on potatoes, cheap vegetables, such as carrots, turnips, onions, cabbage, &c., stewed with lard, and bread, both wlleat and rye. When cheap vegetab.llcs are not procurable, they vary their meal by dlried pease and beans of various kinds, or rice, barley, and flour, prepared with butter milk an(l treacle. The rent of a single room now varies from 4t to e4 cents per week, and a floor of the same sizedl rooms can be obtained at from 72 to $1.20. WAGES IN ROTTERDAM. Statement showing the rates of wages and the hours of labor in Rotterdam in 1872. ~Hou~rs of Average am't labor. Paid per- of wages per week. Bakers —.... —... —........................... —--- 12 Week................. $3 60 Blacksmiths........................................ 10 Hour. —........... $2 88 to 4 32 Brewers............................................ 12 to 15 Month.......... 7 24 to 7 04 Bricklayers................................ 10 to 1-2 Hour................. 3 96 Butchers..................................... 10 Week.............. 4 40 Cabinet-makers..... -—............................ — 12 Hour................. 4 32 to 5 80 Carpenters.. —.. —-...- -... —............ —--- --- 12....do............... 3 52 to 4 32 Distillers.. —..-.. —-----—..... —......... -...... 1 Week................ 2 40 to 4 00 Dock-laborers -... —- --—.................. —...-... 10 Day.................. 3 60 to 4 84 Painters.................................... 10 Hour.............. 3 60 Plumbers.......-..-...-............... —-.. 10 Week -... —.....,... 3 20 to 3 60 Printers. —................... ----—. 10....do............. 3 20 to 4 84 Railway-guards............ -----—.......... --- 10.... do.. —----—.. —'. 3 80 to 5 12 Railway-laborers................................... 10 Day................. 2 40 to 2 88 Sail-makers...................................... 10....do........... 2 88 Shoemakers..-........................... [Unlimit'd Piece................ 2 40' to 3 60 Stone-nmlsons.................................. 10 Hour................. 3 84 Sngar-refiners...........-......... ——. 10 to 1'2 Week................. 3 60 to 4 84 Shipwrights................ 10 Day............. 3 84 to 4 32 Tailors............................................. Unlimit'd Hour or piece......... 4 84 to 5 64 Upholsterers................. 10 Day................ 3 60 714 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. DUTCH ARTISANS-DIAMOND-CUTTING. [From the British Almanac, 1874.]1 In the Netherlands the rates of wages approximate somewhat more closely to those curtrent ill England, but the cost of house-rent and provisions is greater, so that, in fact, every 20s. earned in Holland does not go so far as 15s. in this country. The Datch artisans are, as a rule, steadly, patient, and skillful, but their work lacks finish and taste. Holland is not in any sense of the word a manufact lring country. It is as a imarjtirme people that we encounter tbe rivalry of the l)utch, who nake excellent sailors anId fisherlen, and are content with lower wages than would sati, Iy English seamen. But there is oite industry, that of diamond-cutting, peculiar to Holltand. It is carried on at Amsterdam, and is chiefly in the hands of Jews, who earn froml ~G to ~7 per week. With the exception of this class of norkers, the general condition of the Dutch artisans is in every respect inferior to that of their English brethren. EXPENDITURES OF WORKMEN'S FAMILIES. lEstimate of the weekly expenses of a blacksmtith, with hisfamily of a wife and one child. [From British consular reports.] Articles. U. S. gokl. | Articles. U. S. gold. Rve-bread-............................ $0 40 Vinegar, pepper........................ I$0 04 Wheaten bread......10 I o il....... —-... —-----—... —-.- 8 Butter.-..-.........-......-......... 20'Turf and wood......................... 14 Milkl........................-......... 10 Coke or coal........................... 14 Sagar.................................. S ap.................................. 8 Cotie....... -—.... Starch................................ 4 Tea.. —----—........... 10 WVashing and mangling...... 4 Flo' r.10 Thread.............. —............... 10 Potatoes............................... 40 Water..-... —....-............. —----- 4 Greens..-2................. 20 House-rent -.................. —. 40 M'leal -............-10 Sick-f'ulnd....................... 10 Beef -------------- -.......... Burial-fund........................... 3 Mutton.....- - -..................... C(lo.t.hes....... —.................... 40 Pork........................................... I Spirits or beer..... -..............-.......... Bacn.. ——..-..-.... —-. -----..... —----—... Tobacco.6............................ 6 Lard.-..2................ 24 Salt.................. 6 Total............................ 3 81 The following is an estimate of expenses made bly a mLason, with a wife and two children. Hie mnst be well off, for he indlulges in butter and much bacon, and spends nearly half as much again as the smith: Articles. U. S. gold. Articles. U. S. gold. Hollse-rent. —-—...... ——. —--—............ $0 48 Salt. —---............................... $0 06 Potatoes.-........................... 50 Vegetables....... -............... 16 Firi ing-.-. 30 Whie, bread..........-..-........... 16 Rye-blread. —---....................... 30 Tobacco.6......................... 6 (offee.. —2.. —--—....-..... —. 22 Doctor's fund...-...... —. 10 Oil..................... 16 Sick and burying fund....- -. — 8 Bacon................................. 84 Unforeseen expenses... —... —-.. —--- 12 Butter --—...... —------ --—....- 52 Schooling-..10.......... 10 Suet or lard..-.......... 18 Clothing.. —-......-... -........... 50 Milk.................................... 1 1 Soap. —-................................. —- 8 Total 03................... 5 03 .LABOR IN %'?HE NETHERLANDS, 715 Next, we have a list of what is considered a legitinate expenditure by a, bricklayer, with a wife and four children. The family is larger than that of the imason, but the house would seem to be inferior and Lhe weekly expenses are much smaller. Articles. U. S. gold. Articles. U. S. gold. Rye-bread............................. 0 40 Salt and pepper................... $0 06 Wheaten bread......................... 4 Oil................................... 16 Butter................................. 20 Turf and wood......................... 12 11lk -.......-.-. —--........ 8 Coke or coal.......................... 12 Cheese.................................. 2 Soap.-..........-... -............... - 8 Suar................................... 4 Starch and washing...-............ 5j Coffee.... —.............................. 16 Thread................................ 6 Tea........2......ter............. 2 Water................................. 5 Treacle........................... 2 ouse-rent............................ 40 Flour.................................. 8 Burial- fund 5 Potatoes 40 Clothin.g-. 40 Veg')etables............................. 8 Spirits or beer...-..................... 6 t I.................................... 14 Tobacco............................... 6 Pork. -............................ 1 Miscellaneous......................... 6 Bacon.................................. 14 Lard...................................... 16 Total1.......................... 3 90 Lastly, we have the modest estimate of a bricklayer's laborer, who, blessed with a wife and( fonr young children, reckons his expenditure by the day, subscribes, like the others, to the doctor and the undertaker, and finishes by spending considerably more than he is supposed to earn. Articles. U. S. gold. Articles. U. S. gold. ~Bread............................. $0 08 ]Milk...........................$..... 0 1 Riee or frits........................ 5. Lard....... -..................... 4 Total per day........... 43 Fuel........................... 5 Butter............................... 3 Total per week................... 3 01 Coffee,................................. 2o Hou1se-rent............................. 40 il...................................... 2 Sick and burial fund............. 8 Salt.............................. 1 Potatoes................................ 10 Total weekly expenses........ 3 49 There are two points specially to be observed in these estimates. The one is the inferior style of living, which such estimates denote. As a rule, no meat but bacon is ever tasted, and but little of that. With one exception, it is not admitted by ally of tihese men that they should lay out any portion of their wages on spirits or beer, or drink anything stronger than tea and coffee. I imagine that in practice they are not all of themn thorough temperance men; still, it is remtarkable that they do not reckon even beer as a legitimate item of expenditure. The other point to be remarked is that, notwithstanding the narrow limits within which the household expenses are kept, they in every case considerably exceed the nominal wages of the head of the famstily. This point was noticed by the conrinrittee, who, after examining and comparing many more of these estimates than I have given above, camle to the conclusion that the average bare necessaries of an ordinary workman, with an average family, amounted to 9 florins (15s.) a week, while his average wages did not exceed 6 florins 60 centimes (1ls.) if he was a skilled. and 4 florins 830 centimnes (8s.) if he Was a, perfectly unskilled laborer; that there thus remain(ld a deticit, of 2 frins 40 centimes (4s.) in the one case, and 4 florins 2 celltimes (7s.) in the other, wlhich had to be provided for by the man working out of hours, or by the help of the wife or children. CONDITION OF TIIE LABORING-CLASSES IN HOLLAND. [From British consular reports.] There can be little doubt that if the laboring-classes in Holland are prosperous and happy, they owe it to their own patient industry, their provident habits, and their natural contented disposition. Living in a land which owes its very existence to the ingenuity tnd labor of man, at any moment liable to be called out. to work again for their lives and homesteads, they owe little to nature, much to themselves. What they acquire with pain they guard wiV h care. The Dutch laborer, whether in field or town, reflects on the value of his earnings; the energies which a warmer blood and a more 716 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. impetuous temperament would expend in political excitement, he consecrates to the improvemenrt of his own individual lot; the question of the hour, the news of the day, possess little interest for him; he prefers his Bible to his newspaper, and his family fireside to the public, the reading-room, or the political meeting. Jealous to a degree over the liberty he already possesses, he does not sigh for more, and prefers enjoying in peace the advantages already secured to him, to agitating for others which his fathers did without. The Dutch artisan can live comfortably and contentedly on what would ill-suffice to satisfy the wants of an English laborer. He gets lower wages, he lives in a country where protection is still professed and duties are still high, where the necessaries of life are about as dear as in England, and the luxuries dearer, and yet his home is happier and his family healthier than many which could be found elsewhere. Spending less on himself he has more left for his children, and what he saves in beer he spends in bread. The usual wages of a skilled artisan, such as a carpenter, joiner, plumber, or smith, may be reckoned, in the larger towns of Holland, at about $3.84 a week; his wife, perhaps, adds 72 or 96 cents by taking in washing, and the man himself, by working out of hours, on odd jobs, often adds another shilling or two. I imagine a steady family would thus find the united earnings not fall short of $5.28 a week. Men whose trades or occupations require less skill are worse paid, unless, indeed, the absence of skill is compensated for by the additional severity of the labor. The firemen or stokers in the gas-works at the Hafgue receive 17s. 6d. a week; but for this they have to work in relays of twelve hours at a time, day or night, as the case may be, and seven days in the week, with an additional six hours every Saturday to secure the weekly rotation of day and night work. In the smaller towns in the interior of the country, where living is cheaper, house and ground rent low, and skilled, labor less in demand, wages are much lower; there, an artisan who might earn $3.60 or $3.84 a week in the capital, has to content himself with $2.40. These are the wages often paid to factory hands. A favorite mode of remuneration for labor is that of paIying by piece-work. This plan is adopted even on the premises of the employer. Thus a master cabinetmaker will furnish all the materials for making a table; the table will be made in his own workshop, under his eye; but whether his workman is industrious or idle will make no difference to him, for he will pay him the same sum on its completion. Another very general mode of payment is by the hour instead of by the week. In this case the artisan naturally earns more in the summer, when the days are long, than lie can do in the winter. The pay varies according to the nature of the labor, skilled or otherwise. The rates of from 4 to 8 cents per hour embrace the principal variations. Each skilled workman is required to find his own tools, with the exception of those of an immovable nature, such as lathes, presses, and machinery of all kinds. The hours of labor in the summer are generally twelve, including intervals for two or three imeals. These consist of breakfast, at about 8; dinner, about mid-day; and occasionally tea toward evening. Half an hour is considered enough for the first and last, but din ner is a more important matter and occupies, with its subsequent repose and pipe, an hour or an hour and a half. LABOR IN RUSSIA. 717 LABOR IN RUSSIA. The last of the transatlantic countries to which attention will be directed ill connection with the subject of labor, is that vast and interesting section of tile Russian Empire which forms the western portion of her territory. Whether considered in regard to its population,* which falls but little short of the combined population of any two of the most populous countries of Europe, or the vast extent of its territory, which extends through thirty degrees of latitude, or great diversity of its products, which comprise the rich furs of the extreme north, the fruits of semi-tropical climates, and all the varied products of the temperate zone, it stands without a peer among the nations of the old worl(1. In its vast areas of fertile soil, its great fobrests of valuable timber, and the great variety and abundance of its mineral products, it possesses the germs of a vast development. Although largely devoted to stock-raising, producing a breed of horses which is, perhaps, not excelled for strength and hardihood, it is also extensively devoted to agriculture, although only about three hundred million acres are under cultivation. Grain and hemp are exported in vast quantities, the former competing sharply with the United States in the corn markets of England. The Russian manufactories are, however, of comp)aratively recent origin, comumencing in the reign of Peter the Great, by whom, and by his enterprising successors, the Empress Catherine the Great, the Emperors Alexander and Nicholas, and the present enlightened sovereign, Alexander II, they have been encouraged. Except in sheet-iron, in the quality of which product Russia stands unrivaled, her exports of manufactured products have not been extensive. EXPORTS FROM RUSSIA TO THE UNITED STATES. The following statement shows the extent and values of the products of Russia which find a market in the United States. It will be observed that our imports of raw products from. that country consist, chiefly, of wool, flax, and hemp, while sheet-iron forms the only imanufactured article of considerable Xvalue. *Population of the principal European countries. Russia in Europe, with Finland...................................... 71,174,198 Germany...'......................... 41, 080, 846 France, without Algiers............................ 36, 102, 921 United Kingdom............................... 31, 483,700 718 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Statement of imports into the United States from Russia during the year ended June 30, 1874. Imports direct from Imports indirect from Russia. IRussia. Year ended June 30,1874. Quantities. Values. Quantities. Values. FREE OF DUTY. Chemicals -.... —-. —... ——..... —-.............. $10, 335 Hair of all kinds, unmanufactured.. pu....ponds. 80, 280 $12, 511... Piper materials- - - - 318, 013 11,.011 Pliiper ~.uae ils............................... d. — 318, 013 I 11, 0ll........... -- - -- - All other articles. —-..... -—. —... —..... —.. —--—.. —- 41, 03. —-. —-.. 3, 931 Total free of duty -............................. 65, 425..-..... 14, 266 DUTIABLE. Bristles. —- - -----—. — n- ------ ----- ~~- pounds -. —---. —. —----- --- 214, 098' 256, 190 Cordage, rope, and twine-.....................do.. "97, 229 89, 037 27, 077 3, 391 Cotton-manufactares.. ——.. —... —.....- —.-.... —. 638...........Fancy goods.. —...-..................................-........ 3'25..... Flax, raw...................................... to s. 4S9 199' l 3 5 Flax, raL~w.......-. —..- —.-. ——.. ——.... --—. tons.. 489 119, 959 111 33, 756 aintlinftctures of —------------------------- --------- 19,384. 7, 143 Hemp, r'aw —..- -------------------- tons. 29.7 51, 655 I —-------- 31 ni'anulactures of --------------- ------ 181 —----------- Iron, bar-i-on-.-........... pounds —------------- 242, o087 7, 230 sheet-iron-....-..............-......... do. -... 2, 609, 642 236,552 2, 2.44, 08 210, 771 Jute, maw.n.ictui-es of..- 51,......8 14..2......14..... 142 Leather of all kinds.-..............pounds.. 3, 638 2, 40 42, 378 32, 6 manuletres of —-------------------------------------- 1, 823........ 1, 2.3 All olther articles o.-.......-....-.........-............ -.....0 -—... —-. 1 536 Total dutiable-...-u................ 1.,191, 745......91, 8 Total firee of duty-... —....... —--.. —-.. —-—.... 65, 42.5....... 14, 266 Wine, in bottls. —..,-..,.,.. —..- -...~.............-. 1'00[ )4 The indirect imports came through the ports ofFrance.-....9...3................................... Germniany -------- ------------------------------------------------- - -349, 239 Eng land — i3l.................................... 36,092 Total-705,.944..............................................944 M1INERAL PRODUCTS AND RESOURCES. Theo future capabilities of.nl.l.ufacturing industry in Russia may be estimated ill Iitt by the abundincce of rtaw mathrial, especially of mIinerals. Froli a, work llrepared for the Vienna Exhibition by Mr. kliabjkowsky, entitled -' Tableaux (e 11'Iidustrie des Mines de ffIussie ei-i.1571 " the following iWtnormfatlon in regoard to Russian mininlg industry is extracted: In 1871 tue number of miues owned by Russia and producing gold was 979; platinum, (; silvet-lead, 21; copper, 76, iron, 1,1o4; zinc, 6; cobalt, 1; tin, 1; coal, ro2i; wpyrites, 1; chromie 6-; rilckaat, 4; besles 697 inaphtha pits. Their. ikeld was finot li,001, 00 tonsu of iold-sand y Ra400 pounds of goldl, from 16,600 tots of platinLuIsand, 4,504 pottinds of platinum, 35,1t0 tons of silver-h-ad ore, 100,365 tons of copperore, 820,000 tons of iron-ore, 4' 400 tons of ziuc-ore, 10~ tons cobalt-ore, 6,000 tols of pyrites, d1i,000 tons of coal (black coal and brown coal,) 22,000 tons of naphtha, 7,000 tons of chrome iron-ore, andt 455,000 tons of rock-salt. Tlhe smelting-works ot Russia produced liromi tihese raw ores, silver, 29,000 pounds; lead, 1,740 tons; copper, 4,>00 tons; tin, 8 totns; spelter, 2,700 tons; pig-irnon, 354,000 tons; iron castings, 30,0(0 tons; wrouilt-itron, 241,500 tons; steel, t7,000O tons; copper sheetls, 350 tons; antd zilnc sheets, 500 tons, and material ifor 11,255,030 roubles. The works gave employment to 2J6,300 mOn. LABOR IN RUSSIA. 719 THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES OF RUSSIA. From a work similar in character to the one above quoted from, but relating to another branch of industry, as indicated in its title,* the followillg fl'ats are condensed. The quantities and values have been reduced to the weights, measures, and currency of the United States: THE WVOOLEN INDUSTRY. The fabrication of tissues of wool was founded in Russia by Peter the Great. The principal branch of this industry, the manufacture of cloth, was not originally established for supplying the general consumption, but to furnish uniforms for the Russian soldiers, and the ulterior development of this industry is intimately connected with supplying cloth for the army. The first ljanufactory of cloth for the use of the troops was founded at Moscow by Peter the Great, in 1698, on his return from his foreign travels. Later, in 1812, it was provided by ordinmnuce that Russian cloths should be generally used by the army; and with this object in view there were created thirty factories, which received various privilees. IThe sovereign gave them lands, granted to them the right of holding serfs as workmen, and, moreover, made advances to cover the expenses of starting the establishments. 1n 1822' the quantity of cloths furnished by the Russian manufacturers for the army exceeded, for tle first time, the demand, reaching 4,000,000 archines,t (3,111,111 yards.) The progressof the cloth factories fioml 1800 to 18;30 is as follows: Ini 1804 there were 155 cloth factories, in 1814,235, and in 1820, 304, emlploying 53,000 worklen, and making more than 4,1iO,000 yards per year; finally, in 1830, the number of factories had risen to 390, employing 67,000 workmen and lmaking 5,988,888 yards per year. At tile present timne the woolen industry fully supplies the necessities of the arriy. In 18556, at the epoch of the Crimean war, it was able to supply the army with 10,000,000 yards of cloth. The manufacture of amlticles of fashion tfrom combed-wool did not, commence in Russia until after 1830, and then foreign yarns were employed. Spinning combed-wool was not attempted until some time later. The gradual progress of tais in(lusrry is shown by the importations of yarn. Before 1830 the lmportations were absolutely nothing: Pounds. From 1830 to 1832............3........,.... T 113, 400 From 1839 to 1844...................................................... 900, 090 From 183)1 to 1853...................................................... 2, 016, 000 From 1859 to 1861...-3 —--—. ——....... -------, 0, ) 000 From 1869 to 1871.-... —------.. —---.... —--------—..-.. — —. 7, 560, 000( A notable iiicrease is observed in 1869-1871; and in order to represent fully the production of woolent fabrics for this period, these figures should be increased about oneeighth for the combing-wool spun in the fiour establishments now in operation in Moscow. It may be added that the great cate devoted to the raising of sheep, and to the shearing and washing of wool in the interior of Russia and the Baltic Provinces, by furnishing excellent raw material, has contributed much to the progress of manlufactures in spilling and weaving wool. The progress within twenly years has been such that imany woolen fabrics now rival the best that conic from abroald. The following table exhibits the progress of the wool-manufactures for three-year periods from 1862 to 1871: Woolen industry of Rlussia. Woolen yarns. Cloths. Years. t O a | - o 18652-64 -. ——.-. —.. —--... —-------- - - - 22 2, 120 $1, 152, 600 390 74, (;20 $20, 476, 0.50 1865-'67.-......... —.. —... —.-.- - 27' 2, 830 1, C87, a501 418 7.1.'20 25, 091, 475 1868-'70..-.........-... —- ------- 2!9 3, 020 1, 650, 150 483 3, 640 28, 098, 6;5 1871..-...-... —-......-. 40 3, 700 2,3235,675 510 75, 900 32, 925, 000 * "Notice Statistique sur les Industries Textiles en Itussie," by M. A. lNdlulsine, prepared rundr the direction of the Imperial tRussiau Commissioner of the Universal Exposition of Vienna in 1873. t An arclhiae or arsheen is 28 inches The pood computed at 36 pounds. 720 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA., Woolen industries of Ru.ssia-Continued. Fabrics of combed wool. Total. no~ Years.! g i~ 1862-'64................ —.............. 120 14, 580 $5, 863, 650 532 91, 390 $27, 492, 300 1865-'67..................................... 135 17, 400 8, 446, 950 5M0 93, 530 35, 225, 475 1868-'70-.-................ —-—. ——.-. —- 160 19, 400 9, 417, 675 672 96, 060 39, 166, 500 1871.............................. 248 30, C00 14, 700,000 798 110,200 49, 950, 675 * In this and subsequent tables the Russian rouble is computed at 75 cents, which is about its equivalent in the currency of the United States when the premium on gold is 15 per cent. It will be seen by the foregoing table that a steady progress has been made in the woolen industry, especially in the weaving branch, but that while the number of establishments and the value of products have increased, the number of workmen has diminished. ThWs decrease in the number of workmen since 1861 must be attributed to the enfranchisement of the serfs. Many establishments which produced the coarse cloths for clothing the troops were carried on by the landed proprietors upon their own estates, and the labor employed by themn was almost exclusively that of the serfs, who paid rent for the lands in this way. The influence of emancipation upon the cloth industry is shown by the following figures: In 1860 there were 430 cloth factories, eniploying about 95,000 workmen and producing annually about $19,500,000 of merchandise. The nunmber.of factories and workmen commenced to diminish in 1862, and in 1863 reached the minimum number of 365 factories and 72,000 workmen; but the total value of products remained the same. Since that tirmle the cloth industry has taken a new direction. The necessity of econonmizing labor has led the manufacturers to adopt improved machines which do the work with fewer workmen. The followingr table shows the statistics of the woolen industry of Russia, of Poland, and of Finland, separately and in the aggreg'ate: Countries.. C. In the empire......................................................... 798 110, 209 $4'9, 950, 000 Kingdom of Poland.......................................5....... 531 10, 7 0 7,762, 500 Grand Duchy of Finland.........1 1............................... 10 50,700 Total...-1.... 33....................... 1 1339 121,070 57, 763,,00 The products of the several provinces of the empire, which exceed a million dollars in value, are the following: Moscow.$................. $30, 874,500 Tschrnigoff................ 1, 986, 750 Piotrkoff............... 6, 138, 000 St. Petersburg.............. 1,942, 500 Grodno..... 3, 886, 500 Livonia 1, 866, 750 Simbirsk................... 2,503, 500 Kalisz..............1,368, 000 The principal raw material used is native wool. Foreign wools are imported only in small quantities, (100,000 pounds in 1871,) and are used principally in Poland and the Baltic provinces. The wools used are, first, the merino wools, of which Russia produces about 1,800,000 pounds annually, but a part is exported; second, the Russian wool of the borders of the Don and the countries beyond the Volga; third, the Tsisgais wool, the wool of the hordes, (Ural, Emba, and Adaew;) fourth, camel's hair, of which 700,000 pounds are collected annually. A part of the Russian wool is exported. * * * THE CLOTH INDUSTRY. In 1871 there were in Russia 510 cloth-factories, employing 76,000 workmen, and producing an annual value of $33,000,000; in the kingdiom of Poland, 235 cloth-factories, LABOR IN RUSSIA. 721 with 3,900 workmen and a product of $2,812,500; and in the Grand Duchy of Finland, 5 factories, employing 30 workmen, and producing annually $5,700; a total of 751 establishments, with 79,000 workmen and an annual production of the value of $35,250,000. The products may be divided into three classes: the coarse cloth for clothing the troops; the cloth for private consumption at home, and the cloth for the China trade, which is delivered at the market of Kiahkta. * * * The exports to China of cloths and other manufactures, by way of Kiahkta, which in 1856-'61 amounted to an annual value of $1,620,870, fell off in the years 1862-'65 to $1,426,850. In the years 1866-'70 it rose again to $1,571,336, and was $1,456,232 in 1871. The adoption of baschylk for use in the army has given a value to the camel's hair, formerly useless. Added to this is another kind of cloth, called "camel's cloth," but which is made from the white wool of Kirghiz sheep, dyed yellow. This cloth is used to a considerable extent by the poor inhabitants of the Lower Volga, as well as by the nomadic peoples. Its price varies from 88 cents to $1.06 per yard. The cloth for general use is made by two classes of factories: one producing a cloth not exceeding in price $2.40 to $2.90 per yard, the other a cloth worth $3.85 and over per yard; the latter establishments being principally in Livonia and Poland, but to some extent in Moscow and St. Petersburg. As the demand for faced cloth has materially diminished of late, while it has increased for other tissues, such as moleskins, tricots, cassimeres, diagonals, satins of wool, &c., many manufacturers who formerly made faced goods exclusively are now manufacturing the modern tissues with success. WOOL-SPINNING FACTORIES. In 1871 there were 40 spinning-mills in the empire, employing more than 3,700 workmen, and producing annually about $2,325,000. Adding those of Poland, there are in all 65 spinning-mills, with 4,720 workmen, and a production of $3,372,675. These are the establishments where nothing but spinning is done. The cloth-factories have their own spinning departments. In four of the mills where combing-wool is worked there are 38 combing-machines, 26,100 spindles, and an annual production of 27,30q pounds of yarn, valued at $1,350,000. TISSUES OF COMBING-WOOL AND HALF-WOOL. In 1871 there were 524 factories of this class, 36,550 workmen, and an annual product valued at $18,657,000. The manufacture of fancy tissues of wool and half-wool (worsted with cotton warps) is principally carried on in the government of Moscow, where the number of establishments reaches 228, with 14,650 looms, 29,000 workmen, and an annual production valued at $13,312,000. Shawls, scarfs, &c., are manufactured quite extensively. In 1872 the government of Moscow sent to market more than three million woolen shawls and scarfs of different, kinds. CARPETS AND FELTS. In 1871 there were 5 factories, employing 300 workmen, with an annual product valued at $244,500. The greater part of the carpets are made of printed warps, (tapestry.) The printing is sometimes done at the factories, but oftener the printed warps are ordered from abroad. A few carpets are made on the Jacquard looms. The Persian and Turkish carpets made in Caucasia are noted for their firm texture and excellence. They are made by hand, and are very expensive. The manufacture of felt goods is not important. In 1871 there were 39 factories, with 275 workmen, producing annually a value of $590,000. The goods are principally carpets and gloves of felted wool, and are remarkable for their good quality and cheapness. There is another branch of the woolen industry carried on quite extensively-that of the peasants, some of whose domestic cloths have a great reputation. In places where: this industry is carried on extensively, t-he wealthy peasants furnish the workmen the raw wools or yarns, which are returned to them in cloth. The spinning of wool for knitting, and the knitting of stockings, constitute still another branch of the domestic industry of the peasants. The data are wanting for an estimate of this household industry. The distribution of these products is principally made at the fairs in the interior of Russia. The quantity of foreign goods sold at these fairs is very small compared to the home products. In the three years 1864-'66 there were delivered at the fair of Nijni-Novgorod about $412,000 of foreign woolens, and $6,975,000 of Russian products. The quantity of foreign manufactures sold at this fair has gradually diminished since 46 L 722 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. that time. It was valued at $3,337,500 in 1867, and in 1872 it was only $1,177,500, while the stock of Russian woolens in the same year was as high as $15,000,000. Notwithstanding the diminution of foreign goods at this fair and the increase of home products the importation of woolens is quite large, and has increased of late years. In 1867 the imports of woolen goods amounted to $4,806,794, and in 1871 to $7,950,668. The exports of woolen goods were in 1867 about $2,050,000, and in 1871 about $2,054,000. THIE COTTON INDUSTRY. The cotton industry gives a product of 162,000,000 roubles.* In the last years of the eighteenth century, Russia contained, according to official documents, only 90 establishments for weaving cotton, (spinning not having then been introduced.) At the commencement of the nineteenth century weaving began to rapidly develop itself, and in 1820 there were 440 establishments, employing 36,000 workmen, and supplying commerce with 35,000,000 archines of cottonades.t The progress of the industry of weaving cotton was still more rapid after the prohibitive tariff of 1822, which absolutely interdicted the entry of printed cottons, and placed a very high duty upon the importation of other cotton tissues as well as upon cotton yarns. Under the very marked influence of this tariff the national fabrication was more than doubled in a few years. In 1830 we possessed 538 establishments for weaving, producing, with 76,000 workmen, 83,000,000 archines of cottonades. But it is, above all, by contributingto power-spinning that the tariff of 1822 placed upon a solid basis our cotton industry. Machine-spinning had been carried on at the imperial manufactory tf Alexandrovsky since 1805; but this was only a commencement, and that establishment belonging to the state, was placed in exceptional conditions, which could not be made general. It was only at the epoch which followed the publication of the tariff of 1822 that the introduction of power-spinning was properly made in Russia. The two first private spinning establishments were founded, in 1824, at St. Petersburg and Moscow, and in ten years after, that is 1835, there were 25 establishments. The progress of this industry became particularly marked from the period of the year 1842, when the exportation of spinning-machines was authorized in England. We must also attribute this progress, in a certain measure, to the increase of the duty upon cbtton yarns from $3.60 to $4.68 per pood,f effected in 1841, in consequence of the crisis of that year. In 1849 the number of spinning establishments rose to 45, and the value of their products represented no less than $8,280,000. An important change took place, in 1850, in the commercial policy of Russia, which passed from the prohibitive reggime to the protective system. The tariff.of 1850 reduced the duties on cotton yarns from $4.32, the old rate, to $3.96 per pood. The tariff of 1857 lowered the duty to $2.52. The duty was also lowered upon other articles of cotton. The national industry had then become so solidly established that, far from prejudicing it, the reductions of duty gave it a new impulse, and stimulated it to develop and perfect its processes. In the revenue-reform of 1868, the duties established in 1857 underwent but slight modifications, and the protection accorded to the Russian fabrication of cotton remains nearly the same. Table showing the condition of the cotton industry in the Russian empire in 1871. c Industries. o Spinning............................................ 51 44, 300 55, 070, 000 Weaving..................................... 738 78, 700 48, 290, 000 Dyeing and printing......................................... 511 34, 700 48, 298, 000 Total in ussia........................................ 1, 300 157, 700 151, 658, 000 Kingdom of Poland.............1....................... 1,086 13, 410 8, 613,100 Grand Duchy of Finland................................... 5 4, 000 2, 027, 000 Total.................................................... 2, 391 175,110 162, 298,100 * A rouble of 100 kopecks is equal to about 66 cents gold, or 75 cents in paper currency of the United States. t One hundred archines are equal to 77.77 yards. I A pood is.lual to 36.4 pounds. LABOR IN RUSSIA. 723 The cotton industry of Russia is fitted to the necessities and tastes of the country. In the great market of Nijni-Novgorod the presence of the Russian merchandise reduces very considerably the demand for foreign cottons to supply the markets of the interior. In the triennial period of 1864-'66 there were sold at the fair of Nijni-Novgorod $1,256,400 worth of foreign cottonades, while the Russian fabrics figured at a value of $11,016,000. In 1872, the value of all the foreign products of cotton, wool, flax, and silk sold at this fair was $1,130,400, while the Russian cottonades sold represented a value of $23,328,000. The cotton industry, although introduced artificially into Russia, has no less rapidly acquired an economical importance, so great as to now occupy the first rank among the industries of prime necessity. THE SILK INDUSTRY. The manufacture of silk was commenced in the last century; but it is only since 1830, under the influence of a protective tariff, that this fabrication has become developed, or acquired any considerable importance. In 1872 there were 460 silk-factories, 15,800 workmen, and an annual production of the value of $7,416,000, including the production of Transcaucasia, which is more of a domestic than manufacturing character. The importation of foreign silks, in 1871, was of a value of $4,531,633.20; so that the value of the importations was nearly equal to one-half of the national fabrication. The latter, in the character of its products, has reached a high excellence. The manufacture of brocatelles, used in the churches, has attained a very great perfection. An industry which has been developed among us on a very vast scale is that of the manufacture of light silks, and, above all, tissues of half-silk, plain and figured. In perfection of finish, taste, and price, our fancy stuffs of silk can bear comparison with foreign fabrics. The following statement, obtained from another source, shows the mineral productions of Russia in the year 1874. The state founderies smelted 1,225,000 Russian poods* of bronze, 557,000 of iron, and 1,000 of steel; 89,000 poods weight of articles in bronze were cast, and 508,000 poods weight of ammunition; 9,000 poods weight of steel cannon, and 15,000 weight of iron cannon, 15,000 poods of lead, and 6,600 of zinc were smelted; 7,800 poods weight of iron articles; 10,000.poods weight of sheet-iron, and 7,500 roubles' worth of iron for use in ship-building were also made, besides 46,700 side-arms; 20,000 blades, and 5,725 gun-barrels. The amount of metal passing through private factories can only be approximately computed, as the year is reckoned from May 1 to April 30. The following return, however, is supposed to be tolerably correct. The productions of the smelting establishments of the Ural are estimated at 13,200,000 poods of bronze, 1,017,000 of iron, 69,000 of steel, and 100,000 of copper. Those around Moscow are supposed to have produced 3,360,000 poods of bronze, and 1,830,000 of iron. South Russian produce is estimated at 430,000 poods of bronze, and 440,000 of iron. That of the Polish provinces at 1,370,000 poods of bronze, 800,000 of iron, and 120,000 of zinc. Lastly, 44,000 poods of copper is computed as the return from the Caucasus.' Gold, to the amount of 1,806 poods, has been extracted during 1874, without reckoning the districts of Alta6 and Nerchinek, which yield an annual average of 165 poods. The production of coal has increased; the total amount, including anthracite, raised in 1874 being 83,575,000 poods. The extraction of mineral oils in the Caucasus shows a great increase, and oil-wells have lately been discovered in Poland. THE INDUSTRIAL CLASSES OF RUSSIA. When the author visited Russia in 1872, as a delegate from the United States to the International Statistical Congress, the eighth session of which was held in St. Petersburg in August of that year, his time was so fully engrossed in the work of the congress that he was unable to malke a personal investigation in regard- to the cost and condition of the mechanical and factory labor of that country. His stay at Moscow, the center of the manufacturing industry of Russia, as well as at Nijni-Novgorod, where he attended the great fair, and subsequently at Warsaw, was so brief that but limited information was obtained in regard to the industrial classes of that great empire. As to the peasantry-the farm-laborers who were recently emancipated from serfdom-his observations were more extensive than his inquiries; for, traveling as he did about 4,000 versts (over 2,600 miles) through the center of that country, he was able to observe the habits of the people, *Pood=36.4 pounds avoirdupois. 724 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. to view their dwellings, and thus inform himself of their condition, although unable to converse with them. In regard to factory and mechanical labor, however, he has gathered from other sources, and presents in the following pages, information of much value. The following table, showing the nature and extent of the chief industries of Russia, was prepared by Mlr. MIichell, then British consul at St. Petersburg:;Nature of industry. C v Cotton........................................................ 606 69, 347 71, 725, 459 nIemp and flax...................................................... 225 22, 259 11, 405, 686 Woolen............................................................. 614 92, 322 22, 565, 518 Silk........................................................... 292 7, 933 4, 438, 421 Dye-works.............................................. 204 3, 919 4, 196, 603 Paper...................................................... 170 13, 203 5, 275, 816 Leather...................................................... 2, 471 13, 245 18,164, 897 Tallow.......................... 1, 595 10, 566 22, 553, 255 Wax...................................................... 216 1, 083 2, 722,624 Pottery.......................................................... 289 4,178 1, 321, 078 Glass............................................................... 210 10, 744 4, 402,774 Metals.................................................. 7 4 713 47, 379 28, 688,124 Chemicals.37....7.................................... 377 6,136 23,193, 817 7, 982 302, 314 *220, 654, 072 * Equal to about $165,500,000 in United States currency. Spirits distilled, about 73,000,000 gallons; beer and mead brewed, about 21,000,000 gallons; beet-root sugar produced, 3,300,000 poods; tobacco manufactured, 594,000 poods; iron raised, 15,781,000 poods. FACTORY LABOR IN 1841. The following staterzent shows the iwages, per month, of work-people in a cotton-mill in St. Petersburg, in the year 1841. Occupations. n D X cc 4aC -4 CMen in the blowing or mixing rooms................................. $8 40 $3 60 $1 92 $2 88 Boys in the blowing-room................................................... 6 00 3 60 1 20 1 20 Men at carding-engines.8 40 3 60 1 92 2 88 Boys at the back of cards........................................... 6 00 3 60 1 20 1 20 Boys at the front of cards............................................ 4 80 3 60 96 96 Girls at the calenders................................................ 3 60 2 40 96 24 Women or girls at drawing-frames................................... 6 00 3 60 1 20 1 92 Women or girls at back of frames............................... 4 80 3 69 1 20 72 Girls at back of tube-machine......................... 4 20 2 64 1 20 36 Girls at front of tube-machine................................... 4 80 3 60 1 20 72 Spinners................................................... 22 34 4 32 1 92 16 10 First or large piecer................................................. 9 60 3 36 1 20 5 04 Second or back piecer..................................... 7 20 2 88 1 20 3 12 Largest boy at back of the mules............................. 4 80 2 88 1 20 72 Smallest boy at back of the mules.................................. 3 60 2 88 72. Reelers.............................................................. 720 288 1 20 3 12 Piler, first class....................................................... 14 40 4 32 1 92 8 16 Smiths, machinists, &c.............................................. 16 80 4 32 1 92,10 56 Watchman........................................................... 7 20 3 60 1 44 2 16 LABOR IN RUSSIA. 725 RATES OF WAGES IN 1869. [From the British consular reports.] ST. PETEISBURG, 1870. Wages vary considerably, and are dependent on a variety of causes, such as the locality, season of the year, &c.; the lowest wages being paid in districts where handloom-weavers abound. Good mill-hands make from $7.50 to $15 per month, and are often paid by piece-work. Fitters, ordinary mechanics, joiners, blacksmiths, &c., will earn from 75 cents to $1.50 a day. Skilled mechanics, engine-drivers, engineers on river steamers, &c., earn very high wages-from $1.50 to $2.50 per day, and even more. English foremen receive $20 to $30 a week, with lodging, fuel, and light free. Apprentices generally receive from $2.50 to $3 a month for the first year, increasing each succeeding one by a rouble a month. In cotton-mills, piecers, iron-tenters, and reelers generally get paid according to the amount of work done; the others are paid by the day. WAGES IN MOSCOW. The following tables give the rates of wages per month at Moscow, the industrial center of Russia, in the year 1869, and also the prices of the chief articles of consumption:.Wages in cotton-mills. Wages per month. Mixing-room-cotton-pickers, women............................. $3 52 Scutching-overlookers, men................. 8 36 Tenters, men............. 4 84 Card-room-overlookers, men.................................... 11 28 Strippers, men —-......-.............-.. 6 08 Grinders, men................................................... 6 14 Drawing-tenters, women.................................. 3 60 Speed-tenters, women.............................. 4 541 Speed-piecers, girls.............................................. 2 08 Overlookers, men..............-.................... 12 20 Male spinners, men......... -9 16 Male spinners, first piecers, boys...................... 5 32 Male spinners, second piecers, boys —-------------- 4 16 Male spinners, scavengers, boys................. 2 88 Throstle-piecers, girls.__.-.... 2 30 Reelers, women................................................. 4 54j Overlookers, men....................... 11 60 Winders, women................................................ 3 94 Warpers, women -...............7 46 Sizers, men................................... 10 64 Heald-knitters, girls..................... 3 84 Weavers, men and women.. —..-.............. —-.. —----—. 7 88 Enginemen ----------------------------------------- -- 11 76 Stokers, men.................................................... 6 85 Oilers, men...................................................... 6 44 Mechanics...................................................... 11 60 Blacksmiths. —---------—.................. —. 13 00 Boiler-makers....-.......~..... 19 36 Molders.......................12 88 Joiners.. —--------—. —-------------------------------- 10 96 Pattern-makers............ 13 52 Packers ------------------------—............................... 9 3 Storemen............................- 5 80 Gasmen......................................................... 6 44 Watchmen..............................,................ 3 87 Day-laborers..................................................-. 5 03 Carters......................................................... 6 44 Clerks, in 1869, from.............................................. $6 44 to 19 36 Flax-miFs. Ruffers, men............................................ 9 68 Sorters, men and boys............................................ 11 60 Machine-hacklers, men and boys................ 3 84 726 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Wages per month. Spreaders, women............................................... $4 16 Carder-spreaders, women........................................ 3 84 Drawers, women................................................ 3 52 Rovers, women.................................................. 3 84 Spinners, women and children................................... 3 84 Doffers.......................... 2 56 Bobbin-carriers, boys —.. 4 48 Twisters, boys and girls......................................... 4 48 Band-tiers, boys ----- 4 48 Reelers, women................................................... I 28 Dryers, men...................................................... 4 84 Bleachers, men.................................................. 5 16 Winders, women and girls....................................... 3 52 Piecers, girls.................................................... 2 56 Warpers, women --— 6 44'Dressers, men................................................... 9 68 Weavers, boys and women....................................... 4 48 Cloth-pickers, boys............................................... 4 22 Calenderers, men............................................... 8 36,Reel-makers, boys-... 6 44 Heald-knitters, boys and girls.................................... 2 02 Packers, men.................................................... 6 44 Enginemen..................................................... 9 68 Stokers, men.................................................... 7 72 Shaft-oilers, men................................................ 5 16 Mechanics, men................................................. 5 16 Blacksmiths, men............................................... 13 84 M odel-makers, men.............................................. 15 48 Joiners, men.................................................... 11 60 Brass-founders, men............................................. 12 88 Gasmen......................................................... 6 44 W atchmen...................................................... 5 16 Day-laborers.................................................... 5 16 Carters......................................................... 6 44 Sweepers, boys and men......................................... 4 48 Clerks......................................................... 19 36 Overlookers, from-............................................... $5 80 to 16 12 Bleaching, dyeing, and print works. Laborers in laboratory and about printing-machines, men......... 6 44 Work-people about agency-room, dye-house, and calenderers, men and women................................................... 5 s0 Overlookers about agency-room, dye-house, and calenders, men.... 9 68 Packers, men.................................................... 9 68 Overlookers, men................................................ 10 96 W ool-washers, men.............................................. 6 12 Card-cleaners, men.............................................. 6 44 Card-feeders, women............................................. 3 20 Comb-tenters, women........................................... 3 84 Drawing-tenters, women........................................ 3 52 Roving-tenters, women.......................................... 3 20 Twisters, women-. 3 20 Reelers, women.......................... 5 16 Thoolen manufacture. Overlookers, men —12 88 Card-cleaners, men.............................................. 5 80 Card-tenters, women............................................. 3 03 Shearing, women- -.................;............. 3 03 W eavers, women................................................ 6 44 Cloth-cleaners, women........................................... 4 48 W ool-washers, men..........................-............... 5 48 Cloth-dryers, men -5 48 Cloth-pressers, men.............................................. 5 80 Spinners, boys.. 2 88 Spinners, men-...................,-............................... 10 32 LABOR IN RUSSIA. 72"i Glase-works.'Wages per month Glas-s-blowers-..........................$8 36 to $14 16 Rough-polishers-......................... 6 44 to 11 60 Cutlers...............-.............. 8 36 to 16 12, Designers.............................-.. 708 to 10 96 Gilders-.............................3 36 Assistants to blowers, boys-....................2 72 Mixers of materials at furnace-..................16 12 Hardeners, boys-.........................5 16 Storers and packers, men-.....................6 44 Paper-mtills. Overlookers-........................... 9 68 to 11 60 Workmen-............................. 5 16 to 6 44 Workwomenu........................... 3 20 to 3 84 Average cost of food per month for-,One man-.............................304 One womnen-...........................2 30 One child-1 92 PRICES OF PROVISIONS. Flour, black, per cwt - — 218 white, best, per cwt -—...................5 58 white, second, per cwt. - — 396 w hite, third, per cwt —..................... 3 56 Buckwheat, per measure —........................ 83 Wheat, per measure —-.......................115 Malt, per cwt-............................3 18 Salt, per cwt —-..........................198 Peasee eaue-3 56 Oil, (used during fasts,) per cwt ---.12 80 Butter, per pound ---- 18......................i Small fish, per pound --—........~..........11 Beef, first sort, per poumnd --—...................09 second sort, per pound....- 07 Salted beef, per cwt -—.......................7 98 In the larger towns the price of the best beef and mutton often runs as high as 171 cents per pound. The increase in the prices of the chief articles of consumption dnring the last ten years may be roughly stated to be at the rate of from 30 to 50 per cent., but the rates of wages have increased iu an equal and~in many cases in a greater proportion. The condition of the Russian artisan has improved very materially during late years, and were it not for the lowering of the duty on the already too-cheap "vodki," (corn brandy,) the working-class in Russia would be, comparatively speaking, well off. Prices ofprovisions in Nicolaieff, Rttssia, in 1870. Beef, veal, mutton, and pork, per pound..-............$0 06 to'$0 08 Bread, middling, per 2 pounds........................06 best, per pound —--------------------- - 08 Rye, best, per pound —-......................03 Butter, fresh, per pound........................ —28 Butter, salt, per pound. —-------------------- - 24 Cheese, bad, native, per pound -—..................14 Swiss and English, per pound................ —-60 Millet, per pound.. -........................02 Buckwheat, per pound —-.....................02 Sugrar refined, (no other qualities are used,) per pound.......18 Tea, cheapest, per pound -— 930 Firewoodfrpecatld- -4 84 Firewood, oak, per cart-load —...................6 29 Coals, native, anthracite, per ton —.................14 52 Coals, English bituminous, per ton —................9 08 Water, per cart —-.........................60 per pail —-.........................02 Bong, brackish, per pail -—.................01 Cabbages, per 100. 242 Carrots, per 10.-08......................... 728 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Onions, per 50 —.....-. $0 06 Parsley, per bunch -. —------------------------------ - ------------ 00o Potatoes, per pound ------ -------------------------------------- - - 03 Solanum, per 100 -.. 60 Tallow dips, per pound 12 molds, per pound......................................... 14 Composition candles, per pound.................................. 24 Petroleum, per quart............. 24 Flour, best, per pound............................................ 04 seconds, per pound 03 Coffee, per pound................................................ $0 24 to 36 Milk, per quart 10 Bacon, lard, ham, per pound...................................... 14 Fowls, per pair.................................................. 60 to 72 Geese, each —. 60 to 72 Turkeys, each 72 to 1 69 Soap, per pound................................................. 10 Sarch, per pound - 08 Macaroni, per pound-06 Rice, per pound 06 Eggs, per 100.......-............................................. 84 Fish, average, per pound......................................... 20 Crawfish, per 100................................................ 05 Wine, commonest, bad, per bottle................................. 12 passable, per bottle......................................... 28 Vodki or brandy, per bottle...................................... 36 Manure, dried and caked for fuel, is this year at $7.26 per 7 cubic feet. Reeds and linseed straw and flax-stems and brushwood, $1.21 per 30 bundles. INDUSTRIAL CLASSES IN RUSSIA. ST. PETERSBURG, January 12, 1870. It is not easy to state at all accurately the proportion which the number of Russians employed in industrial pursuits, exclusive of the agricultural population, bears to the other classes. The difficulty arises in great measure from the existence of a very numerous class of nomads; for independently of those employed in the internal navigation, carpenters, bricklayers, stonemasons, painters, joiners, and other artisans are in the habit of flocking into the great towns in the spring, and of returning to their villages in the autumn. The following is a rough estimate of the numbers employed in various manufactures in Russia: Hands. Cotton-Spinning-mills 50,000 Weaving-mills.................................................... 70,000 Hand-loom weavers, reelers, &c.................................... 100,000 Calico-printing, dyeing, bleaching, &c......... 50,000 Total employed in cotton-manufacture................................ 270,000 Wool-Spinning-mills..................................................... 5,000 Weaving-mills2................................... 25,000 Total employed in woolen-manufacture 30,000 Flax-Spinning-mills --. 8,000 Weaving-mill-...................................................... 12, 000 Dressers, &c..-30, 000 Total employed in flax-manufacture. 50, 000 Hemp-Yarn-spinning ----------------------—..............- - - - ----------- 4,000 Rope and cordage................................................... 4, 000 Dressers........................................................... 20, 000 Total employed in hemp-manufacture................................. 28, 000 Cloth-Weaving, dressing, &c - -- 70,000 Carpet-manufacture........................................................ 2,000 LABOR IN RUSSIA. 729 Hands. Silk-Ribbons, &c-..................... 1,500 Silks,&c —----- -................................. 7, COO Gauze —------—............................... 1,500 Total employed in silk-manufacture.......10,000 ~Iron-150, 000..................................... 150, 000 Leather —-------—.........................-..... 30,000 ~Deals, &~c-20....................................., 000 Oils-hemp, linseed, sunflower, &c-15, 000 e...................................... 15, 000 Sugar-b~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0, 000 Total number of hands employed in the foregoing manufactures........ 725, 000 To the above must be added those engaged in glove, boot, hat, watch, carriage-makin, and other employments, no reliable statistics to arrive even approximately at their numbers being obtainable. CONDITION OF AGRICULTURAL LABORERS. The agricultural laborers live almost entirely in houses of their own, which are throughout the empire constructed in the following simple fashion: Logs of the red pine are cut into the required lengths-3, 4, or 5 fathoms, according to the proposed size of the house; the lengths are placed one above the other, the ends being dovetailed together, thus forming, as it were, a huge box of logs; the doors and windows are then cut out, and the pieces carefully numbered by notches; the box is now taken to pieces, and the actual building commences; this is done by placing the lowest tier on boulder-stones and wooden posts for foundations, then each succeeding tier is added, moss, or hemp and tow, being used between each layer, to fill up all interstices; the walls thus completed, floors and ceilings of red or white pine boards are added, both ceiling and flooring generally being double, with a layer of earth between; the whole is crossed over with boards, the roofing generally consisting of wooden tiles; in one corner of a room a large brick stove, similar to an English baking-oven, is built, a chimney, either of bricks (put loosely together without mortar) or of wood, is carried through the roof, and the house, or hut, is complete. Here the whole family li ves. Generally the house contains but a single room, but sometimes a well-to-do peasant has a house of three or four rooms, and even uses plaster and paper-hanugings for the walls of his hut. CONDITION OF FACTORY LABiORERS. The mill-people in large towns or their suburbs, for the most part, live as lodgers, in houses -varying in size from the peasant's hut to large buildings of two or three stories, but in no case are comfort and cleanliness taken into consideration. The rooms are generally small, low, badly ventilated, and crowded; the same room is used for sleeping and eating; shelves or benches serve as beds. The occupants are generally only known to each other from working at the same mill; very few, indeed, are members of the same family, and children, even where employed in the same neighborhood as their parents, seldom live with them. Separate sleeping-apartments are almost unknown, save in the case of the superior workmen who rise to be overlookers, foremen, &c.; these men have often neat, tidy lodgings, and -live with some regard to appearances. It is a general practice among mill-banids to form themselves into artel8, a kind of club, consisting, according to the size of the room, of five, ten, eighteen, twenty, or even a greater number of members. Each artel will engage a woman as cook, appoint a treasurer to encash monthly the subscriptions due to the general fund for provisions, &c. The food of the workmen generally consists of black bread, fresh and salt fish, soup from cabbage and meat, potatoes, mushrooms, cucumbers, &c. Tea, corn brandy, quass, and beer are the beverages. Beer has gained great favor with the mill-hands, both in St. Petersburg and Moscow; otherwise it is very little drunk by the poorer classes. As a rule, in the neighborhood of large towns the people live much better, generally at an average rate of about $5 per month per man; at other places, (except in the central and southern provinces, where the food of the people is generally good,) however, the living is very wretched, the food consisting of little else besides black bread and water, and occasionally only a little tea, the living in this case costing only about from $1.20 to $1.44 per month. With the extension of the railway system, the wages and style of living are improving, even in the more remote districts. Of late years, some mill-owners have adopted the plan of providing lodgings for their work-people, and in many instances have built large houses, constructed on sanitary principles. Here the people are divided into three classes: the married, the unmarried men, and the unmarried womein; to each is allotted a separate house or 730 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. part of the house. The supervision of the lodgings is intrusted to competent persons, and an extent of cleanliness and comfort is attained which would be quite impossible to arrive at in any other way. The inmates pay for their lodgings according to the size or the number of rooms occupied by them, the amount due for rent being deducted every month from their wages. Under this system a single man will pay from 72 cents to $1.44 a month; married men from $1.44 to $2.16. Attached to these houses there is generally a store, where the people can purchase the necessaries of life, of good quality and at reasonable prices; this store is under the control of the mill-owner or manager. * * I Some of the more wealthy mill-owners have already established hospitals in direct connection with their works; the ground and buildings being provided by the proprietor, while the hands generally support the hospitals by a payment of from j to 1 per cent. on their wages. * HOURS OF LABOR. The hands work on an average thirteen hours per day, commencing at 5 a. m. in the summer and at 5.30 a. m. in the winter, and stopping work at 8 p. m. An hour in the middle of the day, generally from 12 to 1, is allowed for dinner, and the operatives usually have a short time allowed for breakfast at 8 a.., and again, for a luncheon, at 5 p. m. Adults and children keep the same hours, but only very icosiderable numbers of the ]atter are employed in mills. EDUTCATION IN RUSSIA. In Russia, in 1872, there were 1,081 preparatory and higher schools, attended by 37,430 pupils, of whom 16,461 were boys and 21,789 girls. There were 126 gymnasia, in which Latin, French, Greek, and science generally, were taught; and 32 progymnasia, attended by 42,751pupils. Of preparatory and higher schools for girls only, there were 186, attended by 23,404 pupils. The universities, of which there are now eight, have been organized on the German model. They employ 512 professors, and have 6,799 pupils, nearly all the latter being from the middle and poorer classes. In reference to the'condition of the working Classes of Russia, the British Almanac says: In Russia the working classes may be regarded as being in a kind of transition state, in consequence of the recent abolition of serfdom throughout the empire; many workmen who have been serfs enjoying from their owners permission to live and work in the large towns. Again, there seems to be a tendency on the part of the newly-emancipated population to drift toward the large cities and towns, agricultural labor being miserably remunerated in Russia. On the other hand, the Russian mechanic appears disposed to emigrate to the United States,- but for the political obstacles in the way of his so doing. In every respect, the social condition of the Russian artisan is inferior to that of his brethren in Western Europe, and years must elapse before he can hope to become en terms of industrial equality with them. B3ERDIANSK. The Britisti consul at Berdiansk, unuder date of March 22, 1872, writes as follows: The keen demand for grain has brought large tracts of land under cultivation, and a severe strain on the labor market has resulted, which has within the last four years brought up wages to very high rates. The Russian workman has not yet learned the value of time, and he does not appreciate home comforts or wholesome food. Earning from $5 to $10 in a week, he will waste the next, and spend his money in drink. He knows very well that he has never to wait for work, but that work is always waiting for him. His wants are few and easily satisfied. He lives in a wretched, unfurnished hovel, possessing but one recommendation, warmth in the winter. His bed is but a piece of felt and a straw pillow; he has no sheet or other covering. He sleeps in his clothes, and his sheep-skin coat serves him for a quilt. His dress is of common print, and he generally wears it until it drops off from age. A thick sheep-skin coat is his dress in winter, and this is seldom taken off during the cold months. His food consists principally of black bread, made from rye, salted, sun-dried fish, cheese of very poor quality, eggs, and occasionally pork; the better class of workmen generally have a LABOR IN - RUSSIA. 731 noon-day meal of soup made with meat and vegetables.- His drink is tea, quass, (a kind of weak beer,) and vodki, (a very pure and cheap spirit made from rye.) Of this spirit large quantities are consumed. His recreation is drinking, with its accompaniments singing and dancig. Such lodging, such food, such clothing, such amuseents, aretotlly ufit for an Englishman. Under such circumstances he could not long etain health. In considering, therefore, what the cost of living in this part of Russia would be for an Englishman, (and it is necessary to estimate this, for the lines f railway now projected must ere long create a demand for skilled workmen,) we must take his way Of living at home, and see what the expense would be to live in the same style here. Supposing him to be married, and to have three children, he would require a house with three rooms. The interior comforts and arrangements which such a house would possess in England would not be found; it would be without drains, closets, or water, and the doors and windows would be ill constructed. For such a house the rent would be about $75 a year; four meals a day, breakfast, dinner, tea, and supper, could not be estimated at less than 84 cents; clothing, fuel, light, and household expenses could not be estimated at less than 72 cents a day. Thus, with strict economy, the English workman's yearly expenditure with his family would be~~~For~~.oo..................................... $319 s08 For clothes, fuel, &c..................................... 27360 Forrent.............................................. 75 00 ~~~Total —~..................................... 667 68 The above does not include drinks or any kind of recreation, and though the sum may appear large, yet it is carefully calculated, and, if anything, underestimated. An English second-class engineer who, with his wife, has resided in this town (Berdiansk) for he past two years, assures me that his monthly bill for food alone, without liquor, amounts to 9. He receives 18 a month, and these wages he computes as equal to about 12 in London. As already show, the diet of the natives is unfit for an Englishman, but the country possesses all the requisites for an Englishman. The average prices of necessaries are as follows: Meat, per pound of 14 ounces, 6 cents; bread, 4 cents; butter, 8 cents; potatoes, 1 cent; tea, $1.20; coffee, 20 cents; loaf-sugar, (there is no brown,) 20 cents; coals, per ton, $9.68. During the winter months the entire population are dressed in fur. The ordinary material is sheep-skin, and coats made from it cost from $12.50 to $22.50. WAGES IN ODESSA IN 1870. [From report of the British consul.] TIhe'wages paid to native workmen and laborers are as follows; United States gold. Working engineers, from-..$0 94 to $1 32 Working carpenters, from.-...87 to 1 32 Working blacksmiths, from-...................... 87 to 1 18 Ordinary laborers, (mechanics,) from -... - 50 to 66 Common laborers employed in paving, &c., in 1866, from-........ 21 to 1 05 Common day-laborers, (according to the season,) from ---------- 40 to 1 32 Watchmakers, monthly wages, from..- -_.-~............16 50 to 40 00 Apprentices are taken from four to six years, found with lodging( and food, and, after the above periods, promoted to be workmen. Gold and silver smiths: Workmen are paid monthly at the rate of $6.60 to $10, and upward of $40, a very few as high as from $50 to $66. The Russian workman appears to be intelligent and laborious, but is said to be careless and indifferent as to the quality of the work'he. turns out, and, therefore, will always require to be sharply looked after. It is not thought that he is often conscientious, or that he takes a pride in the quality of the work he may execute, and he would undertake any that was given him without reference to his character as a workman. It is probable that Russian artisans are fast acquiring greater skill in all departments of their trade, for the Russian is of an imitative, if not an inventive, turn, and as he improves in skill he will naturally, one may suppose, improve in the care and quality of the work he executes. WAGES IN ODESSA IN 1873. The following information was furnished by M3r. Smith, consul of the'United States at Odessa, October, 1873: 732 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Rate of wagespaidfor farm and mechanical labor in Odessa, Russia, in the year 1873. Daily wages. Monthly wages. Occupation. With Without With board. board. board. FARMI-LABORERS. Experienced hands in summer*....................................... $1 00........ $20 00 Experienced hands in winter*........................................................ 12 00 iExperienced hands in winter*..0. - 12 00 Ordinary hands in summer*.............................................. 67...... 10 00 Ordinary hands in winter................................................ 50...... 8 00 Common laborers at other than farm-work............................... 75...... 10 00 Female servants......................................................... 50 $0 75 7 00 SKILLED WORKMEN.t Blacksmiths.............................................................. 150 1 60......... Bricklayers or masons.................................................... 50 1 60 Cabinet-makers.......................................................... 25 1 30.. Carpenters.............................................................. 1 50 1 60 Coopers..................................................................1 25 1 30. Machinists................................. 12.............................. 25 0 0 Painters........................................................... 1 50 1 60. Plasterers................................................................ 50 1 560. Shoemakers.............................................................. 50 1 60.......... Stone.cutters................................................................... 125 Tailors................................................................... 1 25 1 50.......... Tanners.................................................................. 00 1 12.......... Tinsmiths............................................................... 00 1 12.......... Wheelwrights............................................................ 100 1 12 * Women one-third price. t By the day only. Price of board for workmen, per week, Octobers 1873, $5; for workwomen, per week, October, 1873, $3. LABOR- IN RUSSIA. 733 PRICES OF PROVISIONS, GROCERIES, ETC. Prices of provisions, groceries, and other leading articles of consumption, also of house-rent and board, in th n of Odessa; furnished by Mr. Bragg, of the establishment of Kendrich 4- Co. Arices. Articles. Articles. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~Retail pricesArilsRealpce in 1872. in 1872. P~RnOVI~SIONS. Sugar: ~~~~~~~~Flour: ~Coffee B...........per pound. $0 10 Wheat, superfine.per barrel. $8 50 Soap, common.............. do... 7 Wheat, extra family. do-. 10 00 Starch.......................do... 9 Rye............ do... 5 09 Fuel:Corn-mLeal.... do... 4 00 Coal, best.............per ton. 12 00 ~~~~~~Beef: -~ Wood, hard, (cutting inFreshroastingpieces..perpound. 10 eluded)............ per cord 12 00 Fresh, soup pieces do... 7 Wood, pine, (cutting inFresh, rmpsteaks.......do... 10 cluded)..........per cord. 8 00 Cornd............do... 5 Oil: ~~~~~~~Veal: ~Petroleum.........per gallon. 75 8Fore 4rarters.do......p... 8 L................do... 1 34 ind-quarters —------- -do.... Cutlets.do...........1;2 DOMESTIC DRY-GOODS, ETC. Mutton: Fore-quarters.....do...7 Shirtings: Leg..............do... 1 Brown, 4-4, standard qualChops1ity............. do... 10 ityper yard. 20 ~~~~~~~~~~~Pork: Bleached, 4-4, standard qualFtesh...... do... 10 ity................per yard. 20 Corned or salted. do... 14 Sheetings: Hams, smoked..do.. 15 Linen, 9-8, standard qualShoulders....do... 14 ity........per yard. 90 Sausages...do... 20 Linen, 9-8, standard qualLard....... do... 17 ity................peryard. 95 Codfish, dry...do.. 16 Cotton flannel, medium qualMackerel, ickled.do... 6 ity....................per yard. 25 Butter.......do... 25 Tickings, linen..............do... 55 Cheese..............do... 40 Prints.............do... 30 Potatoes..........per bushel. 1 00 Mousseline do lamnes,......do.. 40 Rice............per pound. 5 Satinets, medium quality....do... 1 00 Beans............per quart. 12 Boots, men's heavy...7per pair. 5 00 Milk...............do... 10 Eggs............per dozen. 12 HOUSE-MENT. GROCERIES, ETC. Four-roomedte-nements.permonth. 35 00 Six-roomed tenements. do.... do 50 00 Tea, Oolong or other good black...........per-pound. 1 00 HOARD. Coffee: Rio, green..........do... 25 For men, (mechanics or other Rio, roasted.........do.. 30 workmen).......per week. 5 00 Sugar: Fer women..........do... 3 00 Good brown.........do. - 9 EXPENDITURES OF A WORKMANT'S FAIMILY. Average weekly expenditures of a fansily consisting of two adults and five children, the head of whc seployed in, the establishment Of Messrs Kendrich C- o., in, the town of OdesMa Russia.'Weekly earning s in 1873, $15 per -week. Articles. Value. Articles. Value. Flour and bread.............. $1 75 Fuel................... $1 10 Fresh, corned, salted, and smoked meats. 1 60 Oil or other light.............. 30 Lard..................... 35 Spirits, beer, and tobacco, (if any).... 25 Butter................... 40 House-rent......:......... 2 20 Sugar and molasses............. 60 For educational, religious, and benevoMilk..................... 50 lent objects............... 1 50 Teas and coffee............... 50 - Fish, fresh and salt.....;....... 20 Total weekly expenses........ 12 80 Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, &o 35 — 3 Eggs.................... 20 Clothing per year........... 75 00 Potatoes and other vegetables....... 50 Taxes per year............ 2 00 Fruits, green and dried.......... 50 734 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN MANUFACTURES. While the manufactures of Russia are as yet very limited,* her agricultural resources are such as to make her a sharp competitor with the United States in the European grain market. That which for the present, gives us a decided advantage over her is the extensive use in this country of improved agricultural machinery, which to the great mass of Russian agriculturists, is as yet,unknown. She possesses vast reas of territory whose soil and climate are all that could'be desired, and her facilities for tran sportation, which were formerlyveryimperfecthavebeen so much improved of late years that the wheat product of a large region can now be carried by rail to Odessa and other ports of shipment. The cheapness of labor, and that tardiness to adopt new modes of industry, which is natural to a peasantry but recently released from serfdom, have thus far militated against the introduction of machinery and improved implements into agricultural industry; but it must be remembered that the'word " progress" has been stamped upon the operations of modern Russia, and that the masses of the peasantry cannot long remain unaffected by that spirit of improvement of which the visitor to Russia sees so many evidences on every side. Moreover, special3efforts for the elevation of the peasantry will not be cking, for the large-hearted beneficence of the Emperor Alexander 11, (properly surnamed "The Great,"~) who, in a single day, created over forty millions of freemen, will not permit him to leave the great work lie has undertaken in an incomplete condition. Already, in fact, have measures been adopted to surround the emancipated serfs, as rapidly as practicable,7 with the conditions befitting the state of freedom to which they have been raised. In view of the rapidity with which the events of national development succeed each other in this age of progress, we -may look forward to a day by no means remote when Russia will so far utilize her ample, stores of ore', ~both of iron and other metals, of anthracite and bituminous coal, and of all the raw materials of industry, as to compete successfully, both in -:textile and metallic products, with the m~anufacturing nations of Western Europe..V As has already appeared in the extracts from the works of MM. Skalijowski and N6bolsine, presented on previous pages, the manufacture of textile fabrics for home consumption has attained a considerable magnitude, while the manufacture of iron, both for the domestic and foreign market, has long been a very important industry. -I4 At the exposition held at Moscow in 1872 the author observed an extensive variety of the most improved agricultural machinery of foreign origin. Within three miles of that old and celebrated city he saw in actual use the primitive plow, described in sacred and profane history, consisting of a bent root or a crooked stick, without any improvement on the ancient model, except a piece of iron as a shoe, or apology for a share.,.-: He also noticed, in the same vicinity, the threshing of grain with a flail, not on a threshing-floor, but. on the bare ground. LABORI IN AFRICA. 735 LABOR IN AFRICA. Although it was niot intended to submit in this report any data in regard to labor in Africa, yet, as circulars similar to those used elsewhere were sent to the consuls of the United States at Tunis and Tripoli, the information which, in response thereto, they have furnished is here. with presented. I RATES OF WAGES. Statement showivg the rates of mechanical and farm labor in Tunis and Tripoli, Africa, in the year 1873. Tunis. Tripoli. Occupation..! 1 Z ~Cd Skilled workmen, (by the day only:) Blacksmiths-...................................................... 60............ $0 90..... Bricklayers or masons............................................ 60............ 52...... Cabinet-makers.................................................. 75............ 52..... Carpenters........................................................ 60........................ Coopers..................................................... 5...... 60............ 56...... Machinists....................................................... 75........................ Painters......................................................... 75........................ Plasterers........................................................ 50........................ Shoemakers...................................................... 37............ 60...... Stone-cutters............................................. 60................. Tailors........................................................... 60.....-..- 48... Tanners....................................................-...... 37............ 48...... Tinsmiths........................................................ 60....................... Wheelwrights.................................................. 60........................ Farm-laborers: Experienced hands in summer............................. $0 30 60 $9 00 $0 24...... $3 89 inwinter.............................. 30 60 900 16...... 340 Ordinary hands in summer................................. 20 40 7 50.................. in winter................................. - 20 40 7 50.................. Common laborers at other than farm-work..................... 20 40 7 50...... 18 Female servants......................... 10 20 5 00............ 164 EXPENDITURES OF WORIMEN'S FAMILIES. Statement showing the average weekly expenditures of two familes, one in Tunis and one in Tripoli, Africa, in the year 1873. Z CSCS CS - Articles. o o Articles. 1- ~ ~~~~~~~~ -~ Flour and bread.................. $2 00 $0 85 Eggs............................ $0 30........ Fresh, corned, salted, and smoked Potatoes and other vegetables. 1 00 $0 06 meats.......................... I1 00 18 Fruits, green and dried.......... 37 03 Lard, olive-oil.................... 37........ Fuel............................. 62 12 Butter............................ 37........ Oil or other light................ 30 24 Cheese........................... 50........ Other articles.................... 50 16 Sugar and molasses..................0 07 Spirits and tobacco (if any)...... 37........ Molasses and sirup............................... House-rent -- -- --- 1 00 64 Milk............................. 25........ For educational, religious, and Coffee............................ 30 06 benevolent objects............. 3 50... Tea.............................................. Fish, fresh and salt............... 25 20 Total weekly expenses...... 13 60 2 67 Soap, starch, salt, pepper,vinegar, Clothing per year................ 60 00 28 0CO &c............................. 40 06 Taxes per year to British consul. 5 00 1 21 Weekly earninga in 1873, $15 per week. 736 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. PRICES OF PROVISIONS, GROCERIES, ETC. Statement showing the prices of provisions, groceries, and other leading articles of consum also of house-rent and board, in Tunis and Tripoli, Africa, in the year 173. Articles. Tunis. Tripoli. Articles. Tunis. Tripoli. PROVISIONS. GOIRIES, ETC. Flour: Tea, Oolong, or other good black, Wheat, superfine-.per bbl $8 00...... per pound..0 20 1 33 Wheat, extra family.....do 8 00... 00 Coffee, Rio: Beef: Greenper lb. 30 Fresh,roasting-pieces.per lb. 14 $0 10 Roasted..do... 40 Fresh, soup-pieces......do 14..Sugar: Fresh, rump-steaks..... do. 14 Good brown. do... 19. Veal: Yellow C.do. 10. Fore quarters...........o... 14 Coffee.do... 10. Hind quarters......Soap,........ do... 10 0Sol Cutlets............ do 14.....Starch do... 14 Sta14 Mutton: Fuel, coal.. per ton 22 00 19 46 Fore quarters...........do.. 10 08 Oil*perjar. 62 21 Leg..................do... 14 Chops................... do.. 1 ETC. Pork: Gray T-cloth, 32 inches per yd........ 07 Fresh................... do........... 1Shi Sausages................do..... 20 Tickigs, good quality do.... 16 Codfish, dry............... do... 0 08 Prints.do.... 13 Mackerel, pickled...........do... 08.... Butter................ do......do... 50 18 Cheese......................do... 37 20 Fourroomedtenementspermo 10 00 3 24 Potatoes................per bush. 1 25..... Six-roomed tenements. do 00 4 13 Rice.................. per lb. 60 06 Beans....................per qt 1 25.. Milk..o...................... For other Eggs.................... per doz. 18 09 workmen). per week 3 00 The jar weighs 23 pounds. In transmitting the foregoing statement, Mr. Consul Vidal remarks:. The chief expense, in Tripoli for the lower classes, Christians, Jews, or Muassulmans, is for barley, coffee, olive-oil, charcoal, and house-rents. Fuel is scarce, and therefore pretty high. Barley is the principal article of consumption for men and horses. The former will make a hearty meal with one or two pancakes of barley-flour and dipped in oil. Sometimes barley is eaten in its natural state. A person who keeps horses and Arab servants has to see that the latter do not eat the barley placed in the manger of the former, and do -not drink the oil of his lamps. Many of the articles enumerated in the above lists are luxuries here, and can scarcely be considered as forming part of the expenditures of a mechanic's family. [Extract from a letter from G. H. Heap, esq., United States consul at Tunis, Africa.] The Arab farm-laborer, who is paid sixty cents a day without board, lives upon black bread, a few olives, and some olive-oil, the whole not costing over fifteen cents. In consequence of the construction of a railroad by an English company, the price of common labor has increased over 50 per cent. The manufactories in this consular district are carried on in a manner and on a scale as, primitive and as small as in the Middle Ages. There are several guilds the, members. of'which employ a few hands each. The principal corporations are the makers of red caps, worn everywhere in the East, the finest and most costly being made here; and the goat-skin tanners and dyers, the Tunisian skins being equal to those made in Morocco. In the south there are manufactories of woolen goods of various descriptions,, some of which are fine and costly, and but little known out of this country. The Tunisian bernoose, however, is well known in Europe, and much prized.- Beyond these there are few manufactures of any value and importance, and none on a large scale. Nothing whatever is done here for the health, comfort, education, or morals of mechanics, and I can, therefore, give no facts in regard to these subjects. LABOR IN AMERICA. The pages in the preceding part of this report have been devoted to the consideration of labor and the condition of laborers in ancient, medieval, and modern times ili various portions of the Old World. It now only remains to pi'esent such facts as have been gathered in relation to labor in America; and as this volume is intended for circulation chiefly within the United States, it is only necessary to present, in a tabular form, the rates of wages paid in agricultural, mechanical, and manufacturing industry, together with the cost of subsistence and the expenditures of families of work-people in the several sections and States of the Union. An iDquiry into the establishment and growth of the leading industries of the United Slates would enhance the value of this part of the work, but to treat this subject with the care and minuteness necessary to enlist the interest of readers already sufficiently flmiliar with its general outlines would require a separate volume, and would, moreover, be the repetition of a task which has already been accomplished by private enterprise.* FARMS AND FAR-M-LABORERS IN THE UNITED STATES. The following statement shows the acreage of improved and the total land in farms, and the number of persons engaged in agriculture, in the United States in tne year 1870: [Compiled from the United States Census.] Acreage of land in farms. Nomberof persons engaged in agriculture. States and Territories. Total. Improved. Males. Females. Alabama........................................... 14, 961,178 5, 062, 204 226 768 64 860 Arizona............................................ 21, 807 14,585 I'284 I Arkansas.......................................... 7, 597, 296 1, 859, 8'21 100 669 8, 641 California.......................................... 11, 427, 105 6,218,133 47 580 283 Colorado........................................... 320, 346 95, 594 6 462 Connecticut........................................ 2, 364, 416 1, 646, 752 43,523..10 Dakota............................................ 302, 376 4'2, 645 2, 522.......... Delaware.......................................... 1, 0532, 3-2 698,115 15, 907 66 District of Columbia............................... 11, 677 8, 266 I 350 15 Florida............................................ 2, 373, 541 736,172 36, 944 5, 548 Georgia............................................. 23, 647, 941 6,831, 856 262, 152 73, 993 Idaho............................................. -77, 139 26, 603 1 462 Illinois -------------------------------------------- 25, 882, 861 19, 329, 952 375, 407 1, 0.24 Indiana...........................................1, 119, 648 10, 104, 279 266, 349 428 Iowa.............................................. 15, 541, 793 9, 396, 467 209, 907 356 Kansas............................................ 5, 656, 879 1,971,003 72, 918 310 Kentucky.......................................... 18, 660, 106 8,103, 850 257, 49.6 3, 6)54 Louisiana.......................................... 7, 065, 817 2, 045, 640 114, 530 26, 937 Maine-.......................................... 5, 838, 058 2, 917, 793 8I 55 Maryland.......................................... 4, 512, 579 2,914,007 79 19 1, 25) Massachusetts..................................... 2, 730, 283 1, 736, 221 72 54 ]~ichi-an.......................................... 10, 019, 142 5, 096, 939 187 175 M] innesota ----------------------------------------- 6, 4C3, -28 2, 322, 102 74 663 4)4 Mississippi ---------------------------------------- 13, 1921,113 4, 209,146 19:3 65 474 Missouri........................................... 21, 707, 220 9,130, 615 261, 33 Montana.......................................... 13,57 8,64 2, 10 Montana-~~~~~~~~~~~~~1:19, 5:17 84, 674 2 1l Nebraska ------------------------------------------ 2, 073, 781 647, 031 t 23 083 32 Nevada............................................ 208, 510 92, 644 2 7 New Hampshire................................... 3, 605, 994 2, 334, 4L7 4 1.[ New Jersey ---------------------------------------- 2, 989, 511 1, 976, 474 62 913 1.5 New Mexico....................................... 5433,5,9 143, 057 18 4 1 2;6 Now York -29,190, 810 15, 627, 206 373, 45 868 North Carolina.................................... 19, 835, 410 5, 258, 742 241 010 2 28 Ohio............................................... 21,712, 4-20 14, 469, 133 396 3e7 757 Oregon............................................ 2, 389, 252 1,116, 290 13 2,0 16 Pennsylvania...................................... 17, 994, 200 11, 515,965 258 772 1, 29 * See "tHistory of Americatn Manufactures from 1608 to 1866," by J. Leander Bishop, M. D., 3 vols., octavo. Philadelphia: E. Young & Co. 47 L 738 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Farms and farm-laborers in the United States-Continued. N-um ber of persons en. Acreage of land in farms. g boe rsonsuen gaged in agriculture. States and Territories. - Total. Improved. Males. Females. Rhode Island....................................... 502, 308 289 030 11,767 13 South Carolina..................................... 12,105, 280 3, 010, 539 147, 708 58, 946 Teninessee......................................... 19, 581,214 6, 843, 278 247, 953 19, 067 Texas.............................................. 18, 396, 523 2, 964, 836 152, 722 14, 031 Utah ----------------------------------------------- 148, 361 118, 755 10,417 11 Vermont........................................... 4, 528, 804 3, 073, 257 57, 889 94 V irginia........................................... 18, 145, 911 8, 165, 040 228, 082 16, 468 Washington...................................... 649,139 192, 016 3, 759 12 West Virginia..................................... 8,528, 394 2, 580, 254 73, 725 235 WNisconsin......................................... 11, 715, 321 5, 899, 343 158, 300 1, 387 Wyoming. 4, 341 338 164 1 Total........................................ 407, 735, 041 188, 921, 099 5, 525, 503 396, 968 Table showing the values offarms and of farm implements and machinery in the United States in the year 1870. [Compiled from the United States Census.] OffarmingimStates and Territories. Of farms. plementsand machinery. Alabam a................................................................ t $67, 739, 036 $3, 286, 924 A rizona............................................................... 161,340 20,105 A rkansas.............................................................. 40, 029, 698' 2, 237, 409 California............................................................... 141,240, 028 5, 316, 690 Colorado................................................................ 3, 385, 748 272, 604 Connecticut............................................................ 124, 241, 382 3, 246, 599 D akota................................................................. 2, 085, 265 142, 612 Delaware.............................................................. 46, 712, 870 1, 201,644 I)istrict of Colum bia.................................................... 3, 800, 230 39, 450 Florida................................................................. 9, 947, 920 505, 074 Georgia................................................................. 94, 559, 468 4, 614, 701 Idaho................................................................... 492, 860 59, 295 Illinois................................................................. 920, 506, 346 34, 576, 587 Indiana................................................................. 634, 804,189 17, 676, 591 Iowa.................................................................... 392,662,441 20,509,582 K ansas................................................................. 90, 327, 040 4, 053, 312 K entucky.............................................................. 311, 238, 916 8, 572, 896 Louisiana.............................................................. 68, 215, 421 7,159, 333 Miaine................................................................. 102, 961, 951 4, 809, 113 M aryland............................................................... 170, 369, 684 5, 268, 676 M assachusetts.......................................................... 116, 432, 784 5, 000, 879 Mlichigan - 398, 240, 578 13, 711,979 Miinnesota - 97, 847, 442 6, 721,120 tississippi............................................................ 81, 716, 576 4, 456, 633 M issouri................................................................ 392, 908, 047 15, 596, 426 io.i-itana................................................................ 729,193 145,438 NNebraska............................................................... 30, 24-2,186 1, 549, 716 N evada................................................................. 1,485,505 163,718 New Hampshire........................................................ 80, 589, 313 3, 459, 943 N ew Jersey............................................................. 257, 523, 376 7, 887, 991 New M exico............................................................ 2,260,139 121,114 New Y ork.............................................................. 1, 272, 857, 766 45, 997, 712 North Carolina -78, 211, 083 4, 082, 111 Ohio.................................................................... 1, 054, 465, 226 25, 692, 787 Oregoi.................................................................. 22, 352, 989 1,293, 717 Peunsylvania.......................................................... 1, 043, 481, 582 35, 658, 196 Rhode Island.......................................................... 21,574, 968 786,'246 South Carolina.......................................................... 44, 808, 763 2, 282, 946 Tennessee.............................................................. 218, 743, 747 8,199, 457 Texas................................................................... 60, 149, 950 3, 396, 793 U tah................................................................... 2, 297, 922 291, 390 Verm ont............................................................... 139, 367, 075 5, 253, 279 V irginia................................................................ 213, 020, 845 4, 924. 036 W ashington............................................................ 3, 97, 341 280, 551 W est Virginia.......................................................... 101, 604, 381 2,112, 937 W isconsin.............................................................. 300, 414, 064 14, 2 9, 364 W yom ing............................................................... 18,187 5, 723 Total............................................................ 9, 262, 800, 861 336, 878, 429 LABOR IN THE~ UNITED STATES. 73c)9 I.-FARM-LABOR. Table shzowing the average wages paid for farm and other labor in the several States and sections in the respective years 1860, 1870, and 1874. Experienced hands in summer. Experienced hands in winter. St~ates. With boqrd. Without board. With boa~rd. Without hoard. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. Daily wages. NEW ENGLAND STATES. Maine..........$1 07 $1 59...... $1 49 $2 14.... 81 $1 25....$109 $1 67.... New ITampshir..... 1 04 1 63 $1 75 1 38 2 12 $2 25 75 1 06 $1 00 1 06 1 44 $1 50 Vermont.......... 94 1 58 144 1 13 2 00 212 72 1 12 1 06 1 00 1 67 1 62 Massachusetts...... 106 1 49 1 50 140 1 99 187 73 1 09 1 05 1 05 1 53 1 50 Rihode Island........ 1 00. 1...I00 150.... 42 75.... 75 1 25. —Connecticut........1-13 1 50 1 25.....200 150 75 1 25 1 00.....1 75 1 50 M1IDDLE STATF.S. New York......... 89 1 42 1 48 1 21 1 87 2 00 67 1 06 96 90 1 49 1 48. New Jersey........ 79 1 63 1 65 1 16 2 14 2 00 54 1 00 1 00 85 1 46 1 42 Pennsylvauiaa....... 84 1 35 1 13 1 22 1 83 1 57 62 1 00 84 94 1 56 1 25 Pelaware......... 75 1 50 1 00.....200 125.50 100 75.....1 50 1 00 Maryland......... 38 93. —-- 63 t132. —-- 25 67.... 50 1 03.... WNest Virginia....... 77 1 06 1 03 95 1 42 1 46 61 76 74 86 1 10 1 15 WESTERN STATES. Ohio........... 89 1 23 1 03 1 16 1 66 1 48 65 85 90 92 1 25 1 25 1in dhi na.. —-------- 96 1 23 1 13 1 26 1 50 1 47 71. 89 86 99 1 27 1 11 illinois........... 102 1 31 1 33 1 32 1 83 1 68 75 94 97 1 00 1 36 1 39 Michigan......... 93 1 30 1 25 1 22 1 79 1 75 70 98 125 1 05 1 39 1 75 W~iSCOnSin........ 1207 1 40.. —-1 66 1 81.... 83 94 --- 1 20 1 34. Minnesota......... 142Z 160 1 00 -173 2 50 150 88 1 17 75 1 14 1 67 1 23.Iowva..-.........1606 1 40 78 1 34 1 97... 70 1 03 78 1 00 1 46.... Kansas.......... 1 25 133... 1 75 1 96.....115 1 04.....237 1 60.... N~ebraska.. —----— 1030 1 63.. —-138 225 ---- 75 1 13.. —-125 175......Missouri........... 81 114 1 50 J12 152.... 69 84 1 00 99 1 17. —Kentucky......... 77 1 06.. 1..I08 1 45.... 60 81.... 90 1 16.... SOUTHERN STATES. Virginia.......... 60 85 64 1 02 1 23 80 47 63 47 69 951 67 North CatroliDun... 60.. c 68 1 00 63 93 1 25 36 53 75 521 77.... S.'outh Carolina.. 53 62 1 00 73 94 1 25 40 50 75 60 75 1 00 Georgia.. —------- 55 78 8 10...... 8 7 —- 50 64. —-- 71 90.... Florida ---------.1 —- ---------- 08.................. 7... Alabama......... 63 75 75 881031) I00 5.5 63 50 80 94 75 Mississippi......... 60 95 75 75 1 45 1 00 52 731.... 60 1 1 5.... Louisiana.1........I00 1 03, 65 1 25 1 39 1 05 1 00 S4 65 1 23 1:34 1 05 Texas........... 66 90 87 1 00 1 21 1 25 58 75 75 81 1 07 1 00 Arkanss......... 75 1 07.... 103 154.... 63 80... 9:2 118. —-- Tennessee. —------ 74 100.... 97 137.... 55 73.... 75 98.... PACIFIC STATES. California.........207 2 11 150 2 50 269 2 50 139 1 51; 1 00 2 13 206 2 50 Nevada.......... 350 233 2150 5 60 31.0 3 50 3 50 167 2 50 560 233 3 50 Oregon.......... 214 1 75 100 2 50 225 1 60 1 51 125 1 25 194 162 2 03 TERRITORIES. Washington....... 3 12 2 50 2 25 412 300.... 225 1 38 150 3 00 2121.... Colorado......... 217 21 1. —— 283 286.... 150 1 42.... 200 2 13'.... Dakota.......... 150 2 57 1 00 2 00 3 18 1 25 1 23 1 46 75 1 50 2 15 1 00 Idaho.............. 283 1 50.....325 2 12.. —-150 1 12.....200 1 25 AriZOna............ 250...... 308...... 192........ 2 41.... Montana............. 500...... 600........ 3 00. —-. 4 093. — -New Mexico........ 75 1 00 1 00 1 13 1 50 2 50 50 75 1 00 1 00 1 251 1 50 AVERAGES.- -. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Ncw E ngl an dStates. 1 00 145 1 48 1 28 1 96 1 93 70 1 09 1 03 99 1 55 1 53 Middle States....... 74 132 1 26 103 1 76 1 68 53 92 88 81I 1 38 1 126 Western States...... 103 1 34 1 15 137 1 84 i a 7 7 97 93, 1 17 1 40 1 35 Southern States. —---- 67 86 81 91 1 20 1 09 56 69 691 77 98 K9 General averago 86 12114 1 17 1315 1 69 -1 56 64 98 88 94 1 321 120, Pacific States.......257 2 06 167 3 53 265 2 53 2 13 147 1 58 32 21 00 2067 Territories........ 189 2 64 144 2 52 3,27 1 93 138 163 1 00 188 2 29 1 25 Average. 2~~~~~~~~~23 2315 30 296 2 19 1 76 1 55 1 33 2 55 2i15 1 96 740 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing the average wages paid for farm and other labor, ptc.-Continued. Experienced hands in summer. Experienced hands in winter. States. With board. Without board. With board. Without board. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. Monthly wages. NEW ENGLAND STATES. Maine................... 019 00$27 55 $25 00 29 37............ $15 22522 00.$15 50 $24 75.............New Hampshire......... 16 28 23 50 24 25 24 00............ 12 50 18 25 22 50 18 33.. Vermont................. 17 28 28 00.29 00 25 83...... - 13 86 21 23 20 00 21 50............ Miassachusetts........... 20 05 29 36 24 33 31 30............. 16 22 22 C0 20 00 27 00............ Rhode Island............ 14 00 22 00...... 24 00 -. —--- - 10 CO 18 00...... 20 00............ Connecticut.............. 16 00 28 33 20 00. —--—.....-...... 10 00 17 00 15 00.................. MIDDLE STATES. New York.............. 15 41 24 58 23 421 22 3t............ 11 53 19 12 16 75 18 41............ 3New Jersey.............. 14 00 24 67 20 50 22 00......... 8 34 15 83 10 67 15 00............ Pennsylvania............ 15 28 25 40 22 32 24 03.......... 10 13 17 75 16 83 17 30............ Delaware................ -14 00 20 00 15 00........... 10 00 1'2 00 7 00.................. Alaryland. —------------- 6 00 14 43 ------ 8 00......8... 4 00 11 00.... 6 00............ West Virginia........... 13 6a, 21 53 21 75 19 50.......... 10 08 16 23 15 50 16 77............ WESTERN STATES. Chio.................. 1563 2267 21 66 24 77............ 1214 17 38 16 40 19 30............ Ihdiana...................1. 74 23 33 21 69 24 720......1...... 3 10 154 51 14 62 19 35. Illinois................... 16 64 24 53 22 50 24 05...... ------ 12 48 18 14 17 00 18 56............ Michigan................ 15 00 23 29'24 00C 23 26.......... li 87 18 75 25 00 20 00....... Wisconsin............... 19 27 25 02 25 00 28 03.. ----- - 15 48 17 68 18 00 24 28...... Minnesota............... 17 55 29 11 20 00, 29 01. —---- 11 31'20 11 14 00 22 14............ Iowa.................... 16 09 24 88 20 00 23 08............ 13 11 18 398 20 00 20: 398...... ----- Kansas.................. 17 60 23 33. 2.... 27 50............ I1 75 2083...... 25 00............ Nebraska................ 15 00 25 00...... 20 00...... ------ 15 00 20 C0......'2 00 ------ ------ Missouri................. 14 57 23 40 ------ IS 60............. 11 17 18 90...... 14 50...... ------ Kentucky............... 14 77 20 21. 21 34............ 11 12 16 33...... 17 5~2............ SOUTHERN STATES. Virainia................. 11 42 13 26 10 40 17 78............ 9 04 9 54 8 80 13 61............ North Carolina. —------- 9 00 12 80 12 00 13 50............ 8 C0 9 80.... 11 33... SouthCarolina. 9'28 11 67 12 00 13 14............ 8 57 10 30 5 00 11 71............ Georgia.................. 11 43 14 50 12 00 16 C0............ 9 36 11 44 12 00 11 75..... Florida.................. ----—.14 00...............................-14 00........................ Alabama............... 12 42 16 00 13 50 17 50.11 00 14 50 13 50 15 40.. Mississilppi.............. 13 00 18 58 12 00 19 00.. — 11 66 14 50...... 20 00............ Louisiana................ 11 00 20 66 19 00 17 33...... ------ 11 00. 16 94 19 00 17 33............ Texas................... 13 00 18 50 16 66 20 33......1...... 10 66 15 40 13 00 19 33............ Arkansas................ 15 00 18 88...... 20 60......1...... 1'2 33 16 20... 17 20............ Tennessee............... 14 16 18 32...... 20 00............ 10 50 14 26...... 15 33............ PACIFIC STATES. Ciforia............. 40 56 42 69 25 00 55 63............31 67 33 89 00 48 33...... Nevada.................. 78 33 53 33...... 101 25........... 70 00 40 00...... 100 00............ Oregon.................. 45 83 35 75 40 00 70 00............ 35 71 30 75 30 00 56 67...... 60 00 TE RRITORIES. Washington........... 67 50 40 00 50 00 97 50............ 45 00 30 00 30 00 70 00............ Co ao................loro. 30 0o 39 75...52 50...... 21..... 51 0 8 57 4 00............ Dakota.. 5 00 40 00 20 60 35 (0.... 20 00 27 50 15 00 2500.. Idaho.......................... 70 00 40 00.................. 43 33 30 00......:.....l...". Arizona................. 90 00 61 00 -.... 150 00.- 33 33.. Mwon tanMa.............. 76 00 50 00................. 35 00 35 00.................. ew Mexico.- -15 00 30 00 40 00 30 00.0 00 20 00.. AVERAGES. New England States..... 17 10 26 46 27 09 26 90............ 12 97 19 85 18 60 232. Middle States............ 11 06 21 77 20 C0 19 17............. 9 01 15 32 13 35 14 70............ Western States.......... 16 26 24 07'22 12 23 99............ 12 58 18 63 17 86 20 07............ Southern States.......... 11 97 16 1i 13 45 17 52.. 10 21 13 35 11 88 15 30. General averag. 14 60 22 10 20 81 2189...... 11.. -- 19 16 79 15 42 18T0 —. ——'-.. Pcifi States........... 5491 43 92 325075.4579 348 8 27-50 6033. Territories............... 45 50 50 82 40 00 73 00[ I —---- -`28 83 31 10 26 00 45 00............ Average..... 5021 473736 25- 74 32..........37 31 32 99 26 75 56 67............ LABOR IN- THE UNITED STATES. 741 Table showing the average wages paid for farm and other labor, 4e.-Continned Ordinary hands in summer. Ordinary hands in winter. States. With board. Withont hoard. With hoard. Without board. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. Daily wages. NEW ENGLAND STATES. MI faine -.................../$094 $118......$ $110 $i 54 - ----- $063 $094 $089 $1.21. -New Hampshire......... 88 131 $125 125 175 $169 63 94 Jo087 94 12 $1 i31 Vermont ------- ---------- 75 114 100 1o01 150 162 57 88 87 86 1 1 37 Massachisetts.-. —------ 79 1 15 87 1 13 1 58 1 50 67 92 1 00 92 1'26 1 17 Rhode Island - 50 83- 83 1 33- 40 67. 67 1 17. ConneCtiCUt............ 1 500 158......2 208 150 75 117...... 50. MIDDLE STATES. NewYork............. 68/ 113 118 99 154 171 48 81 82 75 119 119 New Jersey............. 73 1 23 1 13 1 09 1 72 1 58 50 90 50 77 37 1 00 P'e1nsylVan1ia............ 6:3 101 89 95 1 47 1 25 51 76 72 80 1 17 102 Delaware.............. — 50 75 88...... 1 25 1 00...... 50 75......1 00. Maryland.. 38 73...... 62 104...... 25 55. 50 82 West Virginia.......... 52 82 64 76 1 13 93 43 56 43 67 90 46 WESTERN STATES. Ohio..................... 168 98 82 96 128 107 55 70 67 81 100 1 1 Indiana.. 71 94 84 96 132 123 57 70 64 84 104 89 Illinois.. 78 981 1061 106 1 43 1 43 58 73 81 871 i 120 Michigan............... 73 105 I 100 102 145 140 55 74. —--- 94/ 1:3... Wisconsin............... II0 1 04... 4 40... 7 --- 1'iiio... Wisconsin. 101Ol 1041....141/ 140t..../ 81/ 731.....I11:5...... Minnesota.. 10 1398 75 138 186 100 62 103 50 107 149 75 iowa.... 76 1 09 70 1 01 1 52...... 57 76 70 8] 11..... aniusa s. 1 —--------------- I08 104. 150 150. —--- 95 84. —-- 150 130...... Nebraska............. 15 88... 75 100. 100 150. Missouri.................. 67 82 1 00 93 1 14...... 56 65 60 86 90..... Kentucky............... 64 8489 1 15. 4 64...... 75 9...... SOUTHERN STATES. Virginia.............. 52 63 54 66 97 76 40 50 44 56 77 62 North Carolina.33 48. 47 70.'28 41...... 40 59. Sonth Carolina.......... 34 53 75 5. 78 1 50 31 48 50 52 70 75 Georgia.................. 47 68. —--- 68 881..... 38 4;...... [ 65 6...... Florida............75 4 Alabaa................" 47 61 75 70 88 1 00 413 47 50 60 7:3 75 Mississippi.............. 48 75 50 81 1 2!5] 751 38 5!;[...... 49 97. Luisiarna................ 79 75......I 1 I 125 ------ 6C 75...I00 133 Texas....................' 54 69 50 75 1 00 75 49 6;I 50 75 91 75 Arkansas................ 55 8481 1 445 6 71 94. Tennessee- 72.......71 1. 50 46 50..... 62 74. PACIFIC STATES. California. —-------------- 2 00 1 5:~ 1 00 2 17 2 15 2 00 1 31 1 22 75 1 7 01 2 00 Nevada. 3 00 183 1 50 4 00 2 67 2 5013 001 1591 50 4 00 217 2 50 Oregon.......... 161 1 25 1 00 1 88 1 75 1 6. 1 36 94 1 23 1 56 1 45 2~00 TERRITORIES. Washington............ 225 1 88.....- 2 75 2 37...../ 2 00 I 00. 2 50 150...... Colorado................. 175 1 68...... 2 75 2 46...... 1 2.5 1 25...... 2 13 182...... Dakota.................. 125 194.. 1...J 50 2 75... I 00 205......1 50 275...... Idaho...200 125. 225 175...1 50 75.... 2.0 1 00 A rizona................. 1 7523:... 1 3:3. 1 9......... M~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ on33/w....../...... ~3[............I40 ------ 0 ------ I0 —- -— 32...... Montana...40...5.....I~403...25..32. New Mexico............. 60 75 125 1 00 1 50 175 50 50 75 100 100 1.25 AVERAGES. New England States 81 1 20 1 02 1 07 1 63 1 58 61 92 91 86 1 27 1 28 Middle States............ 57 95 95 88 1 36 1 30 4:1 6~, 64 70 1 08 99 W~restern States.......... 83 1 03 88 1 12 1 45...... 64 71 65 97 1 15 96 Southern States.......... 47 67 63 69 94 ------ 40 53 54 59 76 82 General average 67 96 87 94 1 35...... 52 73 68 78 1 061 1 Ot Pacific Sta~tes.......220 1 53 1 172 6 2 19 --— 189 125 117 2 4 177 2 17 Territories............... 1 4(6 2 00 1 25 2 00 2 67...... 1j19 144 75 178 203 212 Averge. 1 83 177 121 1 31 Avew M rexo............. ""1 75 123 4 2 40..... 17 50J 96 72 l0 1 90 2143 742 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing the average wages paid for farm and other labor, f c.-Continued. Ordinary hands in summer. Ordinary hands in winter. States. With board.. Without board. With board. Without board. _ _ _- 1 -[__ - _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. Monthly wages. NEW ENGLAND STATES. Maine -...........$14 44 ~0 67 $20 00 22 37. —-- -— $11 44 $17 67,$12 00 $20 7.5....... New Hampshire - -13 34 19 00 18 75 22 00 - 9 00 1: 68 19 67 14 50.. Vermon;t.............. 13 66 23 00 18 00 2- 67 - 10 50 17 00. 16 50 17 008............ Massachusetts —..........|17 28 24 10 22 50 28 57............1 0 18 60 12 50 21 51.. Rhode lsinld. 1200 18.00.2000.800 180 0. Connecticut............. 12 00 19 33 150 0........ 8...... 00 14 3 o3............ MIDDLE STATES. New York...............,11 83 19 88 24 92 18 28948 1546 1050 1531............ New Jersey.............. 9 9-2 19 33 16 05] 17 17.. 7 0 1 80 10 00 13 4.... Pennsylvania -............[11 52 18 57 17 04 20 00. 8 64 14 80 13 24 14 93............ iDelaware. 10 150 100700 900.... Dea ae................ /10 0;I 15 00I 10 00l......- --—.....[ 0 9......f......I......[...... Maryland. 5 00 11 71..... 800....-400 9.21..... 6 00......- ----- West Virginia.. 10 01 16 00 16 67 15 41............ 13 16 15 00 13 45...... WESTERN STATES. Ohio..................... 12 91 17 33 16 29 18 21.. 10.43 130412 50 15 69........... Indiana.................. 13 09 18 48 16 44 19 02..... 1114 15: 13 44 16 48. Illinois.. 13 64 19 03 19 40 19 87.. 0 02 15 00 14 30 15 70 - ---—. Michigan..1230 1850..-056..10.28 13 7...1762.. Wisconsin.. 14 90 16 76 20 00 24 65.... / 12 94 14 00 13 00 1 63...... Minnesota.........1-2 64 20 55 16 00 22 71.. —--— 908 15 89 10 00' 20 14 ---- ---—. Iowa..................... 13 00 1S 885 17 00 19% 33............ 18 06 1404 1700 19 00.. Kansas.....1423 1967...2400..11 50 14 8:o -. 20 00. - - --- Nebraska........... 1500 2025. 2000. 100 16 00. 2000. M~Iissoari................. 11 84 1700. 1525..... 1020 1445 1350 Kentucky............... 10 70 15 29..0. 16 119 89 12 58...... 13 83:...... SOUTHERN STATES. Virginia... 904 1009 925 1235............ 02 781 825 1211........ North Carolina..........1 7 00 9 10 12 00 1 00 650 0......76 South Carolina........... 6 6 7 1t0 67 15 00 It 17............ 5 83 67 20 00 9 50. —-...... Georia................ 950 1 89 10 133374 875 1000 11 33. Florida.................. 10 00...5...... 10 00............... Alabamai.r9 6 I 64 11 00 13 20.. 8 40 9 2 11 00 11 60...... Mississippi............... 00 14 67 10 00 19 00............ 10 00 10 83. 20 00........... Louisiana............... 9 66 15 25 15 00 14 00. 10 31 12 56 15 00 13 00. Texas. —------— 10 68 14 60 12 00 17 66 ------— 9 3:3 13 00. 12 00 16 01). Arkansas. —------------- t10 00 14 80...... 17....... 8 6......0 13 481............ Teinessee...............9 20 1398 10 00 1300. 847 10 65...... 1230 PACIFIC STATES. California............ 45 30 53 43 336 87 26......38. Nevala...... 7..... 40...... t 0...60003000 87. Oregon. 3700 282 4000 51003.......... 5 6 o o O00 TERRIITORIES. Washigton............. 00 37 50 40 00 625 50 - -.. 500 22 50. Colorado.............:30 00 33 08ooo... 55. I............ 0 22 75......27 50 Ila'kot.................. 2(00 3000.,..3800............ 1500... 22501A1lbho................55 0 32 50......I 35 00 30 00. Arizona. —--------— 48 67..................25 O0 --—. -—. ——.. -- A~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 40[92/I 0 Miontana.............. I. 57 50 40 00.. 2 00 30 00......I ------ ------ New Mlexico................... 23 00 30 00.20 00 ------ oo- -o 00......I-. AVERAGES. New Engand States.... 13 79 20 68 18 6 23 12..9 66 16 3o 14 42 18. ile States...... 9 16 7 16 93 1...... 7 38 12 1 20 12 71...... Wester Sate..........13 12 18 33 17 53 19 97. It 04 14 48 13 37 17 60......- ----- Southern States....... 9 23 12 43 11 58 14 15. 8 193 10 04 12 71 12 89. General average 11 46 17.03 16 16 1825 9 07. 13 34. 13 1.7 15 39 Pacifica............Sts45 823-2 39 40 005......64 78.. 39 62 26 621 60 00 56 83. Territories............... 33 39 9 35 51 8315 00 25 39 23 1 25 00 Averagen3958 3644 37 O81 5831. 2 26 O- 5 O 415 0 4 2.... LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 743 Table showing the average wages paid for farm and other labor, 4'c.-Continued. Common laborers at other than farm-work. -Female servants. States. With board. Without board. With board. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. Daily wages. NEW ENGLAND STATES. Maine...................... $0 80 $1 191....'.. $1 14 $1 54 $110 0 38....... New Ha-[mpshire............ 88 1 31 $1 37 1 12 1 81 i 87 38.. 0 50 Vermont ----------—....... 80 / 1 19 1'25 1 08 144 1 50 32..... 46 Massachusetts............. 80 1 15 1'25 1 15 1 60 1 67 41........... Rthode Island............... 50 1 00....... 83 1 50....... 25. Cosinecticut. 100 167 100. 217 150....50 MIDDLE STATES. New York.................. 88 128 1 19 121 1 67 1 53 41.69 Nwrsey................. 75 10 117 107 1G4 144 36.75 Pennsylvania. 79 1 16 99 1 19 1i65 1 49 31.56 eawaro.................. 50 100 1 00.. 156.........50 Marylanid................... 38 75. —------ 50 1 08. 38. —------ ----- West Virginia.............. 72 95 92 98 127 1 50 24........ 31 WESTERN STATES. Ohio...79 1.08 97 1508 149 1I29 34........ 45 Indiana.................. 81 116 84 106 156 125 2640 Illinois..87 114 113 119 160 15 37....49 Mich vilgani................ 82 1 5 120 157 1.75 36.. Wisconsin...... 89 1 08.. 1 19 154 32. Minnesota.......... 80 1 34..... 105 175 —. —- 33 ---—.. — Iowa............. 84 1 23 1 00 1 13 169 1 25 3 5.... 28 KR Insas........... 1 19 1 38.... 175 187..... 60. —------ Nebrasia.......... 125 1 50..... 162 213.... 0.o ----. — Missouri........... 73 98 100o 1 03 14 8 1 50 29. —--- 50 Kentucky........... 72 1 04..... 99 1 39..... 38........ SOUTHERN STATES. Virginia............ 58 72 67 75 1 01 90 28.. —-- 29 North Carolina............. 44 60. 67 82........ 16 South Carolina......... 53 80 80 78 101 1 00 29. 1.9 -4Georgia..................... 67 81 I....i 88 109... 31. ------—. — Florida. — - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - 70._ - -- - - - - - - -- - - Alabama................... 6 3 91 50 84 121 75 32 25 Mississippi. 50 95 50 75 1 45 75 37 50 Louisiana... 125 62... 17 1 2 40. 5 0 e9a........ 9 92 127 37. Tlnex s o, ----------------------- 4 I 1 0 5 I -- -- - —.... —3 —... Arkansas................... 75 1 01 100 139 32.. Tennessee.. 61 80 - 1 83 1 15 50.20....... —.... PACIFIC STATES. California................... 166 178 100 196 231 25 119............. Nevada.............350 218 15 412 300 250 4 00 ------- ------ Oregonlina-.1............- 5 71 1 50 1 00 212 212 20 115..... O TERRITORIES. Washington.. —------- 200 1 88 1 00 2 50 250 150 1 50......1 00 Colorado —.-250-1..3..... 2..2... Dakota... —-------------------------- 221......300 50 Fridaho............................ 2025.................... Montana... 500............... 600. —------ --------...... ------ NewMMexico................. 50 1 00 75 1 00 1 50 1 25 25... AVERAGES. New England States 80 —-- s 125 1 22 106 168 1 61 35 -. —- 49 Middle States........67 10 105 99 148 147 34. Western.............. 88 118 107 121 164 1 44........ Southern States. —----- 59 88 62~ 82 116 92z 33. —--- 2 General average.. —--- 74 1 09 99I102 1 49 1 36 34 ---- 4 C PacificStates............... 2 29 1 2 117 273 248 231 21 1 100 —--- I'. Territories.................. 1 67 23 8 1 00 2 2 3.3 318 1 19 5...63 Average..... 1.9. 2.10 l. 253 28:3 183 16 - St TERRITORIES_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _.1 _ _ _ - I_ _ _ _ _ 744 ~LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing the average wages paid for farm and other labor, 4,c.-Contfinued. Common laborers at other than farm-work. Female servants. States. With board. Without hoard. With board. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. S184. Monthly wages. NEW ENGLAND STATES. Maine.............- $15 63 $19 11.. —— $20 62..........$8 50 $10 89 <11 00 New Hampshire-.......10 00 17 00 $25 00 16 00.....$35 00 7'33 11 12 12 G0 Vermont............14 40 ~2250 12000 21 00......... 600O 10 50 10 2 5 Massachusetts........19 11 26 50......29 57.......... 6 56 10 20 13 50 Rhode Island.........12 00 20 00.. —— 24 00.......... 6 00 12 00. — Connecticut..........16 00 2~3 33 15 00.............. 6 00 10 50 8 00 MIDDLE STATES. New York........... 1524 20 10 25 33 21 78........ 506 9 55 1060O New Jersey......... 12 00 1880O 11 00 19 50......... 4 64 8 83 10 40 PeDnnsylvania......... 13 80 20 07 19 28 20 56......... 4 82 7 88 8 40 Delaware............... 16 00 10 00............. 460 8 00 4 00 Maryland........... 500 11150.. —-- 700......... 2 00 78.3.... West Virginia........ 410 20 67 14 00 20 54......... 4 50 6 36 7 00 WESTERN STATES. Ohio.............14 31 18 00 1880 I 186.......... 539 8 52 7 93 Indiana............14 62 21 38 17 00 20 17.......... 61-2 9 11 8 55 Illinois............12890 22 45 24 25 21 37.......... 660 9 45 10 18 Michigan...........13 82 20 28......22 25.......... 606 9 91 12 00 Wisconsin...........16 46 ~2042......2459......... 617 885 9 00 Minn~esota..........13 44 22 89.....22 67......... 597 8 98.... Iowa..............1405 21 10......21 25......... 5 79 9 31 8 00 Kansas............21.50 2320......31 67......... 760 9 50.... Nebraska.20........ 00 21 50......25 00..........13 00 1 450.... Missonri...........1600 2180......18 00......... 467 7 55.... Kentuck y...........12 43 19 27......19 96......... 610 8 07.... SOUTHERN STATES. Virginia............10 15 11 98 10 80 15 32......... 4 04 5 48 4 80 Nori~h Carolina. —------ 834 11 70..... 3 2 00......... 360 5 00 7 00 South Carolina. —----— 10 33 12 00 8 00 14 17......... 5 28 7 40 8 00 Georgia............13 33 14 14.....19 33........ 550 6 95 7 00 Florida.. —--------- --— 16 00....................... 7 00.... A~labatma. —-------— 1417 16 85 9 00 18 67......... 7 00 8 31 7 50 M ississippi..........13 00 17 00 10 00 19 00......... 8 00 10 43 5 00 Louisiana...........14 50 19 70 22 50 22 25......... 700 10 05 140(1 fexas. —--------— 10 0') 1620.. —— 17 00........ 800 3 50 14 00 &rkaiisas...........1 2)67 1 770.....1840........ 800 9 86. —Tenness~ee...........10 00 15 26......15 13......... 480 6 62 9 00 PACIFIC STATES..California...........42 86 34 81.....47 50.........27 08 27 89. —NF'ev a da............73 33 40 00.....100 00.......... 5-250 33 33 30 00 1)r~gon............36 33 30 00.....60 00.....60 00 30 00 22 75 30 00 TERRITORIES. Washington.. —------ --— 35 00.................30 00 22 00.... Colorado...........34 00 36 43.....5100.........32 14 25 05. —D~akota............25 00 40 00.....35 00.........1800 20 00 10 00 Idaho.................73 33 27 50................. 40 00 30 00 A-rizona............ --— 60 00..................... 40 00 Mlontana,...............70 00 50 00.................50 00 40 00'New Mexico.........12 00 25 00 16 00 18 00. —-- ---- 8 00 10 00 6 00 AVERAGES. N~ew Eng-land States..... 14 52 21 41 20 00 22 24......... 6 73 10 87 10 80 Aliddlu States........ 10 03 17 86 15 92 17 88......... 4 17 8 08 8 08 Westerni States........15 41 t21 12 20 02 22 34......... 6 68 9 43 9 218 Southern States........11 65 15 32 12 06 17 13......... 6 12 7 79 8 48 General average......12 90 18 92 17 00 19 90......... 5 93 9 04 9 16 Pacific States.........50 84 34 94......69 16.........36 53 27 99 30 00 Tlerritories..........23 67 48 54 31 16 34 67.........2-2 04 29 58 21 50 Average6..........372!6 41 74 31 16 51 92.........29 29 28 78 25 75 LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 745 I1.-MECHANICAL LABOR. Talbe showing the average daily wages, without board, paid in the several States and -sections to persons emtployed in the under-mentioned trades in the respective years 1860, 1870, and 1874. Blacksmiths. Brick-layers or Cabinet-makers Coopers. Carpenters. measons. States. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1880. 1870. 1874. NEW ENGLAND STATES. Maine-........$1 97 $2 78 $2 37 $2 30.$3 25 $3 50 $1 88 62 71 $2 12 $1 74$-2 67 $2 12 $2 00$ 43 2 75 N ew Hampshire. —-— 2 08 300 344 2 50 3869 3 87 1632!568300 175 300 267 175 263 294 Vermont-.......2 21 288 2 t2 63 3562~75 219312 288 213 317 2 752.05 287 300 W-assachiusetts —-- 191 2895283 2 42 390 3 67 200 275 3l16 2 21 319 2 37 1981 325 3 02 Rhflode Islaud —--- 150 2 50... 175 300 --— 200 323.. 1 50 250. 150 250... Connecticut-.....1 67 2 92.200 356-175 2 88- 2 00 300... 167 308. MIDDLE STATES. N~ew York -......166 2 74 264 2 02 364 3 23 177 274 2 55 1 64 266 2 19 174 310 265 New Jersey -.....1 48 260 286 158280 334132 238 265 134235 300 160275 275 Pennsylvania ---- 147 2 43 2 3: 1182300 t289 131219 2 91 1 31 259 2202 159 268 2:37 Delaware.-.....1 50 2 50 300 2 00 400~ 3 501150 250 300 (*) 250 2 00 150 275 275 M aryland —---- 150 2 21 250 1 5. 350 4 00 250 240 3600 1 50 225 3 00 150 243 250 West Virginia....... 1 69 2 48 250 2(C6303 2 95 166 246 2 81 1 53 264 219 173 235 250 WESTERN STATES. Ohio......... 175 2 48 230 218Q:137 3 06 199 238 2 24 1 58 230 2 12 178 273 233 Indiana -.......1 93 2 60 200 2 60 361j 3.25 184 255 2 62 1 62 241 2 25 183 283 233 Illinois........ 2 0-2279 281 2 73 350 3 69 197 260 283 200 2442 75203 281 287 Michigan-.......2 10 2 78 —241 348 —18~ 267..170 248 250 190.277... Wisconsin......228 2171 251-0 2 54 326 3 00 201 255 2 00 2 03 236 2 00 213 272 2 50 Minnesota....... 90 3 03 3 00 2 41 3 69 3 00 1 96 247 2 50 1 86 266 3 00 1 89 2.92 2-)50 Iowa -.........2 17 3 01 250 2 47 363 3 50 210 260 2 50 1 95 261 —201 2 96 300 Kansa s —------ 2 69 3209... 3 17 391.... 300 318 2 88 337 —275 310. Nebraska.......2 50 3 50 —350 425 —2 50 375....... 362..250 388. Myissouri.......203 278 350 271370 400 210 266 300 2002~161 250 205 285 300 Kentucky —---— 2 03 2 74 2 63 2 68 3 81 3 50 1 84 2 83 2 75 1 88 2 71 2 90 2 28 3 21 3 20 SOUTHERN STATES. Virginia. I," 1 40 2 09 220 1 75 269 2 00 168 214 1 88 1 55 213 1 63 174 259 170 KerthiCaro-liia, —- 150 2 04 250 1 83 241 3600 150 206 2 50 1 00 175 —15 0 229 275 South Carolina. —— 167 2252150 171.290 250 2!17 257._-1 56 218. 190 260 250 Georgia. —---— 1 88 2 71 300 2!58 300 2!50 208 258 2 75 1 44 243 3 00 2 13 2 88 275 Florida. —-------— 223 -25......2....... 225. -200.......250 Alabama.......230 2 93. 225 309.-_283 280. 2 50 272_- 225 300... Louisiana. —--— 2 70 330 400 260352 350 21-22722 50 250 300 300270 375 225 Texas.-:......2 66 2 86 360 3 33 336 3 75 350 271 2 50 2 37 300..225 314 250 Missi ssippi......250 3 11 300 294 396 300 225 325..250 358... 21-234 3250 Arkansas.......2 603 2 1350283 355 450 27 1303 300 225 300 3 00 24 1 325 300 Tennessee. —--— 2 03 2 70 325 2 28 32-2 4 08 229 263 2 83 1 78 249 2 50 229 313 ~275 PACIFIC STATES. California. —--— 4 22 410300 496 461 550 375387 3 00 4 00 375.. 395 414 300 Nevada.. —---— 680 5 50 600 6 80 587 602J 688 587.......584 —700 575 600 Oregon........ 4 50 388 500 542 5005 03 441 388 4 00 4 12 363 4 00 450 406 400 TERRITORIES. - Washington..... 850 5 00 400 8 00 600 5 00 609 450 3 00 5 00 400 3 00 600 500 450 Colorado. —---— 525 488....6 50606..._.. 4876 513......533. 438 505. Dakota,....... 2 25 3 50 3 50 3 25 500 3 50.... 300- 350. 325 375 2 50 Idaho.-......... 6 00 3 75 900 5 50 660O 5 50 5..... 500.. 6(0 5 00 Arizona,......... 600...._ 750....... 600- -.....550........650. Montaina.. —-----— 7 00 4 00 -_ 900 5 00_. 700 4 00..... 600..750 5 00 New.Mexico......2 50 4 00 3 75 3 00,400 400 250 400 275 3 00 400. 3 00 400 4 25 AVERAGES. New En gland States 1 89 2 81 2 88 2 27 3 50 3 45 1 91 2 88 2 70 1 20 2 92 2 48 1 83 2 79 2 93 Middle States.... 155 -249 2 65 1 83 333 3 32 1 68 245 2 82 1 46 250 2 43 1 61 259 2 59 Western States....213 2 88 2 66 2 67 366 3 37 2 11 275 2 56 1 95 269 2 50 2 16 298 2 72 Southern States-...212 2 68 2 99 241 309 3 20 2 31 261 2 95 1 95 257 2 63 2 13 295 2 52 General average, 19227-2 279 230 340 333 200 267 278 182 267 251 1922 8 2269 racificStates(igold).. 5174 49 467 573 516 550 501 454 350 406 441 400 5154 65 433 Territories (gold).-.. 4 63 5 20 3 80 519 6 65 460O 4 46544 365 400 476 300 4 16 540 4 25 Average..... 490 4 85 4 23 5 46 5 96 5 05 4 74 499 3 57 4 03 4 58 3 50 4 66 503 4 29 Piecework. 746 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing the average daily wages paid, &-e.-Continued. Painters. Plasterers. Shoemakers. Stone-cutters. States. - _ _ - _ 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. NEW ENGLAND STATES. Maine - $......... 1 92 $269 $2 50 $2 27 $3 28 $3 50 $1 70 $~246 $2 50 -2 32 $3 41 $3 50 New Hampshire ----- 1775 300 2 75 2 00 3 25 3 69 1 84 2 58 2 50 212t 3 18 3 75 Vermont. 204 300 26G2 2 65 3 63 3 00 1 44 2 3125 0 2 25 3 31 3 00 Massachusetts.......194 284 2 83 2 4-2 3 84 3 33 1 72 2 69 225 2 50 4 05 3 94 RhodeoIsland.......150 275.... 175 3 00.........22~5.....2 00 3 50.... Connecticut........167 292.... 192 3 42.... 137 2 25. 2...13 3 63.... MIDDLE STATES. New York. —----— 177 301 2 63 2 11 3 72 3 07 1 52 2 30 2:36 2 17 3 87 3 15 New Jersey........175 26 5 2 92 1 84 2 90 3 17 1 83 2 30 1 96 1 92 3 00 3 00 Penlnsylvania.......185 252 242 1 70 315 274 1 35 2 64 1 78 2 01 324 2 28 Delaware.......... 110 250 3 00 2 09 2 50 3 75 (1) (*) 2 00 1 50 4 50 2800 Maryland.........150 250 3 00 2 00 3 58 3 25 2 00 2 20 2 50 2 00 2 75 3 50 West Virginia.......184 270 2 40 2 08 3 15 2 58 1 57 2 25 2062 2 18 3 11 3 2 3 WE STERN STATES. Ohio............19 4 271 2 29 2 08 3 57 2 64 1 59 2 30 2 08 229, 3 25 28S9 Indiiana...........196 278 2 37 2 33 3 35 3 00 1 64 2 27 22~5 2 25 3 17 3 08 Illiiiois..........28-2 277 2 56 2 49 3 38 3 38 1 98 2 34 2 31 2 40 3 51 3 50 Mlichigran......... 180 268. —— 230 340.... 154 2 43.... 225 3 13.... Wisconsin.........208 27 1 2 75 2 49 3 17 4 00 2 13 2 26 1 25 2 75 3 19 4 00 Minnesota. —----— 196 29 2 3 00 2 33 3 50.....1 86 2 66 2 50 2 43 37-2 3 00 Iowa. —-------— 19:3 278 2 50 2 47 3 37 3 00 1 85 2 46 1 50 ~236 3 53 3tCO Kansas..........255 321.... 269 4 13.... 2 12 2 98. —— 325 4 08. —Nehraska.........250 400 -... 400 3 95.... 300 3 43.... 400 3 63.... Mlissouri.......... 246 303 3 00 2 71 3 70 3 50 2 00 2 64 2 50 2 92 3 72 3 50 Kentucky.........217 296 2 90 2 37 3 53 3 10 1 96 2 56 2 50 2 65 3 52 3 10 SOUTHERN STATES. Virginia...........180 240 1 63 1 71 2 82 2 00 1 44 1 86 1 58 2 00 2 94 3 38 North Car~,lina......150 234 3 00 1 67 2 46 3 00 1 00 1 69 3 00 1 58 2 67. SoutlhCarolina.......185 240 2 50 1 90 2 70 2 50 1688 2 00 2 50 2 67 2 75 2 59 G e org ia.......... 213 275 2 75 1 94 3 06 2 50 1 75 2 36 2 50 2 18 3 50 3 53 Florida. —------- -— 225....... 206...... 200...... 200.... Alabama......... 250 309 ------ 2 67 3 42.... 200 2 65.... 350 4 00. —Louisiana..........250 336 2 50 2 50 3 77 3 00 1 90 2 81 2 00 3 50 4 00 2 00 Texas..........250 305 2 50 2 87 3 18 3 50 2 33 2 67..317 4 25 3 75 Mississippi....._ 200 332. —— 350 4 11 3 00 1 50 3 00. 1 50 3 40. —Arkansas.s........242 31 1 3 00 2 67 3 32 3 00 2 08 2 97 2 00 2 42 3 44 5 00 Tennessee.........236 286 2 83 2 32 3 32 3 16 2 20 2'45 2 33 2 53 3 27 3 42 PACIFIC STATES. California.........406 407 4 00 4 75 4 72 5 00 3 88 3 82.. —-4 95 4 68 5 00 Nevada..........780 580 5 00 7 80 6 83 6 00 5 88 4 75 4 00 7 00 6 04 6 00 Oregon..........434 410 4 50 5 60 5 00 5 00 3 95 3 50 3 50 5 40 5 00 5 00 TERRITORIES. Washington........600 550 5 00 6 00 6 00 5 00 5 00 4 00.....6 00 6 00 5 00 Colorado..........437 515. —— 587 6 43.... 400 4 83.... 587 6 21.... Dakota.2........ ~50 450 3 00 3 00 7 50 3 50 3 50 3 25 3 00.... 400. —Idaho........... -— 900 5 00.....11 00 600.. —-6 00 4 25.....11 00 5 00 Arizona.............675...... 850...... 567....... 850.... Montaina.............750 4 00.... 900 5 00 -........700 4 00.....9 00 800O New Mexico........100 400 3 50 4 00 4 00 3 00.. —-4 00 2 50 4 00 4 00 3 00 AVERAGES. New Engla-ndStates....190 287 2 67 2 17 3 40 3 38 1 61 2 42 2 44 2 22 3 51 3 55 Middle States....... 170 265 2 73 1 97 3 17 3 09 1 65 2 34 2-20 1.96 3 41 2 86 Western States......213 296 2 67 2 57 3 55 3 23 1 97 2 58 2 11 2 69 3 50 3 26 Southern States......216 281 2 59 2 37 3 11 2 85 1 81 2 41 2 27 2 51 3 29 3 36 General average__1 95 282 2 66 227 3 31 314 1 76 244 225 2 35 343 3 26 Picific States (gold).... 540 4 66 4 50 6 05 5 52 5 33 457 4 02 3 75 5 78 5 24 5 33 Territories (gold).....:397 6 06 4 00 4 72 7 40 450 417 4 96 3 44 529 696 5 25 Average.......... 4 69 5 36 4 25 5 39 6 51 4 91 4 37 4 49 3 59 65 610 5 29 0Piecework. LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 747 Table showing the average daily wages paid, 4'c.-Continued. Tailors. Tan-ners. Tiusmiths. Wheelwrig-,hts.; States. - _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. 1860. 1870. 1874. NEW ENGLAND STATES. Maine -..........$1 86 $2 64 $3 50 $2 09 $2 64 $2050 $1 82 $2050 $025 $1 80 0-275 $2050 New Hampshire-.....1 75 2 67 3 75 180 21t 3 23 PO 2 83 3 19 1 75 2671 3 12 Vermont............165 2 31 2 50 1 70 2 6-2 2 75 188 2 75 2 88 1 8:3 282 3 00 Massachusetts-......1 80 248 2 37 194 2 75 238 185 2 56 3 05 2101 3 01 2 37 Rhodelaland-.......200 3 00....150 2 75.....175 3 00.....2 00 3 00.... Connecticut........ 137 245....200 2 75.....167 2 83.....1 50 3 00.... MIDDLE STATES. New York........ 166 2 47 22~6 1 71!274 2 22 174 2 78 2 52.190 2 95 2 95 New Jersey........ 192 2 55 2 25 1 59 2 55 2 08 133 22~5 2 50 1 35 2 30 2 30 Pennsylvania....... 134 2 07 2 14 140 2 08 205 137 2117 2 15 1 59 2 27 1 92 Delaware. —-----— (*) (*) 2 50 1 50 2 00 2 00.. —-2 50 2 50 --— 250 2 50 Maryland.. —-------— 2215 1 75 12,00 2 60 15 1) 200 2 25 225 2 00 254 2 50 W estVir-inia...... 142 2 20 2172 1 50 2 10 2 44 1 75 2 48 2 38 1 86 2 64 2 75 WESTERN STATES. Ohio............359 2258 2 30 1 74 2 45 2 16 172 2 42 2 00 1 96 3 28 2 38 Indiana.......... 176 2 32 1 92 1 61 2 35 2 08 190 2 47 2 17 1 96 2 78 2 21 Illinois.......... 180 2 30 2 33 195 2 50 250 201 2 64 2 25 2 25 3 04 3 75 Michigan......... 169 2 35.... 179 255....179 2 59. —— 208 3 06.... Wisconsin.........2 30 2 38 153 236 2 61 200 224 2 50 2 50 2 23 2 66 2 00 Minnesota........ 164 2 48 250O 1 93 2 85...... 154 2 81 2 50 1 78 3 11.... Iowa...............195 2 60 1 75 2 00 2 80 -.......186 2 70 2 00 2 51 2 84 2 50 Kansas......... 325 3 23.... 250 315....217 3 10.... 2 59 3 56.... N ebraska......... 275 338. —--— 3 50....287 3 50. —— 288 3 88.... Missouri..........2 10 1264 2 50 2 00 288 200 217 2 61 2 75 2 35 2 97 2 75 Kentucky.........2 13 264 2 95 183 2 40 275 200 2 67 2 25 2 15 2 81 3 33 SOUTHERN STATES. Virginia......... 1 74 2 09 2 00 167 1 93 175 166 2 30 1 75 1 61 2 34 2 20 NorLh Carolina...... 125 1 94 300 1 17 2 04.....209 217 275 1 53 245 2 50 South Carolina....... 210 2 17 2 50 238 258..165 2 18 2 50 2 15 2 50 2 00 Georgia.......... 200 2 46 3 50 259 2 75.....227 2 43 2 59 2 28 2 93 2 75 Florida............. 175........1 75..1......I75........2 37.... Alab~ima. —-----— 1 94 2 62. —-— 250 ~271....250 2 90.... 2 42 2 83.... Louisiana......... 2 12 284 200....308 2 59 238 2 87 2 50 2 53 34-2 2 50 Texas........... 192 2167....312 279....253 2 94 275 1 75 2 81 2 59 Mississippi........ 150 2 83.... 150 3 17.....180 3 19. —— 303 3 61.... Arkansas........ 18S3 2 89 300 190 325....217 3 14 4 03 2 17 3 23.... Tennes~see.2....... 03 -54 3 22 1 75 238 2 53 175 2)73 262 1 83 308 2 50 PACIFIC STATES. California......... 360 3 88. —— 400 397....404 4 00 3 00 4 75 4 19.... Nevada..........600 4 34 3 03 560... —- 603 5 33 5 00 8 75 609 7 00 Oregon..........380 3 50 3 50 4 10 331 4 00 425 3 61 4 50 4 67 4 00 5.10 TERRITORiES. Washington........... 425 -300.... 500 3 00 600 4 73 2 53 6 09 5 00 5 00 Colorado..........4 00 4 69...... 6 00.. —-450 5 60.. —-50.1 5 75.... Dakota.............3 00 3160 3 00-........ 300 300 —- 4 00 3 00 Idaho............. 8600...I.. 800.......7 03 4 23 —- 7 00 5 50 Arizona.............600........ 700........7 33. —--— 6 75.... Montana............. 800 4 00...............7 50 5 50 --— 8 00 5 C9 New Mexico...........400 3 50 4 00.......400 3 25. —— 400 3 00 AVERAeES. New England States..-1 74 2 60 3 03 1 84 2 72 2 72 1 75 2 74 2 84 1 82 2 88 2 75 Middle States....... 159 2 31 2 27 162 2 35 2 03 164 240 2 33 174!2~ 2 49 Western States...... 209 260 222 1 97 2 73 2 25 2 02 2 73 2 3) 224 3 09 2 70 Southern States..... 184 2 43 275 2 06 259 2 25 207 2 60 2 67 ~214 287 2 42 General average...1 82 2149 2 57 187 2 60 2 32 187 2 62 2.55 1 99 284 2 59 PacificeStates (aold)....447 3 91 3 25 4 57 3 61 4 00 4 76 4 31 4 17 6 06 4 73 6 00 Territories (gold).....400 5 42 3 37 300 6 00 3 00 5 25 559 370 5 50 579 4 30 Average....... 424 4 67 3 31 378 4 82 3 50 500 4 95 393 5 78 526 5 15 * Piecework. 743o ABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. III.-FACTORY LABOR. COTTON-MILLS. Before giving the rates of wages paid in the cotton-mills of thej,United States it may be well to present a statement showing the number and capacity of cotton-mills in. the country and the consumption of cotton in the year ended July 1, 1874, which is condensed from an article in the Commercial and Financial Chronicle of November 21, 1874. States. b + 24 1~, 45 60,89:. 3[ 14 NORTHERN STATES. No. Week-s. Pounds. Pounds. Bales. Maine -24......... 5 1-2,415 609, 898 25. 23 50. 71 59. 67 36, 473, 547 78,607 New Hampshire......... 42 0,422 855,189 23.43 51. 46 69. 89 59, 759, 468 128, ]92 Vermont................. 10 1, 274 58,948 29. 75 46. 34 46. 34 2, 734,167 5, 895 Massachusetts........ 194 71, 02 3, 769, 692 28. 55 49. 89 53. 93 203, 325, 299 438, 01 Rhode Island............115 24,706 1,336,82 35. 20 48.10 43. 51 58,146, 985 1-25, Connecticut.............104 18, 170 908,22 31.40 48. 45 53. 43 48, 514, 613 5104, New York............... 55 12,476 5 917 32. 47. 70 42. 2' 24, 536, 249 52, te0 N ew Jersey............. 17 2,070 150,968 29. 30 51. 53. 50 8, 078, 647 17,41 Pennsylvania - 60 9,772 452,064 17.51 42.80 84. 37, 989, 726 81, 7-2 D)elaware -. 8 796 47, 976 22. 24 49. 66 66. 14 3,174, 174 6, 841 Maryland................ 21 2,299 110,260 11.50 47.35 174. 34 19, 22-2, 703 41,438 O.........5 236 20,410 11.83 36. 80 89. 49 1,826,304 3,9;A6 Indiana.4 618 22,988 14.56 47.44 159. 3, 671, 227 7, t1-2 Minnesota.............. 1 24 3,400 3. 52. 99. 41 338, 000 8 Total Northern-...... 660 176, 480 8,927,754. 28.56 49.33 56. 86 1507, 790, 093 1, 094,.S7 SOUTHERN STATES. Alabama............... 16. 1,360 57,594 10.50 48.37 112.83 6,490,079 13,7]~ Arkansas................ 2 28 1, 256 12. 51. 121. 69 136, 00 2)3 Georgia.................. 42 2, 934 137, 330 12. 71 47. 77 13:3.57 18, 522, 899 39, 920 Kentucky............... 4 42 10, 500 6. 26 49.24 178.86 1, 878, 020 4, 047 L-uisiana................ 3 300 15, 000 12. 47. 02 - 86. 31 1, 294, 560 2, 70 Miississippi.............. 11 348 15, 150 11.33 33. 29 75.17 1,138, 804 2,545 Missouri................. 4 3S2 18, 056 10.75 49.66 183.25 3,481,573 7, ~$ North Carolina.......... 30 1,055 55, 498 12. 08 46.52 12:3.10 6, 832, 673 14, 76 South Carolina...........- 18 1, 238 62, 87-2 13. 36 39. 67 113. 25 7,134, 558 i1, 3do Tennessee............... 42 1,014 47,058 12. 32 51.10 133.38 6, 272, 458 13,58 Texas.................... 4 230 10, 225 12. 47. 02 127. 83 1, 278,125 2,755 Virginia.......... 11 1, 564 56, 490 16. 47. 57 95. 231 5, 334, 025 114f)3 Total Southern..... 187 10,495 487,629 12.5 47.02 122. 53 59, 793, 774 12 6 RECAPITULATION. Total Northern.660 176,480 8,927,754 28.56 49.33 56. 86 507, 790, 099 1,.094.387 Total Southern.......... 187 10, 495 487, 659 l1. 5 47. 02 1-22. 53 59, 793, 774 128, 5.2i Grand total......... 186,975 9,415,383 27. 3- 48.26 60. 29 567, 583, 873 1, 222,913 LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 749 It will be seen that the number of spinning-spindles in the United States on the st day of July, 1874, was 9,415,383, against 7,114,000 at the same date of 1870, and 6,763,557 at the same date of 1869, as follows: =' b ~; ~~~~~Year. Looms. Spindles. a 1874. North-......................................... 176, 480 8, 927, 754 28. 56 56. 86 South-..................................... 10,495 487, 629 12.5 122.53 ~~Total, 1874.................................. 186, 975 9, 415, 383 27. 73 60. 29 1870. North-147..................................... 147 682 6, 851, 779 281 50. 87 ~South-........................... 5, 852 262, 221 12+ 124.23 Total, 1870-1........................... 153, 534 7, 114, 000 281 52. 93 1869. ~~~~~~~North ~~............................................ 6, 538, 494 28 60. 70 ~~~~~~South-.......................... 225, 063 1'2 138. 1o ~Total, 1869-6, 763,557 27.. 6......................... 6, 763, 557 827 64.88 The above records a very rapid progress since 1870, being about 33 per cent. in the number of spinning-spindles. COTTON MANUFACTURES IN 1870. The number of establishments engaged in the manufacture of cotton in the Un1ited. States, as appears from the census-returns of 1870, was 956, employing 135,369 hands; capital invested, $140,706,2-91; wages paid, $39,044,1.32; value of materials used, $111,736,936. The principal products were as follows: Sheetings, shirtings, and twilled goods................yards. 478,204,513 Lawns and fine muslins.......................do.. 34,533,462 Print cloths -............................do.. 489,250,053 Warps -----------------------------— do.. 73,018,045 Flanneldo.. 8,390,050 Ginghams and checks. — do.. 39,275,244 Cassimeres, cottonades, and jeans..................do.. 13,940,895 Spool-thread --------------------- ----— dozen- 11, 560,241 Table-cloths, quilts, and counterpanes-..............number. 493,892 Seamless bags-..........................do.- -- 2,767, 060 Yarn, inot woven-........................pounds. 30,301,087 Bats, wicking, and wadding-....................do... 11, 118,1-27 Cordage, lines and twines..........d...........(o.. 5,057,454 Thread..............................do.. 906,068 Cotton wat-d.. 7,921,449 Tape and webbing..........................do.. 484,400 Seamless bags............................do.. 405,585 Other products...........................do... 10,811,028 Total quantity of all products 349,314,592 pounds, valued at $177,489,739. WAGES IN (JOTTON-MILLS.'~f............. Maine. New Hamp-[ Rhode Island. Connecticut. l~ew York. Pennsylvania. Delashire. Massachusetts. ~v,'~ro. Occupation.....: 1869. 1874. 1869. 1874. 1869. 1874. 1869. 1874. 1869. 1874. 1869. 1874. 1869.! 1874. 1869. CARDIXG. i Picker-tenders.................................. 50 ~ 70 70 47 25 50 80 7'2 00 6 50 00 75 00 00 ~ 9~ lqailway.tenders................................ 6 50'4 50 4 57 e5 35 4 28 *5 25 3 50 14 47 4 60 6 06 4 00 ~3 50........ *4 00........ I)rawing-frametenders.......................... [ 4 O0 14 50 4 41 t4 18 4 44 t4 30 5 O0 ++5 40 4 66 ++4 44 4 O0 ++4 O0........ t5 75 4 2( Speeder-tenders.................'-............... 5 75 17 1'2 5 65 t6 09 6 50 17 00 6 12 ~7 48 6 0'3 5 80 5 50 +4 25....... i6 00 4 7~ Picker-boy...................................... 3 50 *6 CO 4 25 6 55 5 80 ~5 18 6 25 *4 03 4 00 4 17........ 3 00........ ~3 50........ Grinders........................................ 10 O0 10 37 8 84 9 55 9 80 9 75 9 05 9 10 9 50 9 25 8 O0 7 50........ ~7 25 8 7( Strippers....................................... 7 25 6 95 7 27 7 4'2 7 70 7 26 9 50 7 50 7 00 6 75 6 00 6 00 7 00 7 50 7 9~ SPINNING. Overseer........................................ 2~2 00 22 50 16 83 20 25 21 O0 22 50 15 60 17 69 17 50 17 96 15 00 11 25 16 00 15 25 20 0( Mule-spinners................................... 10 87 10 75 11 64 10 5'2 11 75 9 50 9 50 10 16 9 30 9 CO 10 00 10 50 1~ 00 a5 00 9 1( Mule-backside piecers........................... 50 *2 60 3 21 *2 76 3 14 *2 75 2 85 *2 52 2 50 62 3 50'2 50 00'3 00 1 ~( ~rame-spinners............................... 4 40 t5 12 5 20 15 30 6 75 i5 10 5 O0 i3 70 3 25 3 33 3 50 ~3 50......... $3 01 2 1~ DRESSING. Overseer........................................ 20 00 ~1 00 17 00 17 00 2! 00 22 50 13 75 14 80 16 50 16 44 13 50 159 00 15 00........ Second hand.................................... 11 78 13 50 10 66 10 22 13 10 13 29 9 00 11 83 14 40 1`2 00........ 00....... 1'2 00 Spoolers........................................ 4 20 4 94 4 64 i4 26 6 50 ~6 06 5 O0 ~4 32 4 55 3 33 4 25 ~3 75!........! ~4 90 5 2[ ~Varpers 5 50 6 12 5 61 t5 93 6 10 i6 75 5 75 ++6 98 4 68 6 08........ ++4 25!........ ++8 25 3 7[ l)rawers an'~itw;1;ters:::'::'. —'.Z';::[[::[[:::"~ 5 75 6 12 6 24 f6 40 6 00 i6 00 5 00........ 6 00 4 72...... —. 7 50......... 5 50 4 0( I)ressers... 11 10 10 67 11 43 11 94 14 00 13 50 11 25 13 11 11 80 11 06.........................! 9 00........ WEAVING. Overseer........................................ 21 00 22 50 15 52 21 75 ~2 20 22 50 18 33 18 06 15 00 20 06 15 00 15 00 16 00 18 00........ Weavers........................................ 7 O0 7 50 6 23 ++7 78 7 71 9 17 8 O0 ++7 9l 8 CO 7 90........ 9 O0 10 O0 +~7 ~5 7 34 I)r~wing-in hands............................... 6 O0 6 O0 4 62 6 50 7 O0 7 O0 7 50 ++7 25 6 30 8 O0................................ [ t5 O0 I~EPAIR-SHOP, ENGINE-ROOM, ETC.! Foreman........................................ 23 00 22 50 15 87 22 50 23 66 18 75 18 00 15 79 17 00 18 33 15 00 11 00 15 00........ Wood-workers.................................. 14 25!3 50 12 96 13 50 15 80 16 50 15 00 13 58 ]6 25 17 85........ 13 50........ 15 00 15 0( Iron-workers.................................... 13 18 13 25 12 13 13 69 15 27 16 51 13 16 13 68 11 ~5 12 94 10 50 1'2 75 15 00 15 0( ]Engineer....................................... i...... ~- 13 50 13 80 17 6'2 14 30 19 00 18 00 13 ~1 9 00 11 50 12 00 9 00....... 14 50........ Laborers........................................ 8 0 8 25 9 08 9 6'2 75 8 75 9 33 8 59 8 66 7 63 8 00 60 10 00 9 00 8 2[ Overseer in cloth-room.......................... i 17 50 20 25 lr 67 16 00 17 75 16 50 [5 00 12 42 11 00 10 50 12 00 5 00 1'2 50 12 00 9 6(......... ~!,............... * Boys. ~ Females. ~, Part ibmales. T, ble shoqg the average weekly wages paid to persos employed in the cotton-mills of the following States, ~'c. —Continucd.' t l [ I I ] ~ I~ I'~ I -~ ['~ ] ~ I ~ [ ~ ]. ~ [~ I~! ~ Occupation. ~ "'~ ~ - o ~..... Overseer.................................................i ~9 00 $30 00 ~36 00 [ $30 00 ] $10 50 ] $15 ~0 [ ~$9'25 ] $14 ~5 [ $14 00 ] ~19 38 ] $14 00 { $19'28 ] $18 57 $18 32 Picker-tenders...........................................] 6 00 [ 6 00 [ 5 00 [ 4 50 ] 4 50 ] 9 00 I 7 00 t 7 50 [ ]5 00 I 7 33 [ 6 88 ] 6 19 ] 7 52 6 18 l~ailway-tcnders.........................................]'2 50........ ]4 68 ~ 3 00 I 4 00 I 4 25 ] 3 88 t 3 40 [ ~3 25 ] 5 13 ] 3 75 ] 3 67 ] 4 58 4 44:Drawing-frame tenders..................................]'2 50 i ~4 50I ~4 70 [ 3 501 ~4 00 I 4 50 ] ~3 88I ~3 50 [ ~3 00 I 4 56 ~ 4 88 [ 3 $9 I 4 39 4 17 Speeder:tenders..........................................1 [ ~433[ ~+550.:,88[ 300[.+300I 670/ 513[ 4~:9~ 575 518 Pick(T-boy....................................................... [ 3 O0 I?2 50 [ i3 50 [ t4 O0 [ 13 50 ] 14 50 ] 5 ]9 [ 3'25 [ 3 75 [ 4 78 4 25 300[...~.~.[ ~605]........ Grinder~.................................................['"i'50'[ 8 20 [' 8 40[ 7 50 [ 7 50 [ 12 50 [ 7 00[ 1 50[ 5 00 t 9 ~q0 [ 7 38 [ 7 14 [ 9 13 7 ~0 Strirpers................................................ [ 600I 600[ 400I 450[ 600[ 1000[ 675[ 367[ 718I 350[ 675] 746 624 SPINNING. Overseer................................................. 587[ [ 9 00 [ 30 00 I 36 00 I 30 00 I 15 00 [ 14 00 [ 13 00 I ~3 00 ] 14 00 ] 20 18 [ 13 ~5] 18 75[ 17 99 18 ~1 Mule-spinners..................... 6 O0 [ 10 50 [........[ 9 O0 [ 13 50 I 9 99 / 7 75 [ 9 90 [ 10 77 [ 9 O0 [ 15 O0 [:Mule-backside piecers [`2 40 [ ~`2 50 [.........[........[ t3 00 ] i3 00 [........[ ~4 17 [ t`2 00 [ ~ 65 ] ~ 75 [ 3 01 [ 9 88................................... ~ 69 75 ~rame-spinners.......................................... I ~401 ~4~0[ 3~0I ~00] 400I 375[ ~360i ~245[ ~300[ 3~5I 451[ 432 360 DRESSING. Overseer................................................. 320] [ 7 50 [ 15 00 [ 36 00 ~ 15 00 ] 10 50 [ 14 00 ] 7 50 [ 12 00 [........[ 18 35 { 15 00 [ 14 69 [ 16 96 15 95 Second hand.............................................[ 2 40 I........[ 14 00 I 9 00 [ 1'2 00 [........I 1 00 [........I........[ 12 t7 [ 10 50 [ 7 68 [ 11 79 10 02 Spoolers.................................................[ 3 00 [ t4 50 [ ++4 50 [ 3 25 [ ~3 00 [ ~7 25 [ 4 50 [ ~4 00 [........[ 4 58 t 4 33 [ 4'25 [ 490 4 37 ~Varpers.................................................[ 3 00 ] 7 00 [ ~6 25[ 5 00 [ ~4 50 [ 5 50 ] 5 50 [ 7 50 I........[ 6 37 [ 6 25[ 5 53[ 5'23 5 91 ~rawers and twisters................................... 240[ ++600[ ~600[ 450I 475[ 550[ 350[........[........[ 581[ 650[ 550 530 I)resscrs................................................................. 11 00 9 00 8 00........ 7 50................ 1'2 06 9 00 8 88 11 92 10 48 WEAVING. 466[ Overseer................................................. [ 9 00 [ 30 00 [ 33 00 [ 30 00 [ 12 75 [ 16 00 [ 15 00[ 15 00 [........ [ ~0 97 [ 16 50] ~0 09[ 17 58 19 91 ~,Veavers................................................ [ 6 O0 [ ~7 O0 [ ~6 50 [........[ ~5 O0 [ ~6 50 [........] 6 O0 [........[ 8 05 [ 8 38 [ 6 17 [ 7 75 7 ~3 I)rawing-inhands....................................... 240t........I......... ~500/ / 550[ 4501........ ~4501 400/ [ 500t 695[ 628 547 REPAIR-SIIOP~ ENGLNE-ROO]~I, ETC. ]Voteman................................................ 432[ [........] 36 00 [ 30 00 [ 30 00 ~ 20 00 [ 16 50 [ 13 50 [ 15 00 [........[ 19 57 [ 15 00 ] ~3 00 [ 17 65 21 07 XVood-workers...........................................] 9 00 T 9 00 [' 19 42 ] 10 25 [ 6 00 ] 14 00 [ 15 00 [ 8 00 [........~ 14 99 ~ 14'25 [ 11 33 [ 14 88 12 94 Iron-workers' ""/........ ] 900[ 1200[ 1800] 1500[ 1401l 1388/ 1494[ 1300 1446 1Ininter................................................. [ 21 O0 / 15 O0 [........[ 21 O0 [ 15 07 [ 11 75 [ 18 O0 / 13 42 15 58 / 1800] 2012] 1250]........ Lab,,rcrs............. ["'4'()()'i'"6'()()'l"'6'()6'["'6'()()']"'5'50'l 10 50 [ 6 00 / 4 o0 / 8 00 / 8 56 [ 8 80 [ 6 01 / 8 76 7 28'.................................... i........ 13 50 ]........ 9 00 [..... Overseer in cloth-room.................................. / 10 00[ [ 12 00[ 15 13 [ 8 50t 14 13 [ 13 3e 13 43 -.J'"/ 24 00[........ * Including Missouri. f Boys.,+ Females. ~ Part females. 752 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. WOOLEN-MILLS. The following statement, condensed from the census returns, shows the magnitude of the woolen industry in the United States in 1870. Hands employed. -( 0 States and Ter- ritories. I= ce~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Ca ce 0 0 a l 0 "a 5- 8 a n i ~ a o o d~~~~ Setu. No. No. No. Dollars. Dollars. Alabama......... 14 24 2 530 38 1 2 4, 881 89, 998 Arkansas........ 13 17.......-......- - 29 -2 6, 870 78, 690 California-....... 5 46 163 22 3, 880 584 31 44 230, 200 1, 102, 754 Connecticut - -. 108 660 1, 190 1, 703 178, 470 4, 257 2, 381 659 2, 860, 370 17, 371, 048 elaware - 11 30 53 174 8, 756 186 110 103 115, 137 576, 067 Florida.......... 1 1 1. ——..-.. -------- -5030 Georgia.......... 46 72 6 389 14, 465 251 191 121 122, 138 471. 523 Illinois - 3. 109 250 210 4]3 36, 888 1, 040 468 228 535, 185 2, 849, 243 Indiana.......... 175 346 23-2 948 57, 083 1, 450 711 308 72, 113 4, 329, 711 owa..... 85 199 133 241 31,4G2 685 293 110 269,432 1, 6~7, 606 Kansas9 2.......... 4 9 20 1, 616 56 24 11 30, 682 153, 151 Kentucky.... 125 208 34 288 10, 509 454 137 92 15), 373 1, 31;2, 458 Louisiana........ 12 4, 000 22 3 4 8, 900 30, 795 Maine......... 107 331 962 199 65, 249 1, 582 1, 250 210 1, 047, 151 6, 398, 881 Maryland -... 31 60 57 91 1, 348 247 67 1 5 82, 019 427, 596 Miassachusetts... 185 1,367 4, 469 3, 374 470, 785 10, 761 7, 439 350 7, 298, 302 39,502,542 Michigan.-. —--- 54 116 74 158 15, 650 408 208 51 202, 813 1, 204, 868 Minnesota. -.. [ 10 19 17 22 2, 664 77 60 9 45, 592 219, 862 Mississippi...... 11 17........ 30 344 34 31 51 28, 800 147,323 Missouri......... 156 258 68 115 10, 371 548 85 85 137,408 1, 256, 213 New Hampshire. 77 351 909 699 117, 057 1, 832 1, 549 369 1, 355, 147 8, 766, 104 New Jersey...... 29 81 18-2 421 23, 457 524 402 168 334, 642 1, 903, 8-25 New Mexico. [ 1 1 4 1 240 20 -2, 000 21, 000 New York....... 252 845 1, 344 1, 127 162, 540 4, 498 2, 999 1, 315 2, 834, 326 14, 394, 7t8 North Carolina.. 52 78 11 86 2, 806 151 81 17 39, 101 298, 638 Ohio............ 223 334 300 752. 52, 789 1, 340 669 234 559, 414 3, 287, 60,9 Oregon. —----... 9 21 65 25 4,3320 129 8 42 112,213 505, 857 Pennsylvania - - 457 1, 317 2, 226 6, 394 316, 877 5, 857 5, 066 1, 873 4, 373, 628 27, 50 586 Rhode Island..- 65 474 652 1, 710 157, 089 3, 354 2, 198 811 2, 228, 402 12, 553, 117 South Carolina.. 15 25 2 7 350 32 13 8 3, 815 34, 435 Tennessee....... 148 177 20 60 3, 64 342 61 25 62, 780 696, 844 Texas.. -.... 20 29 14 16 1, 070 80 16 4 20, 278 152, 968 Utah............ 15 19 11 20 1, 430 58 39 9 48, 040 199, 600 ermont......... 65 175 379 291 47, 719 930 751 189 644, 524 3, 619, 4159 Virinia......... 68 116 61 76 6, 236 190 56 32 58, 765 488, 352 wVest Virginia... 74 13-2 50 70 6, 387 207 79 33 59, 828 475, 7i3 Wisconsin....... 64 134 112 110 16, 445 506 205 64 229, 306 1, 250, 467 Total -...2, 891 8, 366 14, 039 20, 144 1, 845, 496 42, 728 27, 62 9, 643 26,877, 575 155, 405,358 The principal products of woolen-mills in 1870 were as follows: Beavers, 261,208 yards; cloth, cassimeres, and doeskins, 63,340,612 yards; cloth, felted, 1,941,865 yards; cloth, negro, 1,932,382 yards; cottonade, 75,000 yards; flannels, 58,965,286 yards; jeans, 24,489,985 yards; kerseys, 5,506,902 yards; linseys, 14,130,274 yards; repellents, 2,663,767 yards; satinets, 14,072,559 yards; tweeds and twills, 2,853,458 yards; number of shawls, 2,312,761; blankets, 2,029,715 pairs; yarn, 16,070,237 pounds. WAGES IN WOOLEN-MILLS. Table showving the average weekly wages paid to persons employed in the woolen-mills of thefollowing States in 1869 and in 1874. a P a~~~~~ ~ ~~ w an t 4 5 i m E i Cd P Occupations. W a a3 0a a o.a a ~~~~4~~ o Z ~z # o o r ~,Vool-washers............. fll~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 V. /)yer s..................... 10 50~~~~~~~~~~~~s C 1869. 1874. 1869. 1874. 1869. 1874. 1869. 1874. 1869. 1869. 1869. 1869. 186g. 1874. 1869. 1874. 1869. 1874. 1874. 1874. 1874. 1869. 1874. Wool-sorters.$............. 12 00 $9 80 $11 00 $10 95 $12 55 $10 91 $10 10 $12 00.-$.... 12 00$...... $8 00 $6 00 $7 50 $13 30 f$9 25 $12 75$l10 05 $11 70 +$5 251$22 00,$10 86 $10 94 Wool-washers..-.......... 9 72 9 30 9001 8 73 7 05 8 97 8 66 8 50...... 7 00 $8 75 -...... 5 00 6 00 10 16 8 33 9 00 9 83 9 00 5 25 ---- 826 8 21 Oyersrs......... 1168 1010 1175 977 990 1108 800 800 8 25 1000 1025....1350 1275 16 25 1500 14 25 11 30 925 525 1250 11 3t8 1050 Overseers. ---------------— 18 00 24 00 15 00 2025 17 50 18 6L 16 50 20 00 21 00...... 21 00.................. 20 50 15 00 18 00 18 00 19 50 18 00. —--— 18 44 t9 17 Carding and spinning: Pickers.... 7 33 7 60 9 00 8 70 7 88 7 81 7 16 6 25 8 00.... 7 75 7 00 4 00 5 25 6 90 500 525 5 40 800 525 7 50 7 603 668 H SCarders -.... 6.3:3. 5 9'21 7 15' t6 391 4 951 6 0t 6 321.5501 *3 50'5 761 5 201 5 00 *4 75 5 621 8 50 1000 99o 1 5 461575 525 7o50 07 6 34 Spinners -—. —------— 11 50 10 37 12 00 9 41 985 9 45 9 00 6 25 10 O80 8 33 12 68 12 00 7 721 9 75 14 27 12 0015O9 89 00 1825 600 8 00 1120 885 Warpers and beamers. 8 16 9 6*7 31 983 1016 947 1000. 1200 1000 *6 37 7 00 7 12 7 CO 9 37 10 75 9 00 t1 98 t9 62 7 25. —--- 8 77 8 81 Ieelers...........-. *4 761 55 6 00 15 4 4 25 85 69 6 00 6 25 *6 50 *2 50 *3 001... *3 25 *4 50 *5 37 3 751 *4 50 5 47 390 5 25. — 4 61 520 Overseers....... 14 66 19 50 17 50 15 83 17 30 1757 18 19 12 90 24 00 12 00'2100......1 12 00 12 75.......... 19 50 15 00... 1800..1846 13 94 Assistants. ---------- 02......637 1010......1200......1050...... 11 00............ 8 00.......... —-...... —~-.......... WeTavingrr: I tj W7eavigers............ *7 32 f8 32 7 50 7 90'7 30 f8 07 *7 66 8 58 *8 16 10 50 *8 00 8 00'7 75 *6 00 *7 00 500 7 50t1O 50 650 5 25 800 788 7041 Burlers....9.....*4 59 5 05 575 8630 *450 8534 4 440 55 *540 ——.. *4 60.. *3 50 3 00 *5 49 500 *600 460 5.00 525.- 4 92 4 98 Overseers. —---- 1733 1800 16 50 16 12 1766 18 12 1608 19 50 12.00 1600 16 50 14.00 1800 1500 1500. 13 50 1800 1500.....2400. —-- 1610 1740 Dressing and finishing: Ho nlleers.............. 8 75 f9 67 996 t 95 924 984 840 900 750 7 00 937 800 600 60011 75 12 00 1050 919 900 525. — 1 8 77 876 Dressers or gigfgSers. 7 58 1 70 7 80 8 55 7 80 8 04 6 00 8 10 7 50 1000.. 9 00 1050 1000 7 50 834 7600 5 25....808 8 H Finishers.............. 12 33'18 83 *8 90 10 50 8 15 8 28 6 75 8 10 7 50 *3 50 12 00 14 001... 900 13 50 1050 934 900 525 75 971 8 42 Press-tenders.. 9 33 7 67 105 O0 80 CO 8 241 8`26 950 10 50 11 50.. 8 12..... 7 50 131-50 9 00 1000. —-.. 7 50...... 5 25. 9 21 8918 91 Drawers......I....... k4 50 6 00 750 6 00 t8 7. 6 00 - -....77.5...... * 25... I.60........... 6 0 7 01 8 50 5 25...... 6 12 6 91 lErnshers. *450 7 25 —---- 00 510 6 69 600 7 00-]... 3 00..................... 6 00 900 5255 12 6 69 Packers............... 9 37 8 50 8 40 8 62 8 62 11 50 8 751 a —..-.......-... 9 00............ 900 01000....................... 5 25..... 9 02 8 57 Overseers.. —-..... —.. 2025 18 00 16 50 15 78 19 06 18 051 20 25 24 00 16 50. 12 001 S O0............ 15 01.....21 00 18 00...... 21 00[. ——.- 117 62 19 14 Assistants. —.. —...10 0...... 9 75 13 25 9 40 6 3i 1200 1500 12001..500 9...1036 97 Enine-roonm, yard, &c.: Engineers. -. —1 ------ ---- 10 50 12 50 14C60 13 24 1000 -12)50, 975 17 25............ 9 00 11 50 12 50 15 00...... 9 00 l8 0....12 64 1234 Mechanics. —-- -1233 14 6 16 75 17.5 137 162 1650 1500 1200.. ——. 1500..............1800 1500. —-.-.- 15 13 15 12 Laborers, Iwatchinen inclacd).,-,.,,-I m 331i4'~}:~ 9.'75.~'75 15 3'~/;'2s:~6 o1'i;.,'610 05 ooi...~:1...;I1 3o2221:227/.~.....I......I..7...t2 018 oo0 9I 1 52 in ded) 9 16 8 58 900 898 920 925 1066 1000 925 1125... 100 8 75 10 50 9 00 1500 1200 1500 988 10 0 73 Foremen. 1800 1800 1050 105 170012 75...... " females. 8 a............... l C..in.men, except over0eer at $362 19 05'~All females. t Part females. $ All Chinamen, except overseer at $36. 754 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. The following interesting article, prepared by James M. Swank, Esq., secretary of the American Iron and Steel Association, exhibits the origin and development of the iron and steel industries in the United States: FORGES AND BLOOMARIES. The first iron made in America was forged at a bloomary of the Virginia Company, in 1621, on the James River, twelve miles below the present site of Richmond. The Indians destroyed the forge in 1622. In 1631 the people of Massachusetts Bay built an iron-mill at Lynn; in 1644, a blast-furnace at Hammnersmith; in 1652, a furnace and forge at Raynham, (Taunton;) and other iron-works followed in succeeding years, until in 1715 there were many furnaces and forges in Maryland, Virginia, a, nd Massachusetts. At some of these forges the ore was converted into bar-iron by hammering, and all sorts of merchantable shapes were made, while at others the bar was hammered from the pig. Maryland hammered bar-iron was exported to England from 1732 to the Revolution, although in 1750 England endeavored to prohibit the production of bar-iron, as a common nuisance, in America. The Revolution stimulated the production of hammered iron, and forges sprung into existence in many parts of the colonies, but principally in Pennsylvania. Slitting-mills, for slitting hammered plate into nailrods, became quite numerous. After the Revolution great changes took place. The puddling-furnace was invented by Cort, a native of England, in 1783 and 1784, and he also introduced the use of rolls. From 1790 to 1810 rolling-mills were gradually erected in this country to take the place of the forges, and at the present time only a very few forges in Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee make hammered bar-iron in small quantities, while the few forges and bloomnaries making blooms from ore are found in New York and North Carolina, using the Catalan forge. Many forges, maling blooms for boiler-plate from charcoal pig-iron, still exist in Pennsylvania. The following table shows the production of blooms from ore during late years: Years. Net tons. Years. Net tons. 1865. —..... — -- -....-.....-. —. 63, 977 1870.-...................- -....... 6, 59 1866.................................. 73, 555 1871.-.... —---—. —-—. —-.. 63, 000 1867..7.......- -.. —................ 73, 073 1872................................. 58, 000 1868................................... 75,'200 1873 --—.. —-----. —-----.. 62, 564 1869............................... 69, 500 1874, (about) -... —---—... —---- 50, 000 PIG-IRON. The first furnace in the United States, of which we have any knowledge, is that built )by a London company, represented by John Winthrop, jr., at Hammersmith, Mass., in 1644.* In Plymouth County, Massachusetts, Lambert Despard built a firnace in 1702 at the outlet of Mattakeeset Pond. In 1715 there were many furnaces in the colonies, all of which used charcoal fo)r fuel. In 1717 pig-iron was exported to England. Most of these furnaces made castings, such as iron pots, direct from the furnace, as they still (1o in some parts of North Carolina and Tennessee. Coke was first used in the blastfurnace by F. H. Oliphant, of Fayette County, Pennsylvania, in 1836, and anthracite coal at Mauch Chunk, Carbon County, Pennsylvania, by Baughman, Gitean & Co., in July, 1t839, though Mr. Lyman, at Pottsville, first succeeded in keeping a furnace in blast for three months on anthracite, running from October, 18:39, to January, 1840. The Manch Chunk furnace was small, being 21' feet high and 5~ feet across the bosh, while the Pottsville furnace was 35 feet by 88 feet. In August, 1846, the raw bituminous coal was first used in smelting iron at Lowellville, Mahoning County, Ohio, in a furnace specially built for raw coal, though, in 1845, a charcoal-furnace in Mercer County, Pennsylvania, (Clay Furnace,) had, during a scarcity of fuel, run a short time on raw coal.alone. In 1810 there were 153 furnaces, all charcoal, which made in that year 54,000 net tons of pig-iron. In 1874 there were 701 furnaces, including charcoal, coke, raw coal, and anthracite, and 46 more were in course of construction. These figures do not include the large number of charcoal and other furnaces that have been abandoned. The following are statistics of production of pig-iron in net tons: * For a more detai'ed account of the'Colonial industry in metals " see Bishop's History of American ianyrfactures, vol. 1, pages 465-631 LABOR IN, THE UNITED STATES. 755 8s1O......-.......-..... 54,000 1870......................... 1,865,000 1828. —-..-....... —-. —----- 130,000 1871......................... 1,912,608 1840......................... 315,000 1872......................... 2,854,558 1349.,,..,,..- -............. -650, 000 1873......................... 2, 868,278 1860......................... 919,770 1874......................... 2,689,413 l65.......................... 931,582 In 1874 there were produced 572,817 net tons of charcoal pig-iron; 884,872 tons of raw coal and coke; 1,202,144 anthracite, and 29,580 mixed fuel; total 2,689,413 net tons. RAMs.-The first mills in this country which made railroad-iron were the Mount Savage Works, Maryland; Montour Iron-Works, Danville, Pa.; and the Great Western W,:rks, Brady's Bend, Pa.; all of which were put in operation from 1840 to 1843. The MNount Savage Mill made rails of the shape of the letter U inverted, while the others niad(1 inverted T rails, of the present pattern. In 1850 there were 6 mills which madle in that year 44,083 net tons of rails. In 1874 there were 58 mills, and 3 building. The following are statistics of rail-production, including steel rails, in net tons: 1860.-. -...................... 205,038 1872..................... 1,000,000 1870. —..... —-........... 620,000 1873. —.. —-.-.......... 890,077 71......... —............... 775,733 1874, (about)................ 750, 000 BAR-IRO N, SHE.ET, PLATE, AND NAILS.-Bar, sheet, and plate iron were first made in forges by the slow process of hammering. Plates were slit into rods, which were afterward cut up into nail-lengths, to be pointed and headed by hand. The first slitting-'ill was built at Milton, Mass., in 1710. Fromn 1790 to 1810, rolling-mills gradually made their appearance, and in 1810 there were 330 forges and 34 rolling and slitting mills, which made 24,541 net tons of bar anld plate iron, and 7,864 tons of nails. The first rolling-mnill'in Pittsburgh was built in 1812. In 1374 there were 335 rolling-mills making rails, bar, sheet, and plate iron, and nails. They made about 1,600,000 net tons of rolled iron, including Bessemer rails, and 215,000 tons of nails. The statistics of production are as follows in net tons: Year..Z. o -. o [' 1810............4..................-........-..... 24,541, 7864 32, 405 18300...............................9............ 8, 962 840....................................-..................... 1 2 197,......'3 197,233 1845....................................... 30,000' —------ 291, 600.......... 321, 600 1845-~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~30, 000 -......[291, 600 -]....321, 600 1850............................................ 44, 083 233, 961...... 278, 044 1856.....-............................ 142, 555 355, 526...... 498, 081 1860..-.................................... 205, 038 - *'25, 038 1865-..-..-... —. —.. —.. ——.. —-—. —. —-—. 63,977 356, 292 500, 048.-.... 920, 317 1870..-6....-........................ 62, 259 620, 000 705, 000 -- —.-... 1, 387, 259 0'871.-....................................... 63, 00I 775, 733 493, 198'216, 802 1, 548, 733 187-2.-............................... 58, 000 1, 000, 000 738, 726 203, 266 1, 999, 99-2 1s:1.-..... —-- ---------— 2 —-- --, 564 890, 077 875, 133 201, 235 2, 029, 009 18;4, (about)............................... 50,000 750, 000 885, 000 215, 00 1, 900, 000 * These figures are for rails alone; it is uncertain how much other iron was rolled in 1860. BESSEMER STEEL.-The first Bessemer-steel works in America were built at Wyandotte, Michigan, in 1865. The ingot from which the first rail was made was taken to Chicago from Wyandotte and rolled into a rail at the North Chicago Rolling-Mill in 1865. In a short time afterward the "plant" was taken to Chicago from Wyandotte. The first rails made upon order were rolled at Johnstown, Pa., from ingots made at Harrisburgh, Pa., in 1867. There are now 8 Bessemer works in operation, 2 soon to be completed, and 1 about to be built: The following are statistics of production in net tons: Year. Totalsteel. Steel rails. 1867 -...-...-...-..-............... —-----—. —. 3, 000 2, 550 1868 -.. ——...-.. —. —.. —..-... ——. —.. —..-....-..-................ — 8,500 7,225 1869.-...-..-.. —.. --—.. —.. ——. —------------------- 12, 000 9, 650 1870 -4.000-..., 30...0..-......................................... 40, 000 34, COO 1.871........................................................................... 45, 050 38, 250 18172. —10........-.....-............................ 110,500 94, 070 1873.....1..57001.1...5............................... 157, 000 19,015 1874, (about) —... —-...... —.......-.............. —-------------—.- - 190, 000 165,000 75G LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. STEEL, OTIHER TILHAN BEssEMEI. —From the best information we have, we believe cast-steel was first made in this country during the decade 1830-40. Blister-steel was il:ade very much earlier, dating far back into colonis,1 times. In 1850 there were five c:st-steel establishments; in 1860, thirteen; in 1870, twenty-seven; and in 1874 about forty. The following are statistics of production, iclueding cast-steel, open-hearth, and blister-steel, in net tons: 1'860....-,................ I-~ —-,, 11,838 1872............................. 38, 000 lC70. —— 35,000 1.73-50, —--------—....... 50. 000 171. —-—.. ——. — -------—.. —.- 37,000 1874, (about).................... 50,000 I.MPORTATIONS- -Until very recently, the United States has been a large purchaser of foreign iron and steel. So many new iron and steel making establishments wveref built in the period embraced in the years 1860 to 1874, that we are now, for the first time iiv the history of the country, in possession of complete facilities and full capacity to manutactnre all the country needs of these articles, althonugh it is probable that some special brands of iron and steel may continue to be imported foir some time. The followintable shows the quantity of leading iron and steel miantufactures imported during a series of fiscal years in net tons, except steel ingots, &c., for which values only are given: 13ar, boiler~, Steel ingots, Barnd, hoop, Fiscal years. Iron rails. Pig-iron. Steel rails. bars, sheets, bandheet, nhoop, and wire. scroll. scroll. Ended September 30- Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 182t............................................ 918 ----- - $131, 291 19, 331) 1830................................. -.......... 1,159........... 351,44-2 4', 4-9 139......-...........................-............ 12, 508 —.. —.. —. 820, 4,~ s9, 9:,5 1840 o —- 5......................... 5,516.......... 544, 674 63, 49 Ended June 301850.-.........................-...... 74, 874............ 1,414, 0'2 20,15!!51............................................. 67, 249.-......... 1, 690, 535 27, 4,t 1852 —.........................-............ 91,874 —--------- 1,801,186 26, 12 1853 —.............-................. 114, _27 -21 —3,141,124 37, 997 1854-............................................. 160, 483 ---------, 669, 945 29 69 1855.............................. 127, 516 98 924 -2,599, 075 147, 41;_O56................................. 155, 496 59,012 2,543, 215 140, 16: 5................................. 1179, 305 51, 794 2,639, 78- 12, 4 2 1858.7.......................... 5,745 41, 985 1,154,673 93, 67 1'859................................. 69, 865 7-2, 518..-...... 2,0662, 02 9 1 16 1-60.9......................... 122,174 71,498`-.... 2, 7:5, 818 155, 506!i.,....6..................... 74, 491 74, 026 -...... 2, 553, 256 127,140!6e2 8, —-- 2, —-— 7 —.... 8.6. 22, 247............ 1, 469, 374 11, P~ 1!63................................. 17, 088 31, 007 -..... 2,195, 415 5, 83 li64................................. 118, 714 102, 223............ 2, 398,156 123, 840 3865.......................... 77,518 50, 655 1, 652,189 66, 3,4 166.......................... 73, 510 101, 261 -- - 1,992, 562 81; 71' 1867................................. 96, 272 112, 042..... —...-... 2, 839, 240 105, 7 0 1868................................. 151,097 112, 133 -- ---- 2, 252, 393 30, 528 2................................. 66, 228 153,412 - -- -- - 3, 201,046 107, 01) 0................................ 313, 3:38 171, 677............ 2, 342, 408 100, 5i,!871........................... 513,023 199, 515 -3,750, 702 126, 263 1 L872-i,..............-............... —. 472,366 277, 232 122, 956 4,033,508 145, 8 2 1i873................................... 240, 505 241, 355 160, 04l 4, 155, 234 107, 034 1874..2.............. 20, 379 103, 086 146, 411 2, 960, 055 44, 98: *Quantity of bar-iron not given; value was $2, 733, 074. tIncluding some steel rails. ExPoTs. —The exports of raw iron and steel have always been insignificant. In colonial times pig-iron and bar-iron were for many years, from 1717 to the Revolution, exported to England. In 1728-'29, 1,127 gross tons of pig were thus exported; in 1732-'33, 2,204 tons of pig and 11 of bar were exported; in 1745, 2,274 tonls of pig and 136 of bar; in 1771, 5,303 tons of pig and 2,222 of bar, and 1776, 316 tons of pig and 28 of bar. Since the Revolution no iron has been exported until very recently; but iron and steel in various manufactured forms, stch as agricultural and mechanical implements and edge-lools have for a long time been largely exported. The currencyvalues of exports of iron and steel, and manufactures thereof, in 1872 and 1873, were.14,360,617 and $16,687,754, respectively. The quantity of pig-iron exported was, in 1872, 1,319 net tonis; in 1873, 9,022 net tons; in 1874, 14,321 net tons. Bar, plate, rails, and sheet-iron, in 1872, 1,554 net tons; in 1873, 820 net tons; tn 1874, 5521 net tons. Nails and spikes, in 1872,,6 net tons; in 187i3, 3,400 net tons; in 1871, 5,138 net tons. ~~~teel ~ ~ ~ Il; and l ~ ne tons,(74) netV tons;L in 1874 Steel ingots, bars, sheets, and wire, in 1872, 8~ net tons; in 1873, 26 net tons; in 1874; 343 net tons. The years given are all calendar years. LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 757 Thle following statement of the aggregate value of the exports of iron and steel, and of the various manufactures thereof, for the last fifty-four years, wvill serve as a supplement to Mr. Swank's article, and show the gradual increase, from 108,083 in 1821 to over twenty millions in 1871. Statement of Lthe value of domestic iron and steel, and manufactures of, exported from the United States from 1821 to 1874 inclusive. Years. Value. Years. Value. Years. Value. Years. Value. 1-21....... $108, 083 1835 ------ $297, 357 1849...... i1, 096, 630 1863...... $6, 475, 279 1....... 132, 7'27 1836...... 308, 666 1850...... 1,914, 460 1864...... 7, 28:3, 16 1td2:3....... 97, 271 1837...... 494, 908 1851...... 2, 2265, 18 6 1865......] 10, 786,559 3804......~. 142, 974 1838...... 712, 192 1852...... 2, 320, 603 1866...... - *9, 759, 553 1825....... 156, 173 1839...... 946, 586 1853......'2, 509. 304 1867...... 9,, 487,53 26....... 253, 895 1840...... 1, 110, 772 1854...... 4, 216, 947 1868..... 10, 784, 654 1827....... 275, 671, 1841.... 1,045, 825 1855...... 3, 768, 301 1869...... 10, 873, 948 8....... 233, 618 1 1842..... 1, 110, 8.26 1856 ------ 4,190, 096 1870 13, 414, 443 8....... 226, 537 184;3 532, C93 1857...... 4, 906, 491 1871...... 20, 955, 256 18:30....... 309, 47:3 1144...... 716, 33-2 1z55838 ——. 4, 737, 094 1872...... 11, 199, 300 18:31....... 239, 271 1435...... 857, 677 18359...... 5, 506, 880 187:13 ------ 13, 295, 4 18 18:32-...... 220, 588 18A —-46 -.... 1,161,584 1 860 ------ 5, 712, 990 1874 -...... 14, 888, 107 1833....... 243, 603 1847 --- 1,I17,9-27 1 861.....1. 5, 932, 587 1834....... 236, 577 1848 1,267, 318 11862...... 4, 563,, 201 *The oriLinal statement gives but, $3,759,553, but that is no doubt erroneous; the figures here given are qpproxiniatelvy accurate. t Not including $4,48-2,58-2 of iron and steel manufactures exported to Canada, the value of wlich was obtained fiorn Canadian authorities. From and after the fiscal year 1821, the Reports on Commerce and M;avigation, showing tile imports and exports of the United States in detail, have been published. The trade-accounts previous to that year a1re very iIlm)erfect. The following statement shows, with approximate accuracy, the expoalts of iron and manufactures of iron during the thirty years from 1; 91 to 1820), inclusive: Table showing the quantity or value of domestic iron alnd manufactures of iron exported front the United States for the years ended Septenmber 30, 1791 to 1820, inclusive. Yea rs.Pers. P PYears. *. - ~ ~ Years.. -. Icl II -- 1d k F~~~~~ce cJ =;1C) k Fi~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~7i U~~c Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Pounds. 79...... 4, 179' 350 $2,598 $3,500 1798...-.. 1-28 793.......... $29, 861 $173,074 1792......... 3, 268 360 3,202 8, 00 1799........ 140 614 -- 16, 573 271,575 173-....... 2,089 763 12, 200 10, 250 1800 ----- 190 531.......... 11, 174 372, 261 I794......... 2,037 843 2, 681 24,301 I 101........ 23 70.......... 22, 798 300, 316 795......... 1,046 2, 444 3,500 25,600 t1802...... 535 100 - - 21,106 317, 825 196......... 502 8-1:3 433 160,094 1803- 177 177 77, 551 5,c923 21, 261 1797......... 597 204 22,201 135,594 1804.-..... 454 379 110,7e0 9,168 40,827 Years. 4 Years. P-4 a a~ Fl CC. -~ ci c Tons. Tons, Poends. Tons. Tons. Pounds. 1805...... 365 927 278, 051 $,25, 821 $10,559 1813 --—... —-- 14, 369 $19, 621 $12 1-06...... 79 307 218, 805 47, 041 29, 7(10 1814...................... 42, 763 19 6, 581 1807...... 114 132 336,321 55, 39 41.,239 1815....... 152 80 90,'294 5, 749 7, 784 3808...... 9 67 30, 237 4, 161 5, 899 1816....... 153 36 158, 877 14, 649 161, 394 180-9 -- - 70 277 272, 72:3 5, 595 30, 461 1817....... 200 22 473, 025 32, 782 45, 942 1810...... 93 429 377, 373 9, 410 39, 293 1818............. $3, 234 21. 356 14, 963 33, 426 181 1 1 —-- 21 217 347, 925 8,143'11, 454 1819....... $250 $160 814,686 10, 638 28, 407 1 --— 12- -....... 63 82, 785 1, 750 36, 316 1820............-. $2, 835 $13, 509 3, 484 36, 675 NoTE.-From 1791 to 1803 the returns do not separate foreign and domestic articles exported, but the great bulk of iron exported was undoubtedly of domestic manufacture. From Pitkin's Statistical View of Conmmerce, it appears thlat there were exported in the year 1770 from the British continent:al colonies (6,017 tons of pig. 24,064 tons of bar, 2 tons of castings, and 8 tons of w'rought iron, valued at $145,628, $17,891, $158, and 8410, respectively IRON-ROLLING MILLS. — 1 Table showing the average weekly earnings of wvorkmeni emplloyed in the lro.~Rollivg Mills of Mamsachusscts and thec M1iddle States (with t~heplricepler tolt in -the year 1874. Massachusetts. ]New York. New Jersey.) Pennsylvani. A velwrae i idl States. Occupation.~ ~~~1 1I l Per week. Pe o. Per week, Per ton. Per week. ]Per ton. Per week. Per ton. Per week. ]Per ton. Per week. Per ton. -Puddlers.............................. $22 56 [ 4'25 I $92 65 I$3 97 [ $17 19 I a 03 [ $2! 15 I$5 52~ $18 co $5 25 [ $19 75 I $4 87; ]'nddlers' helpers......................- 11 40 I 40 ] 10 56 ] 60 ] 10`21 ]...........] it 0.q...........[ 10 38 I 1 67 la10 56; ] 64 Shin-lers' heler. ——. —-—.. —. —---—. —---—. —---—. —---—.... --...........I...........I.........../94...........I lS0...... 7`7;9............l ~[9 Topindgleomro'hllers................. 80........ [01 1 88 Fogeroles ------------------------ ------ 5 0 4 o 0...........]......................I........... 100 I........... 1 01 M, erchant-mill rollers ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 88......................00......... 27 3403 3........... 3 3 51060 4 3 96 Raidle-mill ro l ers....................... is1...... 4 25 96:::: 211 60 1 0 140 04 17 1 6 1.............. 38 653 14 15 3 Shee and boatto rollers................. le0 ]...........[ 0 1 1...........]3 1........... 1 7 93 81 16 415...........I3 0...........] 24 73[9{ 11':Forge rollers -------------------------...........- -----------' 25 ~0] 1 000 ]...........].....................]........... I............ ----- 20 ]0 164 Thierdhn~al rollers ------------------------- i 0..............................................I'73 7 30............ 361 ---- [ 1 00...........] 6 tFiilllncee' roheaers'................... 18 603........... it4 5 96[ 1 a 0 008...... 40 30 0 114/............... 32 6 40 11 643 Shea en...........: —-- ---- ---- 9,[...........I9 4...........[ 9 71356..... 10 /0...........[1 2...... SheBni p ~ crlletrs........................ 910 —---------------------------- 7 93 ------ 78~!6 ------- I 1..........I.`47! i 8 Catconhrlers......................... / ~ 71 6 03011 17 0 0........... ~~~~~~~~t........................... 25 00]........... 26S 0621.1 —-- 0 611 75 5 1913a A Eeaters............................... 27~] 15 39 16 3........... 2 8 5 06, 9 6 46 5 235 6 Foremen or superintendents ----------- 23 2, 5 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ /".......... 3 0......! 01........ 2I2...........[ 20 ---' 24 3 16..... Tahird istles.......................................5....... 18 O0.................................... 1 6............ 140...........l 148 00........... Carnaepe n' so eters'................ 19 001 01I o1........... 13514 4 BlcS dhea me...............~............:/ 5923 —..........- 9 45...........I 9. 76 [............ 13 491...........I 10 33 13........0 -'-........-.................... /n...........rk!...........8...........I90...........7 [8...........t 5........... 70o 87..........8 3........... Teamtehtr s --------------- 90 ---- 0 —---- 8........... 07 ------ 843.................. A ppelitier os......................./ 4 75 43/......I'SO 5 7 0 ------- 4 / ------- 4 59 ---------- 4 67 ----------- 5 4 4 / ------- Horese oflbr sueitnet................... 2 254........... 3 0......00 [............ 9t 0............ 60 ------- /........... IRON-ROLLING MILLS. Table 8howing the average weekly earnings of workmien emtployed in. the iron-Rolling Mijils in. the following Western States in the year 1874. Ohio. Illinois. Indiana. Kansas. Average in preceding Western States. Occupation. Per week. Per ton. Per week. Per ton. Per week. Per ton. Per week. Per ton. Per week. Per ton. Pudlers...............:........................... $[2430 $6 25 $24 80 $5 21 $2 50 6 50........................ 2587 $598 1ud(hdlers' helpers.................................. 11 92......... 13 85 2 08 1425............1334 208 Shinglers...............................................30 00............ 1...5...........................30 00. - Shinglers' helpers.......................................1 0..... 12 00........................ 12 00............ Puddle-mill roller................................. 25 65 76' 25 70 18 2-10 21 60 90.....................24 32 6 2-5 Top anud bottom roller............................ 30 58 08 4-10........................ 30 58 08 4-10 Fo -eo o lrs.....................ollers.18.........................00.18................00.0 - - -- - - A\Ireulau tntmill rollers.4............... 88 0....t............48.....................00...... 8 0...... Elai-iinill rollers............................................................ 49 55 12 9-10............ $........... 04 30107 37 0.2. 10 Slet and plate rollers............................. 37 50 60............ 0............ 60 hoid r'ollers......................................... 8 [ 0.............. 28 07 7-10 e en or heaer's helpers.................. 12 0216 28 17............ 14 00 25 14 10 21 Sluemuorin...................... 20o 25 ----. —- 14 72. 12.18-10............. 12 00....... 15 66 12 810 eilleters.................................0....... Caiel-ners................................... 16. 57 0 8-10.. 25 00 07 21 46 08 4Ro _-1tuhes...................... 16 50. —- --- 26 00 10 4-10.......-...... 28 00 06 23 50 08 2-10 Il1eat ers....................... 30 00 76 40 23 52 8-10............. 32 tO 68 34 08 65 3-5 Foeeueiueo or superiiiteiidents............. 37 50. —----- 45- 17....... 25 00....... 28 00....... 33 92................gin..............ers............ 18 9 1............ 1 9 47............ 18.00............ ~ 21 00. —---------- 19 33............ Cairpenters..............8 00. 19 60. 16 00. 23 00.18 65.. Slueetaiths............................. 18....22 3710......... 2.....18 20. laboreors and unskilled workmen.................. 10 25............ 10 33...................................... 9 86............ Teanisters.1125. 1260. 1000.1128.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6 Shearmener.......................................... 10 25.......... 12 6~1 -01 0............ 15 66 —------------------ 1`28........ Appreices and s.............................. 4 50............ 87 I........................ 004 12.,[ours of labor..................................... 57...... 54......' 0.....:'I.......' 5.......O.0/.......... 57......... l~ou~zhers................................... 1650.... 2 O0 ] 10 4-0 28 0 ~ 6 23 0 [ 0 2-1 IRON-ROLLING MILLS. Table showting the average weekly earnings of workmen employed in the Iron-Rolling M,-ills3 in the following States in the year 1874; also the generol average of C the Unit~d A~tates. California. Tennessee. Kentucky. Aver age in two South- General aVerage. ern States. Occupation. -_ _ _ _ _ -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-_ _ _ _ _._ _ _ _ _ -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-_ _ _ _ _-_ _ _ _ _ -_ _ _ _ _ _ Per week. Per ton. Per week. Per ton. Per week. Per ton. Per week. Per ton. Per week. Per ton. Puddlers. —----------------- $48 00 $7 00 $30 00 $0 50 $2Q2 00....... 206 00 $6 50 $28 44 $5 72 Pmdlders' lielpers. —--------------------- ------ 12 00 ----—. — 12 00....... 12 00.....i.. i1 83 1 37-h Shinglers.. —------------------- 18 00......... 1800o..................... 18 00.........- 20 91 903 Pnddlle-tmill roller..........18....... i 00.................... 20 00........ 20 00........ 18 50 48 Top aiid bottom roller................ 39 00 12$........................................ 2 in0 10z Fo - -r ler.....e-rollers.................................................17..........80......148,0 1 Mlerchiant-mill rollers............... 40 50- 45 30 00....... 40 00...... 35 00........ 34 86 511 Rail-mill rollers................... 42 00 14...................................... 33 92 11$f Sheet. ail plate rollers......................................... 24 00........ 24 00....... 26 10 394 Second rollers............................................:............................. 24 1:3 12 1-10 C) Third le rollers..................................................................18...... 8 00........ Furnace-men or heaters' helpers...................... 15 00........ 12 00........ 13 50....... 32 47 68 Shearmen................................... 1500....... 1500........ 1500........ 12067 12 4-.) Catchers —.................... 17 10 19 15 00 - -...... 12 00 —...... 13 50 -...... 15 43 138 Z E oughers —.................... 3i 50 35 18 00 - -...... 12 00 —...... 15 00 —...... 21 23 1(4 He~aters........................ 32 80 80 35 00 - -...... 25 00 - -...... 30 00........ 29 51 70 7-10 Foremen or superintendents -—..................... 40 00 - -...... 30 00 ~....... 3 5 00........ 29 25 -....... Mlachi~nists —.................... 21 00 - 18...... i 00 - -...... 13 50 —...... 15 75 —...... 18 15 -....... Eng1ineers —.................... 1950 -....... 1800........ 1800 —...... 18 00 —...... 17 15 -....... Carpenters —................... 21 00 -....... 15 00 - -...... 1-2 00 —...... 13 50 —...... 17 32 -....... Blacksmiths —................... 2100 -....... 1925 - -...... 18 00 —...... 1863 —...... 17 40 -....... Laborers and unskilled workmen -- 12....... I- 00 -....... 7 50 —...... 8 40 —...... 7 9.5 —...... 950 -........ Team es........ters...........-....900-.......- 900....... 9 -- 900..... 9 -- 967-.. 96........ Appreutices and boys —.............. 7 50 -....... 350 —...... 3 00 —...... 3 25.-.... 482........ Hours of labor-............................... 59-....... 60.....59J...-... 57 13-160........ IRON-FOUNDERIES AND MACHINE-SHOPS. Average rates of weekly wages paid in the Irou-_Founderies and Machine-Shops in the New England States in the rtspective years 1869 and 1874. New Maine. Hampshire. Vermont. Massachusetts. Rhode Island. Connecticut. AEragein New Enghmud States. Occupation. 1869. 1874. 1869. 1874. 1869. 1874. 1869. 1874. 1869. 1874. 1869. 1874. 1869. 1874. Iron-molders............................................. -12 84 $13 27 $17 00 $14 64 $13 50''15 00 $16 50 $15 00 $19 86 $21 00 $20 70 $15 25 $16 73 $15 69 Machinists, (best)........................................ 14 27 15 43 15 50 16 05 15 00 15 00 19 70 17 20 18 80 17 97 19 50 18 00 17 13 16 66 Machinists, (ordinary)................................... 12 90. 11 44 11 86 12 48 12 00 12 00 14 77 14 75 16 50 14 52 16 50 15 50 13 92 13 45 Machinists, (inferior).................................... 6 00 8 20 9 33 11 00........ 9 00 11 40 ii 58 15 60 12 00 12 00 14 00 10 86 10 96 Machinists, (helpers) ---------------- ------------------- 10 50 9 30 7 94 8 39........ 8 25 10 25 9 81 9 00 893 990 10 25 9 51 916 Boiler-makers........................................... 16 50.... 16 50 13 C0 15 75........ 36 25 17 40........ 15 50 21 25 Helpers.............................................. -600 5 00 -... 10 00................ 9 75 10 -25........ 950 150........ 8 75 8 69 Riveters.......................................................... 1650..... 1650................ 14 00 1200........ 15 00 1650........ 1525 15 00 VI Holders-on........ 12 00 -... 10 00................ 10 60 1000........ 10 50 1050........ 10 55 10 63 Filangers....................................................- 18 00 -... 1800................ 15 00 20 01........ 24 00 2100........ 1800 20 00 H-] ]elpers -1...........................000- 1000 -1025 9 00- 10 50 10 50-. 10 37 9 88 4 Blacksmiths.............................................1500 1307 16 0 1517 1650 1500 1650 1625 24 00 1955 16 50 1800 1750 16 17 M Helpers............................................... 11 00 11 25 9 38 12 00 9 00 10 45 10 17 9 00 1l 19 10 50 10 50 10 64 10 21 Foremen................................................. e2000 19 60 19 50 23 29 18 00 18 00 26 34 23 82 23 12 23 25 23 70 25 00 2177 22 16 ZEngineers............................................... 14 25 -13 50.... 15 00 14 C0 - 15 40 1:1 50 15 00 14 25 14 43 Z4 Pattern-makers and carpenters.......................... 14 25 13 81 16 06 15 70 16 50 15 00 18 24 17 14 16 50 18 89 18 50 19 13 16 67 16 61 - Assistants............................................ 1233 1550 00 - 800 1200 1050- 15 00 12 00 12 00 13 16 11 47 Laborerscarters-......................................... - 1050 9 42 9 00 9 57 10'50 9 00 9 96 9 67 9'60 10 00 958.. 9 69 953 Apprentices............................................. 6 00 6 00 5 00 6 13 6 00 4 50 5 89 6 80 6 00 597 750 7'00 6 06 6 07 ]killwri chts.............................................. 21 00........ 18 00 16 00........................ 19 62........ 18 00................ 19 50 1 7 87 Brass-founders.................................................................12 00...1500 172521001500 1675 Fitters.................i.'.. "i —o........o... —'..................i..0....i.' H Turners......................................................... 500........ 300 —............. Hours of ibor per week................................................. 60........ 60 59........ 59 58........ 59 IRON-FOUNDERIES AND MACHINE-SttOPS. -— 1 Occupation.'......... " ~..... Iron-molders................-..................... $16 50 $15 83 ~17 75 ~16 50 $17 25 I~14 00 $14 50 ~14 00 $13 50 I~14 50 I $15 90 $14 98 ~ltchinists, (best).................................I 17 25 ] 16 06 I 18 18 l..........I 16 80 [ 15 4[ I 15 50 I 16 25 ] 15 00 ]'17 25I 16 54 t 16 54 ~. ~lachinists, (ordinary)............................I 1369 ] 1824' I 1869' ] 1574' I 18G9' i 1874' I 1869' I 1574' I 1869' I 1874' ] 1869' t 157't' I 15 00 ] 1`2 93 [ 14 81 I..........] 14 55 ] 1'2 71 ] 13 50 I 14 00 I l0 00 I 14 70 I 13 37 I 13 59 tilJ Machinists, (inferior)..,..........................[ 10 12 [ 10 28 [ 13 1'2 [..........] 11 89 I 10 43 ] 10 62 [ lI 00 ]..........I 11 50 [ II 44 [ 10 80 O:Machitfisls, (helpers)..............................I 9 00'[ 7 65 [ 10 46 /..........[ 10 18 [ 9 02]' 8 75 / 8 00 [..........[ 9 00 [ 9 59 [ 8 42 ]h, iler-makers.....................................[ 14 81 t 15 O0 I 15 48 I..........I 15 O0 I 16 GO/ 15 O0 [ 15 (10 [..........t 15 75 ] 15 07 [ 15 44 Helpers-.......................................[ 9 37 ] 9 30 I 9 $4 /..........[ 11 O0 I 8 ~8[ 8 50/ 8 50 [..........I 9 50I 9 67 [ 9 05 I~ivcters..........................................] 14 ~5 ] 15 00 ] 1'2 ~5 I..........[ 13 ~0 I 15 50 [ 14 00 ] 14 50]..........[ 13 50 [ 13 50 [ 14 63 Hohlers-ou....................................[ 9 37 [ 9 00 [ 9 87 ]..........[ 9 00 ] 9 88 [ 9 00 [ 9 00 ]..........[ 9 00 [ 9 30 ] 9 2'2 1,'langers..........................................[ 16 19 { 15 00 ]..........]..........]..........[ 17 00 ] 18 00 ] 1'7 50 /....... —-] 16 50 [ 17 06] 16 50 thdpers......................................./ 9 00 [ 9 60 ].......... I..........[..........[ 10 3:3 [ 10 00 ] 8 ~5[..........[ 9 00 { 9 50 [ 9 42 ~lacksmiths.......................................l 16 1'2] 15 75] 16 97 [..........[ 14 15 [ 15 38[ 15 06 [ 14 00 [ 15 00 [ 14 50 ] 15 46 [ 14 9t /~clpers......................................./ 9 18 ] 9 33 I 10 58 [..........] 9 65 [ 8 86 [ 8 66[ 7 75/..........[ 9 50I 9 5'2I 8 86 ]Coremen..........................................[ 20 O0 ] 2;2 25 t 24 09 t..........[ 2l 33 ] 2~ 97 ] 25 O0 [ 24 50 ] 19 O0 ] 22 75 [ 21 88 [ 23 1'2 ]~ngiL~eers.........................................] 12 50 [ 13 85 [ 13 O0 1..........[ 12 91 ] 14 31 ] 11 75 [ 12 O0 ] 6 O0 [ 12 O0 ] ll 23 [ 13 04 la{~tern-makcrs and c~,,rpcntcrs...................[ 17 25 [ 15 90 [ 18 66 l..........[ 14 92 [ 14 69 [ 15 00 ] 14 00 [ 15 00 [ 15 00 [ 16 16 [ 14,0'Assistants....................................[ 9 00 ] 1'2 00 {........../..........] 9 29 [ 11:38 ] 6 00 ] 8.50 [..........] 12 00 ] 8 09 ~ 10 97 D' I. al~orei's, carters..................................[ 9 00 [ 8 8l I 10 55 [ 12 O0 ] 9 29 [ 9 59 { 8 50 [ 7 75 [ 9 00 [ 9 30 [ 9 4t ] 9 49 Apprenlices.....................................I 4 50 [ 5 41 I 5 25 /..........] 4 67 I 5 35[ 4 33 [ 4 00 [ 4 00 I 4 25 ] 4 68 ] 4 75 ~liilwrights.......................................] 18 00 I.......... ]..........]..........[..........[ 16 6'2]. 15 00 [ 14 50 {..........[ 18 00 [ 16 50 / 16 37 Assistants....................................].........[..........[..........[..........[..........] 8 ~~5[ 8 00 [ 7 75 ]..........]..........[ 8 00 [ 8 00 ]3vass-t'ounders....................................[ 21 00]...........]..........{........../..........] 13 28] 17 00 [ 14 00 ]..........~..........[ 19 00 [ 13 64 Izitters...............:............................[..........]..........]..........[ 15 00 ] 14 50 [ 14 57 [ 16 00 [ 14 00 [..........]..........I 15 25 / 14 5~ ~ u r I i i 3oo oo/;I oo1..............................................'_'':I::.....:-...........I......'-:l......:' ~........:....:'"'....~..... IIours of htbor per week............................~.-~.. — 6-0..~.-~..' —— ~..~....-~-._ —-~-..~.-~.. 60-..~~.~. —— 6-0-..~.'.-~.. 56.~-5 i IRON-FOUNDERIES AND MACIIINE-SIIOPS. Average rates of weekly wages paid in the iron-Fouvderies and M/achine-Shops in the, Western States in the respective years 1869 and 1874. Ohio. Indiana. Illinois. Michigan. Minnesota. Wisconl- Iowa. Missouri. Average in Westsin, ern. States. O c c u p a tio n. - _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1869. 1874. 1869. 18714. 1869. 1874. 1869. 1874. 1869. 1874. 1869. 1874. 1869. 1869. 1874. Iron-mnolders-..............$16 47 $13 10 $15 00 $14 79 $18 00 $17 34 $16 50 $15 00 $16 00 $16 50 $14 66 $14 25 $18 59 $16 37 $1.5 16 Machin~iStS, (best.) -........18 04 11 38 15 00 16 33 18 10O 17 52 16 50 18 00 18 00 18 90 18 67 15 75 18 66 17 62 16 98 Machinisits, (ordinary)..........14 30 11 08 ii 00 13 26 14 50 13 98 12 33 15 00 15 50 16 50 14 27 1i 25 15 33 13 76 13 51 Machinists, (i nferior)..........1059 667'L0 tO 12 00 1-2 00 11 20 6 00...... 9 00 13 88 11 50 6 75 12 00 10 14 10 10 Machinists, (helpers)..........10 42 950 9 00 9 30 900 931...... 9 00 9 00 12 00 9 70 7 00 10 66 946 935 toiler-ma-kers..............17 50 1500.. —— 16 02 —--— 17 30..........18 00 18 75.. —--- 1800....... 17 75 17 01 Hel~pers...............10 72 —2. ------- 940. 11 50......... 12 00 11 25....... 1200...... 1136 11 04 Z Itiveters.1635...............1. 1325 —----— 132.1800-.S...........................1635.........15036 5 156 Fiangers................18 00 ---------- 168 So 21 75.......... 1950....................... 31875 19 28 Belpers............... 948. —-------- 9 00.. —— 1170..12 00. —--------------------- 1074 10 35 Blackismiths...............17 63 14 25 14 00 17130 15 75 15 39 14 25......1.800 19 00 17 50 18 00 17 43 16 37 16 83 Helpers...............10 33 888 9 00 8 8:1 1112 10 41 9 15 9 75 11 00 12 00 9 33 10 50 10 84 10 19 10 06 C74 Foremen.2............... 3 59 -23 87.. —— 2248 21 50 24600..... 24 00 22 50 21 75 21 50 26 00 27 63 23:'14 23 78 24 lEigincers................12 61 11 05.. —— 10 33.. —— 1400......12 00......16 50..3 —-- 200 168St 14 71 1-265 Pattern-makers and carpenters ---— 16 (64 14 67 14 25 16 79 15 37 17 61 17 50 16 50 18 00 18 38 14 29 16 50 19 71 16 53 16 74 H Assistants.............15 50. —------— 900 9 37 10 38 9 75 9 00 9 00 ---- - 1028 9 00 11 00 10 81 935 LT Laborers, arters............1034 8 33 —---- 8 63.. —— 10 48......10 50- -.... 975...... 870 —--- - 1034 940 Ajpprentices............... 497 5 50.. —-- 4 67 7 00 664.. —-- 4 00- -....9 75 6 06 6 00 5 10 5 76 609 M illwrig-hts.2..............100 21 00.. —-25 09......17 25... —----— 24 00..... 2200 15 50 18 00 21 25 19 69 Assistants............1803......1350.......s.. —-—.3.. 1350-. —------—. ——. 1500 — 350............ 150 Brass-founders..................12 00..18 — I 00.... —--------— 13 50 19 50.. 18 — i 00 16 50 18 00 18 50 15 00 H Turners.....................12 00.. —— 15 00................................. - 15 50 19 50.. 1 41 7 Hours of labor per week.6................j0 —- 60 58.... 60.... 57...... 60......... 59 1-6 IRON-FOUNDERIES AND MACIIINE-SIIOPS. Average rate of weekly Wages paid in the Iron-Founderies and Machine-Shops bin the Southern and Pacific States in the year 1874, and the general average in)' the lVo'itcd Stutes. 4-I~~~~~~~~~Occupation. iC o a CS 0 ~ i C-5 CC UD C5 C, C, Iron-molders.. -........$17 00 $13 25 $20 62- $2-1 00 $tL 50 $16 25 1588S $18 00 -21 00 $-20 2 5 $17 88 - ~400 $24 00 $41200 $36 CO 31 oO $1)0 04 MATclhinists, (best) --- ---— 17 00 17 00 29 25 18 75 lo 00 19 75 13 50 18 00 2!1 00 23 50 1 9 ~28',14 60 27 00 49 00:36 00 31 00 210 03 M1tchinists, (ordinary).. -....13 50 11 00 15 00 12 5.... 14 75 1-2'25 15 00 18 00 15 50 14 19 2-2 50 -24 C0 38 00 24 00 27 12 16:37 N.acibinists, (inferior)-8..-. 25 9 00 12 75 10 00 ---— 15 00 10 00 12 00 112 0 ) 10 00 1 1 00 10 50 18 (0 - 18... I 00 18 50O 12 27 Machinists, (helpers)-...... 7 00 8 17 10 00 75 —--- 6 00 6 13 600 10 00 14 00 8:34 1400O 1) 00 28 00 18 00 18 7) 10 "0 Boileir-makeis-8 —-—....16 50 15 00 19 5 0 18 60.- 24 —- 00 17 00 1 850 —--- 26925 19 42 2117 24060:33 00 ----- 2625 3)8~7 Relpeiss-.......... 9 75 ---— 1000 9 75 - 0.... 600 625 600 -.....15 0(1. 896 1PtS1 13500 21 00 -.....1725 1100O Ilivetens-................13 00 1 5 00 15 00 - 15 00 -.....18 00 ---— 211)0 16 17 2i 75 24 00 2 8 00 -.... 24.58 1 7 200 ilolders-on - 1........I050 10 00 1 000 7 00........ 91)3. ----- 600 -....1 500 9614 13500 15 00 24 00 - 1....I81)00 1199 huars-1.............. 21.0)) 12 00 19 50 24 00 -.....1500 -.....1800 ---— 2400 19 0- 24 00 27 00 --------- 2550 20 07 Helpers -...........1050 90C3 1000 7 00 -(1 —- 600 —-— 12 00.....1500 9 9315 OO 1500 -------— 150C,0 10 92. 131acksuun ii hs -........10 50 14 25 16 50 19 50 12 00 15 00 1 5 25 1 9 50 2 1 00 25 (10 1 7 45) 2.1 30 200 49 00 24 00 30 88 I~ -( 2 HecjuOs -_-........ 8 17 9 00 9 25 7 70 7 00 1138 625 12 50 12 00 14 58 19 2 a 1 4511 b 0 27 00 18 00 18. 63 I114 1 Foreern............. 19 50 22 66 25 00 27 50 ---— 2400!28 00 35 00 30 00 30 00 ~26 8) ~3 30 50 50 48 27 75 Engineers-18.......... S00 13 33 9 75 13 50 ------ 18 00 28 0(1 12 00 16 50 18IS00 16 34 19113..... 270C,0 2500' 2:3 78 16 05 I atttri a akers and carpentCers 15 75 16 50 16 75 18 00 13 50 17 00 15 75 19 5 0 1 6 5)) 24 00 1 7:32 ~23 75 1.4 00 4 2 00 36 00 3 1 43 1 9 40 AsAstants -......... 8 00 1 800 9 50 8 25. —..-. 12I,00 1-2 00 12 00 1 050 -.._-!11 2 8 1 630 F_.. 35 00 ---- 25!75 1:1376 Laborers carters, &c..-... 6 00 8 50 950 7 00 600 6000 550 11 50 7 5( 12 75 8 0)2 10 73 13500 ~800 181)0 1 84 4 1 09 8 A pprentices-......... 488 5 00 5 00 3 00 6 00 5 00 500 600 5 00 6 00 5 (1 " 00 20 —-— 12 92 6098 Milwroh~ts-..................20 (0 30 00 -.... 24 00 18 75 18 00 -.....2 700 22 96 30 00.....4-200 36 00 36 00 2-9258 A8sistan ts-.................1 5 00 2 0 00...-. 12 00...-.. 1 2 0 0...-. 18 1)0 1 5 -10 1 950-............ 19) 50 1 4 48 Brass-founiders-................. 1 9 50 20 00.-.... 1 8 00 12 50 1 8 00 -.....21 00 1 8 3 7 24 0 0...... 42) 01) —-— 3:1 0(1 19 31 Fitterss-.............13 50 1 800 18 00. - 1...I800 -.....18 00 ---—. ------ 1 7 10 2:250 ----- 49 00 ---— 3575 181.42 Tusners -.......18 00 12 0 S00 18 00 18 --- s00 ----- - 1800 ----------— 18,00 -24 00 21,00 49 00 ~......31 33 17 98 lours of labor per week...... 60 58 60 54 60 59 55 59 0 60 58' 60 60 el0 60 60 903-10 LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 765 SCELLANEOS IRON AND STEEL MAkNUFACTURES. Table shoing the average weekly wages of persons employed in iron and steel works in Pittsburgh, Pa., in the year 1874. [Averag hours of labor per week, 54.] Occupation. Wages. Occupation. Wages. c3 _~ ~IRON-WORK~S~. IRON-WORKS-Continued. Manaer —........ $28 00 2 Catchers.......................... $14 70 I Shipping-clerk -15 00 2 Roughers-up...................... 15 00 1 Ml-e200 4 Straighteners..................... 4 80 1 Weigh-master —... 6 00 2 Shearmen......................... 10 00 1 Forge-carpenter -21 10 2 Bundlers.......................... 10 50 2 Blacksmiths.... 1575 2 Heaters........................... 23 C0 4 Niht-watchmen - -.12 75 2 Stockers........................... 9 30 1 Master-engineer -. 28 00 2 Draggers-down.................... 10 00 3 Assistant engineers - -....15 00 1 Machinist- - 21 00 STEEL-WORKS. 6 Steel-shear-men -.13 50 1 Converter......................... 1 00 70 Common laborers - - 8 40 1 Helper............................ 9 00 2 Ore-stokers --.11 25 2 Breakers.......................... 9 00 4 Ash-wheelers - -.10 50 3 Scrap-shearers.................... 7 50 3 Metal-stockers -19 25 2 Steel-melters...................... 63 00 44 Boilers, (pddlers)20 35 8 Helpers........................... 15 76 44 Helpers......12 60 1 Gasproducer...................... 15 75 2 Muck-rollers......30 25 1 Ingot-inspector................. 1... 0 00 2 Ronhers-down - -.14 00 1 Weigher.......................... 10 00 2 Catchers -.......... 12 90 2 Cogging-hammer men............. 30 00 2 Helpers —.....12 90 2 Helpers............................ 12 00 2 Hookers-tip —.. 8 25 2 Heaters........................... -15 00 2 Draggers-out —..13 75 1 Eni gineer.......................... 9 00 2 Weighers —.....22 00 1 Finishin-hammer man............ 42 00 2 Shear-men —....10 50 1 Helper............................ 15 00 1 Bar-roller........39 00 2 Inspectors......................... 12 00 2 Bar-roller heaters...........29 09 1 Manager —............. 20 00 1 Rougher —.............19 50 1 Catcher —..............22 00 STEEL-MILLS. 1 Helper —..............14 40 2 Stockers. —.. —........... 10 00 1 Hooker-up —............10 00 2 IHeaters.........18..... i 09 1 Stocker —..............11 10 2 Helpers —............. 10 50 I Dragger-down - -...........11 10 2 Hol lers-.............. 44 00 2 Pullers-up.................. 2 70 2 Helpers —.............. 10 50 2 Straighiteners —...........11 10 2 Catchers —............. 16 50 2 Shear-men —.............10 50 2 Helpers —.............. 10 1150 1 Weigher — 3............ 2 60 2 Heavers-up —............. 9 00 2 Guide-mill rollers..... - -.......30 00 4 Straighteners —.......... l. 1 50 2 Roughers-down - -..........15 60 1 Shear-man —............. 18 00 Table showisg the average weekly wages of per-sons employed in steel-works in Pittsburgh, Pa., in the yeay- 1872. [Hours of labor per week, 60.] a ~~~~~Occupation. Wages. ~t ~Occupation. Wages. 1-2 Steel-mnelters.............$47 83 1 Engineer — $.............024 00 306 Helpers —..............17 55 4 E ngineer's helpers - -........ 13 87 1 Machinist, best.. -.........18 00 1 Converter-.............. 24 00 4 Machinists, ordinary - -.......15 00 1 Pattern-maker and carpenter- -... 18 00 1 MJachinist, inferior - -........10 75 3 Assi stants........... -.... 14 88 6 Puddlers-............. 34 33 130 Lahorers, capt-trs. &c., (men)- -.... 11 53 6 Puddlers' helpers..- -.......22 00 25 Apprentices, (hoys) - -........ 5 00 8 Rollers —..............43 75 2 Gas-makiers —............ 19 00' 10 Heaters-.............. 33 01) 4 In spectors —............. 12 00 395 Rollers' helpers.. -.........27 50 4 Shear-men.. —........... 18 00 10 Hjamnmer-meon —...........36 80 1 Millwright -...-.......... 24 00 22 Hammer-mncus helpers, (men aud 2 Assistants —............. 18 00 bo)ys) — 2............ 9 18 1 Roll-turner —............ 22 00 1 Blaicksih -1 0 1 Rail-turner's helper, (boy)-..... 10 00 13 Bla:c.'srniths' helpers -........ 10 50 - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 766 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing the average weekly wages of pC ns employed in the Ne al ondery (forges and Bessemer pig-iron) in iarrisburgh, Pa. Occupation. Wages. Occupation. Waes. Clerk..................................... $12 00 Keepers' helpers 08 Foreman or founder...................... 28 00 ]Fill-9 45 Eniineer................................. 17 36 Iron-weher10 1 Engineer's ssistant...................... It 97 Carters 7 56 Blacksmith............................... 12 18 Laborers7 3 Carpenter................................ 1$ 18 Cons9 7 lKeepers.................................. 11 97 NoTE.-All the above wages, except clerk's, blacksmith's, carpenter's, and coutors', are calculate at 7 days per week, which furnacemen usually make. The exceptions are calculated at 6 days per week. Table showing the average weekly wages of persons employed by the Corrugated Iron Company of Chicago,. [Hours of labor per week, 60.] Occupation. Waes. Occupation. Wages. Iron-shutter makers..................... $18 00 Apprentices or boys5 00 Engineers................................ 18 00 Foremen or overseers. 00 Laborers or unskilled workmen..........- 9 00 Table showing the average weekly wages of persons employed in -alleabl iron-fitting work in Branford, Con. [Hours of labor per week, 60.] Occupation. WagesOccupation. Wages. Iron-molders, including apprentices -.....$13 00 Foremen....- $19 00 ALlachiuists, best-............19 25 Engineers —................ 13 50 M achinists, ordinary ----------— 15 00 Patternu-makers and carpenters- - 18.... i 00 Machinists, inferior, attending tapping- Asasistauts —................ 13 00 machines-................11 00 Laborers, carters, &c —........... 9 60 Boys -------------------- 4 50 Boys and girls, making cores......... 5 00 HARDWARE MAMJFACTORIES. Table showing the average weekly wages of persons employed in hardware-manufactor-ies i Connecticut in, the years 187-2 and 1874. Wages in- Wages inOccupation. Occupation. 1872. 1874. 1872. 1874. Molders, iron -...........$13 75 $15 00 Press-workmen - —............$12, 00.Apprentices.. -.......... 9 00 ----— Rollers -—................ 16 50 1-olders, brass ---------- ---- - 18 00 Welders.................. 1500o (Cupola-tenders - —........... 12 00 Jointers.................... 13 50 Annealing-furnace tenders- —.......12 00 Stampers.............. —... 11 25 Filers -—................. 9 75 Graduators -—.............. 15 00 J,Tapanners - - -3.............. 3 50 Finishers...............- 13 69 12 00 Forgers ------------- ---- - 18 00 Pattern-makers - -.........20 93 24 00 I felpers —---------------- - I I 00 Carpenters —................ 15 00 G'rinders —---------------- - 11 00 Trip-hamumer men - —............ 18 00 Polishers - —.................13 50 Fitters-np -—.............. 12 tO Turners - —................12 00 Screw-cutters - —.............. 15 00 M"achinlists, (best)-.........21 75 18 66 Blac'ksmiths —...........17 25 15 00 Mfachinists, (ordinary)-.......15 00......Helpers —.............12 00 9 75 Engineers-.............15 75 13 66 Foremen —...........*18 00 19 00 Furnrace-men-_ae; —--------- - 1:1 50 Apprentices or boys- —...... 5 78 6 00 Laborers and cres —----— 10 00 9 00 Girls and women - -........ 5 87 4 50 Pctckers-..............13 73 13 50 I Brass-founders -..........15 43..... 1)ie-rniakers —................ 18 00 ITurners-.............11 10..... * And upward. LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 767 Tae ho g the average week earnigs of persons employed on brass and tinners' hardware in Meride,, Conn. [Hours of bor per week, 60.] Occupation. Wages. Occupation. Wages. Machinists — $.......... 1 00 Engineer and helper.................... $37 50 rop-en —................15 00 Spelter-casters........................... 20 00 Press-men —......... 18 00 Men in rollin-mill....................... 12 o Press-girls — 7........... 50 1Foremen of rooms........................ 2) 00 iderers, (girls) — 7....................... 50 Superintendent...........-.. -........ 40 00 diary-wo-k girls —---- - 6 00 Die-sinkers.-..-......... ——... 33 00 f!..........................~~~.. able oing the average weekly wages of persons employed in iron and brass works in Chicago, Ill. [Hours of labor per week, 60.] Occupation. Wages. Occupation. Wages. Blacksmiths —.........$18 24 Painters.... —............................. $14 70 Cabinet-makers —..17 64 Pattern-makers.......................... 16 50 Carpenters............. 16 74 Steam-fitters............................. 17 34 Finhers, brass —--- -- - 14 64 WVelders, pipe............................ 14 76 Machinists-......-. 16 32 Engineers................................ 18 72 Masons —------ -- -18 G66 Laborers................................. 10 44 Molders, gray-iron -.17 54 Apprentices............................. 5 40 olders, alleable-iron -1-2 12 Foremen................................. 25 80 Millwrights —................21 78 Table showng the average weekly wages of persons employed in the umbrella-frame mantifactory in 7New York City. [Hours of labor per week, 59.] Occupation. Wages. Occupation. Wages. Machinists —................$521 0 O Grinders —................. $5 00 Sti-etchier-hands —.............. 600 Frame-mak-ers ------ --------- 12 00.Molders -------- ---------— 20 00 Japanners -................. 9 00 Tiunners and notebers - -..........18 (30 Packers-................. 10 00 Cap and ferrule, makers - -..........15 00 Labelers —................. 5 00 Rib-ma!Kers-................. 500 IE n_(seers —................ 25 00 Panchers and tippers —........... 500 Laborers - -------------- ----- -14 00 Harde-ners —................ 6 00 Apprentices —............... 7 00 Temperers ---------------- - 600 Foremen -.................. 35 00 SpIringers and testets —........... 500 Watchmen and carmen —.......... 15 00 LTipt )per s- ------------------ 7 00 Book-keeper-................ 25 00 Drillers-.................. 6 00 Table showing the average weekly wages of persons employed in corset-steel works in Newv Haven, Conn. Occupation. Wages.4.C Z Occupation. Wa~ges 1 Overseer-.............$30 00 1 Japan-carrier-............ $12 0', 1 A ssistant -----------— 90 n 5 Japan-dippers ----- ------- 4'50 2 Steel-temiperers...........1 5 00 80 Press-hands —............ 4 50 I Steel-temperer's assistant-......10 00 8 P~ackers —.............. 5 00 I Steel-cuitters ------------- -750 30 Pesters — j —---------- 4 00 31 Furnacwe-boys-........... 6 00 140 Kid-sewers-............. 30 I Japa-n-overseer - -..........18 00 768 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table shoving the average daily wages of po'sons employed in a bank-lock fJctory in Stamford, Conn., in the year 1872. [Hours of labor per week, 60.] Occupation. Wages. Occupation. Wages. MI:achinists, best................... $3 00 to $4 00 Engineers........................ $2 5) I-chinists, ordinary.2............. 2 25 to 3 00 Pattern-makers and carpenters. $4 50 to'2 50 -Machinists, inierior........... 1 50 to 2 25 LLaborers, carters, &c.............. 1 50 to 2 00 achinists' helpers -............... 1 00 to 1 50 Apprentices..................... *70 to 1 5.) Blacksmiths...................... 3 50 Brass-founders................... 2 75 to 4 00 Blacksmiths' helpers..............1 75 * Apprentices receive 70 cents per day for the first year, 90 cents for the second, $1.15 for the thild, and $1.50 for the fourth. Table showing the average weekly wages of persons employed in iron-safe maanufactorics in Cincinnati, Ohio, in the year 1872, and in Chicago, Ill., in the year 1874. [-Hours of labor per week, 60.] Wages in- Wages inOccupation. Occupation. Cincinnati in Chicag(o Cincinnati in Clhicao -1872. in 1874. 1872..in 18i4. Machini3ts, best........ $20 00 to $5 00.-. Engineers............. $16 00 $15 00 Machinists, ordinary... 15 00to 20) 00 $15 00 Pattcrn-nmakers and M achinists. inferior._ 12 00 to 15 00......- - car enters.......... $20 00to 25 00 18 00 M]achinists' helpers. 10 09 to 12 00... Assistants............. 12 00 to 15 00......... ]lacksmiths........... 20 00 to 25 00 12 00 Laborers, carters, &c.. -....... —- - 9 t)0 Blacksmiths' helpers.. 12 00 to 15 00..... Apprentices........... 3 00to 8 00 5 (10 lForemen............... 25 00to 30 00 38 50'Turners............... 15 00to 20 00...... Table showing the average weekly wages of persons employed in scale-making and steam-heatitg wortks in Chicago, ill. [HIours of labor per week, 60.] SCALE-MAKERS' WORKS. STEAM-HEATING WORKS. Occupation. Wages. Occupation. WVages. Scale-makers............................. $18 00 Foremen................................ $30 00 Beam-makers............................. 20 00 Fitters....................................18 00 Blacksmiths........... ------—. 15 00 Fitters' helpers......................... 12 0,3 Carpenters................................ 15 00 Carpenters............................... 18 00 Laborers.................................. 10 00) Masons.................................. 18 00 Apprentices.............................. — 4 00 Engineers................................ 15 W0 ioremen.................................. 30 00 Blacklsmiths............................. 12 00 Gas-fitters-................ 18 00 Sheet-iron workers-............ 15 00 Coppersmiths —...............21 00 Apprentices-............... 5 80 Blacksmiths —...............21 01) LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 769 Table showinq the average weekly wages of persons ewployed in a nail-mill in Belleville, Ill. [Hours of labor per week, 60.] Occupation. Wages. Occupation. Wages. Nailers -..................- $35 00 Hookers-up.............................. $12 00 Feeder................................. —8 00 raggers-out............................ 12 0 Boiler s R...................... 30 CO................................Rouhr 18 00 First helpers.............................. 15 00 Shovers-under.......................... 12 00 Second helpers - -60 in r74....... E r.................... 6............................. 17 40 eaters................................... 35 00 Laborers.............. 10 00 Heaters' helpers.......0................ 1 Apprentices........................ 2 40 Slhear-menu.............................. 25 00 Foremen................................ 35 00 Rollers................................... — 40 00 Mason and helper........................ 18 0o C atchers.................................. 20 00 Table showing the average weekly wvages of persons employed on the Marine Railway, Madison, Ind. [Hours of labor per week, 60.] Occupation. Wages. Occupation. Wages. Ship-carpenters........................... $18 00 Teamsters.............................. $10 00 Calkers......,18 00 Engineers............................... 18 00 Bolters....................... 15 00 Laborers.................. 00 Blacksmiths.............................. 18 00 Apprentices.......-...................... 4 00 Joiners......-.. 15 00 Foremen.......................... 22 50 Mill-hands................................ 12 00 Table showing the average weekly wages, of persoes employed in bridge and car works in Chi — cago, Ill. [Hours of labor per week, 60.] uL Occupation. Wages.. 15 Machinists.......................................................-... $15 50 to $18 00 $[1075 20 Drillers............................................................. 9 60 to 12 00 10 80 10 Bolt -ctters -—.................. 8 40 to 10 50 9 45 5 First-class blacksmiths.............................................. 15 00 to 16 50 15 75 25 Blacksmiths' helpers................................................ 9 50 9 50 30 First-class carpenters -15 00 15 00 50 Second-class carpenters............................................. 13 50 18 50 20 First-class helpers.................................................. 12 00 12 00 30 Second-class helpers................................................. 9 00 9 00 5 Pattern-makers..................................................... 15 00 to 16 50 15 75 1 Engineer-......................................................... 18 00 to 20 00 19 00 75 Laborers or unskilled workmen...................................... 9 00 to 10 50- 9 75 20 Apprentices or boys.................................................. 4 00 to 6 00 5 00 10 Foremen or overseers................ 15 00 to 29 00- 22 00 49 L 770 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. IRON-SHIP BUILDING. Average rate of wages (per wick of 60 hours) paid to persons employed in the ship-building yard and iron-works of Messrs. W. Cramp 4 Sons, Philadelphia, at the close of 1874. ENGINEERING AND BOILER WORKS. SHIP-BUILDING YARD.. _ ~ s Occupation. Wages. Occupation. Wages. Machinists: 16 Best........................ $18 00 16 Fitters........................... $17 00 24 Ordinary.................... 15 00 7 Helpers.......................... 9 00 17 Interior.................... 12 00 5 Angle-iron smiths................ 18 00 23 Helpers......................... 10 50 12 Helpers.......................... 10 00 58 Pattern-makers and joiners. - 16 50 14 Ship-smiths...................... 18 00 23 Engine-fitters..................... 16 00 22 Helpers.......................... 10 00 33 Biacksmiths -16 50 115 Riveters-. 13 oO 6 Apprentices —::"..'.......... 4 00. 12 00 47 Laborers........................ 9 00 68 Holders-on....................... 10 50 21 Riggers.......................... 10 50 125 Rivet-boys....................... 4 00 67 Boiler-makers.................... 13 50 28 Calkers.......................... 11 00 115 Riveters and eslkors ------------- 13 50 14 Drillers.......................... 10 50. 12 CO 47 Joiners.......................... 16 00 68 Holders-on....................... 10 50 3 Apprentices..................... 4 00 Flangers......................... -22 00 11 Pattern-makers -------- ---------- 16 50 125 Rivet-boys....................... 4 00 57 Machinists....................... 16 00 229 Laborers and helpers............ 9 00 70 Carpenters....................... 18 00 4 Foremen, (engineer, &c.)........ 30 00 20 Painters......................... 15 00 9 Foremen, (sundry)............... 25 00 21 Riggers.......................... 10 50 229 Laborers......................... 9 00 6 Carters.......................... 10 00 Furnace-men..................... 10 50 13 Foremen......................... 25 00 885 Average................... 14 0O 903 Average-12 42 Average rate of wages (per week of 60 hours) paid to persons employed in the ship-building yard and iron works of Messrs. Pusey, Jores 4- Co., Wilmington, Del., at the close of 1874. ENGINEERING AND BOILER WORKS. SHIP-BUILDING YARD. Occupation. Wages. Occupation. Wages. _Yachinikts: Fitters................................. $12 00 Best. -- $17 00 Helpers................................ 8 00 Or-dinary —...................... 14 50 Angle-iron smiths...................... 16 00 IOfrdinary -.............. - 11 00 Helpers -85 Inferior............................ 1 0 Hles................................ 8 50 Helpers........................... 7 50 Ship-smiths............................ 15 00'Pattern-makers and joiners............. 14 50 Helpers................................ 850 Turners............................... 15 00 Riveters............................... 10 00 Engine-fitters........................... 15 00 Holders-on............................. 8 50,Blacksmiths- - 13 00 Rivet-boys............................. 3 00 H-ammer-m1n, (at steam-hammer)....... 20 00 Calkers................................ 15 00 Millwriohts.............................. 13 00 Drillers................................ 10 00 Apprentices*-....... —........................... Joiners................................. 13 50 Laborers --------------- ----------------- 7 50 Appren tices*-.......................... Brasssbounders —----- -------- 14 50 Cauinet-makers.. —.......... 15 00 Foondery dre ssers —........... 7 50 Paitern-makers —............ 14 50 Fonndery laborers...................... 7 50 Block-makers..........: 50 Brass-finishers.......................... -14 00 Mact-ast........................ini..-13 50 Copperselths........................ 13 50 Carpenters........................ 16 00 Cranen.h................ I 7 50 Boat-bolders -. 12 00 Riggers -----------.... 13 00 Iron-finishers —.............. 13 50 Boiler-makers. —------.... 12 50 Brass-finishers-.............. 14 00 Riveters and calkers.......... i 00 Mechianics- 14 00 Holders-on —............... 9 00 Plnmbers —............... 15 00 Flangers —------ ---------- 17 00 TiDsmiths -................ 12 50 Blacksmiths —----- --------- 13 50 Painters-................ 12 50 Rivet-boys --------------- 3 25 Red-le-aders —.........10 50 Laborers and helpers —.......... 7 75 Riggers —................ 13 00 Foremen, (engineer, &c.f)- - —............Laborers —................ 800 Foremen, (sundry t) - - —...............Clarters,.................... 800 Furnace-men —............. 8 75 Average, including laborers and___ apprentices ----- ------- 11 00 Average -.............. 9 50 *Taken for a term of 5 years-lst year, $2 per week; 12d year, $3; 3d year, $4; 4th year, $5; 5th year, $6. t$100 and $125 per'month. -+ $100 per month. LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 771 Averagerafe of wages (per week of 60 houtrs) paid in 1874 to persons employed in the machine-shop, iron-ship yard, and car-works of the Harlan 4- Hollingsworth C'ompany, l'ilmington, Delaware. ~s~~ a Occupation. Wages. Leading articles produced. Machini.sts: 18 Best.............................................. $16 50 46 Ordinary......................................... 15 00 6 In rir........................................ 12 00 7 H elpers.......................................... 8 50 8 Boiler-makers...............-.................... 15 00 10 Helpers............................................ 8 50 30 Riveters.............................................. 15 00 15 Holders-on.......................................... 9 03 3 Flangers.............................................. 17 00 | Iron steamships. 8 Helpers........................ -.................... 9 00 I Iron stealilmboats. 20 Blacksmiths.......................................... 15 00 I Iron sailing-vessels. 20 Helpers............................................ 8 50 Engines. 80 I Iron-lull-builders..................................... 12 00 Boilers. 260 (-l- o................................................ 8 50 Tatnks. 15 Foremene............................................ Machine-work generally. 4 Engineers................... —............-............. 12 00 ICars of every description. 220 I Pattern-makers, car-builders, and ship-joiners........- 15 00 20 Assistants.......................................... 9 00 40 Laborers, carters, &c............................... -8 50 18 Apprentices..............-............................. 500 20 Painters.............................................. 15 00 60 Sliip-carpenters..............-.......................... 15 00 8 Millwrights........................................... 14 00 10 Assistants.......................................... 8 50 ) IRON-FOUNDERY AND MACHIINE SIIOP IN CALIFORNIA. Average rate of wages paid to persons emploqed in the Union Iron Foundery, in the city of San Francisco, California, in the year 1874. [Hours of labor per day, 10; 60 hours per week.] Weekly wagesI Occupation. W ags Leading articles. or earnings. Iron-molders -.......................................... $18 00 to $24 CO Engines; boilers; mining-maBest................................... 2 00 to 24 00 chinery. consisting olf hoist-'Machinits Olinary.............................. 18 00 to 21 00 ilug-works, quartz-mills, sa;wIln fei or................................ 15 00 to 18 00 mills, flour-mills,aniall kinds Helpers................................ 10 00 to 13 50 of heavy iron-work;for mill. Boiler-makers........................................ 18 00 to'21 00 iug antd mtanufacturing pur. Helpers........................................ 10 00 to 13 50 poses. IRiveter.s-........................18 00 to 21 00 liolders-on-......................12 00 to 13 50 Flaiigers-.......................24 00 to t27 00 Hepr...........................12 00 to 13 50 Blacksmiths —..................... I8 00 to 21 00 H~elpetrs-.......................12 0(110 to13.50 Foremon-........................30 00 to 36 00 Pattern -makers and carpenters............. 18 00 to 124 00 Assistants.......................1. 110 to 1:1 50 Laborers, &c.......................10 00 to 13 50 Approutices......................400 to 10 00 772 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA CLOTHING. Table 8howing the average weekly earnings of persons employed in the manufacture of clothing in the following States, in the year 1874.,E 4a 0 -~~~~~0e 05'. 0 ~ E Occupation. ~' ~ Head cutters for custom.clothing..... $40 00 $30 00!$40 00 25 00 $20 33. -$30 00 $18 00 $25 00 00 Cutters for ready-made clothing...... 21 50 20 00...... 12 00 18 75?*$3 50.... 12 00. 18 00 Bushelmen........................... 15 00 18 00 15 00 Id 00 10 00...... 14 00 140 15 00. Machine-operators.................... 800 8 00 7 00... 6 600 4 00 6 00 600. 6 00 Finishers............................. 800 7 70 6 00 6 00 10 00 2 50 2000 400 450 Laborers or packers.................. I 500 12 00... 10 00...... 3 50 10 00. 6 00 Apprentices or boys. 700 5 00 3 00...... 5 00 2 00. 300...... Ready-made clothing: On sack veoats {Fine...2..... 1 00 12 0u. 70............ r Cheap...................... 1-2 00 10 CO.. 600.......... Broadcloth frock.coats........................... 12 00 10 50..... 750............ Cassimere business-coats........................... 12 00 10 00.. 6........... Cassimere sack-coats............ 10 00 10 00.675............ Vests, woolen....................................... 3 00 4 75-.. 560............ Pantaloons, woolen......... 00 475...675............ Shrs.Muslin......................3 00...............400....... S i. Woolen................................... 3 00........................ Custom-made clothing: On sack overcoats.................................. 26 00 18 00............ 24 00...... Broadcloth dress-coats................. 25 00 15 51.......20 00....... Cassimere b'isiness-coats................ 2............ / 5 00 19 50............ 20 00. Cassimere sack-coats............................... 25 00 16 50............ 16 00 [. Vepts................................... 0............ 9 0 850..... 1500............ PFebut~aloons............................. ta.o.s...... 13 00 15...... 16....... 4a~~~~~~ C _0._.__~~~~~~~~~~~~ --....... Occupation. ID. a a. E lead cutters for custom-clothing $25 005$15 00535 00$40 50 $30 00 $25 00 $30 00 $20 00 $34 371$25 00 $28 34 Cutters fir ready-made clothing...... 12 00......1..... I8 00.............................. 15 08 Bushelmen........................... 15 00 15 00 15 00 11 00 15 00 25 00 15 00 2! 87...... 15 57 Machine-operators................... 800...... 15 00 6 00...... 25 00. 21 87...... 76 Finishers..................... 12...... 1200............ 1200... 25 00. 28 12. 1 22 Laborers or packers......... 10 00................ 18 75...... 10 66 Apprentices or boys......................... 3 00...10 00...... 4 75 Ready.made' clothing: Fine...... 10 33 On sack overcoats. iCheap................................................ 93...... 3...... 3: Broadcloth frock-coats.......................1.... 0 00 Cassimere business-coats...................................................... 9 33 Cassimere sack-coats.................................................................... 8 92 Vests, woolen................ 4 44 Pantaloons, woolen..... 4 83 Shirts.. Muslin......350 Woolen....................................................................... 3 00 Custom-made clothing: ~Sack overcoats..210225 Sakoecas............. t....................................................... 21 00 ~22 25 Broadcloth dress-coats....................................................l 00 20 38 Cassimere business-coats..... 18 00'o0 62 Cassimere sack-coats........................................................18 00 18 87 Vests............................ oo................... 001 12 62 Pantaloons.................1........8 00 15 69.............. LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 773 Table 8howing the rates paid to operatives in clothing establishmentS, for piecework, in 1874. a d~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~d Articles.' 00......0 00a Ready-made clothing:......... each.. $500 $400......$400 350.......... 0 Sackov s Cheap...each.. 300 200 - 200 275.. 225...... Broadcloth frock-coats............ each.. 4 50 4 00...... 03 0 4 00............ 375...... Cassimere business-coats......... each. -2 66 2 00...... 2 50 2 50............. 3oO...... Cassimere sack-coats............. each..`2 00 1 50...... 2 00 2 50 $0 25...... 225...... Vests. woolen..................... each.. 87 75...... 50 67 25...... 80...... Pantaloons, woolen............ per pair. - 94 75...... 35 67 15...... 75...... Shit.. ( Muslin::: per dozen- i 2 50 -i1 00 - 2 O00 t Ms-per dozen -5.. 0...... I........ i...... W oolen............ per dozen........!............ 2 50.......!............... ---- ------- Custom-made clothing: Sack overcoats.................... each-........ 8 O0 $10 00! 13 00 7 00 5 00$12 00- 9 00,$1t 00 Broadcloth dress-coats............ each........ 8 00 1-2 001 12 00 8 17 10 00 10 00 13 600 1'2 00 Cassimerebusiness-coats.......... each-........ 5 00 10 03 10 00' 6 33 5 00 8 50 10 00 8 00 Cassimere sack-coats.............. each - -- 5 00 8 00! 9 00 4 7.5 3 00 8 00 8 00 7 (0 Vests............................. each........ 1 50 200 1 50 1 42 1 00 1 50 2 50 3 00 Pantaloons.................... per pair-........ 2 00' 00' 2 25 1 87 2 50 2 00 2 75 3 0O Shirts, muslin................ per dozen-..................... -............ a ~ ~ ~~~~ —- ------- Articles. a - a a? - Ready-made clothing: Sack overcoats. 4 Che-.:..each.. $400 - - 250 - $600Sak vecots Cheap...eacli.. 1 25L:.....: - 1 50.-..-.....4 10'....- 2:34 Broadcloth frock-coats-each. - 4 50...- -....2 75..- -.....6 00' 4 0 4 Cassimere business-coats...each.- 1 50............ 00................ 2 5-2 Cassimere sack-coats....... each. 00............ 90............ 4 00 1 Vests, woolen - each.. 50-...........32 -. 2 0.11 ------ 74 Pantaloons, woolen.....per pair-. - 50....... - 70 - 1 501'70 Shirts.. Muslin...... per dozen-.. -.-........ 1 44 -- ----— ] 6 00K!::].`2 59 " Woolen.....per dozen............. 1 44.-.-4 — - 00 2...... 2 65 Custom-made clothing: Sack overcoats- -.......ea-ch..- 8 O0i $8 0 0 $6 00'10 001 $0 00 $9 00!$12 50 17 00 $10 00; 9 62 B-roadcloth dress-coats-. each.. 10 00 9 00 8 00 1000 1000 1-200I- 16 0014001088 Cassirnere business-coats.....each.- 4 501 7 00 7 00 8 00 7 00 8 00 10 00 13 00' 8 50 7 99 Cassimere sack-coats....... each. 4 00 6 75 5 50 6 00 7 00 7 50 10 0 It 00: 00 6 97 Vests...................... each.. 150 125 2 25 250 2 00 200 3 50 351 350 2 14 Pantaloons.............. perpair.. 2. 00 1 25 2 25 3 004 2 50 3 00.3 75 4.0.13.75 2 5 Shirts, muslin -.- per dozen1..0 00- 4 20- - -13 50- -9 23 LEATHER. Table showing the average weekly wages paid to persons employed in the manufacture of leather in the following States in the year 1874. P4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~d 4a a4~ ~ i i t i d i I Sole-leather. Tanners............-.$12 00.....$12 50. -.....$12 50 $15 00.1l 00 $15 00 $15 00.$13 28 Beamn-hands.. -......$10 00'10 00 $12 00 1-2 50 $10 00. -.14 50 15 00' 10 50' iS 0 18 00 12 75 Yard -833 1000 930 1203 900...... 10.00 900 750 1050 14 03 99 Ii1lers&spongers... 10 00...- 12 U 00 9 00 12 00. 17 50 15 00 8 f 0 16 50} 18 0i 13 16 Bark-grinders.... - 7 7 50 9 00 9 00 9 00 9 00....- 8 00 9 00{ 6 00 10 50 13 00 9 00 Common laborers.. 000 9001 8 001 9 501 8 00..... 9 50 9001 60 0 150 12 00 9 15 774 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Average weekly wages paid to persons employed in manufacture of leather, 4-c.-Continued. 7'i4~~~~~~P as Occupation. d 0.. ~o m Upper leather and calf-skin. Tanners............$12 00 - 1 50 $11 00 $12 00- -$1 2 50 $15 00$17 0013 00 Crers-1 $................5 00:$12 00 13 50'$13 50 13 00 12 0020'M 00 16 50 16 50 L21 00o 15 40 Splitters.......... 18 00...... 15 00 12 00 12 00............ 15 00 18 00 16 50 16 50 24 00 14 71) Shavers ----------- o...... - 1 0. 180 0015 12 - 1600 5 100 0 00 6 50 2300 1783 Table-hands, scourer's..-............. 10 00 10 00 10 00.....- 11 00 10 00 9 00 12 00 16 50 1500 1150:~I' S ~~~~~~~~~~2 0 00.,..,..,.-....-.... Blackers-0 1-0 0.............0.-....... 1....... 1100... 1 0 1-2 0 1650 1500 12 Finishers..........15 00 13 00 12............ 12 00 20 00 15 00 16 50 17 00 15 06 Morocco. patent and enameled leather. Tanners..................................................... 10 00............ 15 00......1 50 Beam-hands-...................-............ -.................. 14 00.-00....14....50 0..... 5 Shavers -1 —----—.-. ——.-. ——.-. ——.. —-—.. —-—.... l- 00......-...... 16 50...... 25 Sewing-girls................................................. 4 00............ 9 00.- 650 Finishers-.....-............. -................ 20 0............ 16 50......18 25 Colorers..................................................... 18 00 -16 50...... 17 25 Sheep-skins, ski-ers, d}~. Eugineers............... $8 00 12 00 11 25 10 00 12 00...... 16 00 15 00...... 13 50......227 Laborers or unskilled workmen -...... 9 00 9 00............ 7 50...... 9 25 9 00...... 10 50 12 00 946 Appreuticesorboys-............................. 4 50...... 5 004.................. 75...... Foienieu or overseers 13 00 12 C0 14 50...... 20 00...... 20 50 20 00......1800 BOOT AND SHOE FACTORIES. Table showing the average weeklq wages of persons employed in boot and shoe factories in the following States in the year 1874. Occupation. - a 0 Cntters --------------------------------.$24 00 $16 00 $18 00 $20 00 to $35 00 $21 37 Stock-fitters.........................................19 00 15 00 12 00 15 00 to 26 00 16 62 Sole-sewing-machine operators......................24 00 15 00 10 00................ 16 33 Other sewing-machine operators..................... 9 50 10 00........ 20 00 to 25 00 14 00 tasters..2............4........................... 24 00 10 00 - 20 00 to 25 09 18 83 Second lasters....................................... 24 00 10 00........................ 17 0') Heele2s............................................. 4 00................ -2 00 to 25 00 23 25 Trimmers........................................... 5 50 10 00........ 20 00 to 25 00 19 33 Burnishers.......................................... 24 00 10 00........ 20 00 to 25 00 18 83 Finishers............................................ 25 50 10 00 20 00 20 00 to 25 00 19 50 Hand-sewers................................................................ -25 00 to 30 00 27 50 Shoe-cleaners................................................ 1-2 00........ 2' 00 to 27 00 13 25 Packers -................................... 10 00................ 20 00 to 24 00 16 00 Laborers or unskilled workmen..................... 5018 50 Apprentices or boys................................. 6 00 5 005 00 to 15 00 7 00 Foremen or overseers............................... 35 00 20 O0........ 25 00 to 35 00 27 50 Crimpers............................................................. -20 00........................ Treers..............................20 00........................ Bottomers........................................................... 15 00................ --------- LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 775 TOBACCO. 2'able showing the average earnings of persons employed in, the tobacco-manufactories of the undermtentioned Stales ia the year 1874. New York. Delaware. Virginia. W. Virginia. Ohio. Indian,. Occupation. - I M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. FINE-CUT TOBACCO. Stripping. 0$4 00.$7 00 $3 75 $6 00 - $3 50 $3 00 Casing.. 1500.....C........ j 75.. - -.. i ------' ----—............. Cutting.............. 1..................... 6........................................... Dressind................... Grinding. 15 — -- - - 50. —- - - - -- -- - - -- - - - - - - - -- - --- - - - - -- r........ - -.............................................. Packing...................... 7 50.............. 7 00................... 9 00.................. Spreading........... 12 00 7 50........ - ------ ------ -...... Picking.............. 8 00.................... 8 25 4 25 12 00...... 7 00................. SMOKING. Cutting.. 6 75 C 37 6 00.............................. Grannultin.. 12 50.................... 6 75...... Laborers........................ 5.50...... 4 00......... $9'00...... SNUFF. Packing..1216'500 750.................................. La-borers..........1049...... 60......o.............................. Wisconsin. Iowa. Missouri, Kentucky. Louisiana. Georgia. Average. Occupation. -- _' M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. FLNE-Cur TOBACCO. Stripping...... $1 67*. $2 25 $2 25.. $333 $2 00....5 00 $5 00 $3.4 $3 60 Casing. 9. 00......9 00.. $9 00. 867 Li 00....7 50.. 8 99. Cutting......... 16. 1-.. 1 1 -0....120 00....1000. 1178 Dressing.... 900 30 00.. 9 50...... Grinding. 180(-... 00....10 00............... 13 1-2 Packing...... 833.. 4'1000..... 633.... 900.... 7 50...... 7 64 7'50 Spreading...... 450...... 00........ 450.... 500.. 6 00 7 50 Picking..............0..............100.. 4 37 SMOKING. Cutting...........................12 00................. 8 2!5 6 37 Granulating.............. 00....... 12 00.... 10 00................ 9 25....... Laborers........................ 7 50....:10 00................ 7 20. SNUFF. Packing.10..988...500 Paborers...::.::::'i....................................' 00........... 9 88 5 oo..Laborers......... 7o66.......... 1 5 750...... 7 02...... Children. 776G LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. CIGARS. Table showing the average earrings of persons employed in the manufacture of igar in the undermentioned States in the year 1874. Occupation. States. New Hampshire.....e.,0......Xwekl~~an; a - New Hampshire -Week-earnings. 16 00 $5 00.- - -7 00.. Ver York.............................. PWeekly a.rni.t Per 1,000 -900. Vermont.~~~~~~~~~~Weekly earnings.. 12 00 2 50............. Ves Jermont............................... Weekly earni New York ---— Per 1,000- 0. New....or............... — o —r —— Weekly earnings.. 17 50 7 10 17 00 23 50 New Jersey... Per 1000... 840 -.... Newi....Jersey -------. W. -W — -- eekly earnings 3 275.. 1500. Per 1,000.1075... Delaware............................... Weekly earnings. 655 225. 1400. Maryland....... Per 1,000.800. Mar yln.............................Weeklyearnings. 17 00. (Per 1,000.54. Ohio.................................... e - - - earni Ohio.~~~~~~~~~~~~Weeklyearnings.. 9 50 2 58 10 00 13 50 $5 50 _I~~~~ndiana.. Per 1,000..... 950.00 I.a............................... Weeklyearnings. 1000 300.. 1500. iPer 1,000.... 863. 10. ""io's............................Weeklyearnings_ 10 75 2 50 7 50 12 67. Per 1,000 1 0..... Winn a............................. Weekly earnings.. 12 75 37 25 20 00. Minnesota............................. Per 1,000.... 1025. Weekly earnings.. 11 00 3 00 - 2 5 1 8.. oPer 1,000..... 150. Arkansas....-. —------— *- Weeklyearnin.. 00 Arkn s a sPer 1,000...50........ Arkentsck.............................. Weekly earnings. 12 17 3 00. 17 00..00 Virginia..~~~~~~~~~~-W eekly earnings.. 130 17 a 00..... 1000. 0 WetVirginia.................Per 1.000.20. — II 2 3J.. Weekly earninggs.. 65 0 200 1500. 600 0 ----- egPer 1,000.. 5... Weekly earnin..gs.. 1 500v 35. 5... 6 Tennessee.(~~~~~~~~Per 1,000. 1 7.................. NothCaoin................Weekly earnings. 14 00 2500..... 2.......... Geouisiana.(................Por. 1,000-. -. II 16 00........... 15. —Weekly earnings.. 17 00 8 50 1000 2 50 3..00. California.(~~~~~~~Per 1,000. —--- 17................ Weekly earnings..- 17500 500. 100 U 000. 0 Avrae.................. (.Per 1.000..- -— 10 57 41..... 116. Average.~~~~~~~~~~~Weekly earnings. 12 15 13 54 19 25 15 65 7 25 FURNITURE. Table showing the average weeklyu~ uages of persons employed in furniture-manufactories in the following AStates in the year 1874. Occupation.' Cabiuet-makers........... $;6 00 $15 00 $15 75 $19 00 $16 00 $10 00 to $12 00 $15 45 Chair-makers................................10 00 to 12 00 Ii1 00 Carvers.10.........W —-------- 80 —--------------— 15 01 16 50 Turners...............16 00..........12 00 15 00 10 O0 to 12 00 13 50 Painters.............................. 10 00. —-----—. —-- 10 00 Upholsterers.............18 00 16 00 215 00.. —— 15 00 112 00 to 15 00 17.50 Varnaishers..............12 00 15 00 -------------- 12 (O0,to 15 00 13 50 Scroll-sawyers. —--------— 15 50 1Q....... g00......10 00 to 12 00 12. 16 Laborers and unskilled workmen.. 725 16 00 15 00 1000 16 00 6 O0 to 90 11It95 Apprentices or boys......... 4 50 3 50 5 00. —-- --— 3 00 16 00 Foremen or overseers..................25 00 -------—. ---— a... 25 00 LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 777 AGRICULTURAL-IMPLEMENT FACTORIES. Table 8howing the arerage weekly wages of persons employed in agricultural-im ries in the following States in the year 1874. Occupation. 0 5-C a ~~~~~~~~ Molders.......................... $22 50 $21 00........$18 00. 50 Machinists......................... $13 00to$21 00 12 87 18 00 $15 00....... 00 1637 Blacksmiths........................ 12 00 to 21 30 14 25 12 00 13 50 $15 00 15 00 14 54 Blacksmith's helpers............... 9 00 9 75 10 50 9 00 8 00 7 00 8 Gri.ders......................................... 10 00 10 50 13 50... 11 33 Wood-workers..................... 12 OOto 15 00 15 75 13 50 16 0012 00 14 15 Plow-makers....................................................... 00 18 00 15 0 0 Pattern-makers.................... 18 00........ 15 00. 12 00 15 00........ 12 00 Cpeters......................... 12 00 to 15 00 14 63 13 50........ 12 0 0 1440 ainters......................... 12 00 to 15 00 12 15 12 0 12 00 7 00 9 00 1325 Engineers........................ 15 00 16 00 15 00 12 00 15 00.14 60 Watcmn......................................... 9 6......... 12 00 9 00......00 Teamsters.................................................. 10 50 9 005 00 8 1....6 Laborers or unskilled workmen... 9 00 9 50 900 8 00 7 00 5 7 91 Apprentices or boys...............6 00 5 50........ 600 5 005...o5 12 Foremen or overseers..............- 30 00 2 00 24 00 18 00 15 0 00 2200 GLASS-WORKS. Table showing the average weekly wages of persons employed in the windowgas works of M rs. Thomas Wightman 4- Co., in tthe city of Pittsburgh, Pa., in the year 1874. [Hours of labor per week. 60.] Occupation. Wages. Occupation. Wages. Glass-blowers, window............$30 00 Packers.....................$10 50 Vial-blowers —............... 25 00 Blacksmiths................ 25 00 Assistants, window-glass blowers'-..... 20 00 Carpenters................ 12 00 Batch-mixers..................10 50 Dem ijohn-coverers............. 12 00 Master teazes..................25 00 Skilled l)oys................ 6 00 Assistant teazers............. 12. tO Lahorers or unskllled workmen...... 10 50 Pot-makers.................25 00 Apprentices or boys............ 10 00 Assistant pot-makers - -...........10 50 Foremen or overseers-...........33 33 Table showing the, average weekly wages paid to persons employed in, glass-works in Berkshire,.Mvssachusetts. [Hours of labor per Week, 60.] an-. acuptin.Waes bt bLcupton ags a Occupation. Wages. 30'Blowers —..............$25 00 10 Pot-makers'Ind workers in pot30 Gat'herers...............16 00 room-...............$10 00 6 Flatteners...............30 00 2 Engineers............... -12 00 9 Cutters.............-.....8 00 10 Laborers or unskilled workmen _. 9 00 3 Master teazers........... 25 0.) 8 Apprentices or. boys-........ 8 00 6 Sub~eazers..............13 00 2 Foremen or overseers.......... - 25 00 NOTE.-The p~rincipal impediment to the snccessftil competition with the Belgian mannftcturers is the uiwillittgness of theemploy6s to act indlepenident oftrades-unions. We are isolated, befing theonly estahlizsbment for- Wtndow-glass in New England, but our men are controlled by a union ruled in Pittsburgh. Otr men will not do what the Belgian workmen do, and it is impossible for us to turn out more than 75 per cent. as much product as tlkey do. 778 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing the average monthly wages of best window-glass blowers in Pittsburgh, Pa. Occupation. Wages. Occupation. Wages. Large double glass, say............ $250 to $300 Best gatherers................... $120 to $140 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~$10to $14 Second c'ass, or, rather, single Second-class gatherers........... 100 strength: Best fihtteners................... 175 to 200 Blowers of best............... 150 to 175 Master teazer.................... 150 Second-rate same............. 125 to 150 Second teazers................... 130 Third-ratesame............... 100 to 140 Glass-cutters........ 150 to 200 Six blowers will average in one calendar month 10e,000 square feet. CARRIAGES. Table showing the average weekly wages of persons employed in carriage-making and carbuilding itn the following States in the years 1872 and 1873, respeccively. a': G. - i C S re a cc - v c co co - cc~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Occupation... 1... a' a a Body-makers —. —. — sip — $1 00 $15 00 -21 00 $22 50 $15 00 $12 42 $18 00 $13 50 $7 00 Carriago-part makers...... 15 00 13 50 -- 17 00.............. 18 00 13 50 13 50 Wheelwrights............. 15 00 15 00 -- 17 00........ 1 00 18 00........ 00 Coach-smiths.............. 17 00 18 00 18 00 25 5........ 13 00 18 00 15 00 15 75 Helpers................... 9 00 11 00 15 00 950 9 40 700 500 800 Finishers................. 14 00 12 00........ 15 50........... 12 00 13 50 -. O-namenters.............. 18 00 18 00 2........ 5 00................ 15 00....... 0 Painters ----—.. —..- - 15 00 15 00 18 00 1. 50 15 00 14 08 15 00 14 0 15 50 Trimmers ----—..... - - 17 00 15 00 19 50 16 50 18 00 12 00 1500 14 0 1800 Stitchers --------------- - 13 00 12 00 -........ 1-2 50............... 12 0.......... ieers - - - - - 3600-........10.0.15................. 00........ 3........ /"~ ~~....... / Lbmenrs or s12 00 1200........ 11 00 -00.... —------ 600..... Apprentices or boys....... 7 50 5 00........ 500 7 00 4 00 5c........ 450 Foremen - -.............. 1800 24 00 30 00 3500- - - 2000 1600 CAR-BUILDERS. Wood-woo kers............................ 38................................ / 3........ Blacksmiths............................................................. 13 00.......... Helpers................................................. -.......... Hours of labor --—.............. 14 37 Hours of r per week 60.... 59 59...... 60 60-60 ci~~~c c ~~~~- cc cc cc cc' i [ - oo 00 ~ ~ 8 ~'i c [Body-makers...................... 19 00] $13 50 {$0 00 /15 00 $16 00 ]15 75 ~1 00 $19 00 OCarigeparto m a k era a...:] $e -a aes......... 1 00/.......I 15 50 1 00.... 13 0 Wheelwrights.......................... 15 0........ 15 0 16 00 1:3 5) 17.,50 14 00 och- 15 50 Co,-maths.............. $1i9 00....... 20 o00 1 00........ 1 1 00 9 0 Carriae-partmakers-14 00 -15 50 12 00- 13 50 1) 50 13 00 Wheelwi-ihts. - - -15 00- -1500 16 00 13 C3 17i 0 14 00 Coach-smiths - $13 0 19 00- -20 00 1 00 ----- 17 00 2n 00150 Helpers................... 650 900 --................ 550 -.... 675 8..0 675 Finishers......................... 10 00.............................. 6 00 15 00 950 Ornamenters-................24 00..16 00 19 00 20 00 1% i t e r'i',))' i................~2 0 0.....]1 00! 10 00 / Painters -....12 00 5 00 10 50 15 50 15 00-.15 00 10 50 15 00 Trimmers —...........1500- -....1900 1650- -11... 1. 00 1700 16 00 Stitchers................-....-....-....-............... 9 00 12 00 Enineers — 1.....200- —............................... 12'0'.... 9 00 25 00 Laborersorunskilledwork. men.............................................. 11 00........ 6 37 7 00 900 Apprentices or boys....... 0..... 00 4 00........ 7 00 3 00 3 00 5 co 3 75 Foremen........................................... 2300........ 1800 2150 2000 CAR-BUILDERS. Wood-workers.............................. 15 O0........0........ 12 00 15 00 16 50 Blacksmiths........................................ 13 50........ 14 00 18 00 16 50 Helpers...................9.......................... 9 0........ 600 9 00 10 50 Painters. — 140 - 50.................0............. 18 00. 12 00 lours of labor per week.. 60 60 59 "57 60 60 60 60 57 LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 779 Table 8howtvng the average weekly wages of peron emtployed in carriage-makipg, #c. —Con'd. * a~~~~~~~~~~~C.al V oo 04 ooK- K'4 Ce CZ 1. Occupation. a 9 a,*- Il r 0 a a K Body-makers.....$19 125 $19 50 $18 00 $15 00 $21 00 $12 95 $24 00 $18 00 $ 17 92 $16 48 Carriage-pa-rt makers. 1 6 50 1 8 00 1 7 00.. 10 00'22 00 18 00 15 31.... Wheel~wrights............16 50 12 08......12 00 10 00 212 00 18 00 13 01, 13 75 Coach smhfhs........ 20 50 19 50 13 00 18 00 ---- 10 00 22 50 19) 50 16 43 15 50 Helpers-........ 725 823 8 00 5 00.... 500 15 00 1-200 8061 1220 Finishers-....... 95 0 1050 1 500 - -.... -.... 1 000 1 500 13 50 1207.... Ornanenters -.....21 00 16 50 1 8 00..- -........ 12 00 27 50 21 00 1 9 -27. —Painters........14 25 10 50 11250 15 00 11200 12~!75 2-200 21 00 15 40 13 00 Trimmers -...... 18 00 15 00 15 00 15 00- -....12 75 2 1 00- -1... I6 15 16 50 Stitchers - - -............12 00 - - —............1-2 00 -.....I 8 1.... En-ineers - - - —........................ 2.0 00 25 00 -.....19 00. —- Laborers or unskiilled workmen -......... 750 8 00- -.... 8 50 5 00 12 00 12 C0 9 07 8 50 Apprentices or boys. 5 00 500 3 00- -.... 350 2 50 500 6 00 5 14 4 30 Foremen - —.............18 00- -....21 00 18 00 40 00 21 00 22 50 25 50 CAR-BUILDERS. Wood-workers-....18 00 -.....12 -50 -........12 00 21 00. -....15 26.... Blacksmiths -.....20 00 -.....15 00 -........11 50'27 00..-... 16 50 — --- Helpers...................... 9 00- - -........ 6 00 19 00- -....9 53.... Pain ters.......15 00- -....12 50- - —.......12 00 19 00 4.- 46.... Hours of labor per week.. -...... 60 60 60 60 60 60..... 60 59 6-10 596-10 Table showing the average weekly wages of' persons emiployed in carriage-making anzd carbuilding in tihejollowing States int the year 1874.'~~~~~~~~ ~~~1 6 Occupation.'0 0 0 Body-makers-........ 18 00 $-21 00 $-22 50 $13) 00 $15 00 $17 25 $18 00 $21 00 $18 46 Carriage-part makers - 15 00 19 0.) 17 00 15 00- -....17 25 17 t,0..-... 1 6 70 Wheelwrights ----------- - 21 00 1 7 00 15 00 15 00 1 8 00 112 00 ---- 1 6 33 Coach-smiths - -........... 24 00 25 50 1 5 00 13 50 19 00 13 00 12 00 17 50 Helpers -..........12 00.14 00 9 50 8 00 9 00 6 00 8 00 — ---- 950 Finishers -—...............1 5 50 1 5 00- -....1 6 50 15 00.... 1 5 55 Ornamenters —.............. 25 00 1 8 00- -....1 8 00 1 8 00 ----- 19 75 Painters.. -........15 00 17 50 15 50 15 00 14 00 15 75 12 50 1-2 00 14 65 Trimimers-.........15 00 22 00 16 50 15 00...... 17 50 1 5 00.... 1 666 Stitchers —.............15 00 1-2 50- - —............1-2 00- -.... 1 3 1 6 Engineers - —..............36 00..... 18 00 —----------- - 27 00 Lahorers -—................1 100 900 9 C30 4 50 8 00 8 50 833 Apprentices.. -...... -.... 700 5 00 450 4 00 300 3 0) 3 58 4-28 Foremen - 18........ S00 18 00 35 00- -....2600- -.....1800 21 00 22 66 CAR-aUILDERS. Wood-worlkers -—................15 00 -.......... 1 2 50- -.... 1 3 7 5 Blacksmiths-........18 00 - -......... 6 00 - -.........15 0 0..... 1 6 33 Helpers -—..................... 4 00 - -......... 9 00 - -.... 65 0 Painters -—...................16 00 - -.........1-2 50 -.... 14 25 Honrs of labor per week - -.... 60 --—.................. 60..... 780 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMRICA. MISCELLANEOUS OCCUPATIONS. The following tables 8how the average wages or earnings of person employed in varioU8 OCCU pations in the year 174. Place and occupation. Wages. Place and ocpation. Wages. I BUILDERS' MATERIALS. SCHOOL AND OFFICE FURNITURE. Port Madison (Oregon) mills: Chicago, Ill.: First-class.perwk. $44 00 72 Machine-ands per week. $15 00 60 Engineers Second-class...do.. 20 00 72 Bench-hands.do. 10 50 0 Foremen...................do.. 25 00 72 Cabinet-makers.. do..2 00 0 Sawyers...................do.. 20 00 72 Finisers..do. 10 50 6 Filers..... do.. 18 00 72 Packer.. do 10 50 60 Edgers and screw-turners..do.. 10 00 72 Patternmakers.. do. 15 00 60 Teamsters.................do.. 15 00 72 Engineers..do.. 18 co 60 Choppers... 12 00 Lab.. do.. 19 00 760 Carpenters................. do.. 18 00 72 Apprenticesdo. 3 00 60 Blacksmiths............... do. 20 00 72 Foremen. do- 24 00 60 Firemen................... do.. 9 )00 72 Laborers............. 7 00 72 SASH, DOOR, AND BLIND FACTORY. BUILDING-TRADE. Chicago,. Oregon: Engineersper week. 18 00 60 Carpenters or joiners..per day. 3 50. Foremendo.. 21 00 60 Stone-masons..............do- 500.. 512 00 0 Brick-layers............... do.. 6 00. Carpenters.... do. 12 60 Plasterers. d..8q.. 5 0.... 8 54 60 - per-sq. yd 28 Teamsters -.do.. 1055 6 Lathersp-........ero.. 8 35 60 Painters... - do.. 75 - -- Boys.. -..........do.. 3 45 60 Painters... -.....per day 300 Lebao, N. H.: Common laborers.......... o.. 200 Foremenper week 17 50 60 Excavating cellars...per cu. yd Carpentersdo. 12 00 San Antonio, Tex.: Laborersdo. 7 50 60 Masons - per week. 15 00 60 Apprentices - do.. 3 50 0 Stone-cutters-........do..- 15 00 60 Chicago, Ill.: Plasterers-.........do..- is 00 60 Matchine-mnen -.....per week. 21 00 60 Quarrymen -.........do..- 9 00 60 Stair-builders-.......do..- 10 00 60 Teamsters-.........do..- 18 00 60 Carvers-...........do..- 21 00 00 Carpenters............do..- 15 00 60 Joiners-...........do..- 16 00 60 Blacksmiths -........do..- 15 00 60 Blind-makers-........do..- 16 00 60 Laborers........... - do..- 7 bO 60 Engineers -.........do-. - 18 00 60 Apprentices.........do.. 7 50 60 Laborers.. -........do..- 11 75 60 Chicagro, ill.: Apprentices -........do..- 7.50 60 Watchmen.......per week 9 00 60 Foremen-..........do..- 30 00 60 Firemen -..........do..- 12 60 60 Machinists -............ do..- 15 00 60 FLARING-MILLS. Tnrners...........do..- 18 00 60 Carpenters..........do..- 10 00 60 Wheeling, W, Va.: Sawyers-..........do..- 10 00 60 Carpenters-.......pert week 13 60 59 Stair-builders........do.. 15 Wa 60 Other mechanics-......do. - 1:3 60 59 Tallymen -..........do..- 12 00 00 Tuaners -..........do-. - 10 50 59 Glaziers...........do-. - 10 00 60 Box-makers-.........do.. 7 60 59 Painters...........do..- 9 00 60 Teamsters..........do..- 7 00 59 Shipper-s...........do..- 20 ($1 61 Watchmen..........do..- 7 00 59 Teamastersi..........do..- 9 (50 60 Engineers..........do-. - 15 00 59 Dry-1kilnmen.............do. - 9 00 60 Laborers.. -........ do..- 9 Ott I (9 Enzrineers.........do. - 25 Od 60 Apprentices -........do..- 3 00 59 Laborers...........do..- 6 00 60 Frmn...- do..- 18 00 59 Apprentices.........do..- 2 50 60 Salesmuen..........do.. 12 50 59 Foremen...........do.. 30 00 60 Carves s -...........do..- 20 00 60 HUH AND SPOKE FACTORY. Grafton, W. Va,:I Carpenters.......per week 12 00 60 Metropolis, flII.: Plasterers -.........do.. 18 00 60 Turners-........per week. is 00, 60 Stone-masons........do. - 15 00 0) Engineers-.........do..- 15 09 60 Painters. -..........do-. - 18 00 60 Macblue-turners. -. do..- 15 00 60 Blacksmiths.........do..- 12 00 60 Machinists............do. - 1-2 Wd 60 MUillers -...........do..- 12 50 60 Sawyers-..........do..- 10 00 60 Brick molders........do.. 12 00 60 Porters...........do.. 10 00 60 Brick-layers.........do..- 18 00 60 Watchmen-.........do..- 10 01) 60 Laborers-..........do..- 9 00 60 Day-laborers-........do..- 9 00 60 Boys.............do..- 40(0 60 Laborers-..........do..- 7 50 60 Teamsters-.........do. - 9 00 60 Boys............. do..- 2 00 60 Clerks............do..- 12 00 60 Foremen...........do..- 45 00 60 NOTTE.-The rate of wages for the State of Oregon is computed in United States gold. LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 781 Tale howing thi average wage or earnings of persons employed, 4c.-Continued. Place and occupation. Waes. Place and occupation. Wages.. RUnB AND SPOKE FACTOR-Cont'd. PAINTING AND GILDING. ~~~~Portsmouth, Ohio: San Francisco, Cal.: ~~~~~~~~~~~GEnginelersper.............. $ per week. $P1 00 Wheel-makers -d.lo.. 15 00 60 Painters..................... do. 21 00.... Rub-turner...do. - 15 00 60 Graiers................... do.. 25 00... Spoke-turners..do.. 13 00 00 Carpenters................. do.. - 24 00.. Felloe-bendersdo.. 14 00 60 Composition and ornament~ib~mortisers l l do............. - 12 00 0 iper week. 21 C0 Saxyers...........do-. 10 00 60 Boys.............do.. 6 50 LaBores................... do.. 6 500 60 Boys.......... do. 3 00 60 NOTE.-Hours of labor per week, 60 and 54. Table showing the average weekly age or carings of persons employed in different occupatio, with average number employed in each establishment named, in the year 1874. No. Place and occupation. Wages. ~z ~. No. Place and occupation. Wages. - ~CORSET-FACTORY. WHOLESALE PAPER-WAREHOUSE. New Haven, Conn.: Chicago, Ill: r.... 4 Accountants............s..... $20 00 60 2. femal.-12 00... 6 Salesmen.................... 20 00 60 10 Cutters........... male. G 6 Porters and packers......... 12 00 60 430 Machine-operators...female. 50 4 Teamsters.................. 15 00 60 50 Boners.do...... d. 300. 5 Paper-rulers................ 15 00 60 6 Trimmers............. do.. 6 00. 20 Binlders..........do..- 6 00..TRUNK-FACTORY. 120 Finishers.........do-. - 3 00 -- Milwaukee, Wis.: 6 Eyeleters.........do. - 5 00 -. 10 Trunk-makers.........10 00 60 s Ionrs....male. 12 00 — 10 -....do............ 5 00 60 35 1 roer........female. 700 10....do............ 300 60 65 Embroiderers.......do..- 400 -....do.1.......... I50 60 12 iLacers..........do.. 3 00 12 Examiners........do. - 6 00 -.- PRINTING-OFPICE AND BINDERY. 3 Packers.........male. 12 00..2 Porters...........do.. 6 00 J -,ob-printing office. 1 Wratcman.........do..- 12 tO00 Chicago, Ill.: 1 Toraymaker........do.. 10 00.-1 Foreman printer........24 00 59 1 Tool-maer..........do. 8 24 00 9 Compositors, tUnion).....21I 00 59 1 Enirmnee..........do.- 12 00 - 1 Apprentice, second year - 10 00 59 1 Fireman ~ ~ ~ do... 12 00 - - ~1 Head pressman........21 00 59 786. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 Second pressman. —---— 15 00 59 786 ~~6 Boys.............. 00 59 UMBRELLAFACTORY. ~~~~Bleank-book manufectory. 1 Foreman bindery, (blank. New York City, N. Y.: hooks only). 2 —------.4 00 59 36 Sowing parasols....female 10 00 58 1 Head finisher......... 21 00 59 2 Foremen.........malo 15 00 58 1 Second finisher. —-- -... 18 00 59 7 Boys.............. 8 00 58 2 Rulers.............21 00 59 2 Apprentices.......... 3 00 58 3 Forwarders..........18 00 59 1 Cutter.............18 00 58 1 Engcineer, (printing-office and bindery) —-------- - 15 00 -59 2 Blank-hook sewers, (girls). - - 7 50 59 OIL-MILLS AND FERTILIZER COM- 6 Miscellaneous work, (small 3 00 5 PANY. girls)............. 5 00 (1st year.- 4 00) Selma, Ala.: 3 Boys, apretices 2d year, 7 00 59 2 Pressmen-........... 10 50 72 (3d year..- 10 00 1 Fireman............ 9 00 72ULSHN OMAY 1 Foreman and engineer-....12 00 7-2PULSIGCMAY 1 Assistant cooper-....... 900 7.2 Portland, Oreg.: 12 Ginners............ 600 72 1 Edito.............50 00 60 10 Laborers............ 6 00 72 1 Manager-........... 40 00 60 2 Reporters-..........25 00 60 PRINTING-PRESSES AND PRINTERS' 1 Pressman...........30 00 60 FURNITURE, MANUFACTORY OF. 1 -Engineer -...........25 00 60 1 Foreman..-........ 35 00 60 Chicago, Ill.: 8 Printers -. —............ 27 50 60 Skilled workmen -.......15 00 -.2 Apprentices.......... 7 00 60 782 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing the average weekly wages of persons employed in the following occupations in the years named. [Hours of labor per week, 60.] Place and occupation. W.ges. Place and occupation. Waes. HARDIWARE MANUFACTuRY. AGRICULTURAL-IMPLEMENT FACT'Y-Cont'd. Berlin, Conn.-1874: New Madrid, Mo.-1872: Molders, iron......................... $15 00 Blacksmiths......$1 00 Molders, brass........................ 18 IO0 ]lacksmith-helpers 00 Cupa]t-tend(lers....................... 12 00 Piow-makei 2.....0... Annealing-furnace tenders............ 12 00 C rpnters.......24 00 Filers................................. 10 50 Painters..........24 00 Japanners............................ 15 0.) Teamsters........24 00 Forgers............................... 18 00 Apprentices or boys3 00 Helpers............................... 10 50 Griniders............................. 12 00 TOBACCO AND CIGAR MANUFACTORY. Polishers............................. 15 00 Lonisiana-1874: Turners.............................. 1'2 00 Machinists............................ 00 Ciarmakers.....15 00 Enginlleers 12..................... Strippers........ F~urnace-men......................... 9 00 uabore-en.0............................. COTTON-GINNING. Laborers - - - ~~~~~9 00 Packers.............................. 12 00 Louisiana-7-1874: Press-workmen...................... 12 00 Ginners and balers.12 00 Rollers............................... 15 00 Engineers........ 00 Wellers.............................. 15 00 Ltborcrs.................. 9 00 Jointers.............................. 12 00 Foremen..........00 Stampers............................. 12 00 Gradluators.......................... 15 00 CORNICE-MANUFACTORI Fi tishers............................. 12 00 Obio-1873: Pattern-9akers........................' 4 00 Pattern-makers - - 24 00 ~~~~~Cornice-manufacturers........... is 00 Carpenters........................... 18 00 Tinners..15 00 Trip-hammer-men - -18 00 Fitters-up............................ 1 00 at rers-........... 00 Screw-ctters-100s. L.................... A.re s.......0 Blacksmiths - —.............15 0O Appreentices — 5............ 3 00 iHelpers............................ 9 00 F Foreen..........18 ApIprentices or buys - —......... 7 5t0 PAPERRMAKING MACHINERY. Girls........................ —- 4 50 Vermont-1874: Waterbury, Con-1874: Iro-molders......................... 1 - - 0 Annealing-furnace tender8s..12 00 MacBhinistsB t. 15 00 Filers.............................. 9 00 i Ordinary. 12 00 For —ers --................ 18 00 Helpers..........9 00 Helpers.............................. 10 50 Machiists........................... 18 00 SCALE-MANUFACTORY.* Eigileers........-................... - - 17 00 Vermont-1874: Fury, on.- -..... Iron-molders......... 1 01 lf ur nace-men - - - 18 00............ Laboers -- 9 0 Iro-molers.- -15 00l Packers.15 00 MJchiniles 13 50 Die-makers - -................ 18 00 Joimuters.. —............. 13 50 Press-worken.......................12 00 iners......... i 00 Rollers............................... 18 00 Laeng ers............ Jointers - —............... 15 00 For~emer.............. 9.. 2 00 SHelpers.............................. 10 50 Machinists........................... 12 00 8AEMN lemters.......................... 1 00 HARNESS-MAKING. Helpers...-............ 10 50 Vermont-1874: Foremen......................... 20 00 Haes-makers10 00 Apprentices or Poys - - 4 50 Harness-fitters........................ 14 00 M11arijessc stitchrcs.................... 8 50 AGRICULTURAL-IMPLEMENT FACTORT. Apprentices —............. 6 50 Phillipsbnrg~b, N. J3-1873: COOPERAGE. lackers.......................... 15 00 Macoinist3ers................ Blacksmith-helpers90................... 9 O0 Machine-bans-12 00 Grinders..-.............. 00 Mrachine-buys-5............ 00 Wood-wor'kers-............. 15 00 Egaymens................. -10 00 Plow-makers-............. 15 00 Engineers-13.............. 50 Patternmnakers-............ 16 50 Laorersn -..................-3 00 Carpenters-...............16 50 Foe n220 Painters................ 12 00 CGRMNFCOY Engineers-...............12 00 CGRMNFCOT Watchmen-............... 8 50 Vermont-1874: Teamsters-...............10 50 Cigar-m~kers, ($11 to $15 per M) -.... 18 00 Laboerrs or unskilled workmen -.... 9 00 Strippers-.............. 8 50 Appreiltices or buys -.......... 5 00 C.ssers-................. 20 00 Foremen or overseers-......... 18 00 Packers-................ 20 00 *Hours of labor per week, 59. LABOR IN THE -UNITED STATES. 783 WAGES IN CALIFORNIA IN 1869 AND 1874. Statement showing the wages paid in San Francisco and vicinity in the years 1869 and 1874, for the following kinds of labor. [The table of wages for the year 1874 was prepared for this report by Mr. W. H. Martin, general agent of the California Immigrant Union, January, 1875.] Occupation. Wages in 1869. Wages in 1874. Apothecaries............................. per month, with board.. $40 00 to $50 00.................. Architects, (special rates or commission.l Bakers-......................per month, with board.. 30 00 to 50 00 $10 00 to $60 00 Barbems...... per month.. 00 00 60 00 to 80 00 Bar-tendets..................... per month, with board. 40 00 to 45 00.................. Bed-makers.................................d do............2do... %5 00 to 35 00. -e —-h, —ge,-s-................per d(ay. 2 50 to 3 00 2 50 to 3 50 Belt-makers............................................... do.................. 2 59 to 3 50 Blacksmiths..............................do... 2 50 to 4 00 3 00 to 4 00 Blacksmiths' helpers........................................do. —. 2 00 to 2 50 2 00 to 2 50 B'at-builders..............................................do...................... 3 00 to 3 50 Boiler-makers..............................................do......... 3 75 to 4 00 Boiler-makers, flange-turners..............................do......... 4 00 to 4 25 Book-binmders...............................................do......... 3 00 to 5 00 B ook-binders' helpers, boys and girls................. per week................... 4 00 to 15 00 Book-keepers........................................ per amouth.. 35 00 to 100 00 80 00 to 200 00 Book-keepems in banks and brokers' offices................ do..................... 2 00 00 to 350 00 Boot and shoe m.tking, (see Shoemakers.) Boot-blacks................................................do.... 45 00 30 00 to 45 00 Bottlers.................................................... do...- 35 00 to 40 00 Box-makers.............................................per day.................... 2 50 to 3 00 Brick-layers................................................do.... 4 50 to 6 00 4 00 to 5 00 Brick-hyers, foremen.......................................do...................... 6 00 to 8 00 Bnt'3hcrs................................per month, with board. - 35 00 to 60 00 40 00 to 75 00 Br]ewcrs.....................................do............do.... 50 00 50 00 to 75 00 Broomn-makers..........................................per day.... 2 50 to 3 50 Butter-mikcrs..............................per month and found.' 30 00 to 45 CO 40 00 to 50 00 Brick-makers................................do............do.... 35 00 to 60 00 40 00 to 60 00 Boys in offices and stores.............................per month. 10 00 to 40 00 20 00 to 40 00 Carpenters, hoise......................................per day. - 3 00 to 4 00 3 50 to.4 50 Carpenters, foretuen........................................ do................ 4 50 to 6 00 Carpenteis. ship............................................do... 3 00 to 5 00 4 00 to 5 00 Carpenters, ship, foremen..................................do.... 5 00 to 7 50 Cobinet-,,:kera-.............................................-do.' 3 00 to 4 00 3 01 to 4 00 Carriage-makers, body-makers............................... do... 3 50 to 4 00 3 00 to 4 00 wheelwrights.............................do... 3*00 to 4 00 3 00 to 3 50 trimmers................................. do.... 3 00 to 4 50 3 50 to 4 50 painters................................... lo_. 3 00 to 4 00 2 50 to 4 00 stripers...................................do......... 4 00 to 4 50 Carvers.....................................................do.... 4 00 to 7 00 Calkers.....................................................do.... 3 00.to 4 03 4 00 to 5 00 Coopers.. do.... 2 00 to 3'25 2 50 to 4 00 Confectioners...............................................do...................... 3 00 to 4 00 Coppersmthhs...............................................do.-.. 3 00 to 4 50 3 50 to 5 00 Coffin-ma.kers...............................................do... 2 50 to 4 50 3 00 to 4 50 Clerks... do...................... 2 00 to 3 50 Clerks................................... per month, with board. - 40 00 to 75 00. Charcoal-burner-..............per day.................... 2 00 to 3 50 Cheese-makers.............................................do.. 2 00 to 3 00 Coachmen.. per month, with board.. 30 00 to 75 00 35 00 to 50 00 Cooks -.......................................do............do.... 35 00 to 100 00 35 0) to 100 00 Cooks in private families.....................do............do...................... 30 00 to 35 00 Cooks in hotels...............................do............do...................... 40 00 to 100 00 Cigar-miakers...........................................per day.................... 1 50 to 3 00 Conductors, horse-cars......................................do.... 2 50 Conductors, steamt-cars... do...................... 3 00 to 5 00 Chambermaids in fbmflies................ pe]otwt or................... 1 0t 200 Chambemaids ii O~imiliesper month, with board.. 15 00 to 20 00 Chambermaids in hotels......................do............do..................... 20 C0 to 25 00 Dress-makers in stores................................. per week................... 10 00 to 12 00 Dress mtakers in Ianilies....................per day, with board.. 1 50 to 3 00 Dairymen................................per mouth, with board.. 30 00 to 45 00 35 00 to 40 00 Drivers, horse-cars...................................... per y..d................. 50 Drivers, drays and trucks..................................do.... 2 50 to 3 00 Drivers, express............................................do.............. 2 00 to 3 00 Drivers, hacks..............................do... 2 00 to 3 50 Door and sash makers......................................do.... 2 50 to 4 00 3 00 to 4 50 Druggists................................per month, with board. 60 00 60 00 to 75 00 Dyers.do................do..................do..... do.... 40 00 to 50 00 45 00 to 60 00 Deck-hands..................................do............do.... 40 00 40 00 to 50 00 Editors, first-class.. per mouth................... 200 00 to'250 00 Editors. second-class..........................do...................... 7 5 00 to 100 00 Engravers..............................................per day. 4 50 to 6 00 Engi,,ers, mills............................................S(1o.... 4 00 to 5 00 3 00 to 5 00 Engineers, railroads........................................do...................... 3 00 to 4 00 784 ~LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Statemtent showing the wages paid in San Francisco and vicinity, 4-c.-Conti nued. Occupation. Wages bJ 1869. Wag... in 1874. Engineers, steamships, &c................per dy-...... $3 00 to $5 00 Fainlbori Whiter-..........per month, with boar.-Z $ —30 00 25 0o to 30 00 ar- rIs Summer............do..-....do... $40 00 to 50 00 40 00 to 50 00 Florists3....................... do.......do............. 35 00 to.50 00 Founderymen....... per day.. 2 00 to 2 50 3 00 to 4 50 Foundervinen, molders...do... 3 50 to 4 00 4 50-) to 5 00 Founder~ynien, stove-miounters.................~ do............ 3 00 to 3 50 Founderymen, brass....................... do............. 3 00 to 4 00 Gardeners..................per month, with hoard.. 30 00 to 40 00 45 00 to 60 00 Gardeners, short jobs.....................per day........... 2 50 to 3 00 Gas-fitters........................... do.'... 3 50 to 4 50 3 00 to 4 50 Gunsmiths...................: do.... 3 00 to 5 00 3 00. to 5 00 Gilders............................. do............ 3 5 to 5 0 Glaziers............................ do.............. 2 00 to 3 50 Elarness-makers........................ do......2....... to 5 00 ilatters............................ do.............. 3 00 to 4 00 Hostlers.................... per month, with board............ 30 (JO to 40 00 Jewelers...........................per day.......3'O 0to 4 tO Lau~dr~ymen..................per month, with board. 30 00 to 45 00 30 00 to 40 00 Laundr~ywomen.................do.......do............ 30 0) to 40 00 Locksmiths.......................... per day..- 3 00 to 4 00 3 00 to 4 00 Lithographers, draugbtsmen, and engineers...........d o............. 4 00 to 5 00 Lithographers, printers.....................do............... 4 00 to 4 50 Lumbermen.................per month, with board..- 35 00 to 70 0)) 30 00 to 50 00 Machlinists.......................... per day.. 3 50 to 4 50 3 00 to 5 00 Masons............................. do_. 4 00to 5 00 4 00 to 5 00 Masons, foremen........................ do.............. 6 00 to 7 50 Model or pattern makers.................... do.... 4 00 to 4 50 4 00 to 5 00 Millers..............................do.... 300O to 4 00 3 00 to 4 00 Millwrights.......................... do.... 3 00 to 5 00 3 00 to 5 00 Miners............................. do.... 2 00 to 3 50 3 00 to 4 00 Milliners.............A.................do............ 1 50 to 3 50 Nurses............................. do....lO00to 2 00 Pointers, house..........................do.... 2 5b to 4 00) 3 50 to 4 00 Painters, ship.......................... do.............. 3 0 to 4 00 Paper-han gers......................... do.... 2 50 to 3 50 2 50 to 3 50 Plasteres.. o.. 0t 0 4 00 to 5 00 Plumbers............................do.... 3 50 4 1)0 to 5 00 Porters.................. per month, with board.. 30 00 to 55 00 30 00 to 50 00 Piano-makers........................ per day........... 4 00 to 4 50 PrIntei s, job............................do............... 3 50 to 4 00 Prinlters, foremen........................ do............ 4 50 to 5 00 Policeamen......................... per month............. 125 00 Riggers........................... per day............ 4.00 to 5 00 Saddlers............................ do. —. —-------- 3 00 to 5 00 Sailmak.r.............do.. 3 00 to 4 00 Sailors, long-voyage....................per month........... 30 010 to 35 00 Sailors, coasters........................ do.............. 40 00 to 45 00 Salesmen............................per day........... 2 50 to 4 50 Shipsmiths...........................do.'... 4 00 3 00 to 4 00 Servants, general housework............. per month........... 15 00 to 20 00 Sawyers............................. do.... 40 00 to 100 00 40 00 to 70 00 vshoemakei s......................... per day............ 2 00 to 4 00 Shepheruls..................per month, with board.. 25 00 to 35 00 25 00 to 35 00 Soap-makers...................do.......do.... 35 00 to 40 00 35 00 to 45 00 Stoue-cutters........................ per day..- 4 00 to 5 00 4 00 to 5 00 Straw-workers......................... do............ 1 50 to 3 00 Tailors, pants..........................each........... 3 00 to 5 00 Tailors, vests.......................... do.............. 2 00 to 3 50' Tailors, coats.......................... do............ 6 00 to 10 00 Turners.......................... per day.. 3 50 to 4 00 3 50 to 4 00 Trtunkmakers......................... do.'-... 2 50 to 3 00 2 50 to 4 00 Tiusmiths............................ do... 3 00 to 4 00 2 50 to 3 50 Teamsters owning teams....................do...-............ 2 50 to 4 00 Teamsters.........................per month........... 30 0)) to 50 00 Teachers, (full supply male and female from our own schools) do............... 45 00 to 200 00 Upholsterers.......................per da~y. 3 00 to 4 00 3 50 to 5 50 Vineyard-nmen...............per month, with board. 30 00 to 40 00 30 00 to 40 00 Wagon-makers......................per day. 3 00 to' 4 00 3 00 to 4 00 Watchmen.......................per month. 50 00 to 75 00 50 00 to 75 00 Wood-chioppers........................do.... 40 00 to'70 00 40 Ott to 50 00 Waiters..................per month, with board. 20 00 to 40 00 20 00 to 40 00 Watch-makers......................per day........... 3 00 to 4 50 Whip-makers.........................do.- 3 00 -.......... Whitewashers........................do.. 3 00 -........... Young men of energy, not afraid of work, can almost always get employment in the country at from $25 to $30 per month. The foregoing prices are in gold coin. REMARIKS.-It is much easier to get employment in rough or mechanical work than in clerking, keeping books, or in school-teaching; and persons who have no money and LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 785 no friends in California able to assist them, and no special knowledge that will certainly command employment, should not come here in the expectation of an easy life. Men who expect to make their living by the shovel, plow, and ax are wanted. Teachers should disabuse their minds in reference to our educational affairs. We have the best schools and teachers in the Union. Our teachers are mostly graduates of our high schools and State normal schools, and we get a new supply from these sources every year. These are well paid, and as long as they kcep up to the standard it5would be folly in us to advise our friends in the East to come here expecting to get positions as teachers. Chinamuen work willingly for 75 cents to $1 per day. We have a large supply, and they soon learn and perfect themselves in any department of business. They are a necessary evil at present, for the reason that most of the young men of our State, and new-comers generally, will not work for small wages. AA soon as this is remedied by an importation of Eastern and European labor willing to work for $1 to $1.50 per day, the employment of Chinese will gradually be diminished. W. H. M. WAGES PAID BY RAILROAD COMIPANIES. Statement showing the average weekly wages of persons employed by railroad companies in the fjollowing States in the year 1874. Occupation. Maine. Massa- Pentns.yl- Illinois. Indiana. Kentucky Missouri. General chusetts. Ya average. Machinists... $12 00 $14 25 $15 00 $19 50 $16 50 $15 00 $16 20 $15 49 Boiler-makers 12 00 15 50..... 13 00 14 85 14 00 16 80 14 35 Blacksmiths....... 12 00 16 00 13 00 13 00 17 25 15 75 18'90 15 45 Car-builders -....... 13 50 14 50 12 42 I15 60 16 50 14 40 15 60 14 64 Painters..... 16 50 14 50 12 30 17 41 16 80 11 40 15 00 14 84 Engineers.... 15 00 *23 00 12 00 25 00 23 7o......... 32 00 21 78 F'iremen -......... 10 00 1-2 00.................... 10 501............... 10 83 Pattern-makers.. - 12 00 -.................... 19 56.................... 17 25 1 6 27 Laborers............ 7 509.......... 9 00 10 00 10 20 9 00 7 50 8 86 Apprentices 5.0 -.. 8. 9.0 -- -. 1 AppreIntices....... 5 00........... 4 80 9 60........... 7 3 Conductors 15........ 15 0................................ 17 00.......... 23 00 18 33 Baggage-masters. - 9 60.................... 12 30...... 12 00 11 30 Brakemen..5...... 9 60...................-........... 15 50........... 12 0 12 36 Hours of labor per week................................ 60 59........................................ week --- 60 S9 ~~ p. ~ ~ ~ ~ c p~.'~ Occupation. c'' Occupation. Machinists.........18 90 $1 50 $18 00 Pattern- makers. $17 00....... B3oiler-makers 18...... 1 00........ 18 0 0 Laborers.. 10 00 $90.. $900 Blacksmiths - 7......... 0. 18 00 a rn es..0.................... Car-builders....... 18 60................C.... onductors.-...... 21 00................... Painters........... 14 76............... Baggage-men 12 50.................... Engineers......... 21 54......... 19 50 Brakemen........ 12 00.................... Firemen........... 12 30........... Statement showing the average weekly wages of persons employed in the Baltimore and 0Ohio Railroad Company's rolling-mills at Cumberland, Md., in the year 1874. [Hours of labor per week, 60.] Occupation. Wages. Occupation. Wages. Puddlers.................................. $20 00 Buggymen0............................... $I 00 Puddlers' helpers........................ 11 50 Dragouts.11 50 Heaters................................... 22 00 Chargers and pull-outs'-.::..: 11 50 Heaters' helpers.......................... I1 00 Punchers................................ 23 00 Rollers................................... 34 00 Straighteners............................ 19 00 Roughers................................. 22 00 Engineers............................... 13 50 Catchers.................................. 20 50 Laborers or unskilled workmen.......... 9 00 Ilookers.................................. 18 00 Sawyers................................. 12 50 5(0 L 7 8G LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing the average weekly wages of persons employed by railroad conipanies in the following States in the years 1874 and 1875. [Hours of labor per week, 60.1 Wages paid by railroad compaP'Wages paid in railroad, iocomo. aics in Pennsylvania, Tennes - di alod ooo see, ina and Oregonuin thens tlive, and car shops in Kansas see, Iowa, and Oregon in the years874an 187.in the year 1874. years 1874 and 1875. Department and occupation. ~'. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~oo a -q ~Machinists~~~............. a q Cfa L OCOMOTIVE DEPARTMENT. Machinists.................-$12 00 $28 00 $15 99 $19 50 $16 08 $16 20 f$16 50 $16 95 Fllue-setters................... 1 00....16 50 16 20 Tanks............................. 875. Air-brakes.........................5I 12 50..................................... Wipers - —.................... 600 750 900 *1400 *1050 840 810 810 Water-house....................... None......... 10 00 *10 00................................ Stationary engineers........... 9 GO 15 00 12 00 15 00..... 12 00 12 00 11 70 Watchmen........................ 840 1000 900 *1750 *14 77..... 1000 1000 Oilers.. 10 00 —........- ---------------- 12 00 10 20........ Laborers........................... 7 00 6 00 9 00 10 50 9 00 6 60 7 50 7 50 Blacksmiths....................... 14 00 22 50 15 30 21 00 17 70 13 50 16 80 19 20 Blacksmiths' helpers............... 7 tO 13 30 11 10 13 50 10 80 10 80 10 50 10 50 Forgers...........................- 18 00........................................................ Heaters...........................- 18 00..... 10 50........................................ Boiler-makers...................... 00 24 00 15 00....13 50 16 20 17 40 15 J0 Stack-makers.. 12 00........ 15 00........................................ Coppersmiths.............. 14 00 15 00 18 00................ 15 00................ Carpenters................. 11 00 13 75 14 64........................ 16 20....... Pattern-makers.................. 12 60 24 00 16 80.None. 18 00........ CAR DEPARTMENT. Carpenters....................... 11 50 16 50 14 88 21 00 15 40 16 20 16 20 15 37 Repairers..10 00 10 50 11 40 18 00 13 86 15 00 11] 10........ Laborers and car-cleaners.. 7 00 6 00 9 00 10 50 9 00........ 7 50 7 50 Cohne-make / oos..120...240...... Cf-,,binet-makers~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ----------— ~2~ ---- ---- 40........I........}......../........ Oil.rs............ 1000 1140 900... 1200..1020 350 Machinists. -.. 11 00 18 00- 19 50.16 50. Locksmiths13 00..................................................... Tinners11 25 19................. 7515 00........ Pattern-makers. - 12 00 24 00.. 24 00 20 00 None. 18 O0........ Blacksmiths................ 11 60 18 00 16 50 21 00.16 80. Blacksmiths'. helpers........... 6 80 11 40 9 00 13 50.10 50. Painters........1I 00 1 00 13 14'24 00 14 08 18 00 14 40 15 37 Gilders...............12 00. —-- -------- -------- -------- Upholsterers..................... 11 50 18 00.... 18... 0S 0 None. 19 50. Apprentices orboys..........5 70 3 00 TRACK DEPARTMENT. Yard-laborers.6 00 6 00 7 50 15 16 8 15 6 60........ 6 90 Yard-section laborers........ 6 00 4 80 7 50 10 50 8 ~15 6 30 6 60 6 60 Construction-train................. 6 00 3 90 9 60 6 00 9 30 6 60. Extra gang............. 600..... 900 -..... 930 660......... BRIDGE DEPARTMENT. Bridge-carpenters.13 50 15 00 18 00 14 65 13 50 15 30 15 30 Engineer pile-drivers...................................... 0....................... 00 STATIONS. Station-laborers.. 00 5 40. 12 00 9 00 6 40. See..........................None.. S~ ard-ecinabrs.................... No6 - 0 -- -- - -- - - -- -— 4- - - - - - - -0- - - -- - - - Laborers at small stations......... 8 00 5 40........9 00 10 00 - Apprentices or boys.7 02 Foremen or overseers.40........ 45 00....... Seven days. t One foreman. LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 787 Table showing the number of persons employed and the average rate of wages per annum paid employ s by the following railroad companies for the year ending June 30, 1874. Cairo and Saint Cairo and Vin- Carbondale andd A Louis Railroad cennesRailroad Raia Corn- ton Railroad Ocompation. Company. Company. pany. No. Wages. No. Wages. No. Wages. No. Wages. Superintendents. ---: - - - - - --:................. 4 $2, 575 00 Clerks............................. 4 $780 00 2 $949 98 1 $500 00 125 624 00 Master mechanics................. 1 1, 200 00 1 1,500 00................ 2 1, 500 00 Conductors ------------------------ 9 860 40 5 1,080 00 I 1,200 00 111 975 00 Engineers.......................... 14 898 50 6 996 00 1 1, 200 00 139 1, 008 00 Brakemen......................... 22 542 70 8 525 00 2 500 00 232 540 00 Flagmen, switch-tenders, gate-keepers, and watchmen............... 4 474 00 4 645 00 1 500 00 76 485 00 Station-agents..................... 14 637 30 28.......... 2 600 00 122 634 00 Section-men...................... 85 562 80 25 *17 00 7 345 00 1, 254 3'27 00 Laborers........................... 51 629 60 162 t1 25................117 500 00 Other employ6s.................... 47 538 80 65................,137 696 60 Chicago and Illhin goi Southern Chicago and Chica and Chicago, Pekin Railroad'Com- Iowa Railroad Pacific lailroad em Railroad Occupation. pany. Company. Company. Company. No. Wages. No. Wages. No. Wages. No. Wages. Superintendents-...................-................ 1 $900 00 1 $2,500 00. Clerks.............................-................ 5 750 00 3 1,000 00 2 $540 00 Master mechanics..................................- 6 765 00 1 1, 200 00 2 240 00 Conductors............... 1 $960 00 10 954 00 4 700 00 2 780 00 Engineers......................... 1 1, 380 00 14 1,042 65 4 1, 200 00 2 1, 000 00 Brakemen.................... 2 460 00 18 575 00 7 540 00 4 540 00 Flagmen, switch-tenders, gate-keepers, and watchmen............................... 4 675 00 7 800 00 2 540 00 Station-agents..................... 1 460 00 15 660 00 10 600 00 13 450 00 Section-men....................... 6 480 00 91 440 00 40 500 00 50 420 00 Laborers........................... 20 460 00 18 480 00 50 450 00 2 540 00 Other employ6s-.................................... 34 501 23 20 600 00 3 124 00 Chicago, Rock Evansville, Illinois & Saint Indianapolis, Island and Terrellnute and Louis Railroad Bloomington & Pacific Railroad Chicago Rail- and Coal Corn- Western RailOccupation. Company. road Company. pany. road Company. No. Wages. No. Wages. No. Wages. No. Wages. Superintendents................... 2 $3, 000 00................................. 1 $2, 400 00 Clerks............................. 131 828 72 2 $900 00 6 $485 00 27 635 00 Master mechanics................. 12 1, 500 00 1 918 00 7 1, 030 85 3 1, 346 00 Conductors........................ 92 825 00 4 800 00 3 1, 000 00 35 900 00 Engineers......................... 155 1, 036 00 4 1, 215 00 4 1, 002 00 62 1,080 00 Brakemen......................... 223 540 00 6 540 00 7 624 00 76 540 00 Flagmen, switch-tenders, gate-keepers, and watchmen............... 152 680 00 3 360 00 - -40 480 00 Station-agents..................... 96 731 75 -14 482 50.......... 65 570 00 Section-men-...................... 904 375 00 24 481 30......-.... 421 420 00 Laborers........................... 625 436 68 15 483 00 14 696 00 490 540 00 Other employ6s....................1,528 600 78 34 736 40. *Per month. t Per day. 788 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing the number ofversons employed and the average rate of wages,'c.-Continued. Lafayette, Lake Shore and Indian' apeSoreis and Sai.ntLonis Bloomington PirisgandSoananld Saint L ouisand Mississip Michigan Soth- le Rair Riloa om- Railroa em Railroad oad pany. Cor Company. Company. Occupatiompany. No. Wages. No. Wages. No. Wages. No. Wages. Superintendents. —----------------- 1 $289 80 9 $-2, 254 00.-..-. —------- Clerks............................. 75 $810 84 5 324 26 404 712 00................ Master mechanics................. 290 512 76................ 8 1, 860 03................ Conductors. 40 899 28 5 612 79 334 915 00 2 $910 c0 Engineers......................... 54 1, 173 72.............. 467 1, 021 00 2 1, 260 00 Brakemen......................... 97 375 24 9 291 76 596 540 00 4 540 00 Flagmen, switch-tenders, gate-keep. ers, and watchmen.............. 86 461 04................ 591 496 00................ Station-agents..................... 46 681 96 12 635 17 200 728 00 6 41 66 Section-men........................ 378 342 24...............4, 245 443 00 20 420 00 Laborers........................... 38 694 76 6 459 00................................ Other employ6s.................... 173 548 40 2 453 00 1, 583 543 00 6 500 00 Paris and De. Peoria and Quincy, Alton Rockford, Rock caturi ailrnd IRock Island & Saint Louis Island and Saint caturo ai Railroad Com- Railroad Corn- Louis Railroad Occupation. Company. pany. pany. Company. No. Wages. No. Wages. No. Wages. No. Wages. Sperintendents................... $1,00 00 1 $1, 00.............. $2,500 Clerks............................ 5 7-20 00 6 670 001 1 $900 00 7 $400 to 1, 800 Master mechanics................. 6 1,000 00 13 905 40 1 750 00 4 1, 200 to 1,800 Conductors.6 840 00 6 97-2 00 3 1, 000 00.... - 900 to 1,080 Engineers......................... 10 1,200 00 8 1,100 00 3 1,000 00 1,000 to 1,500 Brakemen.............. 12 600 00 8 600 00 6 530 00 - 600 Flagmen, switch-tenders, gate-keepers, and watchmen............... 2 480 00 4 396 00 1 500 00.. I 500 to 600 Slation-agents..................... 19 600 09 17 730 00 7 600 00..... ]500 to 600 Section-men... 540 00 68 404 45 35 405 00 $1.. 25 per day. Lmborers.......................... 10 540 00 18 313 33................................. Oher employ6.................... 30 750 00 22 500 00 i 540.................... Saint Louis, Alton and Terre Sycamore aid Western Union Haute Railroad Cortland Rail- Railroad Corn- Generalaverage. Occupation. Company. road Cowpany. pany. No. Wages. No. Wages. No. Wages. No. Wages. Superintendents................... $1, 500 cO.1 $1, 380 00...... $1, 808 23 Clerks.8 930 00 1 $600 00 41 691 70 ------ 735 78 Master mechanics................. 43 698 00............... 3.1, 500 00 -. —-- 1,130 33 Conductors........................ 7 1, 148 C0 1 600 00 30 868 00 ------ 906 04 Engineers.......................... 11 1,030 00 1 600 00 3j 1,098 88...... 1,081 28 Brakemen......................... 18 613 00 1 600 00 60 565 00....... 536 59 Flegmen, switch-tenders, gate-keepers, and watchmen............... 6 760 00 1 600 00 17 534 66...... 548 24 Station-agents..................... 570 00 1 600 00 43 686 05 583 25 Section men........................ 109 336 00 6 600 00 215 416 85...... 404 53. Laborers........................... 23 476 00.......... 68 469 17...... 482 35 Other employ6s.................... 20 534 00 - - - 168 702 60...... 554 30 LABOR IN TE UNITED STATES. 789 Table showing the average weeky age or earnings of railroad-emnploye's in the cities of Bangor, Me., and Chicago, Ill. I I4 i _ Occupation. Occupation. a O 0 at Locomotive department: Car department-Continued. ~~~~~Mac ~~,25 ahinists...........s........ $12 00 $13 95 Flue-setters - —..14 70 Locksmiths.................... 16 32 Men at tanks - —... 14 25 Tinners........................... 18 00 Men at air-brakes - -. 8 40 Pattern-makers................... 14 85 Wipers —...... 7 50 7 50 Blacksmiths.................. 13 50 15 00 Men at water-house -.10 50 Helpers......................... 8 55 Stationary engineers10 20 11 85 Painters...................... - 12 75 13 80 Watchmen —.. 12 00 8 25 Gilders............ 18 30 Oilers - —.......... 9 00 Upholsterers............. 10 50 16 04 Laborers - —.......... 7 50 Blacksmiths -.13 50 16 50 Track department: Helpers - —......... 9 45 Yard-laborers................ 7 50 750 Forgers - —.........24 00 Yard section-laborers. —- 7 7 50 750 Heaters - - - 18............... I 00 Construction-train.................. 85 Boiler-makers - —...14 70 Extra gang........................ 825 Stack-makers - —....1 )37 Coppersmiths - —..13 20 Bridge department: Carpenters....... - 10 50 13 50 Bridge-carpenters............ 13 50 12 (10 Pattern-makers - - -i...... 40 Engineer pile-drivers.............. 15 00 Brass-molders............. 1530 Stations: Car department: Station-laborers......... 9 00 9 01 Carpenters. -.10 50 1 90 Stevedores........................ 10 50 Repairers - —.....12 45 Scalemen........................... 10 50 Laborers - —........... 8 40 Laborers at small stations... 7 50 8 25 Cabinet-makers - —.......14 25 Station-agents............. 9 00... Oilers -—.............................. 11 40 IRON-FOUNDERY AND MACHINE-SHOP. Table showing the ave1-age wveekly uwages or earnings of persons employed in an iron-foundery and machine-shop at Salt Lake City, Utah, in the year 1875. [All persons employed in this factory are paid by the hour, and work from 58 to 60 hours per week.] Occupation. Wages. Articles produced. I1ron-molders-................$18 001 $21 00 to $24 00 Generial machinery; smelting-fur(Best -----------— 21 00 nace castingls; iron-work for Machinists.. Alb fly, N. Y - 18... i 50 (a) (b) Milwaukee, Wis-....15 to 18... 40 31 Annapolis, Md -..... 15 50 -......Mobile, Ala-...... 24.... 60 O6 Baltimore, Md - - 18... I c55 50 50, Montaornery, Ala.... 2U2 45 40 40 Boston, Mass-......15 to 20 45 45 40 Nashville, Tenn...... 20 50 50..... Bunifalo, N. Y -....... 15 40 38 35 Newark, N. J -..... 18... 45 40 Camb~ridge, Mass.... 18 cl45...-...New Orleans, La...... 20... 50 50 Charleston, S. C.... 20 50 50 50 New York, N.Y.... 20 f50 50 45 Chicago, Ill....... 21 50 47 42 Philadelphia, Pa.... 18 p50 50 48 Cincinnati, Ohio ---- 21.... 45 42 Pittsburgh, Pa.... 15.... 45 43 Cleveland, Ohio..... 15 e40 4- 37h, Portland, Me......14 to 18.... 35 30 Colombia, S. C............. 50 50 Providence, 1R. I.... 14 33 4-1 38 Columbus, Ohio..... 16 -.... 40 37j Jialeigb, N. C...... 18 50 50 50 Dayton, Ohio...... 16. 40 40 IRichmond, Va..... 20 50 50.50 *Denver, Coin. 25 55 55 50 Rochester, N. Y....14 to 18.... 35 35 Des Moinesjowa. 15 35 35 35 Salt Lake City, Utah. 24 50 55 50 Detroit, Mich. -.......... 16 40 40 35 *San Francisco, Cal.. 30 C 60 co O1 IHarrisburgh, Pa...... 15...... 35 35 Savannah, Ga............. 50 50 Hartford, Conn........ 18 to 20 40 45 40 Scranton, Pa...... 15.... 35 3~312 Indianapolis, Ind.... 18 -.... 45 40 Saint Louis, -Mo -... 20 45 45 45 Jackson, Miss..... 27.... 65 C5 Syracuse, N. Y.... 15.... 35 32 Jersey City, N. J.... 18...... 45 45 Topeka, Kans...-.. 10.... 40 40 Kansas City, Mo..... 18.... 45 40 Troy, N. Y....... 18.... 45 40 Little Roclk, Ark.... 25 60 CO 55 Utica, N. Y....... 14 38 40 36 Louisville, Ky...... 21.... 50 50 Washington, D. C -. 24 CO CO C0 Memphis, Tenn..... 25..C.. CO 6 Wilmington, Del. 12 to 18 35 35 35 a $18 per week. b $17* per week. e 50 cents for reprint. d 43 cents for mrepriat. e 37'- cents for reprint. / 47 cents for reprint. g 48 cents for reprint. *Gol prices. 79 6 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. IV. —EXPENSES COST OF PROVISIONS7 GROCERIES71 Table showing -the average retail prices of provisions, groceries, and other leading articles of States, in the respective years8 Maine. NVew Hrampshire. Vfermont. Articles. 1867. 1869. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. PROVISIONS. Flour, wheat, superfine...... per Wb. $1.2 35 $9 15 $13 10 $9 32 $7 17 $1-2 25 $10 12 $6 96 Flour, wheat, extr,~ family...... do-... 1:3 10 9 40 14 40 9 81 8 75 13 00 9 75 7 67 Flour, rye...................... do... 7 00 6 33 8 50 7 30 b 77........ 7 00 5 Kg Corn-ineal..................... do-_ 3 04 2 38 3 52 2 91 3 92 6 50 5'2 3 25 Beef, fresh, roastin g-pieces... -per lb. 15 14'20 20 16'2 18 1412 Beef, fresh, soup-pieces......... do.. 06 06 07 08 07 14 13 071. Beef, fresh, rump-steaks........ do.. 24'23 26 24 ~ W0 20 29 16~3 Beef, corned.................... do-.. 15 13 15 15 10i 13 11 10~4 Veal, fore quarters............. do.. 11 10 13 13 11 13 10 10 Veal, hind quarters............ do-.. 12 11 18 17 15 16 12 12 Veal, cutlets.................. do..- 15 15 22 22 201 20 20 161 M,,utton, fore quarters.......... do.._. 11 09 1.2 13 Ili 15 1`2! 14# M utton, legas................... do-.. 12 11 18 18 17 16 15 16~ Mutton, chops................. do.. 13 1.2 19 19 171 ~20 16 19 Pork, fresh..................... do-... 16 16 17 18 141 20 16 13 Pork, corned and salted........ do... 19 2.2, 19 21 14J 22 ~3 1'4~1 Pork, bacon.................... do.. 20 2.2 20 2.2 14u........ 17 16 Pork, hams, smoked............ do..20 21 21 23 16`23 23 16 Pork, shoulders................ do... 16 is 17 17 13~ 18 17 13 Pork, sausages,................. do..- 21 19 19 21 16i 25, 25 16~ L~ard......... J.................. do... 19`24 21'25 161 2'2 25 18 Cod-fish. dry.................. do. — 07 08 09 09 07 09 09 0-~_ Ma~)ck erel, lJickled.............. (lo.. 13 13 13 14 III 15 16 104 Butfter......................... do..- 37 43 38 41 37J 46 42 3'2 Cheese......................... do... 19 21 18 20 18 19 is 17 Potatoes................... per bush 75 54 84 67 67a 6.2 55 59 Rico.'............ per lb.] 13 13 14 13 10A 15 13 11 klean s........................ per qt 14 1`2 15 14 11 11 13 1 0 Milk........................... do. — 07 07 07 07 061 07 07 0~j Eggs........................ per doz. 27 28 30 31 31j 25 27 27-1 GROCERIES, ETC. Tet Oolong or good black-.... -per lb 1 06 I 00 1 30 1 18 77 1 40 12~8 1 37 Coffece, Rio, green............... do-... 30`27 32 30 3'2J 29 33 2~ Coffee, Rio, i'oasted............. do... 37 34 41. 40 364 39 40 34 Sug(ar, good brown............. do. — 15 15 14 15 09j 14 14 09-, Saryellow C................ do.. 15 15j 15 151~15 15 0i Sugar,coffee B................. do-. 16 17 16 17 I1] 1 17 11 Molasses, New Orleans..... per gatll. 90 93 1 00 88 86 1 00 1 07 90 Molasses, Porto Rico ----------- (to-. 2 9 84 90 85 70i 84 ~4 71;Sirup.......................... do-.- 1I00 1 00 1'28 1 15 83~ 3 16 81 Soap, common................ per lb. 14 12 13 12 09 1 3 13 08,Starc.h........................ do... 17! 6 16 181 1 4 15 1.2 Fuel, coal................... per ton 9 50 11 20 10 20 11 33 10 50 15 00 11 75 6 77 Fuel, wood, hard........... per cord. 5 55 6 00 6 90 7 35 6 2'2 5 66 5 50 6 08 F'uel, pine, wood........... _do.._. 3 15 3 15 4 44 4 8[ 3 89 4 00........ 4 75 Oil, coal --------------------- per gall. 66 49 61 46 0o 60 48 17~ DOMESTIC DRY-GOODS, ETC. Shirtings3, brown, 4-4, standard quality......................... per yd. 17 17 18 is I14 17, is 10~ Shirtings, bleached, 4-4, standard quality.................... per yd 17 17 20 20 14 16 is 1.2~Sheetilugs, brown, 9-8, standard quality......................... per yd. 16 16 19 19 13 12 17 1,2~ She'cings, bleached, 9-8, standard quality............ per yd. 20 21 2.2 21 151 22 25 16 Cotton,/tlannel -.'..'.'.'.._..,....... do..!5 Z5 24 24 17~1 2 2 7 Ticking, good quality ---------- do-.. 33 33 37 36 22,i 29 32'22 Prints, Aerrimac............... do.. 14 14 16 15 10 14 15 1 [Mousseline de laines........... do_. 20 21 24 24 224 21 2.2 2l1z S:ttinets, miedium quality...... do.- 74 70 77 65 93 58 58 79. ~Boots, men's heavy......... per pair. 5 00 4 83 4 85 4 37 4 03 5 00 4 50 3 9'2 HOUSE-RE'NT. Froutrroomed tenements..... per mo 4 50 4 45 42~5 5 30 6 85 4 00 5 00 9 58 Six-roomed tenements.......... do... 6 40 6 45 7'28 7 70 9 52 6 50 7 60 10 33 BOARD. For men................... per week. 3 70 3 72 4 00 3 80 4 02 4 66 4 50 4 00 F~or women.................... do... 2 70 2 70 3 06 2 85 2 91 3 00 22 33 LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 797 OF LIVING. DRY-GOODS, HOUSE-.RENT, ETC. comnsuption, also prices of houe-rent and boazrd, in the towns Of the several New Englanti 1867, 1869, and 1874. Massachusetts. Rhode Island. Connecticut. AvrginNw nY land. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. I1874. 1867. 1869. 18764. 1867. 1869. 1874. $14 66 $9 28 $8 64 $12 27 $9 70 $8 21 $14 00 $9 61 $8 12 $12 55 $9 53 $7 82 15 65 10 51 9 47 13 12 10 40 9 10- -....10 92 9 12 15 10 10 12 880o 875 647 6130 6 00 550 4 25 10 24 775 6 75 10 12 6 72 5 78 474 422 92 3 80 306 3 93 420 375 4 12 4 30 3 58 3 83 26 24 224 20 21 184 22 21 20 20 20 18 08 08 10 09 09 094 12 ii 09 09 09 084 27 26 234 24 23 22 23 23 171 24 23 19*.15 15 121 15 35 114 16 16 12 15 14 11 13 14 12k 16 16 12i 16 16 14 14 13 12 18 19 17i 21 21 14k 19. 19 17 17 16 15 26 27 243 23 2:3 22f 23 23 21 22 22 21 13 14 13 15 15 12 15 15 14 14 1:1 13 19 20 18 22 22 18 21 21 18 16 16 174 19 20 194 24 24 21$ 2 23 21 19 19 20 18 20 174 19 19 14 20 21 15 18 18 15 18 20 15* 19 20 14 20 22 17 21 22 15 20 20 20k 20 20 1(1 21 21 17 20 21l 17 22 23 174 22 21 14k 24 25 19 22 23 16k 18 18 14 17 17 134 19 20 15 38 18 131 19 2-2 164 21 23 15 21 23 17 21 22 16 20 *23 174 22 22 174 19 24 17 20 24 17 09 09 08 08 08 07 09 10 08k 09 09 074 13 14 13- 12 13 10k 14 16 11 13 14 11 44 46 39 46 47 38 46' 48 41 42 45 374 19 20 20 22 21 193 22 24 20 20 21 19 97 79 841 91 73 96 98 66 78 84 66 77 13 12 11 12 12 10 iS 14 it 14 13 11 15 14 1-2 15 13 102 15 13 11 14 13 11 07 07 064 06 07 084 07 08 08 07 07 07 38 37 344 36 39 33 34 36 36 31 33 33'123 125 84 120 111 74 120 120 92 123 117 93 33 30 22 37 32- 331 32 32 24 32 31 28 43 41 381 45 40 37k 3 6 36 30 40 38 35 15 15 094 15 12. 094 15 15 104 14 14 10 15 15 10 16 15 104 16 16 10k 15 15 104 16 16 10t 16 16 11 18 18 11 17 17 11 96 115 83 105 103 86 1OJ 100 89 98 103 87 83 88 761 89 88 7341 90 90 76 84 87 734 134 125 931 111 111 924 121 121 110 118 115' 93 13 13 09 11 11 09 13 13 09 13 12. 09 16 15 13 14 14 114 15 15 14 15 36 124 10 00 11 06 9 17 850 10 50 9 50 10 55- 10 55 883 10 59 11 06 8 95 855 872 7.72 725 721 7 42 700 700 733 681 696 6 95 617 672 6 25 666 671 5 92 550 550 400 499 538 4 96 62 47 20k 62 49 231 50 50 25 60 48'214 21 17 114 18 17 11 18 18 10 18 18 11 21 18 144 22 20 124 21 21 13 20 19 13 21 19 134'25 20 154 20 20 14 19 19 134 24 22 141 30 25 19 23 23 16 24 1213 16 30 26 194' 3.5 3:3 184 30 30 20 28 27 184 41 36 24f 40 38 25k 34 34 25 36 35 2!4 17 15 10 16 15 10 15 15 10 15 15 10 25 23 24-k 24 24 25 25 25 21 23 23 0224 67 68 58 87 70 674 80 80 50 74 69 68 502 488 4 03 450 450 3 79 490 490 356 484 466 3 87 877 9470 5 10 339 326 4 45 485 S12 328 496 547 5 85 11 74 13 08 6 95 391 392 5 70 623 700 475 684 762' 7 45 468 470 4 12 370 395 4 04 472! 472 381 434 423 4 00 341 3 52 3 10 300 3 25 2 87 371 371 262 314 302 2 97 798 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing the average retail prices of Provisions, groceries, and other leading articles of in the respective years New York. New Jersey.' Pennsylvania. Articles. [_1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. PROVISIONS. Floor, wheat, superfine..... er bb. $12 50 $7 85 $7 50 $14 12 $9 66 $8 00 $12 68 $7 53 $7 00 Flour, wheat, extra family...... do... 11 35 780 9 12 13 50 900 10 17 12 44 7 75 7 88 Flour, rye........................ do... 816 658 6 25 940 7,25 425 865 6 75 5 25 Corn-meal.do... -5 18 365 4 24 550 550 355 518 4 32 4 52 Ilcef, fresh, roasting-pieces.....per lb. 19 19 15$ 23 23 20* 16 17 17 Beef, fresh, soup-pieces.......... do... 10 09 08 14 14 08* 12 12 12 Beef, fresh, rump-steaks......... do-..,21 20 15* 23 22 20 17 18 17 Beef, corned..................... do... 14 14 11 16 16 13$ 13 14 14 Veal, fore quarters.............. do... 14 13 11 17 17 15$ 11 11 12~ Veal, hind quarters............do.. o 15 16 13$ 22 22 19 13 13 14$ Veal-cutlets..................... do... 18 20 1 8 26 27 23$ 19 21 18 Mutton, fore quarters............ do... 14 12 10* 14 13 11 12 11 13$ Mutton, leg...................... do- 16 16 14~ 18 18 18 13 13 16 Mutton-chops................... do. 16 17 16 21 20 21 15 16 16$ Pork, fresh...................... do..- 17 18 14* 19 20 15 15 17 14 Pork, corned or salted............ do-.. 17 19 141 18 19 14 18 19 13$, Pork, bacon..................... do-. - 20 22 141 18 19 17 17 18 14$ Pork, hams, smoked............. do..-`20 24 16* 23 23 17 23 24 16$ Pork. shoulders.. do... 18 19 12 20 21 13$ 18 18 13 Pork, sausages................... do... I22 23 16$ 22 22 16 20 20 16$ Lard............................ do... 19 24 17$ 20 24 17$ 18 22 16$4 Cod-fish, dry..................... do... 09 09 08* 11 11 08A] 10 10 08i Mackerel, pickled............... do... 16 15 12 14 15 12$ 13 11 12$4 Butter........................... do... 35 42 35 47 52 45$ 36 40 35* (Cheese.......................... do..- 21 20 18* 26 26 19 22 21 19 Pottoes...................... per bus 1 03 60 77 1 32 1 23 1 00 1 00 69 97 Rice.......................... per lb 13 13 11 14 12 10 14 13 12 Beans......................... per qt. 17 12 09 13 12 11$ 11 12 10i M ilk............................ do... 08 08 07 09 10 09 09 09 08$ Eggs......................... per doz 25 31 24 36 39 36* 26 25 30 GROCERIES, ETC. Tea,Oolong or other good black per lb 1 26 1 12 99 1 24 1 53 90 1 50 1 35 91 Coffee, Rio, green................ do... 31 29 29 33 31 25 31 28 26, Coffee, Rio, rosted.............. do... 36 33 34$ 45 38 33$ 33 31 32$ Sugar, good brown............... do... 14 15 09$ 14 14 09$ 16 16 09$ Sugar, yellow C.................. do..- 15 16 10$ 15 15 10 17 17 11 Sugar, coffee B................... do.. 16 17 11 16 16 11 18 17 11 Molasses, New Orleans...... per gall. 1 09 1 02 80 1 04 1 04 968 1 12 1 12 97 Molasses, Porto Rico............. do 1 00 88 77* 67 89 73$ 81 77 78 Sirup............................ do... 126 118 97 114 118 100 126 116 89 Soap, common.................. per lb. 12 12 08$ 11 11 07 09 08 08 Starch........................... do.. 13 13 12 15 14 13$ 13 13 11 Fuel, coal..................... per ton. 785 810 7 88 790 884 692 425 444 560 Fuel, wood, hard............. per cord. 620 630 5,27 660 540 900 450 400 546 Fuel, wood, pine............ do... 400 412 4 18 700 650 900 275 272 431 Oil, coal...................... per gall 63 46 18$ 58 55 23 55' 50 28$ DOMESTIC DRY-GOODS, ETC. Shirtings, brown, 4.4, standard quality. —------------------- lPer yard. 18 18 12$ 19 17 13$ 21 20 13$ Shirtings, bleached, 4-4, standard qual- 4 ity........................ per yard. 24 20 15 25 20 16* 24 24 13$ Sheetings, brown, 9-8, standard quality......................... per yard. 26 21 18* 28 21 15 32 28 17$ She'etings, bleached, 9-8, stan'dard quality.................... per yard. 28 28 20$ 32 28 16 35 34 19~ Cotton-flannel, medium quality.do... 30 28 221 28 25 18 26 23 19 Tickings, good quality........... do... 35 34 26$ 44 37 261 42 28 26 Prints, Merrimac................ do.. 15 11 11 16 15 10o 16 15 11 Mousseline de laines............. do... 24 23 22$ 27 23 19 24 23 21 Sa.tinets, medium quality....... do... 77 67 80$ 1 00 65 65 91 82 5 Boots, men's heavy.......... per pair. 462 440 4 22 444 507 450 564 512 440 HOUSE-RENT. Four-roomed tenements....... per mo. 8 50 8 40 6 76 7 70 10 46 16 00 6 16 4 40 9 37 Six-roomed tenements........... do... 11 20 11 20 10 58 11 80 14 95 20 00 9 74 9 30 12 70 BOARD. For men, (mechanics, &c.)...per week. 4 75 4 50 4 29 4 74 4 72 5 00 5 12 4 40 4 75 For women in factories.......... do... 375 350 3,21 412 393 375 316 300 3 59 LABOR IN THlE UNITED STATES. 799 consuimption, wvith prices of house-rent and board, in the towns of the scveral Middle States, 1867, 1869, and 1874. Delaware. Maryland. West Virginia. Average of the Middle States. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. $14 00 $7 00 $6 19 $12 00 $7 00 $6 41 $11 47 8658 $611l $12 80 $7 60 $6 87 15 00 8 00 7 69 14 00 8 00 8 08 14 25 8 14 729 13 42' 811 8 35.500 4 00............. 5 88. 808 5 3e 525 7 86 5 98 5 38 58 4 00 4 43.500.5 00 4 37 409 3 27 333 4 99 4 29 4 07 18 19 20 15 12 12 11 118 18 17 14 15 15 1181 20 18 10 08 08 088 13 13 10 18 18 198 17 16 13 14 12 12f 18 18 16 12 12 112 20 18 118 14 13 108 15 148 12 14 14 138 20 18 10 11 09 091 1481 13 2 12 16 16 158 20 18 1381 11 11 12.1 16 16 13 18 18 20 s1 16 17 15 14 13 19 198 18 15 15 138 20 18 ii 08 07 091 14 128 131 17 17 17 20 18 15 11 09 122 16 15 i, 18 18 198 20 18 158 14 12 12i 178L 17 17 20 20 14$.. 11* 11 11 14 168 178 15 25 25 128 25 25 13 14~ 15 118 198 288 13 25 25 12" 28 25 138 18 18 14 2 21 2 21 14* 22 22 188 23 20 174 22 ~22 161 22 228 17 21 21i 141 25 20 12 16 16 if 1 9 * 19 1-2 25 25 11* 25 25 18 16 16 13 21* 22 16 25 25 1cl........- 16i 18 19 158 20 23 10$ 08 08 12 15 20 09 09 09 09 10* 11 09+ 10 10 1:18 15 20 20 12 12 10 13* 14 138 50 50 45 40 40 27 29 27 29 398 42 36 212 25 21 25 25 23 23 23 24 23 238 20$ 1 00 c0 1 09 75 1 00 762 91 61 %97 1 00 79 93 1.2 10 12 15 13 11* 15 13 118 14 12* 11 10 08 10 10 10 09 ii 10 098 12.10* 10 05 05 09 10 10 07* 09 09 09 088k 08i 08* 35 40 34 28 22 25 17 16.: 18 28 29 2 1 25 1 00 73 1 50 1 25 1 10 169 1 40 101 1 41 1 28 94 28 30 294 36 30 278, 31 28 28 32 29 28 30 35 3484 35 35 311 35 32 32 36 34 33 18 17 098 16 15 12 17 16 112 16 151 10j 16 16 108 17 18 118 18 17 128 168 164L 11 14 13 11 19 19 1181 19 19 138 17 17 11 100 90 92* 75 60 1 05 112 1 02 9682 1 02 95 9581 1 00 90 75........... 83 88 86 73 87 86 77 1 30 1 20 838 1 25 1 00 9(1 135 1 21 92 1 26 1 32 92 10 08 06 08 06 081 10 09 09 10 09 08 08 08 10 12 1-2 121 17 15 10 13 13 11 8 00 9 00 6 10 8 50 8 50 2 188 341 32~8 389 6 65 702 5 43 5 00 5 00 6 50 4 00 4 00 3 83 305 2 87 410 4 89 4060 5 69 4 00 4 00 5 25 3 50 3 50 3 50. 316 4 25 4 17 4 90 60 50 25 75 60 22 66. 51 27 63 52 24 35 30 128 28 25 13 -21 18 11$ 23$2 1 2 32 25 1.38 40 28 18 25 23 13* 288 2383 15 35 30 131 33 25 328 28 24 1381 28$ 25 188 35 30 218 45 37 35 30 26 158 34 308 21* 30 25 15 31 28 168 21) 24 178 29 2581 18 50 40 331* 65 50 321 49 39 313 478 38 26 31 18 118 22 18 10N 19 15 11 194 154 11 37 20 24* 28 25 234 27 2.5 208 26 23 21* 1 25 90 49 60 50 90 102 81 73 2 1 09 72 69 6 75 6 00 3 25 6 00 5 25 4 50 619 5 44 433 5 61 5 21 4 20 4 00 4 00 8 50 6 00 6 00 9 00 716 6 96 11 70 6 59 6 70 10212 5 00 5 00 I1112 10 00 10 00 13 25 10 32 10 27 19 10 9 66 10 12 145-2 5 00 5 00 4 62 4 00 4 00 3 878 433, 4 16 433 4 66 4 46 4 45 3 00 4 00 3 50 3 50 3 50 3 25 2 396 3 83 329 3 59 3 63 3 43 800 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing the average retail prices of provisions, groceries, and other leading articles of States, in, the respective year-s Virginia. North Carolina. South Carolina. A rticles. __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ - 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869, 1874. PROVISIONS. Flour, wheat, superfine -.....per bbl.- $9 95.6 61 $6 59 $10 72 $9 50 $6 50 $13 25 $9 6-2 $9 00 Flour, who. t, extra family....do-.. 11 86 8 68 7 81 12 14 10 64 8 83 15 50 10 75 It 60 F lour rye.............do... 7 96 62~7 3160 6 00 666 --— 13 00 68:3. —Clorn-meal............do.. 420! 414 3 94 5 25 511 4 23 7 08 5 18, 6 00 Beef, fresh, roastinDg-pieces....per lb. 13 112 11L1 09 07 071 112 09 l1j Beeft fresh, soup-pieces......do.. 09 08 0941 07 06... 08 66 12 Beef, fresh, rump-steaks......do... 14 12 1243 08 07 1121 12 1 1 12 Beefeorned............do... 11 12 1 1 07 06 15 14 1-21 20 Veal, fore quarters -.......do. - - 14 11 114 07 06.... 12 09 12 Veal, hind quarters-........do... 15 13 144 08 07-.... 13 10 112 Veal-cutlets............lo -. 10 14 124 08 07 17 12 12 Mutton, fore quarters-.......do... 12 10 134 07 05 05 12 10 12 Muttolnl 1g - do... 121 12 144 08 07-.... 12 10 12 Mutton-chiops -....... o..... 12 12 154 08 09.... 15 13 1-2 Pork, fresh -............do... 14 12 13 11 11 10 16 15 15 Pork, corned or salted -......do... 16 16 104 13 14 124~ 20 20 15 Pork, bacon -...........do.. 1 8 2 1 1 1 19 20 121 23 2:3 18 Pork, hams, smoked - d.......(o... 23 24 15" 22 22 174.- 25 25 21) Pork, shoulders.d.........(o... 17 18 104 18 19 1o 20 19 15 Pork, sausoges.. -........do... 19 20 14 2 19 21. 16-4 20 21 ~:0 Lard-...............do... 20 22 14 2-2 2-2 164 24 25 20 Cod-fish, dry-...........do... 41 11 084 12 10.... 17 17 06 Mackerel, pickled -........do... 15 13 1241 it 11 10 17 1 5 10 Butter-..............do.. 312 33 35 27 2!8 38 32 2!9 35 Chieese-..............do.. 25 26 2,-2 26 25 22% 28 25 20o Potatoes.. -........ per bu s 8 9 9 1 86 70 73 1 17 1 65 1 20.- Rie.....c.......-...per lb. 1 5 1 3 1 2 1 5 1 5 104 1 3 1 2 74 Beans-.............per qt 09 10 082 07 06 I 0 08 08 1 5 Milk-...............do... 09 09 09 09 07-. 14 1 1 10 Egg s-.............per doz. 21 23 24 14 13 15 23 23 22) GOCOERIES, ETC. Tea, Ooloag or other good black per lb. 1556 1 45 1217 1 89 1 94 1 00 200 1 77 1 25 Coffee, Rio, green -.........do.. 28 27 24 29 30 264 30 29 30 Coffee, Rio, roasted -........do.. 31 27 Sf4 33 33 40 35 30 35 Sugar, good brown -........do... 16 16 1041 18 17 124. 21 17 08 Sugar, yellow C -..........do.. 1 8 17 114 17 19 114 2 1 1 8 Dl Sugarcoffee B.. -........do.. 20 19 121 20 20 313 211 19 1 Molasses, New Orleans. per gall. 1 09 1 01 90 99 P8 86 1 36 1 22 23) Molasses, Porto Rico -.......do -. 84 83 60 84 79 75 112 84 1 00 Sirup-do............... 97o9-8.11 114 66 135 10:3 1 25 Soap, common -..........per lb. 1 1 11 0743 09 09 07* 14 14 0 8 Starch-..............do... 17 16 1.2 18 19 it 21 17 112 Fuel, coal-...........per ton. 10 93 10 78 8 59.....- -...800 ----- 12'0 Fuel, wood, hard-.......per cord. 3 81 354 4 44 2 53 2 05 3 17 5 33 481t 5 00 Fuelwood, pine -.........do... 343 286 375 2 19 1 89 350 3 33 3 25 4 00 Oil, coat -............per gall. 67 59 33 77 72 411 1 04 ti9 20 DOMESTI1C DRIY-GOODS, ETC. Sbirtings, brown, 4.4, standard quality-..... - --— per yard. 212 19 11 19 19 13 23 19. Shirtings, bleached, i4-,standard quality.............per yard. 26 23 13 24 22 154 26 25.... Sheetings, brown, 9-8, standard quality-.........peryvard. 34 23 24 50 38 104 33 133.... Sheetings, bleachd, 9-8, standrd quality...........per yard. 36 34 25~j`0 39 1141 38 t.... Cotton-fiannel, medium quality...do -. 3-2 28 21 29 27 1941:3 27. Tickings. geod quality.....- do... (o 40 34 3341 38 35 28 47 38.... Prints, Merrimac-.........do. is 1 15 11 17 16 1141 21 16.... Mousseline do lanes -.......do.. - - 29 26 331 29 27 25 34 38.... Satiunets, medium quality -.....do.. tO 66 521 84 73 60 79 72-... Boots, men's heavy -......per pair. 547 4 96 458 478 447 400 650 5 28. HOUSE-RENT. Four-roomed tenements-....per mao. 9 57 910 17 17 6 25 6 06 14 75 12 33 10 56 10 00 Six-roomed tenements.......do... 13 64 t2 97 24 83 9 00 8 56 -20 00 16 66 15 6 % 25 00 BOARD. For men, (mechanics, &c.)...per week..456 447 506 3 31 3 40 3 75 641 4 87 7 00 For women in, factories-......do...- 4 20 3 87 3 63 306 2 90 2 83 06 4 50.... LAI3OR IN THE UNITED STATES. 801 cowlsliflptiof, vith pr cen of lhouse-reln)t and board, in the towns of the fio1o~wlig Soutie-rz 1867, 1869, and 1874. Georgia. Florida, Alaba mwt. ~ i48i issip pi. 86. 18069. 1874. 18-67. 186. 1874. 1867. 18619. 1874. 1860. 1860. 1874. $12 03 59154 $675.......$6 12 $1114 ~838 ~668 V12 20 ~,27 ~T'5 14 96 10 37 8 50.......... 9150 1400 10 94 818 13 40 1 107~2 8 25.... 8 00............... 800 8 75 10 0 8 00....... -...... 540) 570 447 -.-..... 6 25 510 4 54 390 680~ S67 4 83 14 11 11'2.. - -. 121 12 11 09 115 12 1041 10 09 13~5......09....10 08 05 091 08 08 16 13 15........ 09 13 12 1104 13 1l- 1 1 18 15 134 - - 17 115 12 1-2 20 14 11II 13 12 164......... 15 14 12 I 11~ 1-2 10 10 1 5 1 3 15. ---------- 20 1 6 1 4 121 1 2 112 10 1 7 15 1 5.......... 215 18 14 1 2 12 16 1,24 11 I0 134 - -.......... 15 11 10 094 I11 1 1 07 1 4 13 1 5.....20.... 13 1 2 1 1 14 1 3 09t 15 13 1 —.......... 25 15 1 2 114 17 15 P12 1 6 1 5 12 - -......... 20 1 6 1 4 10 1 6 13 1141 8 1 7 12"Ia.. - -....... 14. 1 8 1 7 13 20 1 8 134, 2 1 2 1 13 - - 15 123 23 1 4 -24 22 1441 25 24 15 - - 184 1125 ~24 1 6 27 27 106 17 17 ~~~10 - -1........ I0 1 7 1 9 101 2 1 20 10425 24 —............. 27 23 1 8 30 26 20 24 2 4 11643. -..19 23 25 14 25 5 18 13 12 20. —---- -- ------ 09 14 1.2 141 17 13 11 15 15 25 - - 10 22 19 10 17 14 12k, 39. 40 30 - -..... 135 41 39 3-2 44 37 33 127 25 20 - - 184.... s 25 25 214 28 27 23 180 169 80 -......... 1 50 1 14 1 14 136 150 128 1 25 13 t1 104. -. 10 17 14 104 14 14 094. 18 15 12, - -- ---- ------ 1-24 2-2) 17 1 1 20 1 8 121i 18 14 20 - -2........ 00 21 I 1 3 104 17 13 10 2-3 27 2 1 - -2........ 5 2-7 27 20 30 29 22. 180. 171 125.........- - 100 22C.10 2 03 121.4 190 187 1 12 30 27 264.....-....- 25 3 1 29' 26 29 27 24 36 33 21.....-... 474- —......... 35 25 31 30 18 1T 114 — 10 16 16 10. 20 17 11 20 18 12 —-- — 1 —-- I1 19 18 1-2 14 -20 124,. 20 19 134 - - 121 18 19 1241 22 21 134. 94 91 874..-........ 624 1 15 1 08 9-2 125 106 81 76 74 55 - -......... 50 1 00 75 70 103 90 60 115 112 80 - -........ 67 1 42 1 32 97 144 125 90 1 2 10 08 - -......... 08 10 1 0 09 15 12 10 18 15 134 - -.... 10 21 18 1 2 18 15 1,24 12 80 12 80 825 —------------ 800 8 55 840 16 00 12 67 -—.444 393 350 --------- 3 75 3 39 347 420 460 400 2 37 393 328 400 -........ 3 37 2 75 2 75 430 325 334 2 00 94 C7.I 35 - -......... 30 95 77 44 85 70 45. 1 9 1 8 11.....-.... 09 20 19 101 25 21. 114, 24 22 144.. -........ 10 22 21 154 30 ~23 1 54, 24 23 164- 15 4 33 124 32 31 15; 28 25 15 - -......... 15 53 39 17 42 36 171' 312.26 2-24 - -........ 124 33 27 23 29 27 1 84 48 40:324 — 1 8 43 41 31 54 43 2-24 19 16 11 - -......... 09 17 16 164 22 37 101~. 31 27 414 - -3....... 18 33 32 203 35 30 284j 88 72 384 -........ 5241 81 69 75 70 62 40 3551 486 458 -........ 5 50 2 5 00 4 55 442 640 505 32115 1 850 1 592 25 00 -........21 50 24 43 20 60 16 75 21 00 186-2 901) 26 50 22 -25-0 35 00 -........27 50 32 43 29 00 21 87 28 00 24 63 15 00. 583 172 400 -........ 5 00 5 41 4 63 375 633 484 3 75 528 458 215 -........ 3 50 5 10 4 60 295 4,83 443, 2 50 5 1 L 802 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing the average retail prices of provisions, groeesies, and other leading Louisiana. Texas. Arkansas. A rticles.- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _- - _ _ _ - - -_ _ _ 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869 1874. PROVISIONS. Flour, -wheat, superfine -....per bbl. $12 03 $7 64 $6 00 $9 90 $8 95 $8 06 $13 00 $9 00 $5 00 Floor, wheat, extra family-....do. - 15 55 10 05 7 75 11 37 9 65 9 75 15 0f) 10 65 6 50 Flour rye -.............do-.........5 50. —-- -— 850 16 00 9 00.... Corn meal-............do. 6 03 5 22 4 12 3 66 346 362 2 95 2 92 4 50 Beef, fresh, roastingc-pieces-.per lb. 1i 12 171- 04 04 0,93 11 08 12 Beef, fresh, soup-pieces-......do.. 09 08 131 03 03 04 11 07 08 Beef, fresh, romp-steaks-.....do..- 11 10 221 04 04 12 12 08 1 Beef, corned -...........do. - 14 13 15 JO0 06 09$ 08 06 121 Veal, fore quarters -........do... 14 13 15 05 05 10$ 11l 06 12$ Veal, hind quarters-........do. — 13 15 20 08 07 14 2 14 07 152 Veal-cutlets-...........do.- 15 16 22$ 09 07, 14 14 07 15 Motton, fore quarters-..........do..- 14 15 15 06 05 09$ 15 12 12$1 Mutton, leg-............do-. - 16 17 17$ 08 06 11$1 18 13 152 Mutton-chops -..........do.-. 19 18 17$. 08 07 14 18 15 15 Pork, fresh-............do.. 16 16 16$ 07 07 11$ 1-2 11 121) Pork, corned or salted -......do.. 21 19 1 5 17 12 13$ 22 21 121 Pork, bacon -...........do-.. 20 18 13$ 13 15 15$ 23 21 121j Pork, hams, smoked -.......do... 27 24 16$1 17 19 16$1 24 22 15 Pork, shoulders -.........do-. 19 18 10 12 35 104-3 2-2 174 08$4 Pork, sausages..........do.. 23 20 20 17 15 17' 0 E -Lard-...............do... 23 23 16$1 13 17 16 2 25 20 12 Cod-fish,-dy...........do... 14 12 09 30 15 09$3 13 27 08 dak ryl ike....... do-... 17 13 10 08 17 09 15 18 1-2 Butter —..............do.. 52 49 45 22 20 32 40 31 321 Cheese —.............do.. 34 028 22$ 29 3 1 24 30 25 25 Potatoes - -..........per bush. 1 46 1 23 1 50 5 0 61 183 1 40 101 2 00 Rice —..............per lb. 13 Il 08$ 15 14 1 1 18 14 10 Beaus —.............per qt. 17 17 15 1-2 15 22$ 17 15 12 Milk —..............do... 16 13 17$1 10 10 15 2 20 17 15 Eggs —.............per doz. 35 33 27 15 14 31 35 29 20 GROCERIES, ETC. Tea,Oolong, or other good black per lb. 2 20 1 92 70 1 81 1 66 1 04 2 42 2 17 75 Coffee, Rio, green-.........do.- - 30 28 25 29 24 27$ 33 29 25) Coffee, Rio, roasted -........do...,- 38 34 32' 40 40 311'... 28 Sugar, good brown -........do-. - 21 15 09$1 16 16 1011 21 19 10 Sugar, yellow C -.........do...- 20 17 11 18 18 12$ 21 18 10 Sugar, coffee B -..........do... 19 17 11$ 18 19 13$ 23 20 12$ Molasses, New Orleans -....per cra1. 1 15 90 65 90 90 88 1 10 98 752 Molasses, Porto Rico -.......do. —- 0: 82 41 61 81 871 1 02 1 00 -. — Sirup-...............do... 1 53 1 27 85 1319 121 10 9$2 1 52 1 38 75 Soap, common-..........per lb. 13 -10 06 3-2 1 1 07$22 11 10 08 Starch-..............do.. is1 1 4 05 1 7 17 1 0 1 9 1 7 10 Fuel, coal-............per ton. 750.... 6 00- - -.......1200 3 05 5 00 8 00 Fuel, wood. hard -.......per cord. 6 66 6 00 5 00 3 12 2 90 5 83 4 37 3 34 4 00 Fuelwood, pine-.........do... 3 25 5 00 350 258 212) 575 6 00 4 70 6 00 Oil, coal-............per gal. 82 59 22$ 93 95 52$ 90 78 27$ DOMESTIC DRY G0005, ETC. Shirtings, brown, 4-4, standard quidlity-..............per yd. 26 23 20 19 18 11$ 27 2-2 12$ Shirtings, bleached, 4-4, standard quality-..............per yd. 27 23 22$ 26 22 12$- 25 29 14 Sheetings, brown, 9-8, standard qualIity --—...per yd. 46 32 30 30 26 14 27 32 14 Sheetingas, bleachd 9-8, standard quality -............per yd. 48 41 3-2$ 34 30 15 -27 39 16 Cotton-flannel, medium quality -..do. -- 36 27 20 26 25 18 38 32 18 Tickiugs, good quality -.......do.. 40 32 30 50 44 25 55 48 25 Prints,.Mierrimac -.........do.. — 19 16 12$ 18 15 10 21 17 10 Mousseline de laines-.......do. — 37 33 22$1 39 28 22$ 47 36 25 Satinets, medium quality-.....do... 66 63 90 81 83 67$ 1 216 90 1 00 Boots, men's heavy -.....per pair. 5 80 5 20 2 25 520 437 387 6 56 5 40 4 00 HOUSE-RIENT. Four-roomed tenements. —.per month. 16 17 17 28 -22 50 14 00 16 40 23 83 20 00 19 19 39 00 Six-roomed tenements-......do-..- 22 00 24 28 32 50 23 00 24 25, 31 66 37 00 29 28 40 00 BOARD. For men, (mechanics, &c)... per week. 4 70 5 58 4 59 3 50 3 8- 5 08 7 03 5 06 5 50 For women in factorie's......do... 4 00 5 29 3 25 3 30 3 61.. -.-.... 4 71.... LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES.80 articles of consurnption, with priCes of board and house-rent, 4-c.-Continued. Kentucky. Tennessee. Missouri. ~Average of the MouthKentucky. Tennessee. Missouri. ~~~~~ern States. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874.. 1867. 18,69. 1874. $10 86 $650 $5 00 $10 15 $6 72 $630 $10128 $6 2 5 $5 50 $11 29 $808 $6 56 12 56 7 70 6 21 11 44 8 00 6 33 11 72 7 80 675 13129 9 61 810 6 40 5 55 5 75 4 83 4 58 6 62 10 00 6 31 450 9 12 7 02 631 3 42 3 03 3 08 —------- - 378 400 3 63 300 4 90 4 42 429 11 11 121 09 08 10 12 11 114 11 10 11 07 07 06 06 05 07 09 08 03 08 07 08 12 12 11$1 09 08 11 112 1-2 1141 11$ 10 12 11 10 09 08 07 09 11 10 10 124 104 12* 09 09 10 08 07 104 11 10 114 11 09 11 11 11 12 10 09 10 14 13 114i 12 11 14 13 14 15 09 10 12 15 14 114- 13 13 14 09 08 09 08 09 10 09 08 09 104 094 10$ 10 09 134 08 11 094 11 Il 10 12 11 134 11 10 11 09 08 12 12 11 10 1341 12 14 10 32 10 10 10 104 10 12 10 13 124 124 13 14 11 12 12 12 13 14..... 17 16 13 16 19 12 17 17 124 17 19 0641 194 20 13 20 21 14 19 20 144 21 21 1341 23 23 16 15 15 03 14 15 11 15 15 06 1714 174 10 14 16 12 14 17 13 15 14 10 204 19$ 16+ 19 20 16 20 20 154 21 20 1641 214 22 16i 12 12 09 13 13 084 1-2 11 071 13 13$ 10 13 12 10 14 10 09 2 13 12 15 15 14 12 28 29 28 27 27 25 31 32 32 34 33 33 26 26 19 25 25 22 24 25 20 27 26 21 89 58 98 1 05 90 1 18 113 60 101 118s 99 129 16 14 10 19 16 Il 13 13 124 15 134 10 11 11 09' 09 09 10 10 09 174 13 124 12 09 08 07 10 10 18 10 08 064 14 11 13 16 15 18 17 19 15 18 21 141 23 23 21 2 00 1 91 1 00 2 40 1 93 1 10 169 1 65 78 2 00 1 83 104 30 28 26 33 30 218 30 28 264 30 28 26 37 34 31 3-2 30 33 34 32 331 33 3-2 34 18 17 10 29 17 12 18 17 11i 19 17 101 18 18 11 20 17 112 17 18 114, 18i 18 11 19 18 12 21 18 13 21 20 11l 202 19 12 1 08 1 07 81 1 12 1 02 90) 115 1 04 874 1 10 1 02 85 87 90 69 94 87 75 97 95 60 91 93 68 1 47 1 26. 88 1 58 1 41 95 138 1 34 80 1124 1 22 90 11 10 074' 11 10 07 09 08 0541 114 104 08 14 12 08 18 17 094 14 13 09 18 16 10 7 47 7 18 3 08 7 27 7 00 5 00 578 6 42 12 00 8 75 880o 835 3 85 3 76 4 62 3 21 289o 3 80 387 3 77 500 4 11 3 70 417 3 17 3 37 4 50 3 03 2 75 4 50 2 00 2 00 400 3 24 3 11 410 71 61 20 88 70 384 69 56 224j 85 69 33 2,0 18 13 21 19 12 22 18 114 22.20 12 26 20 14 26 22 14 27 25 13$ 2)5 23 15 34 31 23 29 30 14 34 28 35 35 30 19 35 33 2541 35 32 15 41 27 40 39 34 20 33 28 19 33 32 19 37 29 20 33 28 19 46 38 32 51 46 30 54 4-2 25 47 40 28 16 14 10 20 16 10 17 14 11l 19 16 11 32 28 24 35 29 27 32 26 25 34 30 26 1 03 87 -66 89 89 73 95 86 65 87 72 64 5 36 4 97 3 83 5 58 4 73 3 90 562 5 10 425 5 70 4 90 403 13 02 12 79 6 90 12 25 12 18 1-210 14 80 12 00 16 00 15 20 14 20 17 10 17 72 17 45 9 80 17 52 17 12 19 87 19 80 16 14 20 00 21 95 20-15 17 15 4 43 4 28 3 93 4 75 3 80 3 62 580 4 22 425 5 17 4 47 460 4 12 4 04 3 00 3 9, 3 35 3 00 450 3 84 350 4 40 4 14 303 804 LABOR: IN EUROPE AND.- AMERICA. Table showing the average retail price of pro visionl5 grocerie, and other leading articles Of ins the respect jve years Articles. ______~~~~Ohio. Indiana. Michigan. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. PROVISIONS. Flour, wheat, superfine-.....per bbl. $12 71 $6 41 $5 70 $10 87 $5 66 $6 12 $10 87 $6 17 $6 00 Flour, wheat, extra family -....do... 12 88 6 82 6 37 12 16 6 38 6 50 11 67 7 14 6 75 F'lour, rye-.............do... 770 490 5 19 828 5 37.... 8412 609 600 Corn-meal -............do... 363 352 3 03 405 3 75 3 30 4 84 418 360 Beef, fresh, roasting-pieces -..perilb. 15 14 12$ 13 12 13 15 14 16 Beef, fresb, soup-pieces......do... 10 09 08 09 08 10 10 08 11 Beet; fi-esh, rump-steaks......do... 16 15 12 14 13.... 16 15 15 Beef, corued............do.. 11 10 10 11 12 08k 11 10 10 V eal, fore quarters........do.. 08 08 07$ 10 09 10 10 08 15 Veal, hind quarters........do... 11 10 10 12 12 121 12 11 18 Veal-cutlets............do.. 15 14 12 14 13 13$ 14 16 1s Mutton, fore quarters.......do... 12 08 09 09 08 08 05 07 09 Mutton leg............do.. 11 10 12 10 09 12$L 11 14 10' Mutton Chops............do... 12 11 13 11 10 11$ 12 12 12 Pork, fresh.do........... d- 14 14 11 13 14 12 16 15 18 Porke orned or salted.......do.. 17 17 13 11 16 13$1 18 19 13 Pork, bacon............do... 16 17 14 1s 19 13$ 19 18.... Pork, hams, smoked.......do.. 21 20 16 21 22 16 23 2.1.... Pork, shoulders..........do... 17 16 12 16 17 13a 16 16.... Pork, sausages...........do.. 18 18.114 16 17 13 19 18. —Lard...............do... 19 21 15i 19 21 18 21 23.... Cod-fish, dry............do... 11 11 09 11 11 10$ 11 10.... Mackerel, pickled.........do... 15 14 12 13 13 12$ 16 15.... Butter.do.............. d- 33 31 27 28 30 32$ 36 32 18 Cheese..............do... 18 20 17 22 23 18$ 23 23 13 Potatoes............per bush. 96 44 92 79 42 1 124 72 42 75 Rice...............per lb. 14 12 10 14 13 10$ 15 13.... Beans..............per qt. 12 09 09$ 12! 11 101 18 09.... Milk...............do. 06 05 06 07 07 082 08 07 06 Eggs..............per doz. 23 24 20 17 22 21$ 23 23 28 GROCERIES, ETC. Tea, Golong or other good black per lb 1 64 1 44 1 01 1 69 1 64 94 1 60 1 46 1 00 Coffee, Rio, green.........do.. 33 20 26 32 28s 301 34 31 25 Coffee, Rio, roasted........do. 36 32 31 36 32 371 37 34 31) Sugar, good brown.........do... 16 15 10 17 16 114 16 15.... Sugar, yellow C.d.........(o.. 16 16 11 18 17 11, 17 16.... Sugar, coffee B..........do.. 19 17 12 16 18 121 19 18 12 Molasses, New Orleans ---— per gal. 1 33 1 12 95 1 14 1 08 92 1 12 1 01.... Molasses, -Porto Rico........do. 1 07 96 84 1 00 90 75 1 06 96.... Sirup...............do.. 144 129 96 146 1 33 1 10 1 46 133 68 Soap, common..........perilb 12 11 08 10 10 07$ 12 11 06 Starch...............do.. 14 13 10 13 12 08$ 17 15.... Fuel,ecoal.............per ton 659 627 3 75 503 5 05 3 37 12 66 11 08. —Fuel, wood,hbard........per cord 345 343 3 86 349 3 42 3 75 3 60 326.... LFuel, wood, pine..........do............4 00 350....... 1 86 185.... Oil, coil....-:.........per gal. 60 45 22 64 50 21$ 67 47.... DOMESTIC DRY-GOODS, ETC. Shirtings, brown, 4-4, standard quality...............per yd. 22 18 11 20 18 12$ 21 17 12$ Shirtings, bleached, 4.4, standard quality...............per yd. 27 22 14 24 20 15 27 22 1~2$ Shectings, brown, 9.8, standard qual. ity...............per yd. 25 21 17$ 25 21 25 30 25 10 Sheetiugs, bleached, 9.8, standard quality...............per yd. 34 29 20 30 25 ---- 38 31 10 Cotton-flannel, medium quality. -do.. - 31 27 17 32 28 15 35 29 15 Tickings, good quality.......do... 43 37 31 45 39 30 44 36 25 Prints, Merrimac.........do.. - 19 14 10 16 14 11$ 17 13 10 Mousseline de lamnes........do... 28 24 20$ 27 24 18$ 2!8 23 15 Satinets, medium quality......do... 1 09 76 84 94 85 75 92 81 65 Boots, men'sheavy.......per pair. 578 5 10 4 60 5 41 5 05 4 83 5 76 516 500 HOUSE-RENT. Four-roomed tenements... —per month. 8 69 7 53 8 92 9 97 9 20 9 00 8 49 7 95 12 00 Six-roomed tenements.......do... 12 79 10 73 12 77 12 70 12 23 13 161 11 89 11 15 16 00 BOARD. FI'm-,men, mechanics, &c..-per week. 4 50 4 03 4 10 4 31 4 09 4 62 4 73 4 54. 5 00 1%r women in foctories......do... 397 3 46 2 94 3 87- 3 70 3 23 4 65 4 09 4 50 LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 805 Consump'ion; also przces of house-rent and board, in the tow~nsof the following JIestern States, 1867,1869, and 1874. Illinois. Wisconsin. - Minnesota. Iowa. 1867. 1,869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 18669. 1874. $10 51 $6 19 $6 60 $867 $535 $5 33 $8 15 $4 30 $5 41 $8 10 05 28 $5 67 12 50 7 50 8 04 9 66 5 91 6 33 8 85 4 71 7 17 9 32 6 15 7 13 8 25 6 09 6 05 7 10 4 76 4 62 6 07 4 64 5 67 4 81 4 82 5 00 4 10 3 75 4 12 4 47 3 75 4 00 6 03 4 85 4 37 3 34 3 59 2 75 12 11 114 14 13 it1 12 12 104 12 11 10t 09 08 08 07 09 07* 09 08 071 07 8 08 13 12 10t 15 13 11t 13 12 11$ 12 13 11 10 10 084 10 09 10 10 10 0D7* 09 10 094 10 09 11 13 10 10 09 08 084 09 09 114 12 11 13 13 11 11 11 11 104Z 12 12 124 13 12 141 14 13 124 14 13 114 12 13 134 10 10 094 12 09 084 09 08 091 8 08 1 11 12 14 15 12 10 2012 11 114 11 10 124 12 12 13 13 ii 11 14 13 13 11 11 124 13 14 121 14 14 11 12 13 114 11 13 114 16 17 12 17 17 12 17 17 12* 15 16 114 18 19 15 18 19 12 19 19 13Il 17 19 14 20 22 16 20 20 134 20 22- 15 1 1 1 15 16 114 16 16 1,04 17 16 11 15 17 114 16 17 13 18 18 134 18. 19 12' 14 16 121 19 21 154 20 22 164 20 21 1571 18 19 154 12 1t'094 12 it 10 12 12 109 12 12 094 15 14 12 14 14 121 14 14 124 14 15 114 2!9 29 284 30 30 24 31 27 251 27 26 194 23 23 184 22 22 154 20 24 17, 23 122 134 1 00 41 91 71 52 53 64 63 79 64 44 48 15 1.3 I1 14 13 10 15 14 12 16 14 10 13 11 094 10 09 09 12 09 09 13 10 07 07 07 064 07 07 054 06 06 06 07 07 054 18 *23 20 21 20 20 22. 21 1's 18 19 134 1 65 1 55 1 00 1 60 1 50 1 12 1 53 1 45 1 01 1 70 1 56 1 00 30 28 27 33 30 25~, 34 29 29 33 29 254 36 33 33 36 35 35 39 33 34 36 34 30 17 16 10 16 15 094 16 15 11 18 16 104 18 17 Il 17 16 104 17 16 114 19 17 114 19 38 114 18 17 11'e 18 17 12 20 19 114 1 04 98 91 1 15 39.100~ 1 30 1 10 1 03 1 19 1 04 90 99 88 69 1 03 91 60 1 03 89 74 1 09 94 75 1 47 1 36 97 1 38 1 26 1 00 1 47 1 25 9 64 1 50 1 14 95 10 09 08 12 11 094 11 10 08 11 10 084 14 13 114 15 14 104 14 14 11 16 15 11t 4 47 4 33 6 73 11 08 11 54 9 00..........12 25 0 31 5 48 5 08 4 71 4 44 5 66 5 25 5 15 4 50 4 44 4 23 5 00 4 52 4 78 4 83 4 00 3 62 3 80 3 41 3 15 241 2906 2 82 3 50 3 20 3 00 4 50 66 52 24416 72 55 19 78 57 314 72 56 274 20 18 124 22 1.8 114- 22 19 114 22 18 124 25 22 15* 26 23 15 27 23, 13 29 23 15 33 27 174 32 27 30 25 20 214L 29 23 20 38 33 2041 41 34...... 31 26 24 38 -9 244 32 27 18 31 27 201 36 30 20 40 30 174 47 39 26 44 38 274 48 40 224 50 39 25 17 14 10 13 14 10 17 14 19 18 14 10 24 24 20 26 24 204 27 24 204, 31 25 214 99 83 761 98 87 621 1 00 8t 704 1 11 88, 714 5 66 5 07 5 51 6 15 5 2 8 5,17 2 4 57 4 80 4 91 5 64 4 96 4 58 10 87 10 84 10 60 8 46 8 24 6 33 112')8 10 57 9 75 11 21 11 54 7 00 14 98 14 97 15 82 11 41 11 30 10 00 15 78 14 07 17 87 15 32 13 11 10867 4 41 4 26 4 25 4 68 4 44 3 75 4 61 4 22 3 87 4 17 4 17 3 75 4 08 3 91 3 66 4 01 3 60 2 92 3 92 3 75 2 75 3 65 3 68 3 25 806 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Table showing the average retail prices of provisions, groceries, and othler leading WESTERN STATES-Continued. Kansas. Nebraska. Average for Western States. Articles. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. rRQYISIONS. Flour, wheat, superfine.....per bbl. $9 36 6 39 $6G 23 - 12 00 $6 75 -....$10 14 $5 83 $5 90 Flonr, wheat, extra family..... d..- 10 21 7 68....11 00 5 25... 10 92 6 43 6 91 Flonr, rye.............do....... 500............... 723 5 21 5 42 Corn-me6al.....do. 370 315 3 50 600 4 50.... 446 389 3 58 Beef, fresh, roasting,(-pie-c-e`s...per lb 12 121 05 20 13.... 14 12'- ii' Beef, fresh, soup-pieces......do... 08 08 05 12 05.... 09 08 2 08 2 Beef, fresh, rump-steaks -.....do. 13 12 08 20 15.... 14%. 13$ 115 Beet; corned............do. 10 09 04 12 09.... 105 10 085k Veal, fore quarters -........do.. 12 12.... 15 11.... 10%- 09% 101 Veal, hind quarters........do.. 13 133... 20 13.... 13 11l 125 Veal-cutlets............do.. 15 14 03 20 17.... 1414 12 Mutton, fore quarters-.......do... 09 09.... 15 11.... 141 082 09 Mutton, leg-............do... 11 11.... 20 13 133. I 11i ill Muttton-chops...........do.. 11 10.... 20 15.... 13 11$ 12 Pork, fresh............do... 12 14 07 20 12.... 13 13% 11$3 Porkeorned or salted -......do... 17 1 6 07 22 37.... 16%' 17 11 Perk, bacon -...........do... 21 20 12 25 23 19.. 19'S I 135 Pork-, hams, smoked........do... 22. 23 16 30 25.... 21$ 14$ 151 Pork, shoulders..........do...- 17 17 10 20 16.... 16$2 16$2 1.35 Pork, sausages..........do.. 16 17 15 20 17.... 7 1 17$L 13$i Lard................do. —- 19 21 14 29 20.... 19i!21 15$ Cod-fish, dry............do... 14 11 10 10 11.... I11$ 11 095 Mackerel, pickled.........do.. 17 15 10 15 16.... 15 14%- 105 Butter..............do..- 32 36 22% 50 4-2.... 334% 31$2 24% Cheese..............do... 23 212 25 2 30 27.... 21$f 22$ 17 Potatoes............per bus. 1 10 38 75 1 50 32).... 89 51 78 Rice...............per lb. 15 14 12 20 14.... 15 13% 11 Beans..............per qt. 11 11 10 20 07.... 13% 09% 095 Milk...............do.. 09 09 07% 10 07.... 07% 07 065Eggs..............per doz. 56 28 29 50 35.... 24% 24 19 GROCERIES, ETC. Tea, Oolong or other good black.per lb. 1I60 1 56 1 12 1 75 1 50.... 1 66 1 52 1 15 Coffee, Rio grendo...- 34 28 21 35 29.... 33 28 271% Coffee, Rio, roasted........do-. - 42 33 33% 40 - 34 37% 33% 33 Sugar, good brown.........do.. 18 16 10 20 15.... 17 15% 10. Sugar, yel.,w C..........do... 21 17 11% 2 1 16.... 165 091 Sugar, coffee B..........do.. 23 19 12t 22 18 19.18.11$ Molasses, New Orleans.....per gall. 1 13 88 -55..... 36...... 1 17 95 89 Molasses, Porte Rico.d......co.. - 97 80 60 -..... 44.... 1 03 851 71 Sirup-d................ o. 154 120 100 1 50 137... 1 47 128: 95 Soap, common..........per lb. 12 10 10 15 12 11$.. II 102 08 Starch...............do. - - 14 12 20 20 -17.... 15 3 14 10% Fuelcoal............per ton - 11 94 866 450 18 00 14 00.... 950 830 6304 Fuel, wood, hard........per cord. 571 554 4 25 14 00 850.... 548 4 74 450 Fnel, wood,pue..........do... 700 500-............. 3 70 324 3 64 Oil, coal............per gall. 76 59 35 75 60.... 70 53 26 DOMIESTIC DRY-GOODS, ETC. Shirtings, brown, 4-4. standard quality........per yard. 25 29 15 205 18.... 22$1 18% 1-2% Shitings, bleache~d, 4-4, standard quality.............per yard. 30 25 20 30 22 ---- 28 22 15 Sheetfigs, brown, 9-8, standard quality -.............per yard. 48 37 17........ 2-2 - 31 25 19% Shootings, bleached, 9-8, standard quality.............. per yard. 54 42 23% J -....... 2!7... 37 30$ 208% Cotton-flannel, medium quality.-~-do. 39 27 20.. -... 35 ---- 345I 29 18 Tickings, good quality.......do.. 52 37 235 30 33 -...... 45 37% 1 26% Prints, Merrimac....do... 18 13 11a. - 15.... 17 14 105, Mousseline do laines........do. - 29 23 15...... 25.... 2752 24 19 Satinets, medium quality.....do.. I111 76 75 90 1 01 1... 00 84 72 Boots, men's heavy.......per pair. 550 483 3U 6 6050 5 so.... 70 5 20 s40 HOUSE-RENT. Four-roomed tenements.....per mo. 16 71 18 43 9 00 40 00 27 50....13 97 12 42 9 12 Six-roomed tenements.......do.. - 23 44 26 14 15 00 75 00 40 00. —— 21 40 17 10 1 9,0 BOARD. For men, (mechanics, &c.)..-per week. 5 00 4 64 3 75 7 00 5 75.... 4 81 4 59 4 14 For women in factories......do... 471 433 2 63 700 500.... 435 397!325) LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 807 articles of consumpin with price-s of houe-rent and board, fc. —Continued. PACIFIC STATES. California. Oregon. Nevada. Average for the Paciflo States.* 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. $6 96 $5 71 $5 00 $5 57 $4 78 $4 75 $16060 $11 83 $8 00 $9 71 $7 44 $592 7 07 7 73 5 33 6 10 4 90 4 92 21 25 11 46 8 50 11 47 8 03 62115 10 00 11800 6 00......... 600 17 25 15 17......136G2 10 58 6 00 10 36 8 01. 6 00 8 91 8 68 8 33 16 60 1 109 8 50 1 162 925 7 61 14 16 1l4 I11 11 091 21 19 180 154 151 13 13 12 08 09 09 064. 15 14 12 124- 12 09 12. 13 10 1!2.12 10 19 18 124 144 1'A 11 11 13 10 09 10 08 16 15 12$ 12 14g 10 12 14 104. 11 10 08 18 17 18 132 134 12 14 15 124 12 12 10 20 19 18 154 154 3 17 17 12I 13 14 114Z 24 221 25 18 174 164 11 12 10 08 07 0943 14 14 12i 11 11 1032 1.2 13 114 10 09 114x 17 17 124, 13 13 13 13 14 111I 12 12 121 19 20 15 1442 154 13 13l 14 12 09 09 1~24 25 25 20 158 16 1442 16 15 16 10 10 121 32 27 20 194L 171 16 18 20 17 14 14 144. 29 28!22 204 204 1742 121 21 20 18 19 144 30 28 22 23 2242 184 16 15 15 11 09 121 5 12 2 15-4 15$ 19 29 16 14 14 134 31 30;20 22 214.J 164 20 20 17 13 22 164j 23) 28'20 204e 2341 17$ 18 17 09 18 19 14 26 25 16 203 204 13 19. 19 11 19 22 154 37 27 20 25 224 154L 46 47 43 32 32 3441 65 58 50 474- 46 42 24 24 22 23 23 234 41 35 25 30 27 23 80 75 1 12 57 58 57 350 2 12 1 25 1 62 1 15 994% 13 12 10 13 12 1!2$ 21 22414 14 1 11 08 034j 11 12 10 30 20 25 174 131 13 12 2 07 12 11 1441 25 22 15 164 15 1 24 47 48 37 32 32 30 1 33 98 50 704 59 39 109 1 04 73 1 14 1 06 8741 1 20 1 09 75 1 14 1 06 78 25 24 26 26 24 2743 34 33 33 29 27 29 36 34 33 45 39 30 57 48 374 46 404 334 16 14 104 15 15 14 24 21 14 184 16'11 13 10 16 12 18 17 164- 21 22 14 104 184 14 18 17 124 17 16 17 21 20 14 182 1742- 18 1 32 1 16 1 00 1 12 1 06- -2.... 00 1 60 1 00 1 48 1 27 1 00 1 25 1 06 1 00........... 50 200 1 56 1 00 1 62 1 31 1 00 1 29 1 25 93 1 11 1 13 87 2 44 1 94 1 50 1 61 1 44 1 10 12 10 08 11 11 11 20 17 084 144 1 249 09) 26 221 15 23 22 201 38 28 25 29 24 20 20 00 15 60 16 25 20 00 20 00 10 00.. 22 50 20 00 17 89 16 25 6 33 6 59 8 67 4 00 4 12 4 50 5 00' 8~7'5...... 51it 646 6 68 5 00 518s 8 00 3 25 3 25 3 67 14 00 9 43 16 00 7 42 5 95 9 22 11 10. I00 40 93 89 50 2 00 1 48 75 1 35 1 12 55 20 17 14 25 20 144 28 20 124l 2441 1.9 13 24 20 13 27 22 15 29 23 124 26, 214 13441 39 16 27 2-2. 30 67 47 30 45.36 25 53 48 17 30 25 34 84 50 33 54 41 28 30 125 20 32 28 234 39 -32 18 3 3 284 204 38 3:3 26 46 39 334 45 38 37 43 364: 32 15 13 10 16 13 11 21 15 10 174 13$ 104 31 26 21 28 23 274, 40 35 20 33 28 224 100 82 87 1 06 9-2 864 94 1 01 75 1600 914, 82$ 4 92 5 10 4 75 6 43 5 93 5 50 9 20 7 50 5 00 6 85 6 18 5 08 12 00 12 4 2 17 00 10 28 9 71 13 17 23 00 17 86......15 09 140S6 15 08 16 30 20 16 31 00 14 66 13 16 18 50 31 20 22 71..... 20 72 35 34 24 75 6 86 6 55 5 33 5 86 5 57 5 17 11 83 9 62 8 00 8 18 7 25 6 17 5 72 6 20 6 00 5 50 5 41 4 00 11 33 9 25..... 7 52 6 95 15 00 *In coin. 80& LABOR-IX-EUROPE, AND AMERICA. Tame ahoteing the average retail prices of provisions, grc'eries, and other leading articles of in the respective years Dakota. Idaho. Montana. Article& ~ ---- _____ - -- -- -__ 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1,869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. P'ROVISION&. Flour, wheat, suIerfine-....per-bbl. $13 00 $6 75 $4 50 $24 75 $18 22 $5 25 $27 00 $20 00 $16 00 Flour, wheat, extra fhimily-:...do... 15 00 7 00 5 00 22 00 15 50 6 00 - -1........I 00 Flour, rye -............do- -.....7 00 4 75- -....1900 7 00 - -.......16 00 Corn-meal-......:.....do_ 12 00 6 00 450 26 00 18 33 7 50 33 00 26 00 17 00 Beef, fresh, roastin g-pieces....per lb,. 18 13 12$ 28 25 12$1 18 210 15 Beef, fresh, soup-pieces......do.. 10 08 04 24 20 09 2 11 12 08 Beet; fresh, rump-steaks......do. 20 17 10 26 2~3 10$ 18 20 10 Beefeorned...........dos 15 13 08 27 22 11$ 14 16 10 Vealfore quarters........do...... 15 08$. 29 23 12$- 2l 20 10 Veal, hind quarters........do...... 16 09' 33 25 15$ 21 22 12$' Veal-cutlets...........do...... 18 15 33 25 12$1 21 22 iS Mutton, fore quarters.......do.. 22 15 0 7$1 29 24 10 2 21 20 1-2 Mutton, leg............do.._ 22 16 10, 33 28 12$ 21 22 15 Mutton-chops...........do.. 22 16 12$, 33 218 11f 21 22 15 Pork, fresh............do.. 24' 16 12$ 39 127 15 30 25 15 Pork, corned or salted......do.. 30 25 15 41 31 17$ 35 75 15 Pork, bacon............do.. 45 27 16 40 41 17 35 27 25 Pork, hams, smoked........do....- 45 33 17 47 44 22$. 45 42 30 Pork, shoulders..........do.. 45 27 12$1 35 34 10$ 35 35 22~ Pork, sausages..........do...... 30 12$ 63 38 20$ 50 42 25 Lard................do.. 50 27 15 42 42 22$ 40 42 25 Cod-fish, dry...........do.. 35 22 10 44 32 21$..... 30 20 Mackerel, pickled....... do.. 40 22 10 45 38 25......... 25 Butter.do..........50 37 15 1 2.1 87 50 1 00 80 50 Cheese..............do.. 30 27 20 63 47 331 30 45 35 Potntoes...........per bus..... 1I00 1 25 5 67 2 17 1 20 2 40 2 02 90 Rico..............perlb. 30 18 12$- 46 28 17$ 25 40 20 Beans..............per qt...... 20 06$ 55 34 10 52 27 12. Milk...............do....- 10 17 05 45 38 12$1 25 25 10 Eggs.............per doz. 50 42 10 1 87 112 43$ 1 62 1 12 60 GROCF.RIES, ETC. Tea, Oolong or other good black. per lb. 2 50 2 15 1 00 1 92 1 65 94 2 50 1 50 1 25 Coffee, Rio, green.........do.. 30 28 30 58 46 35$ 50 45 35 Coffee, Rio, roasted........do...... 60 35 75 55 50 1 00 75 40 Sugar, good brown........do.. 30 21 10 36 27 17 40 25 18 Sugar, yellow C.........do.. 25 22 11 42 33 18 40 27 20 Sug.ar, coffee B..........do.. 022 18 12 46 37 17 40 30 20 Molasses, New Orleans....per gall..- 2 00 1 95 1 00 5 00 3 00.....4 00 2 75 2 00 Molasses, Porto Rico.d......(o.. 1 50 1 25 65............. 4 00 3 00 1 50 Sirup...............do...... 300 1 00 3 13 2 96 1 62 500 337 2 00 Soa1p, common..........per lb- 24 19 10 29 26 18$ 50 30 20 Starch...............do.-.. - 25 20 10 60 45 31$ 75 45 25 Fuel, coal...........per ton........ 8 00...................... 12 00 Fuel, wood, hard.......per -cord.. 7 00 5 50 3 00 11 00 5 00............. Fuel, wood, pinp.........do...... 300 2 50 950 8 00 8 00 7 50 7 00 7 00 Oil, coal............per gall. 2 00 1 42 30 3 87 2 62 1 00 2 25 1 25 80 DOMESTIC DRY-GOODS, ETC. Shirtings, brown, 4-4, standard quality.............per yard.. 30 22 12$ 33 25 20$ 36 26 12$ Shirtings, bleached, 4-4,standard qual.'ity....per yard.. 30 32 15 47 35 20$ 43 30 17 Sheetings, brw,982tadr ul ity.............per yard.. 35 30 11 62 62 20 65 35 40 Sheetizgs, bleached, 9-8, standard quality....... per yard.. 35 37 12 1 12 70 20 65 35 50 Cotton-fiannel, mediu~m`quaity-'do... 50 45 20 75 52 31$ 55 40 20 Tickings, good quality. do.....25 75 30 87 65 37$1 69 62 25 Prints, Merrimac.........do..... 20 17 12, 24 25 12$ 22 36 1,2$ Mousseline do lamnes'.......do.... 35 207 2!5 40 33 37$ 40 31 22$ Satinets, medium quality. do.... do." 1 25 1 00 1 00 1 67 1 ~22 75 1 00 1 00 87$2 Boots, mnen's heavy......per pair.. 8 00 6 75 5 00 12 00 9 25 5.75 6 00 6 75 8 00 ROUSE-RENT. Four-roomed tenements....per mo.. 30 00 25 00 10 00 62 50 27 50 17 50.....50 00~ 18 00 Six-roomed tenements......do.... 00 00 50 00 15 00 87 50 40 00 20 00..... 65 00 25 00 BOARD.I For men, (mechanics, &c.)..perweek.. 4 50 6 50 4 00 16 37 12 1.2 7 50 20 00 10 00 8 00 For women in factories......do.-.. 4 00 5 25....15 87 11 62....20 00 8 00. —-- LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES. 809 consumption, with prices of house-rent and board, in the towns of the following Territories, 1867, 1869, and 1874. New Mexico. Arizona. Coord. Washing- WVYo. Average for Territories. New Mexico. Colorado. ~~ton. Ming. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1867. 1869. 1874. 1874. 1867. 1869. 1874. $12 00 $14 00- -....$31 00 $25 00 $17 86 $12 43 $5 50 $8 50 $20 93 $16 07 $7 95 15 00 15 00 $10 00....... 25 00 19 00 12 80 6 00 10 00 17 75 15 06 9 17.............................20 00 12 00 6 50 8 50 20 00 12 66 8 55 9 00 9 00 4 00 14 00 19 50 14 83 9 44 10 00 5 50 18 14 13 88 8 08 11 10 08 24 2-2 16 13 11 12$" 19 17 12 08 07 06 23 21 12 08 04 08 15 13 06$ 12 11 06 25 22 16 1A4 1 1 15 19$ 18 10 11 10 10 25 22 14 11 08 06 18 16 09 12 10 10 23 20 17 13 09 08 20 17 09$ 12 10 12 25 23 19 16 10 15 22 10 12 12 10 12 28 205 20 19 12$ 15 23 -20 13$ 11 09 08 25 19 15 11 09 12$ 17 16$- 10 11 09 08 28 23 19 15 it 152 22 19 ~s 12 11 09 08 28 28 20 16 R12 15 22$ 20 13 17 12 20 15 33 33 20 12$ 15 26 20vi 15 15 12 20 25 42. 39 26 15 20 31 35 17 40 35 20 50 42 36 27 17 20 41 33 19 52 47 25 52 45 40 29 20 20 47 40 2-2 4 5 40 25.50 42 37 27 13 17 41 34 18 50 45 30..... 50 57 29 12$1 15 55 39 19 50 40 20 47 40 39 30 171 25 45 37 21 40 40 25 4-2 38 34 24 12* 15 39 31 17 25 25 25 60 50 36 27 10 20 41 27 19 112 75 60 125 1 00 84 46 37$ 40 99 71 42 64 45 75 80 67 49 3-2 25 25 53 44 35 6 12 4 62.. —-—. 300 2 75 393 2 04 50 2 10 4 22 2 43 1 19 45 35 20 20 50 34 26 10 12 33 33 1510 10 06 16 09 24 15 06 08 31 19 08 13 16 20 40 23 17 12 12$ 10 23 25 12 50 40 50 1 50 80 99 56 37$ 40 1 17 74 40 1 75 1 75 1 25 1 50 1 25 270 2 10 50 1 50 2 14 1 73 1 08 55 50 33$ 65 52 48 35 27$ 35 51 43 33.. -...... 40 37 37 46 41 37$ 40 65 54 40 40 35 18 47 40 35 24 10$ 12$ 38 28 14 42 38 20 47 20 38 25 12$ 13 39 27 16 47 42 20 48 44 39 26 12$1 14 40 33 16 2 50 2!00 2 00 6 00 4 50 2160 1 91 50 1 25 3 68 2 68 1 35 2 50 2 00 21)0 6 00 4 50 256 1 78 50 1 00 3 31 2 51 1 13 4 50 4 00 2 75 3 75 2 75 336 2 46 90 2 00 3 95 3 09 1 71 31 25 13 55 42 29 23 07$1 10 36 28 13 50 35 20 60 47 39 31 25 20 51$ 35$ 22................... 950 7 20 9 00 8 50 9 50 7 20 9 40 5 00 7 00 4 50 4 75 4 00 11 50 9 33 4 00.. 785 6 17 3 83 5 00 7 00..... 450 3 00 56-2 4 21 4 00 7 00 6 42 5 37 5 70 4 50 2 75'1 25 3 75 3 00 200 1 35 50 40 3 06 2 06 71 33 22 20 20 20 37 25 12$ 18 31$ 23 16) 33 22 20 25 25 40 27 18 ~25 36 28$- 19 44 30 45 25 25 43 33 10 22 46 37 25 44 30 45 30 30 48 37 10 45 56 40 30 62 43 30 37 37 50 38- 20 35 55 43 26 51 33 25 25 25 61 43 25 30 53 50'29 33 22 12$ 15 15 24 56 10 1 0$- 25 28 12 81 57 30 25 25 46 31 25 22$ 44$ 34 27 88 62 90 75 75 108 77 75- -.... 1 10 89 85 7 75 5 50 10 00 9 00 8 00 891 7 12 6 00 10 00 8 63 7 23 7 46 22 50 20 00 8 00 - -........20 00 14 94 12 00 20 00 33 75 27 49 14 25 32 50 27 50 12 00 -.......... 28 00 20 12 15 00 32 50 5-200 40 50 19 90 12 00 8 75 6 00 -17 50 9 00 11 25 7 44...... 800 13 60 8 97 6 70 12 00 8 75.....1750 9 00 11 10 7 44 -.........13 40 8 30. —-- 810 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA Table 8howing the aggregate average retail prices of provisions, groceries, c., in towns of the United Slates in the respective years 1867, 169, and 1874. RECAPITULATION. Articles. 1867. 1869. 1874. PROVISIONS. Flour, wheat, superfine.................................12 90 09 $6 8 Flour, wheat, extra fimily do.... 13 66 9 56 7 93.................... Flour, rye....................................................1 33 8 03 6 24 Corn-meal..... -8 07 6 55 5 24.............. Beet; fresh, roasting-pieces............................. per pound. 16 15 13 Beef, fresh, soup-pieces do.... 11 1..... 081 Beef, fresh, rump-steaks............................... 17 16 13 Beef, corned..................................::.........14 13 10 Veal, fore quarters...................................... 14 12 11 Veal, hind quarters............................. 16 15 131.. Veal-cutlets.............................................181 17 MIutton, fore quarters.................................. 13 12 Mutton, leg............................................. 15 141 14 Mutton-chops.................................... 16 16 1......5 Pork, fiesh............................................. 17 16 14 Pork, corned or salted.................................. 20 211 141 Pork, bacon.............................................. 23 221 15 Pork, hands, smoked........................................ 2 241 171 Pork, shoulders......................................... 20 14 Pork, sausages.......................................... - 61 Lard....................................................- 241 25 171 Cod-fish, dry........................................... 17 16 11 Mackerel, pickled...................................... 201 17 131 Butter.................................................- 49 441 35 Cheese.................................................. 29 271 2 Potatoes................................................ 1 621 1 091 991 Rice.............per pound... 17 16..... 11 Beans.................................................. 161 13 0 Milk...................................................i Eggs.per dozen. 4 40-1 30 GROCERIES, ETC. Tea, Oolorg or other good black..................per pound.. 1 60 1 43 99 Coffee, Rio, green.............................do.... 311 31 281 Coffee, Rio, roasted............................do.... 43 381 341 Sugar, good brown...........................do.... 201 171 Il1 Sugar, yellow C.............................do.... 201 181~ 12 Sugar, coffee B..............................d...(1. 22 201 131f M11ols-sses, New Oi-leans.......................per gallon. 1 57 1 31 98 Molasses, Porto Rico ------------------------— do.... 1 43 1 22 84 Sirup..................................do.... 1 801 1 181- 1081 Soap, comamon...........................per pound. - 16 131 091 Starch..................................do..-. - 22 18-1 131 Fuel, coal...............................per ton. - 10 83 10 03 2 9 11. Fuel, wood, hard...........................per cord.. 5 71 5 44 5 30 Fuel, wood, pine.............................do.... 5 00 4 53 5 42 Oil, coal..............................per gallon.. 1 20 90 381 DOMESTIC DRY-GOODS, ETC. Shirtings, brown, 4-4, standard quality................per yard.. 231 20 32$ Shlirtings, bleached, 4-4, standard quality.................do.... 271 23.15 Sheeting-s, brown, 9-8, standard quality.do..........34..281...20 Sheetiugs, bleached, 9.8, standar qult~o-. 0- 331 22-1 Cotton-flannel, medium quality.d....................(o.... 351 301 19:1 Tickings, good quality..........................do.... 451 391 271L Prints, Merrimac............................do.... 181 17 1 0;1 Mouselino do lanes...........................do.... 311 2 2311 Satinets, medium quality.........................do.... 964t 791 731 Boots, men's heavy..........................per pair.. 6 22 5 56 5 052 HOUSE-RENT. Four-roomed tenements......................per month.. 14 92 13 52 11 93 Six-roomed tenements..........................do.... 22 09 21 80 16 27 HOARD. F or men, (mechanics, &c.).....................per week.. 6 79 5 65 5 01 For women in factories.........................do.... 6 06 5 60 3 53 V.-LXPENDITIJRES OF, WVOIZIDMEN7S FAMILIEs. Table showiNg the average weekly expenditures of the families qf wuorkmen in theninanitfactivinq towns ofthe fiollowing New England Stales, with their average weekly earnings, in the year 1874..MAINE. NEW HAMPSHIRE. -CONNECTICUT. Lewjs~ton. Camden. Lisbon. Prs emr Kecne. Fishr anhs Ashlanid. Dover. Berlin.Ne Brmonth. ket. Ville. tet-. aiu. Articles..,,Z P~~~~~-n;.;- *. qCC~ j Cj 4- ~ ~ 4 — s ct Cs C CZ Cs Cs,~ Cs.. Cs Cs Flonr and bread. —----------— 0 —-,O95 $;3 00 $0 41'00 s 0 40,0 50 808 o 1 0) I l 0 $1L 00 $1 00 $0 90 Fresh, cor-ned, salted, and smioked ineats - 1..... 75 2- 00 81 i50 1 00 1 00 1"I 50 1 35 2 0 1 "5 2 038 Z Lard-1....................... I8...... 27 15 10 25 15 511 to 33 23 19 Butter-....................... 70 50 46 50 23'100 7 5 06 C) 140 70 40 57 HCheese....................... 2...... 14 25...... 10 910 36 125 25 20 06 Sag(ar and molasses —............... ) 1 00 42 0 50 00 0) 00 48 1 00 50 512 tt Milk —........................01 0 12 5 23 25 1 00 56 72 45 42 30 3.5 Coffee —--------------------- 10 30 1 0 20 05 1 0 1-2 20. ----- 05 25 112 ci Tea ------------------------- 1 30 (19 12- 05 1 0 4~2 10 4 4 089 15 1 0 t; Fishe, fresh and salt ---— 0 —---— 25 —-- 2 1 70 15 20 15:30 25 1 2 1 00 4 8 Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, &c ------- 30 125 21 10 10 25 37 2-5 30 25 50 1Ij EggNs --- ----------------— 0 —- ~ 2 2 38 10 30 25 3 5 30 90 40 9 Potatoes and other vegetables ---------— 9 15 12 50 10 50 25 2.5 35 25 (10 48 Frnits, green and dried 25.......20..90..20..40 530525 50 I-'I Fnel-1 —--------------------- I00 50 1 00 00 15 1 50 75' 1 00 75 1 25 50 1 23 Oi o ohrit08 2 05 20 125 10 13 75 15 08 25 23 Othei! articles-................... 51 25..50..25 25-50-.........H..... lionserenit —-------------------:0 1 50 2 10 1 25 (C) 3 05" 125 5 00 1 50 ~)2 00 2 1 2 Far edacational, religioas, and benevolent objects- 75 25 9~5...... 50 50 40...... 05 200 25 10 Total weekly expenses-............ 13 00 11 40 7 54 7 90 5 00 11 45 9 54 13 4:3 11 07d 10 48 ii 35 8 231 Total expenses 52 weeks-............... 6 00 5912 00- 392 08 410 80 2160 00 51)5 40 496 08 698 36' 575 64 544 96 560 20 4 28 2 2 Clothing- per ye~ ar-.................. 12, 00 30 130 -195 09 40 00 2 591 0 0 50 0 *100 00 150 00 150 0) 150 00 i-as 00 100 1)0 Taxes per year —----------------- 30 2000 3 00 2 40 2 00 1068 143 25 150 18 00 200 2 00 Total yearly expenses-............ 804 00 64-280 596 43 2 5N00 0,47 03~575 108 4 729 1 0 5 2'Weekly earnings-................. 18 00 18 00 10 50 9 24 20 (10 18 00 12 01) 24 00 i'-27 45) 18 00 13 -50 10 Yearly earnings, (52 weeks) ------------ 93( 00 036 00 546 60 480 48 1, 0.10 00 936 00 62.4 C O 1,2548 00 1, 427 00 930 010 702 00 546 00 00 - Estimated. tIncluding earning s of:3 children. - Lives in his ownv hoase. If~ Dbase-renit Iree. -____-_ Table 8howifg.the average weekly expenditures of the families of workmen in the manufacturing towns of the following New England States, 6'c.-Continued. o MASSACHUSETTS. RHODE ISLAND. Holden. Dalton. Freetown. Newton. at Stock- Lowell. Pittsfield. Proeri Scituate. Coventry. I ~ewt~n' Hampton. bridge. dece Articles.._ _ " _ Average. Cd en au et Cn cc anV anM anM CZn Flour and bread..$ —---— 2 —-------- P50 $100 $0135 $1 50 $1 00 200 $1 00 $050 $0065 1t 10'9l 2 5 $1 13 ~Fresh, corned, salted, and smoked meats....... 2 50 2 00 2 Q.'1 2 50 2 50 2 50 1 50 2 (310 1 25 1 30 1 7.5 1 139 t4,'~.. r-~.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- Lard.......................... 05 10 20 50 ~ 25...... 50 20 15 40 50 2-8 Butter....................... 05 50 80 75 s0 75 40 C0 40 1 00 7 6 64 t — Cheese........................ 05 10 10.18............. 40 15...... 25 30 20 Sogar and molasses................. 20 50 90 100 75.. 150 82 43 6134 75 eo Milk..~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~~ ~ ~~05 24 42- 49 75 20............. 2o8 10424 Coffee. —- --- --- --- - ------------- - - 10 20 40!25 ------ 401..... 05 15...8... i Tea.. —---------------------- 10 2!5 10 50 50...... 30 25 07 30 1.8 2-1 t Fish, fresh and salt... —------------------- 25 30 50 50...... 50...... 50 125 25) 35 Soap, starch, salt, pepperviuegar,.&e.. —----- 20 25 17 25 30 20 25 30 20 57 25 1213 Eggs... —-------------------- ----- 25 i0' 12 40 20 30 50 2540 30'l 27 ZIPotatoes and other ve fetab es............. 50 50 40 30 35 75 50 2-5 15 1 00 4 5 38 Fruits, green and dried... —----------------- 10 2~5 150 35...... 25...... 20 50 215 537 Fuel............1............ I00 75 75 55 1 00 1 00 1130 1 00 1 00 1 00 135 89 Oillor other light.. —--------------- 10 06 10 15 20 25 06 10 33 25 00 18s Other articles.. —----------------- 20 25.. —------.... 50................... 100 1 00 12 0 45 Spirits, beer, and tobacco, (if auy).... —----------------- 25 15 23 25 05 15....... 1 00 10 29 House-rent.. —------------------ 3 01 1 1 75 2 40 3 00 75 3 00 1 121 4 00 1 25 70 215 - For educational, religious, and benevolent objects. 15 20 15 75 305050 1 00 10 79 Total weekly expenses............ 12-00 8 40 1i 04 14 49 16 65 8 iS 12 41 7 9411 11 41 14 92 9530 10 78 Total expenses 52 week-s............... 324 00 436 80 574 08 753 48 8135 80 460 120 645 32 413 14 593 32 775 84 483 630 5130 56) Clothling per year.................. 50 00 *25 00 2)0 00 100 01J 150 00 50 00 1130 00 *100 00 138 00 100 00 23 00 106 135 Taxes per year................... 2 00 2 54 2 00' 200 2 00 2 00 2 00 200...1... I00....... 317 Total yearly expenses. ------------- 6176 00 464 34 776 08 855 48 1, 017 80 512 20 747 32 515 14 751 32 876 84 508 130 670 22 Weekly earn ings-................. 15 00 0 00 15 00 16 50 20 00 iS 00 17 00 15 00 17 00O 17 50 10 00 15 14 Yearly~ earnings, (52 weeks)-............ 780 00 468 00 780 00 858 00 1, 040 00 780 00 884 00 780 00 884 00 910 00 520 00 187 28s *Estimated. theireave'rage weekly MARYNEW YORK. NEW JERSEY. I)ELAWARE. MANY) LAND. Buffalo. NewYork Buffalo. Little Bridgeton Trenton. wilminaton. Newport. Baltimoro Falls. Ww Articles....... R Cd nni i en en e;I en n e. c an W an C] an CZ Q Cd Q Cd c] Cd Cn C) CS C5~~~~~~ CZ CZ CZ~ Cat C5V CZ s ~ Q Flour and bread............................................. 2 00 $0 84 $1 50 81 75 1 25 $1 00 02 00 $1 00 $0 75 $1 50 $1 25 Meats, fresh, corned, salted, or smoked........................ 2 00 2 82 400 1 00 1 50 3 50 2 00 3 25 1 75 2 25 1 5 z Lard........................................................ 50 08 32.......... 32 60 34 14 10 40 32 Butter...................................................... 1 00 50 144 70 1 20 1 50 80 C0 1 00 1 35 80 Cheese...................................................... 2 5 22 20 18 30 16.................... 25.......... 0 Sugar and molasses......................................... 1 25 34 86 50 1 36 80 70 22 30 75 50 Milk........................................................ 49 49' 50 21 30 70 35 32 70 1 00 35 Cofibe...................................................... 60 19 48 40 32 60 35 90.......... 70 64 Tea......................................................... 50 25 30 62 121 50 25.......... 50.......... 25:Fish, fresh and salt.40 15 24........... 50 0. Fish,~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 frshad.......... ------------------- 50 ---------— 5 0..................6............. Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, &c...................... 60 40 36 54 54 50 25 10 25 25 30 Eggs........................................................ 70 25 30 40 60 25 30 30 30 70.......... Potatoes and other vegetables...............................50 1 00 1 00 50 *25 I 00 45 57 30 50 60 Fruits, green and dried...................................... 60 28 100.......... 25 80. —-------- 50 25 50 Fuel....................................................... 91 1 00 120 1 12 75 75 75 1 50 1 00 1 25 2.00 OD Oil and other light.......................................... 10 06 20 20 20 25 25 35 25 25 20 H Other articles................................................ 25.......................................... 50.............................. [.................... Spirits, beer, and tobacco, (if any).......................... 20 50 30 25 25 25 ---------- 25 ---------- 40 25 H Hfouse-rent.................................................. 1 75 3 60 Rent free. 1 60 2 23 2 50 1 75 2 50 3 25 3 00 3 50 For educational, religious, and benevolent objects........... 40 15 1 50 25 1 25 1 00 ---------- 25 1 00 25 1 00 Total weekly expenses................................ 15 00 13 12 15 70 9 62 13 51~ 17 66 10 54 12 25 12 80 14 80 14 16 Total for 52 weeks. 780 00 682 24 816 40 500 24 702 78 918 32 548 08 637 00 665 60 769 60 736 32 Clothing per year............................................ 150 00 100 00 229 00 *40 00 100 00 115 00 *100 00 100 00 110 00 225 00 50 00 Taxes per year.................................................................. 8190 00.......... 4 00 7 00 94 3 25 4 40 14 00 7 51 Total yearly expenses................................. 930 00 782 24 1, 226 40 540 24 806 78 1, 040 32 649 02 740 25 780 00 1, 008 60 793 83 Weekly earnings.22 25 16 50 25 00 105 0 1608 2000 0 00 15 00 1500 34 00 1650 Yearly earnings, 52 weeks'::.::::......::.................. 1,157 00 858 00 1,300 00 546 00 836 16 1,040 00 760 00 780 00 780 00 1,768 00 858 00 C~ * Estimated. t Taxes and interest on property. Table showing the average weekly expenditures of the families of worlmnen in the manufacturing towns of the following Middle Stales. 4-c.-Continued. PENNSYLVANIA. cp L4 Norris- Philadel- Bethe t Philadel. Consho. Harris. tw.phis. hein. heno. phia. hoeken. burgh. Articles. - _ _ _ - rz ll~~ ~ ~~~~z~.~ 1. 4.~. CZC 4 id P a4) Q,).4)Cja)C Iz - a5 - a 4 Sa Flour and bread..0 75 $0 s0 1 00 e1 15 $1 00 $0 85 $125 $0 40 $1 00 / 1 50 1 00 $080 1 14 Fresh, corned, salted, and smeokedmeats. 1 50 1 00 1 50 2) o20'25'20 3 50 50 1 50 3 00 3 00 1 00 1 91.. Lard................................... 3 1 32 1 25 30 1 27'25 50 15 2s Butter................................. 1.20 04 40 85 30 45 75 1 00 90 120 2.00 45 91 ~''Cheese................................. 15 ---------- ---------- 22 ---------- ---------- ---------- --------—' 25' 255 40 22 25 25 Sugar and molasses.................. 5 0 1 2.5 50 54 38 37 50 50 85 1 00 1 00 43 67 e -Milk... 5 28 28 24 40 50 50 70 85 16 47 0 Coffee.................................. 638 38 35 40 45 30 20 50 32 40 co 32 454 T e................................. 12 2 45/ 3 -0..50 25 50 30 25 3244 Fish, freshn and salt. —--------- 25 20...... 30 I.0 10....0.. 40 i 00........... 39 Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, &e... 1 00 50:30 io I 5 15 30 50 27 1 00 50 30 4 1 Eggs.00 — 32 -- 40-30 15 50 200'20 00 50 25 4 7z ea.................................. 60.........,c5 /...../2 3 2 40'21 /'5/. Potatoes and other vegetables....... 00 1 50 40 1 05 5 20 51 50 45 01 Fruits, green nudl dried................. 75 130, —------— 30 ---------- ---------- 25.......... 2 3 1 00. 0 20 48 Fuel.........0........... o...........100 100 75 00 Oil or other light............. 15 2.5 10 8 l 20 0'20'20 1 0 1 5 12'00I Other articles.. sa —--------------— r, —-- - 10' 1 0 0 50 43 Spirits, beer, and tobacco, (if any)...-. —--- ----- ---------------------- 1 00 1 50 73..... 13 44 House-rent................................... 450 225 31 50 20 600 200.......... 75 7 00 2 00 3 0 5 Education, religion, and benevolence. 50 10 05 5 1 00 10 —-- -—. —--- 10 2 00 1 00 10 66 C) Total weekly erxpeses.......... 10 78 12 75 8 3 13 6 8 41 8 17 i5 86 11 60 11 30 20 75 21 30 8 13 13 05 Total expenses for 52 weeks............ 500 56 603 00 4-27 90 711) 84 4 7 32 419 04 824 72 003'20 590 72 1, 079 5/0 1,.107 00 433 10 678 CO Clothing perear................. 00 100 00 *80 00.13 00 0 00 40 00 10 00 75 00 25 0 175 00 40 00 113 82 Taxes per year....................30 00. —-------— 7000. 200 2750 50 8.83 24 92 Total yearly expenses ------- 740 511 7743 00 507 90 8-23 84 489 57 529 04 984 72 6 53'20 008 2-2 1, 359 05 Ii, 327 60 481 99 780 52?5 ~ 0 201 00 2250 [ 1 00 89 Week.ly earnings1....................... 500 1000 o 0 1)10 1I2' 2 2 2 I 0 o. 9.45 Yearly earning., (52. week~s) ------- 780 00O 832 00 523 00 1, 3:32 —,4 780 00 6424 00 1, 010o 80 1, 040 00 1, 352 00 1, 170 00 1, 470 00 491 40 985 40'Estimated. Add about$O for n1edical attendance. Table showig the ave'age weekly ex2)et~ditures of the families of workmen in the ~mmtfacturing towns of the following Western States, with their average weekly earnings, in the year 1874. OItIO, INDIANA, WISCONSIN, J t J I I t Dayton. Beliefon- ~ 1 Marts el tainc. l~ucy'us. - ville. ville. kee.' Cedarfi.dj Steuben- Cincinnati. Articles. I ~........... ~l J ~ ~,-~ ~,~ ~ ~. ~-~ ~,-~ ~ ~. ~ ~. i~. i ~. i ~ ~ I ~ I ~ I c~ ~q; I ~ I ~ I ~q; I ~ I ~ I ~ I ~ I ~q; I.~ ~'~ ~..~ ~.o ~::~ ~.~ ~'~ ~'~ ~.~ "~. I 1/ I I i! cz i ~ I $o 4ol St:~o / St oo $1 ool $o'~5 I $o 7o I,~o 9o I ~0 75 I ~0 $o 8'~1 3Ieats, fresh, corned, salted, or smoked........... 1 25 ] 1 75 [ I 40 J 3 50 1 60 / I 75 [ 1 50 [ i 50 I 2 50 I]]]]][]]][ ],ard........................... ~.~ I I 06 / ]5 I o.~ ~5 I 401 ~5 I 30 I 501...........;'~:;;;;'.;:;:::Z:; SOl.......~'i ]3utter........................ 4ol Ioo / 6Ol ~:to 40 I- 6o I 75 I ~0 I Col.......... 20 J 05J..........J ~0 12 / 15 I..........I ~5 J 10 t Cheese........................................... 15 10 Sugar and molasscs............................... 50 [ 401..........'25 i 10 ] 50 [ 1 80 ] 40 [ 40 [ 70 J 1 00. I ~3 1................... 30 I L~ ~51 35!.......... Milk........................... 56 ~0 / ~. 001 ~5 I ~51 3,5 / 401 301.......... Coffee............................................`251 i~I 301 30 / 30l ~5I 35 I 501 50 I 40 I no{.......... Tea............................................... ~51 ~5 / 05 /`2Ol ~o I as I ~5 I ~5 I ~1 ~5 ~.......... ~Fisb, fresh and salt........................................ I l........../..........I ~ol..........I'~sl ~51'~l ~ol.......... ~.~-~ ~5 [.......... Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, &c............. 15 / ~-5{ 40 I 25 { ~0 I 50 I 10 [ 25 I 50 J ~5 { 38I.......... ~ggs............................................ ~o I,:oI L~ ~5 ~5 /..........I 501 50 I 401 ~01 30 I'201.......... l'o[atoes and other vegetables....................,ol 5o I ~Ol i o~l sol 4o1 sol be / 4~1`25 50.......... I Fruits, green and dried................................... t..........I ~/..........I:t 10t 15 I 301 ~51 30 I 3~1.......... 50 ~iCJ 1'25.......... ~'uel............................................. I 00! 00 ] I 12I'25 I 75 ]..........I 60 I 2 001 O'~ Oil or other light................................] 12 101 50/ 10 { 30 { 10 / ~0 I ~5 { 15 I 55 {.......... Other articles. 15] 25J [ 1 001 50 J 1 50 J'25 {......... J..........{..........[ 1 00 J.............................................. x,' I::'::1............ / I i [ I { {................... "" Spirits, beer, and tobacco, (if any)...................... 1 O0 40.......... 30 70.................... I.......... }louse-rent....................................... 2 O0 1 25 2 50.......... 2 O0 3 85 1 50 2 O0 2 50 2 50 25.......... ~l t ~~~r ~~/ ~-~~l ~~/ ~/........../ ~~/'25'25; r.~ For educational, religious, and benevolent objccts. ~-~0- -— ~}~~ ~~~1........... Total weekly expenses...................... 1~'9 70 — ~.3'5-9- —'-~-~ —-'~-~- --— ~"~' ~1'~'~ -—'-~-~ $4 O0 [ Totol ~pe=~ ~o woek~.......................... [ ] t [ [ / } ) =~4~ { —-39~ —-3~-3-52-l —-~'~-3-32-/ —-3oo-~-Td-l-i~q,~e~ l~~ / —~-~-/3-l —3a~ l —-34~ / —qfi-S~l'20s 00 Clothing per year.................................~:~00001 ]~5001 *l'~5001 300001 ~00001 375001 s5001 ~5001 ~sOOOl ~5OOOl 3ooool oo 9 00 [ 5 00 20 00 J 5 00 160 00 / 5 00 I 4 00 [ 2 5O I 10 00 J 3O Taxes per year.................................. 5 00 ] ____~~.........l__~ /...........~.~o 55t O0 52'260 50444 63540 70110 80480 t 24150..... 1, 0168849524 l, 08504_ 62449 l, 60668 — fi-~ —f~Z —B-B:, ~,, oo,, oo[ 4, 3~{,, oo Yearly earnings, (52 weeks)....................... 780 O0 2, 200 572 O0 7'28 O0 ~80 O0 ] 62~ O0 J.......... O0 00 ]~80 00[1,35~ O0 [ ~ Estimated. Table showving the average weekly expenditures of the families of wvorkmnen in the manufacturing towns of the followin Western. States, 5-c —Confiuued. 00 ILL]DNS NIN- IOWA. KANSAS. SOTA. Be Wvll.Bllv e.t MeloBurling- B~e Grasshop. WestvileChicago. Metop Decatur. Sterling. Canton. Rochester to oo erFals.. Articles. - _ _ _ _ nz M - 0 Z, P 9 P 0 3 4CZ Cd aZ C) C ~ C- a~ &- C.'ad0 C;4 cc~~~c a c4 ci Flour a~nd bread —................. $1 00 $1 25 $0 97 $0 65 $0 25 $1 00 $1 00 $075 $0 75 $0 50 $1 00 c0o so Meats, fresh, corned, salted, and smoked - -...... 1 50 2 00 2 00 30 3 00 1 00 1 50 2 00 1 00 50 1 20 1 57 Lard.. -....................... 3 5 50 2-2 10 30 30 ------ 25 30 50 30 2118 Butter -—...................... 35 50 90 30 90 1 00 75 75 75 36 60 67 Cheese -—...................... 30 45...... 05 20 20 25 - —.......... 1 8 25 19 Sugar and molasses -—............... 35 50 79 30 1 50 1 00 70 1 35 10 75 1 50 7 0 Milk -—....................... 35.50 42 20 40 60 35...... 30 30 35 37 o Coffee ---...................... 35 50 38 25 35 125 50 30 30 25 65 37 Tea -—....................... 15 25 25 10 25 25 1 0 25 20 25 50 21 Fish, fresh and salt-.... ---— 1- 30 1 40 20 10.50 25 1 0 - —.......... 10 ------ 25 Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, &o - —....... 40 60 40 25 25 25 30 25 75 25 25 33 Eggs -—....................... 40 50 30 20 30 20 1 2 25 10 20 25 28 Z-0 Potatoes and other vegetahles - —.......... 60 75 52 10 50 50 2 25 50 30 40 75 57 Fruits, green and dried - —............. 15 25 18 25 50 1 0 50 50 25 10 50 3-2 Fuel —-—..................... 60 80 2 50 1 00 1 00 75 50 1 00 1 00 1 00 75 97 (XIl or other light -—................. 30 40 10 20 50 05 10 10 40 12Z 10 24 Other articles-................... 35 50 15 25 -............................. ----...... 53 Sp~rits, hoer, and tohacco, (if any).. - -....... 1 00 1 00 30 20 ------ 10 - —.......... 20 15 25 47 House-rent -—................... 1 75 2 25 - -..... 200 2 50 250 250 2 50 - -..... 20 1OI00 202 Foer educational, religious, and henevolent ohjects- 60 60 ------ 50 25 05 - —.......... 25 20 25 -68 Total weekly expenses-............ 11 15 14150 10 58 7 30 13 45 10 35 11 52 10 95 7 35 8 21 10 45 10 50 Total expenses.52 weeks-.............. 579 80 754 00 550 16 379 00 699 40 538 20 599 04 569 40 38-22 2 92 534 546 00 Clothing per year................... 100 00 150 00 120 00 195 00 150 00 100 00 *100 00 *120f 00 200 00 150 00 160 00 154 78 Taxes per year -—............................ 28 08 150 550 3 00..- - -........ 4000 - -..... 500 18 35 Total yearly expenses.............. 679 80 904 00 698 2-2 576 10 854 90 641 20 699 04 689 40 622' 20 576 92 708 40 714 75 Weekly earnings-................. 18 00 24 00 - -..... 18 00 25 00 15 00 15 00 18 00 17 00 15 00 18 00 18 19 Yearly earnings, (52 weeks)-............ 936 00 1, 248 00.......... 936 00 1, 300 00 780 00 780 00 936 00 884 00 780 00 936 00 945 88 *Estimated. Table showing the average weekly expenditures of the families of workmen in the manufacturing towns of the following Southern States, with their average weekly earnings, in the.year 1874. VIROIA. WEST VIRGINIA. NORTH KENTUCKY. CAROLINA.KETC. Huut'n,- CI rls M aycs-vleCOig Danville. tn Charls. Tarboro'. Louisville. Lea. Movn Articles. ~. ~. ~.'.' a a a a a en a)n ce o. n' I e a n Coin - cI Cs Ca ton C. a o s C ~'1our ~~~~~~~~~~~~ and bread...........'n con Flonr and bread................................... $1 00 $0 43 $1 00 $1 20 $1 00 $100 8(00 $1 50 $1 00 150 Meats, fresh, corned, salted or smoked.................................. 1 75 1 68 1 00 1 75 0 1 50 1 00 1 50 75 7 00 Lard................................... 25 30 70 00 35a 75 30 ------ 125 48 Z Butter................................................................. 50 s0 75 75 30 40 50 50 [ 30 1 75 Cheese.....................................25 15..:. 20 20 20 05 25 Sugar and molasses.. —-------------------------------------------------- 30 85 50 00 30 90 70 30 75 1..0 Milk.................................. 70 96 1 40 10 30.. —--- 35 60 05 1 12 Coffee..30 40 30 30 40 45 25 50 50 75 Teaese25 25 30 10 10 10 40 Fish, fresh and salt................................................... 30 10 3...- 30 15 20. -50 5 Soap,starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, &c.................................. 20 25 24 15 40 25 40 50 40 50 E..gs.. —— 25 20 1..... I0 30 215 2(J 75 10( 25 Potatoes and motelr getasbes..60 25 30 40 1 50 50 30 1 00 50 75 Fruits, green and dried................................................. 2 5 25 ---------- 20 1 5.......... 25 1 —------- I0 7 5 Fuel..1I.00 30 70 1.00 75 75 00 2.00 50 10 c Oil or other liglit............................... —------------------ 10 10 05 10 15 25 10,. 05 30 H Other articles..10 50... 15 50 25.. 2 00.... 1 00 pirits, beer, and tobacco, (if any)...................................... 25 50 10 30 75................... 1 00 1 0 I0 Rouse-rent..200 250.......... 300 125 250 550 300 250 500 Educational, religions, and henevolent objects.. —---------- 25 25.. 55 20 70...........25 50 0 Total weekly expenses.................... I..........i 9 10 10 11 55 15 8 8 15 2 10 Total expenses 52 weekst551 20 574 08 301 68 013 60 473 2 561 00 c00 60 824 20 423 sO 1, 357 20 Clothing per year. —-------------------------- 50 00 100 00 75 00 114 40 350 00 150 00 ioo tIO 250 00 100 oo 300 00 Taxesperyear.1000....300...*500...400................................ 250 Total yearly expenses,610 20 677 08 501 68 7p32 00 03 20 711 60 703 60 1, 084 20 523 80 1, 659 70 Weekly earnings...................................................... 12.0 16 50 9 0 14 00 12 00 14 Co.20 00 I 00 24 00 Yearly earnings, (52 weeks)........................................... 50 00 858 00 48 00 78 00 624 00 728 00...... 1, 040 00 572 00 1, 768 00 *Owns laud, and pays $45 taxes ia all. Table showving the average wveekly expenditures of the families of workmi n in the snanif eturing towvns of the following Southern Slates, 4-c.-Contiuned. TENNESSEE. ALABAMA. LOUISIANA TEXAS. Chatta- Memphis. Lawrence- Tallahas- Baton Galveston Dallas. Austin - San Annooga. burgh. see. 1Rouge. toullo. Articles. ~~n. ~~~~n.'a.'a.'a.'a.~~~~~~~~~17'aWa / aZ an Cs ~~~~C. SQ EQ Q Q EQ 0 Coin. Flour and bread -................................ $1 00 $1 50 $3 00 6225 $1 00 $1 371 $0 0 $12~0 $2 00 $1 21 - Mo ats, fresh, corned, salted, or smoked -— 1................ 00 2 00 1 50 1 78 3 CO 3 00 CO 1 05 1 75 1 83 Lard. —--------------------------------- 40 30 50 37 50 25 20 50 25 40 Butter ---------------------------------- 90 30 1 00 00 CO 1 00 50 40.50 066~ Cheese —--------------------------------- 25 25 - - -— 25...... -. -... -............ 21 Sng~ar and molasses —------------------------- - 75 50 2 00 s0 75 1 00 50 50 1 25 78 M ilk —-.................................. 35 25...... 35:35 50 5)0 35 3.5 St1 Coffee. —---------------------------------- 30 40 1 00 55 50 50 10 110 50 47 Tea —------------------------------—. - 50 On -.....-...-.... 25 25 10 40......24 Fish, fresh and salt -------------— 1 —---------- 25........................... 50 125 25......28 Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, &c -—................. 50 25 50 25 50 1 00 25 65.50 41 Em,.gs —................................ 25 25 ~ 50 ~ 20 50 5 0 20 50 25 31 Potatoes and other vegetables —------------- - ------- 50 1 00 —- ---- 1 00 1 00 60 40 75 25 04 Fruits, green and. dried -—....................... 50 75 75 —---- 1 00 25 25 ----— 42 Fuel —-------------------------------—. 1C0 60 1 75 1 00 1 50 2 00 50 50 1 00 97 Oil or other light —-------------------------- - 25 20 25 21 50 50 15 25 15 22 Other articles —---------------------------- - 25 -......-..... -...... 1 00.50 10..- -...........58 Spirits, beer, and toba cco, (if any) -—................... 25 5 0 1 00 75 1 CO - - - - -1............. 25 07 Bouse-rent. ------------------------------- 250 2 00 —----------- 3 00 6 25 2 85 3 75 150O 307 - Educational, religious, and benevolent objects -------------- 25 50 -. —-- 25 50 00-..... —---- 1 642 49 0 Total weekly expenses —..................... 1 1095 1100 13 75 1040 18 20 29 071 7 70 12 30 13 142 13 18 Total expenses 52 weeks-........................ 021 40 003 21 715 D0 54 0 80 940 10 1,511 t0 400 40 039 60 682 50 08~5 39 Clothinga per veal —............................ 100 00 50 00 200 00 150 00 150' )0 150 00 40 00 150 (1)0 50 00 128 28 Taea prx ere —---------— year —------------------ 300 ---- -— 100 —-3C-I- 200 —-- ------ 0-4 --- 53 Total yearly expenses-..................... 721 40 C53 20 9150 00 9:1860 1,0C9741) 1, 601 90 440 40 I 9100) 732 50 818 07 Wee'kly earniinrs-............................ 15 00 11 00 18 09 10 CO ~25 00 31 00 12 00 18 75 15 00 16 09 Yearly~ earnaing-s, (5-2 week-s)-....................... 780 00 572 00 987 48 0:32 00 1, 300 00 1, 6i2 00 624 00 975 00 780 00 836 76 ies ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~n erio~ries, with Tabile showing the average weekly expenditures Of the familfe of workmen, in the mnanufacturing towns1 of the following Pacific States and Terr-ito~ewt iheir arerage weekly earnbigs, in the year 18A. NEW CALIFORNIA. OREGON. IDAIIO. MONTANA. WYOMING. MIEXICO WOIN. + San Fran- csao. FranOakland. Portland. Lewiston. Helena. Santa F6. Cheyenne - Cisco. t. Articles... -v. aeW ce C an a) an an ~~irI -. MD -. MD - cl Flour and bread.................................................................. $0 42 $1 00 $0 50 $0 371 $1 50 $1 50 $1 75 $1 00 $1 06 M1eats, fresh, corned, salted, or smoked............................................ 3 50 3 00 1 25 1 00 1 50 1 75 2 00 1 97 1 76 Lard..... 50 ---------- 10 50'o5 50 I00 47 33 Z Butter........................................................................... 1 5 0 1 0 0 75 1 00 100 50 80 93 75 Cheese............................................................................. 25 5 20.......... 25 50.......... 29 22' Sugar and molasses...........................................................1 00 75 1 (,0 50 50 1 25 1 00 86 70 Milkk............................................................................ 70 1 00 0 1 50 0 70 I 00 88 52 Coffee..... 50 50 25 50 40 70 50 48 (39 Tea.............................................................................. i 25 25 25 ---------- 25 40 50 32 25 Fish, fresh and salt........ —----—........................50.......... 25.......... 40 25.......... 35 33 Soap, starch, salt, pepper, vinegar, &c............................................. 50 50 50 25 30 1 00 50 51 37 Eg'gs....1 50 50 25 75 60 25 1co 69 39 Potatoes and other vegetables................................................:... 2 00 50 50 5 75 1 Co I 00 89 60 Fruiis, green and dried..... 50 50 ---— o —- co 60 50 1 50 70 43 Fuel............................................................................. 4 00 3 00 50 3 50 75 2 00 200 2 25 114 Oil or other 4ght.................................................................. 2 00 25 25 50 25 60 50 62 27 Olher articles.................................................................... 6 00........ 1 00.......... 75 1 00.......... 2 19 79 Spirits, beer, and tobacCo, (if any)................................................ 3 00...50 75 50 1 00 1 15 5 Ioulse-rent....................................................................... 1 I000 7'50 4 00 3 0 0 450 2 00 3 0 4 93 2 92 M Educational, religious, and benevolent objects.................................... 50.. I 00 75I 100 2 00 2 00 1 20 76 Total weekly expenses.39 12 20 50 13 25 15 72x~ 16 90 18 90 21 55 20 85 13 10 Total expenses 52 weeks......................................................... 2, 034 24 1, 066 00 689 00 817 70 878 80 982 80 1, 120 60 1, 0c4 20 681 20 Clothing per year................................................................ 150 00 300 00 100 00 *200 00 300 00 200 00 300 00 221 43 132 82 Taxes per year......................................................................................................................................... No r port. 13 67 Total yearly expenses.......................................................2, 284 24 1, 366 00 795 00 1, 017 70 1,178 80 1, 17 1, 420 60 1,32 45 791 44 Weekly earningst.1 00. 35 00 25 00 -28 00 17 75 Yearly earnings, (52 weeks)......._ _............................. 936 00......1, 820 00 1, 300 00......1, 352 00 92:1 00 820 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. Although the foregoing statements indicate, with approximate accuracy, the total weekly expenditures of workmen's families, in the respective places named, yet, in regard to details, proper allowance should be made. It must be borne in mind that the number of laborers, mechanics, or factory hands who keep an accurate account of the amount expended for articles of subsistence is very limited; hence the difficulty in obtaining the desired information. It will be noticed that those statements have been compiled by States and sections, irrespective of the size of the families. The ic of the several workmen affords a fair index of the outgo, and a cassification on that basis would have furnished data better suited for purposes of comparison; but, unfortunately, the weekly earnings were not, in all cases, stated in the returns. For example, the amily in Maysville, Kentucky, consisting of eight persons, expended in the year but $534.80, for the sufficient reason that the earnings, at 11 per week for the whole year, amounted to only $572; while a her family of the same size in the same State was able to expend $1,693.70, because the yearly income, at $34 per week, reached $1,768. twastheauthorsintetion, however, only to include the expenditures of the families of workmen skilled or unskilled, and not of foremen or superintendents receivin from $25 to $38 per week. VI. CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES IN TE UNITED STATES. The great advantages enjoyed by the workingmen in theUnited States as compared with those of the same class in the Old World, are sufficiently attested by the deep and steady current of emigration which sets toward our shores. One of the most cospicuous Of these advntages consists in the equality of political rights with which the wvorkingman is here invested, and the comparatively high respect and dignity attached to his calling; but not less solid and decided are the advan.t~ages, connected with abundant employment, good wages, and the substantial comforts of life. It is true that, ini common with other countries where, the system of credit has been largely developed, our country has had its occasional financial crises, accompanied with serious interruptions to the ordinary course of commerce and industry; but such effects have been comparatively transient in their duration, and the -normal condition of the country has been marked by a degree of prosperity rarely if ever enjoy ed elsewhere; and rarely, if ever, in the history of the world has national prosperity been so largely shared by those usually denominated the working classes. In some of the larger cities of our eastern coast, where, the labor-supply is receiving constant additions from the ranks of emigrants who lack the means of advancing farther into the country, there is at times considerable complaint of the want of adequate employment; and in such places there is occasionally some privation and suffering among the poor. In the city of New York, owing to its great extent and the lack of adequate communication between its commercial center and its suburbs, large numbers of working people, in order to be conveniently near to their places of employment, are compelled to live in crowded tenementhouses, under conditions which are favorable neither to health, comfort, nor decency. In some of the manufacturing towns and villages of New England, particularly the seats of the textile industries, the dwellings of the poor are represented to be in a sanitary condition that is far from satisfactory. Such conditions are, however, quite exceptional, and the masses LABOR IN THIE UNITED STATES. 821 of working people throughout the country occupy comfortable homes, enjoy a abundance of good food and comfortable clothing, with opportuities for a good common-school education for their children, and ossess a degree of personal independence not enjoyed on a large scale by any other laboring population on the face of the globe. This statement is true not only il regard to the workmen of the rich agricultural regions of our vast interior and the prosperous manufacturing towns with which those regions are dotted, but also to those of Pladelphia (not more famous for its industrial eminence than for the comfort of its workmen's homes) and most of the manufacturing towns of he New England and Middle States. Of these, Lynn, Worcester, Fitchburgh, Taunton, and Springfield, in Massachusetts; Providence and Pawtucket, in Rhode Island; Hartford, New Haven, Bridgeport, Waterbury, and New Britain, in Connecticut; Albany, Troy, Utica, and Rochester, in New York; and Newark, in New Jersey, with various smaller towns in their vicinities, are best known to the author of this report in the States mentioned; while in Ohio and Illinois nearly every town engaged in manufacturing industry may be included in the samne category. The prevailing comfort and independence of the great masses of mechanics and laborers of this country, taking one section with another, being sufficiently verified by general observation, it is deemed superfluous to enter into a detailed descriptive account of their condition and mode of life. With respect to the dwellings of factory operatives in the exceptional localities, it may, however, be said that, wherever their sanitary condition is seriously bad, it is believed to be the fault of manufacturig corporations which own the tenement-houses occupied by their employs, while operatives employed by individual manufacturers, who live among them and take an active and observant interest in their wellbeing, are far more, comfortably situated. In a recent investigation, conducted by the, Massachusetts bureau of statistics of labor, it was found. that, out of 393 tenements examined in different towns in that State, 2088, or upward of 73 per cent., were worthy of being reported "1good," white 105, or less than 27 per cent., ranged from "1fair" to "-very bad." The aniinadversions on. the poorer class of tenements contained in the reports of that bureau have attracted public attention to the subject, and there is a good prospect that, either through the action of the State legislature Qr by the force of public sentiment, abuses of this kind will soon be remedied. The Massachusetts bureau of statistics of labor has made careful inquiry into the receipts, expenditures, and general condition of the famnilies of four hundred workmen in that State, and published the results of the investigations. Fr-om the detailed statements which appear in the last report of that bureau the tables on the five succeeding pages have been prepared. The first table shows the yearly expenditures of.one hundred and twenty-four families for rent, fuel, groceries, imeat and fish, ufilk, wearing apparel, and "sundries," together with their expenditures for books and papers, andl their contributions to religious and other,societies. It also shows the earnings of the lather, (no other member of these families being in receipt of wages,) the number of rooms occupied, number of persons in eac h family, and number of children attending school, with other inomain indicating with sufficient clearness the condition of each family in respect to comfort, thrilt, and a,,sthetic culture. The second table contains the same, information in regard to eightyone families, and also shows the earnings of children who, in these fanrilies, assist the father in providing for the household. Table showbig the yearly expenditures. thc earniings of the fat her and childrcn respectively, and/hie condition of tkc families of eighty-one skilled wvorkmen, in the Sitate of itnna88admetis, in tite ear 1874. Exp~enditures. S Occupation of 9 CP a ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- a- a father. - a -, —~) C.- ad4 P Ca~~ a Qd C,. a..8 a - 7Carpenter.....$192 00 $71 OQ $357 11 $131 39 $34 62 $211 80 $49 735 $37 00 $63 33 $t, 150 00 $1, 229 00 $650 00 $57 0 00 6 6 All except kitchen Yes Yes. 8 -. —.do- - -......130 00 50 00 106 50 III 7' 16 aO 139 00 36 00 30 00 37 51 877 Oa 1, 083 00, 7z85 00 300 00 6 5 2 Parlor and hetdiroms. Y es Yes. 0 1 0 -..do ------- 200 00 511 7 3 336000 1:26 64 33 ~20 134 Su 30 51 ~20 00 29 05 981 00 1, 016 00 716 00 300 00 6 6 2 Parlor ------— Yes Yes. 11 -..do....... 108 00 52-.1 0. 361 715 119 05 33 70 111 33 31 00 216 00 17 14 920 C0 920 00 6-20 00 300 00 6 6 3 All. -.........Yes Yes. 1 4 -.o........ 0 30 00319 11 13-210 21169 103 50 2700O 39 48 2260 84-204 917 00610 25 0 5 5..Al-Ys e. 1(6 -..do. —------- 5 0 (51 73 312 4% 107 83 18 40 121 93 37 73 30 50 76 38 917 00 1, 015 00i 693 00 3i20 00 5 5 2 Parlor and bedrooms. Yes Yes. 28.... do --------- 200 00 43 50 319 SU 109 (16 27 40 107 ~20 29 42 22 (10 64 62 923 1.0 984 00 704 00 2e0 00 5 5 2 All except kitchen.....Yes. 31 -....do........ 144 00 311 80 298 765 114 50 28 34 93 45 19 60 49 00 16 30 800 75 84J 00! 5zcO 0O, t260 00 5 4 1 Parlor-..........YeCs. C 32 -.do....... 200 00 60 60 381 87 118 17 30 40 99.50 30 10 ill 00 16 40 938 50 966 00~ 686 00 1 280 00 6 5 1 Parlor.............. 30 -..do..........15 OO 49 73 393 49 116 49 13064 71 75 ~27 00 5 73 19 13 857 00 837 00 619 ( C238 0 5 5 1 Parlor-...........v.. 0 37 _ o....do..... 108 00 54 00 401 (50 83 73 30 90 183060 24 00 9 tO 63 13 1, 020 00 1, 0-20 00' 7110 ool 32000 5 7 3 All.-Y........... es. I 42 -..do.........1a0O00 47 90 339 75 89 bd 27 60 118 50 ~24 00 17 00 32 73 811718S 913 00 51(1001397 0,0 6 6 3 All............Yes 46 - -. -do......... 2% 00 61 00 42 80~~ S 1:1 12 -' 28 7 6 133 50 28 00 26 00 69 82 1,1L29 00 1, 333 00~ 689 00 (661 00 6 7 3 Parlor & 2 chambers....... Yes. So Mason........ 0 58 00 4;2 8 00 133 99 33 9-2 133 00 32) 00 2 1 00 23 49 1, 06(1 00 1, 086 00 7616 00 320 00 6 7 4 Parlor........Yes........ 53 Painter....... 108060 43 00 24,0 lej 80 04 18 4(0 58350 38 80 37 Ou 31 40 (959 3(1 7350 O0j 060 09 90 00 3 3..-. All..........Yes.z... 55 Plasterer ----— 200 00 48 00 380 n*-3 114 46 44 610 119 00 24 00 14 00 1 4 1 1 965 00 988 00, 7-28 00 2I-860 00 4 7 3 One room-............. (60 Boot-maker —--- laO 00 40 5So 39U2 78 99 50 27 (50 77 7e15 00 26 00 21I 00 760 08 7 95 00 610 00 185 00 4 5 2-................. 64 Mor-occo-dresser.-144 00 38 00 290 99 72 7 d 14 70 4,1 90 12 00- -.... 22 00 644 46 700 00 5-29 00 180 00 5 6 1-................. 67 Shoe-cutter —-...2011 00 51 00 362 00 97 90 17 23 92 87 28 (sO 7 00 42 00 898 00 995 00 482 00 513 00 6 7 2 Parlor -.......Yes Yes. 69 Snoc-laster..... — 130 00 4:2 75 337 83 98 91 23 74 64 ~23 19 60.. —-..12 30 749 40 704 00 508 00 196 00 4 5 2-................. 70.... do- —.......100 00 5;250 368 84 109615 28 00 118 33 21150 6 00 38 21 848 00 858 00 3.96 00 415200 6 6 2-................... 72 Shioe-trimmer —-..120 00 47 73 328 60 90 50 27 (60 117 5., 23 00 25 50 24 00 804 45 869 00 574 00 295 03, 6 5 -. All. -.........Yes....... 74 Shioe-maker —-...144 00 43 80 311 12 8-2 92~_ 1 7 40 58 50 20 00 26 00 14 26 718 00 718 00~ 481 00 237 00 5 4 1 Parlor-.........Yes.,Yes. 75....do.........1(5200 49 50 326 21 100 91 1 378 5320! 23 00 18 00 1 640 767 00 767 00 519 00 248 00 5 5 2 Parlor-...........Yes. 7 7....do- - -200....WO00 48530 304 90 70 75 15 00 85060 1 800 ——...20 00 8-2-213 890 00 480 00 410 00 6 5 2 Parlor-........Yes.-... 79 -.....do- —..... 223 00 56 00 390 84 72 (53 28 00 118 00 26 00 36 00 27 00 979 47~ 1, 002 00 496 00 506 00 6 7 3 Parlor and bedrooms%. Yes. Yes. 81. —. -do- - -......120 00 53 00 340 47 91 (50 23 17 83 00 33 50 18 00 21 00 785 74 790 00 6(50 (50 190 03 6 5 2 Parlor-........Yes- Yes. 82 _ -.do- - -......132 0 0 51 00 331 6 7 92 06 18 50 63 00 18 00 30 Ou 2 1 77 760 00 760 00 560 00 200 00 4 4 1 Pam-r-o............. 86..-..do- —....... OOO 0 49 50 216 33 110 02 17 60 103 00 27 50 20 00 74 03 738 00 738 00 546 00 192 00 5 4 1 All................. 88...do- - -......200 00 56 00 433 21l 118 64 40) 10 101 50 41 80 33 00 36 20 1, 060 45 1, 066 00 561 00 505 00 5 6 2 Parlor-........Yes.... 89...do- - -......132 00 47 00.309 99 91100 13 63 58 00 21 00 16 00 21I 38 717 09 717 00 496 09 2 21 00 5 5 1 Parlor............... g0 -..do- - -......13-2 00 61 00,296 54 91 79 12 42. 64 00 24 00 18 00 211 23 716 00 736 Ou 4-28 00 308 00 6 5 2 Parlor-........Yes.- Yes. 91....do- - -......13-2 00 53 00 4-29 3 7 131 80 36 90 94 60 3 1 50 45 75 1 9 36 974 ~28 1, 004 00 5 4 2 00 462 00 5 6 2 Parlor. —-----— Yes. Yes. 9:3 do.....o.....218 00 54 50 4-28 80 116 90 28 60 102 00 41 00 23 00 39 00 1, 033 80 1, 176 O0j 540 00 636 00 6 8 2 Parlor and bedrooms Yes.... 9-4..do.......... 144 00 41 753(502Q1 96 42 1 423 65 00 2-280 8 00 40 59 793 00 793 00'1 4931 00 300 001 4 5 2.................. 96 Tanner -......9600J 39 00 299 13 94 51 I12,48 67350 1 400 14 00 13 38 630 00 051100i487 001 169 001 4 5 1-................. 103 Cutler.......108 00 56 70 322 40 128 00 31 90 127 50 36 501 37 Oa 25 001 873 00 914 0O0 624 00~ 290 00 5 6 1 Parlor-.........Yes- Yes. 106 Iron-molder-.... 192 00 49 70 329 62 110 75 26 50 151 25 29 7 5 21 00 38 43 949 00 949 00 695 00. 254 00 6 5 2 Parlor.........Yes.... 107 -.do — 2 —-- ~~60 00 51 00 368 54 97 90 31 20 158 60 65 50 35 00 62 26 1, 070 00 1, 270 00 712 00 558 00 6 6 1 Parlor-..-.......... Yes. Yes. 109 Iron-roller -.....200 00 57 50 436 -22 154 60 42 00 231 7.5 31 00 38 00 68 93 1, 260 00 1, 380 00 980 00 400 00 6 7 4 All except kitchen - -Yes- Yes. 12 9 Machinist-.....120 00 47 75:383 60 a~8 96 18 65 149 60 33 Go 37 00 66 2,2 947 00. 1, 0342 00 668 00 364 00 6 5 2 All.-............. 130. —.do -............. 108 00 49 50 365 27 109 41 ~24 44 92 00 29 60 30 00 21 00 88922 910 00 6290 00 290 00 5 5 2 Parlor ------------- 131 -.do -.......132 00 42 50 366 70 66 90 21 00 165 75 19 60 41. 16 20 00 915 45 982 00 66-2 00 320 00 6 5 2 Parlor aud edreoons. Yes.' 13-2 —.do,-.............144 (10 54 40 371 71) 122 53 30 60 113 00 24 00 28 00 21 75 910 00 910 00 620 00 429( 00 6 6 3 Parlor ---— Y —------— Y...... 136 _do,.22500 4150 34790 11380 1860 11795 2335 22c0 4690 95900 97-200 77-200 20000 6 6 3 All -.Ys. 146 -.do -.......150 00 55 25 371 6-2. 112 34.26'60 115 00 26 50 31 00 32 69 9-23 00 978 0i 716 00 260 00 6 5 2 Parlor-........Y es, 147...do -.......144 00 49 75 3521 00 82 00 24 00 167 25 49 60 34 25 311 00 933 45 1, 033 00 676 00 357 00 5 5 2 Parlor-....... Yes Yes. 148 -.do -.......84060 5706u 400 66 11-214 2!330 86 00 34 50 20 00 3936. 8 900 878 00.630 00 248 00 6 6 3 Parlor-........Yes Yes. 149....-do, —----— 204 00 51 75 401 60 108 00 26 60 118 40 31 80 41 00 35 00 1, 018 21 1, 058 00 760 00 298 00 6 6 -2 Bed-rooms -.......v,Yes. 153.....do —----— 160 00 56 00 363 00 108 90 18 20 81 1.5 18 00 13 00 16 00 856 2~5 870 00 670 00 200 00 4 6 2 Parlor - Y........ es....... - 156 Nail-maker —-— 240 00 49 00 389 00 116 00 28S 50 140 50 2.9 60 20o 00 39 4 0 1, 052 00 1, 095 00 7-25 00 370 00o 6 6 2 All-............... 175 Dresser inmill. _144 00 61 75 37921 123 17 27 72 11720 2-100 3500 3595 94800 98800 68000 306 00 5 6 2-. Yes.... 177 Mill-hand —--— 60 00 43 50 3-26 61 99 48 25 14 83 40 19 50 6 00 14 37 678 00 678 00 492 00 186 00 4 5 I1-............... 178 -do - 10800 5-250 28040 9430 2908 7960 3600 400 2612 71600 73600 49000 23800 4 6 2-. 179 2d-hand in mill. - -. 120 00 52 00 346 75 93 90 19 70 201 50 36 00 32 50 42 65 945 00 997 00 693 00 304 00 6 5 2 All-..........Yes. Yes. 1_81 _do -............ 60 00 59 50 361 45 97 00 2335 8000 3600 2100 3070 77500 79800 52000 27800 5 5 2-Yes. Yes. 16-2 _do -.......108 00 65 00 299 60 115 712 218 4(1 18-2 06 52 00 30 00 76 28 953 00 1, 010-00 630 00 380 00 5 5 2 Parlor & 2bedrooins.. Yea —-- 183 -.do -. 1000 49503239 10462 2380 9430 1740 3100 3349 79800 820 00 60000 22000 5 5 1 Parlor-.Yes. 186 -.do -....90 00 44 00 3127 49 96 45 13 80 105 50 18 90 30 00 31 00 765 14 706 00 600 00 196 00 4 5 2 Parlor-............. 168 _.do -.......90 00 59 00 388 4-2 114 33 27 44 86 00 33 00 14 00 39 79 858 98 872 00 600 00 272).00 6 6 3 Parlor —.............. 169 -~.do -.......180 00 54 00 4-2793 128 81 19 60 126 80 26 67 21 00 13 90 998 71 1,0:33 00 563 00 470 00 6 7 2-................. 190 Spinner-......96 00 40 00 196 89 80 40 29 20 113 40 42 60 21 01 63 51 663 00 7-29 00 621 00 108 00 4 4 1-................... 191 _ ~.do - 120.......... 00 39 65 297 41 101 79 30 24 73 75 16 28 26 50 8 59 714 21 776 00 6-28 00 148 (JO 4 4 1 Parlor. Yes. Yes. 192...do —----— 96 00 5:325 309 89 97 70 32 45 147 90 19 75 2-2 50 90 56 87 000 870 00 570 00 300 00 4 5 1 Parlor-.............. c 19:3.-.do -.9600 5-200 34430 9836 2448 7238 1760 45! 1338 72300 723005200 19700 4 6 1.-. 190 _do -.......96 00 397-d5 319 81 87 20 15 24 70 44 14 25 18 00 23 20 684 00 690 00 540 00 150 00 4 4 1................. 197 _do -.......144 00 56 00 398 96 140 17 28 80 125 35 24 00 20)00 61 92 990 20 1, 064 00 5560(0 506,~00 6 7 2 i room-............. 198 Spare-bandia mill. 84 00 50 00 316 43' 9-2 27 13 44 96 25 1 6 00 1 1 00 77. 61I 7 59 00 759 00 459 001 300 00 5 5 21.).................. 199 Slasher in mill -.... 108 00 4~ 75 209 06 107 34 27 98 12,)8 68 36 50 19 00 71I 69 756 00 960 00 720 001 240 0 0 5 6 2 1 room -........Yes. -......2100 Weaver.........132 00 64 00 382 40 123 22 37 20 136 75 24 00' 19 00 21 43 940 00 972 01) 524 00 448 00 6 6-................Yes. 201 _do -.......120 00. 51 00 311 09 12-261 36 40 71.50 30 00 4 00 20 40 767,00 81660O 586 00 230 00 4 6 2 —H................. 203 -.do -.10800 4380 3 90 10600 3862 12820 4100 1900 6948 9-2300 98200 53000 45200 6 7 2 Parlor204..do -.10800 4-200 35925 10186 2044 11075 1520 600 4250 80600 80600 50600 300 6 6 2201 6 — do -.......48 00 40 00 238 67 110 50 23 24 98 60 28 50 8 00 50 49 646 00 646 00 466 00 180 00 5 5 1-.................!252 Overseer in mill - - 168 00 80 00 456 80 186 40 30 00 355 00 1 8 00 43 00 207 00 1, 544 20 1, 8,20 00 t000 00 82~0 00 7 9 3 All.. -........Yes. Yes.~ 369 Cigar-maker -....150 00 63 00 422 98 154 2-2 35 60 200 00 42 00 20 50 71 70 1,160 00 1, 230 00 910 00 320 00 5 6 - -- All-..........Yes. -......370 -.-.do -.......180 (11 59 00 397 73 127 39 23 68 100 10.3-250 31 00 73 60 1, 08500 1,190 00 830 00 360 00 0 6 2 All-................. 373 Hatter-:.....180 00 59 00 430 86 120) 64 16 20 90 00 20 50......14 60 932, 00 932 00 648 00 284 00 6 6 1 Parlor............... 379 Mechanic-.....156 00' 53 00 398 76 110 14 38 26 124 00 36 42 12 00 3:3 50 96-2 10 994 00 714 00 280 00 6 5 2 All.. -.......Yes ------ 381 - - -.do -.......13-2 00 52 20 338 02 104 50 15 24 113 00 33 50 16 00 28 54 833 00 805 00 639 00 22,6 00 6 6 2 Parlor-........Yes.- Yes. 367 Whip-maker - 150 00. 47_S0j 378 2!9 116 90 28 90! 91 20 22 50 18 00 2I6 7 1 880 00 880 00 680 00 200 00 5 6 2Z Parlor-........Yes-..... Average -....14-6 58 51 19 35 3 03282 47~ 1714 65 2 8~ 27 23~38 7 6 88 2 9-29 961 619 18 310 78 5 6 2 IEaMARKs.-House and surronndings of all are reported " pleasant.," except Nos. 53, 61, 69, 106, and 199, which are " unpleasant;" 55, 140, 188, 190, and 252, which are,'fair; 175 and 201. which are " poor;" and 153, which is' unpleasant and poor." H-ouses are all reported " well fnrnished," except Nos. 60, 64, 61), 96, 177. 198, 201, and 12,06, whieh ore "tmoderately well;" and 192, which is " fairly furnished." Nos. 7, 8,11, 14, 31, 50,' 72, 79, 93, 1129, i3l, 146, and 2.52 have piano-fortes, and 1.36, 147, and 189 have organs. 0 All are reporte'd " well dressed," except No. 64, which is " poorly;" 177 " pass:ably well;" and 209 " moderately well." Nos. 7, 16, 37, 46, 64, 67, 72, 93, 129,1-10, 178, 179, 18-2, 190, 197, and O3 ha~ve money deposited in savings banks; a nd Nos. 136 and 147 have effected insnrnnce on their lives. No. 149 has a. fine library. Tt-b b 7hwn i erl xedlr the earni~gs of th e faihr, an d th e con di tion of th e families of 124 skilled wno rkmen in the Sta te of Ma ssach uset ts i n 1 874. _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ __~ ~~~Expenses. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ C. Occupation of father..-';a. 6a ~ - ~.8 <' I Btrick-layer................... $240 $49 60:$320 49 $/90 82 18 00 $I72 50 J 124 00 J$18 00J $12 {9$SI-' 0$~ 0 0 0 4 5 I Parlor. Pao............ 2.-do.......................... 15 30:7 50 364 21J 76 21 15 go 66 50J 18'20 —........ 25 48 76] 0 760 00 4 6 2.............. Carpen te........... J'AIi~'ac[ Yes 3 Capener...... —-----— 100 0 j 43 80 208 19 J109 14 28S 40 Ill1 00 J 2 00 [ 21 00 J40 00 J685 53 6I 3 Parlor........... e.Ys 4. —.do -------------------- 144 O0 46 O0 300 21 99 67 14 12J 59 0J 32 0J 20 0J 32 90 J7488 4.. Y e.do —----------- J132 00 37 00 346 2`2 99 50 17 90[ 76 30J 19 84J 18 00[ 13 24j76000 76 J05 5 2Pro Yes -....... 1 r y 00 49 60 329 $90 82 $i1 00 $7 50 24 00 18 00 2 59 $0 00 $810 00 4 1 Parlor............-............ 2.....................dn -- 15000:9750 3421 87021 36 15960 065 37 24 0 1820- - 25480 7008 00 700 00 5 4 1 Parlor.... 6arl2r.... 32 Carpenter - -............100 00 43 80 208 17) 17 24 28 40 9 00 24 00 217 00 40 00 685 53 685 0 53 3 1 Parll -Yes. Yes.~ 43 ~.do - -14400 400 0 30021 09 1422 590 30 2000 13 7480 0 7800 5 4 2 Parlor........... es Yes 5.......................... 1o1 00 3470 3462239 98 90 1790 79 60 0 01 4 800 2132 70000 70000 5 5 2 Parlor -. Yes.. 6 do —. 600 4900 3390 8200 1700 6800 1600 100 28 70600 71200 5 4 1 Parlor-. IS ----— o —--- -- ---------— J144 00 39 00 312 87 943 0 120 7537 14 00 J14 2180 651800 67300 54 1 Parlor - P Yes 1170 7 280 22........4...........0 807 1700 1)03 1 24 72 7-2000 4 4 2........ Orano Yes Y - 18 ---- do —----------— 12000 39050 231389 85206 184 58010 102800 26 00 342975 6500 076S00 54 3 —- Parlor~- Piano.... Yes.. Yes 19...do. —---------------------- 1400 40 2 974. 0 14 26 9 7500 17 o 300 3910 68 3025 77150 4 1 All - 0 Y es. Yes -.do 1440 4J 05 0 209 9 845 1340 700 2000 2800 32050 7201 70 7 10 5 3 1 4 Pr....All -..Yes. 21. —.do-100 00 39 00 319 64 90 29 15 60 72 00 10 00 12 5 79 5 68 00 5 3 -........AP.............. - 21 5...do...............00 35 289 1 0 10 00 3 43 00 700 4. Parlor.... Yes Yes. 239. —.do —--------------------— 1440 O0 07 10 89 7840 12 9 150 275 2910 90 7514 09425 7825 0 5 4 1 al 4Yes. 304. —do-144........... 201 5840 229739 852160 15 4(11 800 19050 310 0 32040 701390 743000 5 4 1 Parll -........Yes. e. 25. —.do........................- 144 00 37 00 -27700 83925 17640 11190 1700 2-225 3575 630 74575 7455 5 3 1 Parlor l —--------- Yes Yes. 20d......o.9600.. 5 2 60 93 128 0 0150 1300 3350 429 001.00 6000 6 4 1 All........es. Yes. 350.do.........................120 00 1 10 144 00 3350 29 o0 7 240 718 300 72 00oo 5 4 2 PAll o —----- Yes. Yes. 38....do......................... 200 00 4309 297 30 9380 16 10 69 00 18 80 18 00 1900 77500 82800 4 5 Parlor. Yes....... 39. —.-do —----------- 108 00 40 00 313 81 108 40 14 07 8-2 150 19 50 2(1 60 13 62 780 00 780 00 5 4 -.All.. -.......Yes. Yes. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~54 S0 98 3 0640 alr...................Ye.....0 40 -.do-......................... 132 00 36 00 207 24 14 50 79 00 22 CO. 41...do......................... 144 00 33 50 2773 0 9390 14 90 8375 23'00 11 00 4959 73000 70800 5 4. All........ 43....do.................. 2 12 000 4050 269 08 85 26 3- 0 6 5950 227 19 00 1394 3 0030 60 000 4 4 1 Parlor........I 44.do.-12000 4075 2423 83 00 1700 6500 24 50 10 90 2 100 03748 64803, 4 3. Parlor.. 35.5.... 45..-.do-............. 90 00 48 50 280 00 81 50 10 73 43 25 15 00 4 0(11) 200 007 00 0-28 00 4 4................... 47....do —-----------— 108 00 39 75 35-240 85 31 20350 79 80 2:3060 (500 12)54 794 00 794 00 4 6 2-......-.......... 48 Mason-... ------— 192) 00 40 00 2:39 60 119 34 40 -20 123 50 28 00 24 50 20 40 835 54 800 00 4 4 2 All -------— Yes. -... 49 - - -.do-250 00 ~~~~~~41 50 20 4 88 95 20:30 86 00 29D 26 41 00 15 20 778 45800 l.Piano. -....Yes. 49.-.do.-.....................25 020 4845900 5 3 Al —-- 51 -- -.d-180 —-------- S 00 51 50 336 94 ios:1:3 14 20 87 00 19 80.- - 13 23 80S 080O0 5 5 Parlor-...Organ. Yes5-2 Painter-...................... 17500 53 50 2-j7780 83 35 14 ~26 91 50 28 00 23 03 19068 770 09 8(8J00 5 4 1 All.......... 54 Plaserer 180 00 39 0 27 29 81 30 17 60 72 80 18 95 30 00 23 46 721 00 70 00 4 4 2.................. es....... 56 0 Ship-carpenter-52 00 236 95 94:18 23 75 82 00 56 00 45 00 58 00 1048 08 740 00 7 4 2 A........... Pano I Yes., Yes. 57 Stair-builder - -1........ 8U 00 44 50 342 95 91 35 32~ 25 97 50 16 00 17 00 40 45 850 00 850 00 5 5 2 All —................ 58 Boot-inaker - - 120........R 00 42 75 319 29 82 00 15 46 57 00 20 00- -....55 50 7 12 00 600 00' 5 5 2 Parlor - -......Yes....... - 59.-do, ------------ - 9600 48 75 283 50 81 25 19 80 61 00 16 00 —--— 14 70 6-2100 621 00 4 3 1 Parlor............... 01. —do —.............100 00 46 00 291 42 613-2 12 80 61 50 17 50 13 00 28 46 63-2 00 63-200 4 4 2 Parlor —.......-....... 6-2 Currier —--- ------— 120 00 42 60 278 91 84 15 19 30 64 85 17 38 14 00 32 40 673 59 684 00 4 4 1 All-.............. 65 Shoe-chanueller - -.......200 00 39 60 216 -4 79 1,2 14 40 82 90 14 60 13 60 20 04 6~ 0 50 714 00 6 4 1 All-.....Piano -Yes-..... 66 Shoe-cutter - -.........100 00 41 75 196 00 69 75 14 60 98 40 16 25 37 00 58 25 632 00 6321. 60 5 3 - -. All - -.........Yes. Yes. 68 Shoe-laster - -..........144 00 31 60 198 00 6-2 75 13 c,0 40 75 16 00 ----— 13 00 520 00 495 60 5 4 --—......-.... I..... 7 1 Snoe-trimmer - -........260 60 4-2 80 199 30 75 95 13 75 74 37 24 00 22 00 23 83 676 00 67 6 60 5 3 - -. All - -........Yes. Yes. 73 - -.do............. — 1600 0 45600 309971 76 30 13 21 50 50 23 00 14600 16-28 648 00 648 00 5 4 2-................ 76 Shoemuaker - -1......... )0 00 47 85 ~286 69 108 78 153 08 59 60 20 08 8 00 23 60 719 60 725 00 4 4 1 All - -.........Yes- -... 80 -— d ------ ------— 200 00 36 50 2!60 00 5~200 18 00 44 50 - - - 11...... II00 6~2-260 55-2 00 6 6 2 All —...........Yes. 83 _do —.............72!00 47 00 249 75 69 86 26 40 106 30 216 0 6 00 16 00 614 31 61.180 4 4 1 One room............. 85 -.do —.............9600 43 00 183 04 86 21 13 60 66 50 15 00 11 00 46 65 561 00 561 00 4 3. —. Parlor..- - -..i. *87 - o................100 00 42 75 264 39 88 40 15 21 51 45 02200 25 50 10 30 620 00 620 00 4 4 2 Pamlor — Y......... es. 92 _d........... 8.. 6 00 30 50 24490o 41 00 12600 28 50 -------- - 3050 483 40 3096 00 3 6 2 ------------------ 97 Blaok~nmith - -.........180 00 44 50 312 90 91 6 0 14 75 73 75 33 00 6 00 4 1 60 797 50 797 50 5 5 2 Parlor —.-..Yes.-... 98 -.- do.. —...........132 00 39 80 273 94 95 43 14 90 109 45 15 00 21 00 58 48 760 00 760 00 4 4 --—.................... 99 Boiler-maker —-- -----— 168 60 36 75 2:16 40 69 35 17 80 101 60 19 00 21 00 38 10 708 00 789 00 4 5._ All - -.........Yes....... - 100 Cutler —............71200 39 40 199 23 89 60 18 72 94 50 29 70 6600 49 65 598 80 680 00 4 4....-............... 101 _to —.............84 00 47 50 219 89 9-230 2:1 86 80 50 15 00 9 00 31 95 614 00 660 00 4 4 1 --—....Z.......... 102._do-............. 78 00 34 50 251 09 169 73 14 16 73 40 18 00 36 00 25 1-2 6-20 00 640 00 5.5 1- -................. 104 Eng-ine-builder - -........168 60 36 50 261 95 89 70 18 24 112 32 26 00 18 00 44 29 775 00 851 50 5 5 2 All-.....Piano. Ye's...... 105 Iron-ole-MO........... 168 00 4 1 00 250 70 92 60 34 20 85 00 22 00 12 60 62 70 747 60 747 6 0 4 4 1 All-.............. 1,08 Iron-roller - -.........120 00 49 80:328 6-2 122~ 25 22 6-2 86 80 2 1 90 24 50 1 3 5 1 790 00 790 00 5 5 2 - —..........Yes. -...... 110 -d...do —........ 180 00 39 80 321 70 89 60 21 00 82 40 ~21 50 15 00 2900 800 00 800 00 6 4 1 Parlor.............. I1I _. do..............- - 1S800 46 00 306 87 1068H2 2!742 100 70 19600 35 00 40 19 85009J 900 00 5 4. —- ---------------- 112 Iron-worker ---- -----— 120 00 46 50 309 47 110 21 16 80 77 60 14 20 20 00 31 60 746 38 770 00 5 4 2 Parlor —.............. 113 Jeweler - -...........132 00 50 00 360 87 83 60 21 90 70 50 30 00 18 00 33 13 800 00 880 60 5 5 2 Parlor —...Yes. Yes. P.' 114. —.do..............- - 152 00 61 00 326 06 95 20 24 34 74 75 18 00 22 00 43 65 817600 850 00 5 4 1 All-.............. 115 Machinist - -..........96 00 41 00 1219 99 116 25 25 12 101 50 15 C0 17 00 50 14 682 00 7,20 00 5 4 2 ------- - -.- - ----- ---- -- 116 ~._do.............. — 75 00.56 00 324 90 100 70 14 30 67 00 14 00 18 00 30 10 7606 0 700 00 6 5 2 Al -Ys Yes. 11. —do —.............96 00 43 60 327 92 90 41 1-3 24 69:37 1 2 00 16 00 14 46 683 00 683 60 5 4 1 Parlor —..........Yes. 318 -.do —---- -------— 240 00 39 50 2:31 46 77 23 17 90 77 50 25 00 3-200 32 41 773 00 8900 0 5 3 1 All-.....piano. -....Yes.~ 119 - do..............- 1-44 00 39 00 249 61 80 90 14 30 10-2 75 18 00 18 00 38 44 765 00 7.30 00 4 5 Parlor............Yes:. 10 ~-.d,.............1 2000 62!00 254 70 111 07 31 80 99 50 43 80 34 00 2113 778600 8-20 00 5 4.Parlor - -.......Yes H... 1-2 -. —do............. - -1,20 00 47 50!289 34 105 12 14 36 81 00 18 00 28 01 16 68 720 00 7-20 00 5 5 2 Parlor- Piano -Yes.- Yes. 12-2 -~do —.............168 00 49 00 290 61 104 60 15 64 99 40 18 00 22 00 52 75 820 00 840 00 5 4.-.Parlor... - Yes. Yes,,. W 12,3 _ — do-............. 150 0 0 4 4 70 230 1 6 10 1 5 1 9 1 5 7 4 8 5 30 0 0 3 3 50 1 9 7 5 704 2 6 736 00 5 3 1 All-.....Piano. Yes. Yes. 12z4 _~do-............. 132 00 48 00 27.9 29 110 00 12 874 93950 31I.60 29 00 2?587 778 00 778 00 5 5 2 Parlor_-..Organ.. —----- 1-25 -.do-............. 120~ 00 49 75 2!71 4:3 101 38 16 44 82 00 21 37 23 50 2-2 00 707 8 7 786 00 5 4 1 One room -. Piano ----- ---- 126 -_-do —---- -------— 120 00 53 00 2-24 60 97 10 14 20 1-28 00 16 90 18 09 58 20 7:30 00 760 00 4 3 --- ------------ - Yes. Yes. 128 -_-do..............- - 188 00 4:3 00 2 2 9 9 9 90 36 1 5 28 89 6 5 32 125 38 00 69 55 716 00 77 0 08 4 4 - _ One room.. Organ -........ 1:33 _-do t...........1... -2. 00 48 50 251 90 107 25 1 5 80 77 9,0 37 75 19 00 26 30 716 00 716 00 5 5 2 Parlor - -.......Yes. Y es. 134....do,-.............72 00 50 00 290 08 7 130 1 570 628S4 52000 7 00 2710 616 00 6 16 00 5 4 1-................ 135.do — 2.............0160O 69 00 ~27958 92,,04 20 80 89 75 27 90 49 50 42 00 887 17 930 00 6 4 1 All —..........Yes. 137 -. -do, —............168 00 40 50 2!69 43 91 41 15 40 89 50 43 00 32 00 24 24 773 48 784 00 4 3 1 Parlor ------- - Yes. Yes. 138.-.do —.............2-1500 43 00 231 90 84 85 15 20 97 75 16 00 16600 15 30 765 00 820 00 6 4.. All - -.........Ye's. Yes. 139 - _ -do —.............120 60 49 00 239 2~3 92~ 89 1 5 60 71 85 26 00 1 6 00 1 2 4:1 643 00 643 00 5 4 2 Parlor - -.......Yes. Yes. 140.. ).d..............- - 120 00 44 75 2R29 34 87 01 19 24 67 00 18 50 20 00 21216 6-28 00 639 00 4 3._ All - -.......Yes — ---- 141.do —.............180 00 51 00 361 93 116 02 14 96 75 50 30 45:25 00 12 14 867 00 867 00 5 4 2 All.. -...... Yes. Yes. ["D 142.... -do................120 00 53 50 269 70 73 40 16 95 69 70 21 50 17 00 33 25 -675 00 716 00 5 3. Parlor.........Yes. Yes. CQT Table showing the yearly cxpendittures, the earnings of the Jather, and thle rovdifion of the families, of 124 skilled work-nie, cfv.-Continned. 0 a- z r_41 tj~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~t x. Occupation of father. I 143 Machinist-...........$180 00 8.11 75'$026 76 $80 2)5 $2.6 84 o121 72 $22- 00 $36 00 $49 00 $7S6 32 $870 00 5 4 1 All.....liano Yes Yes. 144 -.o..............132 00 41 50 20080 111 23 "226- 75 00 37 50 23 00'1 35 72~800 748 00 4 4 2-..........Y es... 1435 -.do —.............96 00 41 00 253 5O 100 60 16 00 91 00 18 50 3 00 24 1i 641 91 688 00 4 4 --------------------- fl 150 _do, —.............180 00 47 50 242 23 88 41. 14 60 77 60 17 25 38 00 21 41 727 00 748 00 4 3 -. Parlor- Gi- Ogan. Yes ---- 151 -~.do —............72 00 48 00 3-27 37 92 35 13 20 59 00 23 0 ) 13 00 21908 677 00 677 00 4 4 1 Parlor ------— Yes. Yes. 152)._do —.............168 00 43 00 301 30 91 40 15 00 108 75 24 00 17 00 31 55 800 00 800 00 5 5 2 All-.....Piano.Yes. —155.~do ----- -------— 225 00 41 80 280 37 95 75 22 60 78 00 1650 23011 33 00 816 02 860 00 4 4 2 All-.....Organ Yes -- --- 157 Watch-maker - -........132 00.50 00 276 85 99 44 15 64 84 80 25 00 20 75 15 52~ 720 00 729 00 5 4 1 Parlor-.......Yes. Yes. Z4 176 Dresser in mill - -........13-2 00 46 00 264 70 96 56 19 86 85 45 21 50 38 50 39 43 744 00 714 00 4 4 -- ------ ------ ---.- --- 180 Second hand in mill- -......9(1 00 42 00 239 60 83 55 10 6-2 66 00 20 00 28 00 14 t23 6a 0 00 6-20 00 4 3 - -- All-........Yes. Yes. td 187 ~..do... —...........84 00 39 70 2-29 72 87 49 268-2 7-290 22 00 14 00 46 37 623 00 668 00 5 4 1-.............Yes. (7 207 Weaver —...........40 00 32 50 198 29 82 25 1776 63 15 36 00 3 (0 55 05 508 00 508 00 4 4.-....... —- ------ 2~53 Overseer in mill-...... —-150 0:) 49 00 1239 80 114 70 27 00 119 50 3-2 00 41 00 60 00 833 00 940 00 6 4 2 All. -....Piano.Yes Yes. 0 254 - -do... -...........144 00 36 50 304 80 101.60 312~2 136 50 ~29 80 32 00 57 58 874 00 1000 00 7 4 2 All. -Y Ye's Yos. 2!55.- -.do-.............120 00 48 50 253 75 10:3 6-2 26 80 157 20 21 00 46 1)0 8-2 00 858 87 1000 00 6 4 2 All-........Ye.3 Yes. t~ 384 Cabinet-maker -........192 00 41 75 261 89 106 30 38 60 90 78 21 90 31 00 3:1 60 820 8-2 880 00 4 4 2 All-.....Piano.Yes.- Yes. 365 Carriage-paiuter -.......144 00 51 75 246 90 76 25 14 e0 12:3 50 17 00 39 00 30 00 74:1 ~20 861 00 7 4 1 All -----.. Yes. Yes. 366 Carriage-sm-ith -........144 00 54.50 354 00 106 00 2:1 90 90 60 46 50 31 50 36 25 887 25 887 25 7 7 4 Parlor- Piano -Yes.... 367 Carriage-trimmer -.......144 00 47 75 339 75 104 20 27 40 104 00 29 60 14 00 48 00 858 70 872 ~25 6 6 3 Four rooms..-...Yes -... 388 Cigar-maker-..........144 00 51 00 284 29 97 50 18 48 108 00 16 00 16 00 29 13 764 40 80(1 00 4 3 1 Parlor....... 371 Furniture-maker -.......100 00 49 75 258 0 5 102 20 19 30 150 25 29 00 33 00 32 4.5 774 00 828 00 5 4 1 Parlor...............- Yes. 37-2 Hatter-............144 00 49 00 3-22 36 89 21 15 60 73 00 19 50 20 00 47 33 78z~0 00 7s0O 00 5 5 2 Parlor -. Yes Yes.'374...00 I120750070do................ 120 00 48 00 319 82 95 88 22 60 67 50 17 00 200 I20 750 7400 4 4 ---- Parlor. Piano Yes Yes. 375 Mechanic-...........132 00 51. 00 327 90 9-2 25 13 60 77 00 23 00 22 00 39 0 0 777 75 810 00 5 5 2 All. Piano. Yes Yes. 376 ~.-.do-............. 120 000 46 55 304 16 102 38 14 36 58 37 14 00 I11 50 l'4 68 686 00 686 00 5 4 2 Parlor-........Yes. 377 - - -.do-.............120 00 4-2 00 237 12 107 09 13 -22 118 75 36 60 28 C0 59 82 762 00 762 00 5 4 2 Parlor-........Yes Yes. 378 -_o..............156 00 49 50 368 76 117 24 21 18 99 50 27 37 236(0 20 00 88-255 840 00 5 6 2-..........Yes Yes. 3 80.. _do.. -........... 168 00 57 50 342 61 104 44 27 30 68 25 21 00 28 50 14 80 83-2 40 8:15 0:) 4 4 1 Parlor....Piano —------ 382) Stoue-cntter-..........1:3-2 00 51 00 357 39 110 94 22 40 78 0:1 19 50 29 00 22 60 822 83 860 00 5 5 3 Parlor.. -—, — Yes Yes. 383 -..do-.............144 0:1, 50 00 350 211 112 00 -26 30 67, 0 1 6 48 20 1 0 13 4 0 800 0 4 839 00 6 4 2 Palr:iYes —.384 -.do.............. 132100 47T60 381 92 110 36 16 24 80 00 22 68 10 03 1 920 820 00 828 00 5 5 2 All. —--- 385 Whip-maker-.............47 50 263 40 9-2 10 15 36 123 ~25 24 00 ~25 00 81 39 I67-2 00' 765 00 6 4 1 All...... - Ye-s V(, Ys. 386 -.do-.............144 00 39 75 276 99 90 88 21 54 96 20 18 00 32 00 3-2 64 1 752(0C 7 8 200 4 4 1 Parlor.~..........Yes. Average - 13847 4484 7 27551I 93-3 186 _~3 85-0 22 29, 21 95 ~32 08 I7-)ot;0 746 15 -5 4 2 IIEM0ARKS.-No. 41 has a life-insnr-ance of $1,000, No. 366, $2.000, and No. 176 an insurance policy; No. 56 owns house; Nos. 57, 66, 83, 111, 138. I14:, 187, 255, and:167, have inoney in savingm,.banks; Nos. 65 andl 253 save money; No. 71 works onliy 8 months, No. 80 only 8$, and.No. 8.5 only 9; Nos,.!128, 135, and 144 have good libraries. House and snrroundings of all are reported "1pleasant," except1 Nos. 2, 47, 68, and 83, which are "poor;" No. 92, " very paor;" and Nos. 48, 54, 102,5!255, and 374 "fair." Houses are all reported " well furnished," except Nos. 2, 102, and 145, which are "moderately well," and 207"fairly." All are reported "well dressed," except No. 2, which is "moderately well," and 92 "adiarably dressed." LABOR IN CANADA. 827 LABOR IN THE BRITISHI NORTH AMERICAN POSSESSIONS. In the British North American provinces, which now constitute the Dominion of Canada, manut'acturing industry has not until recently been dleveloped to any considerable extent, and is even now chiefly confined to Ontario and Quebec. Since the termination of the Treaty of Reciprocity with the United States there has been a marked increase in the extent of manufactures, not only in Canada proper, but inithe maritime provinces. The following statement, condensed from the report of the Canadian census of 1870-'71, shows the capital invested, the number of hands employed, and the total value of the products of the leading industries of the provinces then composing the Dominion of Canada: Number of Industries. Capitol hands em Total value vested. ploytd. - of products. Agricultural implements................................... $1,104, 308 2, 546 $2, 685, 393 BAkeries of all sorts........................................ 1,054, 531 2,164 6, 942, 469 Blacksmithins............................................. 1, 720, 038 10,'213 5,364,411 Boots and shoes............................................. 3, 2;6, 633 18, 719 16, 133, 638 Breweries................................................. 1, 666, 140 918 2,141, 229 Cabinet and furniture..................................... 2, 050, 175 4, 366 3, 580, 978 Carding and fuoling mills.................................. 752, 962 1, 224 2, 25:3, 794 Carpenters and joiners..................................... 779, 667 5, 408 3, 7'26, 345 Carriaue-making........................................... 1, 859, 609 7, 798 4, 849, 234 Cooperage.................................................. 450,514 3, 442 1, 772,663 Distilleries................................................. 737, 200 467 4, 092, 537 Dress-making and millinery................................ 504, 868 3, 877 2, 585, 679 Edge-tool manufactories.................................... 177, 915 376 418, 775 Flour and grist mills....................................... 9, 929, 898 4, 992 39,135, 919 Furriers and hatters, &c -1,159, 038 1, 861 2, 875, 060 Glass-works. —-------------------------------------------- 136, 120 318 293, 130 India-rubber factories...................................... 454, 600 494 502, G15 Iron founding and machine-making........................ 3, 760, 505 7, 65'3 7. 125, 531 Engine building........................................ 709, 900 1, 007 1,044, 525 Iron-rolling mills...440, 000 76:2 1, 110 000 Iron-smelting and steel-making............................ 492, 000 624 298, 000 Meat-curing................................................ 419,325 841 3, 791, 552 Nail and tack factories..................................... 382, 070 590 1, 147, 30 Oil-refineries.............................................. 6:4,94i 494 3, 694, 669 Paper-manufactories...................................... 610, 400 761) 1, 071, 61 Printing-offices............................................. 2, 158, 660 3, 497 3, 420, 202 Railway-car factories....................................... 108, 000 17 5 1-, 000 Rope and twine making-..................................... 210, 660 450 76,1, 340 Saddle and hartness making................................ 631, 866 2,667 2, 465, 321 Sash, door, and blind factories.............................. 967, 294 2,519 3, 008, 641 Saw-mills.................................................. 16, 040, 589 35, 91. 30, 256 247 Sewing-machine'factories................................. 346, 4 0 9C6 l, 123, 464 Ship-yards................................................... 1, 084, 425 6, 046 4, 432, 262 Soap and candle making.-..79, 8'21 301 1, 32., $53 Spring and axle factories.............................. - ---- 89, 850 163 238, 812 Stone and marble establishments........................... 200, 704 1,169 1, 072, 874 Sugar refineries............................................ 425, 000 359 4, 132, 750 Tailors and clothiers....................................... 1,721,903 11,.0992 9, 345, 875 Tanneries.................................................. 2, 656,166 4, 207 9,184, 932 Tin and sheet-iron working-.................. 89, 216 2, 351 2, 392, 638 Tobacco-working...-1573, 145 2, 216 2,4:15, 343 Wool-cloth making -- 2,-776,-814 4, 45:3 5, 507, 549 Total of above and all other industries - 77, 964, 020 187, 942 221,617, 773 RECAPITUJLATION BY PROVINCES. Ontario-........................... 37,874,010 87,281 114,706,799 Quebec-........................... 2- O71l 868 66, 714 77,205,182 New Brunswick-....................... 5,976,176 18, 352 17, 367, 687 Nova Scotia-......................... 6,041 966 15, 595 12, 338, 105 Total.......................... — -77,964,020 187, 942 221, 617, 773 RATES OF WAGES. The tables on the succeeding pages, though not so fuill as desired, exhibit with approximate accuracy the average rates of wages for mechanical,7 factory, and falrm. labor in various portions of the Britisht North American possessions. L. —ECHANICAL LABOR. 0l Tables showiNg the average daily wages paid to persons employed in the umdermentioned trades in different counties and towns in the provinces of Ontario, Que- oo bec, Nova Scotia, Mew Bruimswick, and Prince Edward's Island; also, in NcuJeoundland, and in Jamaica, West Indies, in the years 1873 and 1674. Blacksmiths. Bricklayers, or C binet-makers. Carpenters. Coopers. Machinists. Painters. Plasterers. mnasoiis. P rovinces and tow ns.W i h - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ With Witho't With Witho't With Witho't With Witho't With Witbot With Wito't With Withot With Witbo't hoaid. board, hoard. board. b oard.] board. board. hord, board. board. hoard. bonrd. boaru. hoard. board. board. Ontario: rhami873 22........ 10........ I7........ 1$75. 175- - 2 2.25 El gin.. —---------— 18-13 1 50 1867 2 00 250 iii)0 2 00 1 50 2 00 1 25 i 75......200.. —- 2 00..... 1 75 Frontenac. 1874. 200.. 300..I.1 0........17 2250 300 Greniville.. —--------- 1843 123 i73 2 23 273 1 20 1 50 1 25 173 5 120 is iso5 2 00 1350 2 1.0'250:100 arnileon..................873.. 2 00. 2 37. 1I. 105. 173. i75100250 Haston.s --------------------- 1874 -----— $1 7........ 75.....150. 200.1-0. 2.............. - 1 5 $ - 00 jjurnda.......................S~ 187 10 60 - - - - 2 50 - - - - 1 75 --- --- 1 750...... 1 50 1...... 2 00 1 --- --- 1 50...... 2 5' ~00.... Kent.i.............. 175......... 2.. - 75..... I 25.....2..00 2......... 175........ 75187 2 50 Leeds ------------------—. —- 1 30....... 200. 10. 230. 173. 250 Licol......................2.... 150 200 150 200 175 201 00 225. 20 Niorthumberland........1873 2 00 223~ 2 50 27o4 io l0 n 130 1 73 1350 1734 2 00 2 23 2 00 2 25 2 50 273Orilla. —--------------------- 1873. —----- 12350........ 2~25........ 2 P2 -------- 2 1 2........ 1 73........ 2 5L5. —------ 2 00.......2 P~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1ortiop..07..2720..20.27.12'0 proj t pena.................... 1874 0........I 2 75 - --- - 3......../ I,5- --- - q 0 -- - - - 2 0........[I7 [.... 2 75 ------—.. 12 -- - — 0...... 3 0 PiconPrincelEdwardCo. - 1873 150 20 ) 2 00 "'' 50 in 200 2500 2 50 125 20 0 2 50 300 2 00 2 3;0 200 2 5 0 St. Cathairine's. —------ 1873. —-- 2t --— 20 1 ~0 2860 1 50 2 03 150 2 00 173 200 2 00 2 125 23 —- 11. 0 Stormont..................... 1874 150 200 200 2o0 1 0 280 130.150 150 200 200 250 200 250 Qunebec: V ]untin-lon. —--------------- 1873 150 2 00 1..0 200 1. 2 5..0 1.00 12 5 1.00 12 5 1 75 200 200 225 1 00 150 Hati ng........... 174 1....I15.... I 50 I....II:5..~' "'6.. ~6 Quebec ------------- 18I 75...3 1 00150..... 00........ 30. Stanstead.1873....... 200 250......... 200.250. 200.. 20 ThreeRivers......1873 200 225 22........ 1 125 2 00 1 75 2.00 200 223 17 200 200 225 Nova Scotia: aifax...............7...... 1874........ 1 75........ 250........ 1 75........ 175.175. 200 Pictou..1872150......... 2e73 --- - I 5 1 75.....0. 1 50. —----- 2 00. 1. 600. 2 00 W ijIolt.ope.................... 18573.... 2 75 ]........[ 2 25......../ 2 00I........I 2 00........]17 -- - - 2 715........'2 12J........ 2t50 New Brunswick St.John. ----— 18732 - 00..... 200.."i'. 1 50. —----- 10. 1 60 - 1 50 2 2 00 -— o —.10.200' - 0 Frederiekton.. —-----— 1873 1 23 1060 1 40 180 l 25 1860 1 40 1 80 1 23 1060 iSO 1090 1 40 180o 1 40 1860 Prince Edwav d's Island: Charlttetow....... 1873 -—. 150.....2150. 150....3 2200. 200 Newfoundlandol: StJoh's. —----------- -1873.- 100.. 50....... 10. 100. 200.. 20010 Jamaica: Kingston.................. 8'3.. 45.... 450 i50 400. 450. 600. 5 00 Shipsruitls, 20to ].30; caulkers, 2.30 to,3. Shoema-kers. Stone-cutters. TioS. Tanners. Tnmths. Wheelwri-~ht~s. Pr-ice of board Tailor Tinsmi ~~~~~~~~~per week. Provinces and tow ns.- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ With Witho't With iWitho't With Witho't With Witho'ti With Witho'tl With IWitho'tMe Woe ~- hoard. board, board. hoard, board. board. board. hoard. b(rard. board.! b oard, beard. Ontario: Belleville-................... 1874............... $2 50................................. $2 50..... Carleton..........i...........173 $1 25 $1 75 -$2 50 3 00.$1 25 $1 75 $1 50 $2 00 $1 50 $2 00 $1 25 $1 75 4 00 $2 50 Dlundas....................1873 1 51.5 1 50 1 50 2 00 1 23 1 50 1 25 1 50 1 00 1 50 2 00 2 50 2 50 2 00 Thurham —...................1873- -.....150 --- -- 2 75- -.... 15 0..... 175..... 200 - - -........ 3 12j 2 00 Elgin —.....................1873..- -.. 62 - -.... 1 87.. 2- - ----- 22............ 1 75- -.... 2212$ 2 75 1 75 Frontenac —..................1874 - -....... —- -- 3 50- -.... 1 50- -2... 100- -.... 1 50 1 75 300..... Grenville —...................1873 -120 1St) 250 3060 120 1 50 125 1 75 125 1 75 12~5 175 300 2 00 Hamilton —...................1873- -.... 2 00 —-- - 250- -.... 2 25- -.... 1 00 —-- -- 187 —--- 175 300 2 00 Hastings -------- -18 —--— 4 —- - -3 350 —-- - 150- -..... 200 —-- -- 1 50 - - -........ 337 2 00 Huron --------- -----------— 1874 1 50 ---- - 250 —-- - 150 ---- - 150 --- 1 —- I50i —-- - 150 —-- -- 3 00 2 00 Kent-1..................... 73 -..... 150 -..... 250 —--- 17.5 -..... 125 -.... 2 50 -..... 175 300 2 25 Leeds -------------------— 1873 -..... 150 —--- 3 CO. -... 1 50 -..... 150 -..... 175 ---------- 300 250O Lincoln —------------------- 1873 —--- 150 2 50 2 75 -..... 2 5 0 - 2.... 00 - 2.... 1100 1 50 2 00 3 50 3 37 Northumnberland —-------------— 1873' 100 125 1 50 1 75 1 25 150 1 25 1 50 125 1 50 1 50 175 2 50 2 00 Orilla-18 —-3 - 150 - 237 -1 —---- 125 - 175. - 175-187 250 —200 PI Port Hope -18 —-------------- 73 - 17... 5 - 2.... 25 - 1.... I50 -..... 150 - 1 87 - 2.... 00 2 75 2 25 PictoD, Prince Edward Co.. -......... 1873 1 50 200 2 50 3 00 1 50 2 00 1 50 2 00 1 50 2 00 1 50 2 00 3 00 2 00 St. Catharie's ----------------- 1873 —--- 150 2 50 2 75 ----- 250 ----- 2 00 - 2 00 1510 2 00 3 50 3 37 Z Stormont —----------------— 1874 1 00 1~5..2 50 1 z 15 0 -..... 125 1 50 1 75 1 50 2 00 2 75 1 75 Qnebec: 12 IIUutingdon ----------------— 1873-................ 1 00 15 1 50 1 75 80 1 00 1 00 1 25 2 25..... Quebec-....................1873 1 80. -.... 180 —--- 150 —--- 100 -.... 1 20 -..... 150 —--- 300 iS Z0 Staustead..-. —--------------— 1873 ----- 200 -..... 250 ----- 250 - 2 00 - 2.... 00 -.... 2 00 300 2 50 Three Rivers —--------------— 1873 1 00 1 23 -..... 250 1 25 150 ---- 123 1 50 1 75 1 50 2 00 2 75 1 75 e Nova, Scotia: Haiax - - -- - -- - - -- - - -- - -- - - -— 1874-4 —-- - -- - -- - - - - --- - -- -2 — - -5 —- - 2 —....75425 2 7 Pictou-.....................1873 -..... 150 -..... 250 -..... 150 -..... 175 - 150-.......1-50- 3 00 1 50 Windsor-....................1873 -..... 175 -..... 225 -..... 175 -75 -------- 1 5.... 212$ ---- 212$ 325 2 75 New Brunswick: I IFredericktou-..................1873 1 40 180o 1 40 180o 1 25 1060 1 25 1 60 1 00 1 30 1 25 1060 2 50..... Prince Edwards Island: (Atiarlottetown-.................1873 -..... 1-25 -..... 225 -..... 200 -..... 125 -..... 125 -..... 150 275 200f Newfoundland: StSJh's.o.......s-1873 - 100 - 200 - 150 - 120 - 120 - 200..200..... 5..... 0..... 120..... 0......... Jamaica:I.Kingston-...................1873 -..... 400-............ 5 00 —--- 400 —--- 400..... 400] 300 3 00 830 LABOR IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. II.-FACTORY LABOR. Statement showing the average rate of weekly waqes paid to persons eployed in variou industries in Kingston, Cornwall, and Goderich, in the proine of Ontario, in the year 1874. Kingston. Cornwall. Goderich. Occupation. *2 _ d xWages. Wages. Wages. Iron-molders.......... 12 00 58 $9 00 to. $13 50 (Best -------- -- 59 9 co 1200 58 1200 Machinists