ld -, ^^^ fl-i-H —1 —^^^^1 VI.7TA. It 0 L~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I^^B'4^H^^^^^&.*4 "r *j I "Y.'^^^^^^^Ef^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l^^^BI^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^I^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ^^^^^j|^^^^^^^I^^^^^^^^^^^H^HB| I^B~^^R^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ IH^^^^^^^^^^^^^ PR I' ERTY OF j [ R T E S S C I E N T A \ ER I TAS A^ I I 7i I i i I II I i ii iI 4 r AMERICAN ORIENTAL SERIES ~" — ~ VOLUME 1 A GRAMMAR OF THE TAGALOG LANGUAGE AMERICAN ORIENTAL SERIES VOLUME 1 COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS E. WASHBURN HOPKINS CHAIRMAN CHARLES C. TORREY AND FRANKLIN EDGERTON MAX L. MARGOLIS EX OFFICIO, AS EDITORS OF THE JOURNAL PUBLISHED BY THE American Oriental hoidetp NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT, U. S. A. 1925 1 <,I I HUMPHREY MILFORD OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW TORONTO tELBOURNE CAPE TOWN BOMBAY CALCUTTA A GRAMMAR (OF THE TAGALOG LANGUAGE THE CHIEF NATIVE IDIOM OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS BY FRANK R. BLAKE, PH. D. Associate in Oriental Languages 7ohns Hopkins University Vice-Principal, Baltimore City College, Baltimore, Maryland PUBLISHED BY THE %mertcan OrientaI horietp NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT, U. S. A. 1925 PRINTED IN OFFIZIN W. DRUGULIN, LEIPZIG, GERMANY 1952 342 DEDICATED TO MY WIFE 2- -?-3r 3 / L/A7 I PREFACE. The present grammar is the result of an extended study of Tagalog and the related languages carried on in connection with the author's work as instructor in Semitic and Philippine languages at Johns Hopkins University. It is based on the works of the best Spanish grammarians, checked and verified by the reading of numerous Tagalog texts. This work was begun shortly after the Spanish-American War. A few years later, in 1902, the results were presented before the American Oriental Society, but the Society could not at that time see its way clear to print the Grammar in its Journal. In the years that followed, with a view to secure the publication of the work, various agencies were approached without success, several publishing firms, the War Department, the Smithsonian Institution, and the Carnegie Institution. In the meantime the Grammar was practically rewritten, and brought to what was substantially its present form about I9I0. Thru the kind offices of Prof. J. J. M. De Groot of Leyden, who lectured that year at Johns Hopkins University, the Grammar was then brought to the notice of the Koninklijk Instituut voor de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indie of Holland. A committee of Malayo-Polynesian specialists headed by the late Prof. J. C. G. Jonker of Leyden pronounced it the best Tagalog grammar yet written, and strongly recommended its publication, but the members of the Instituut felt that the cost of such a work, dealing with a language of a dependency of the United States, should be borne by some agency of that government, - VIII - and refused to undertake it. On the basis of the favorable report of the committee just mentioned, the Grammar was then again referred to the War Department of the United States, and also to the Smithsonian Institution, but they declined to reconsider their former decision. About seven years ago, however, the American Oriental Society decided to publish the Grammar as the first of a series of special Oriental Publications, provided it could secure a subvention from some individual or institution for that purpose. This plan not proving feasible, the Society finally determined at its meeting in Baltimore in 1920 to use its own funds for the publication of the Grammar, and the appearance of this work at this time is the result of that decision. Thanks are especially due in this connection to Prof. Paul Haupt, Professor of Semitic Languages at Johns Hopkins University, for his repeated efforts, dating back to 1902, to secure the publication of the work. A number of Tagalog grammars already exist, but none of them can be regarded as satisfactory. Most of these, moreover, are in Spanish, and therefore inaccessible to the majority of Americans. Of grammars in English, the best, all things considered, is the recent work of L. Bloomfield, "Tagalog Texts with Grammatical Analysis" (Urbana, Ill., 1917); but this, tho containing much valuable material, is rendered unavailable for practical purposes by its defects of arrangement and peculiarities of phraseology.' The grammars of Lendoyro (Manila, 1902 and I9o9), and Mackinlay (Washington, 1905), while they likewise present a large amount of useful material, suffer from the usual defects of the so-called practical grammar; the subject matter is poorly arranged, the explanations of the grammatical facts are often obscure, meager, and insufficient, a large number of important forms and constructions are not explained or x Cf. my review of this work in the American Yournal of Philology, xl, I (1919), pp. 86-93. It has seemed best not to include any of the new material given in this work in the present grammar. This material will be treated later in a separate article. - IX even mentioned, and many grammatical principles are illustrated in the examples, either previous to the explanations, or without any explanation whatever. Tagalog is a language of peculiar difficulty, and one which is not readily acquired by so-called practical methods. An extended course in the grammatical structure and theory of the language is necessary before much progress can be made. This necessity of preliminary grammatical study is indicated by the familiar Spanish saying that to learn Tagalog requires un ano de arte y dos de bahaque 'one year of grammar and two of practice'. What is needed by the student is a method that will enable him to understand and assimilate readily the material which he meets in reading or conversation, a clear and concise presentation of all the facts of the language in an arrangement in which scientific principles are observed, but which offers at the same time some of the advantages of a practical treatment. The present Grammar is an attempt to supply this need. It is divided into four parts, viz.: Orthography and Phonology, Morphology, Syntax of Combinations, Special Syntax. In the first the signs used in writing, and the sounds of the language are discussed; in the second, the form and classification of words; in the third, all the various possible combinations of words to form phrases, and of words and phrases to form sentences; in the fourth, the use of the various parts of speech, and of various words, forms and principles, from the standpoint of the individual part of speech, word, etc., and not from the standpoint of the combination in which they occur. Parts one and two furnish the material of the structure of the language, part three gives the rules for the building of the structure, part four describes how the material is used in building. For the sake of convenience some few syntactical facts are treated in the second part, and some few points of special syntax in the third part. It has also seemed best to discuss the derivative nouns and adjectives separately in an appendix to the second part. Everything is made as clear as possible, and all principles are explained before they are used in the examples, or a reference is inserted to the proper paragraph. The logical subdivision of the material is indicated by the headings of the various sections; the division into paragraphs is not logical, and is simply for convenience of reference. Some few of the most usual grammatical terms are taken for granted, but in most cases the term is explained where it is first used. The author has in preparation as a supplement to the grammar, a fifth part which is designed to give the common words, phrases, and idioms of the spoken language. The present grammar, it is hoped, will serve not only as a means for the acquisition of Tagalog, but also as an introduction to the study of the Philippine languages in general, and as a model for other Philippine grammars, for as the Spanish saying with reference to these languages runs, cuando se sabe uno casi se saben todos 'when you know one you almost know all.' Finally the work is to be regarded not only as a grammar of Tagalog, but also as an exposition of a new method of syntactical treatment. Thanks are due Prof. Aaron Ember of Johns Hopkins University for making while in Germany the final arrangements for the publication of the book, and also to the firm of Drugulin for its satisfactory and efficient handling of a difficult piece of work under unfavorable conditions. BIBLIOGRAPHY' OF WORKS AND ARTICLES ON TAGALOG. ABELLA, V. M. de -- Vademecum filipino 6 manual de conversaci6n familiar espaniol-tagalog. 9a ed., Binondo, 1873, PP. 1i6. ALTER, F. C. - Uber die tagalische Sprache. Wien, I803, pp. x+ 8o. BENCUCHILLO, F. - Arte poetico tagalog (printed in Retana's Archivo, Tom. I, pp. 185-210). BLAKE, F. R. - Sanskrit loan-words in Tagalog. JHUC, 163, pp. 63 to 65. - Analogies between Semitic and Tagalog. Op. cit., pp. 65-66. - Differences between Tagalog and Bisayan. JAOS, xxv, 1904, pp. I62-I69. - Contributions to Comparative Philippine Grammar, Part I. General features, phonology, pronouns. JAOS, xxvii, I906, PP. 3 17-396. - Contributions... Part II. Numerals. JAOS, xxviii, 1907, pp. I99-253. - Expression of case by the verb in Tagalog. JAOS, xxvii, 1906, pp. 183-189. -- The Tagalog ligature and analogies in other languages. JAOS, xxix, I908, pp. 227-23I. - Expression of the ideas "to be" and "to have" in the Philippine languages. JAOS, xxx, 910o, pp. 375-39I. - Tagalog verbs derived from other parts of speech. AJP, xxxii, 4 (whole No. I28), 19II, pp. 436-440. All works of any importance are here listed. The number of pages is given whenever possible, but statements of size are omitted, these being often misleading and ambiguous as given in the various Philippine Bibliographies. JHUC = Johns Hopkins University Circulars; JAOS = Journal of the American Oriental Society; AJP = American Journal of Philology; BNI Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indie. For a more complete list cf. my article A Bib!iography of the Philippine Languages, Part I, JAOS, xl, 1920, pp. 25-70. All the titles in the list here given are from the above Bibliography except those followed by (S), which are from an unpublished supplementary list of titles furnished by Prof. Otto Scheerer of the University of the Philippines, Manila. -- XII - BLAKE, F. R. - Construction of coordinated words in the Philippine languages. AJP, xxxvii, 4 (whole No. I48), I916, pp. 466-474. - The Tagalog verb. JAOS, xxxvi, 1917, pp. 396-414. - Reduplication in Tagalog. AJP, xxxviii, 4 (whole No. 152), 1917, PP. 425-431. BLOOMFIELD, L. - Tagalog Texts with grammatical analysis, 3 vols. Urbana, Ill., I917: Part I, Texts and Translation, pp. I5 + I07; Part II, Grammatical Analysis, pp. I I+ 183; Part III, List of Formations and Glossary, pp. 8 + 92 + 2. BLUMENTRITT, F. - Die Transkription des Tagalog von Dr. Jose Rizal. BNI, xlii, I893, pp. 311-320. BRANDSTETTER, R. - Tagalen und Madagassen. Luzern, 1902, pp. 85. BUZETA, M. - Gramatica de la lengua tagala. Madrid, I850, pp. 6 + I 71+3 CALDERON, S. G. - Pocket Dictionary. English-Spanish-Tagalog. 2a ed., Manila, I920, pp. 356. (S) - Munting diccionario na Ingles-tagalog. Manila, I916, pp. 279. (S) - Diccionario ingles-espafiol-tagalog. Manila, 1915 (1917), pp. 654. (S) - Cf. Fernandez, E. and Calder6n, S. G. CAMPOMANES, J. HEVIA - cf. Hevia Campomanes, J. CORIA, J. DE - Nueva gramatica tagalog, te6rico-practica. Madrid, 1872, pp. 552+iv. CUE-MALAY, G. - Frases usuales para la conversaci6n en espaiol tagalo e ingles. Manila, 1898. DALUZ TORRES, E. - Manga unang hakbang sa ikadudunong (a Tagalog primer). Manila, 1905, pp. 95. (S) DURAN, C. G. - Manual de conversaciones en castellano, tagalo e ingles. Manila, 1900. FERNANDEZ, E. - Nuevo vocabulario 6 manual de conversaciones en espafiol, tagalo y pampango. 5a ed., Manila, 90oI, pp. 83. (S) - Vocabulario tagalo-castellano. I I ed., Manila, I920, pp. I 9. - and CALDERON, S. G. - Vocabulario tagalog-castellano-ingles con partes de grammatica y frases usuales. 2a ed., Manila, 1917, pp. 269. (S) HEVIA CAMPOMANES, J. - Lecciones de gramatica hispano-tagala. 9a ed., Manila, I912, pp. 260. IGNACIO, R. - Vocabulario bilingue espafiol-tagalo-tagalo-espafiol. Manila, 19I7, pp. 215. (S) KERN, H - Over zogenaamde verbindingsklanken in het tagala en wat daarmee overeenkomt in't Kawi. BNI, 1876, pp. 138-157. - Sanskritsche woorden in het tagala. BNI, iv, 4, pp 535-564. KIRK, M. - The Baldwin Primer. Tagalog editition. N. V., I902. - XIII - LENDOYRO, C. - The Tagalog Language. Manila, I902, pp. 387 + 6i+ viii; 2nd ed., 1909. LOPEZ - cf. Oelpz, M. H. MACKINLAY, W. E. W. - A Handbook and Grammar of the Tagalog Language. Washington, 1905, pp. 264. MAGDALENA, A. DE LA - Arte del idioma tagalog (de la lengua tagala). Mexico(?), I679, pp. 8+71. MARRE, A. - Grammaire tagalog, composee sur un nouveau plan. BNI, vi, 9 (I901), pp. 547-592. MARTIN, G. and MARTINEZ CUADRADO, M. - Collecci6n de refranes, frases y modismos tagalos. Guadalupe, 1890, pp. 234. MILES, J. - Metodo teorico-practico... para aprender... el lenguaje tagalog. Barcelona, I887, pp. I35. MINGUELLA, T. - Ensayo de gramatica hispano-tagala. Manila, 1878, pp. 302. - Metodo practico para que los ninios y nifias de las provincias tagalas aprendan a hablar castellano. Manila, I886, pp. 164. - Unidad de la especie humana probada par la filologia. Manila, I889, pp. 31 [comparative studies of Sanskrit and Tagalog]. MOLLER, F., - Grundrisz der Sprachwissenschaft. Wien, I887, Bd. II, Abt. II, pp. 87-160. NIGG, C. -A Tagalog-English and English-Tagalog Dictionary. Manila, 1904, pp. 360. NOCEDA, J. DE, and SAN LUCAR, P. DE- Vocabulario de la lengua tagala. 3a ed., Manila, i860, pp. 16+642. OELPZ, M. H. (= LOPEZ) - Dictionary-pahulugan English-Tagalog. Manila, I909, pp. I36. (S) ORTIZ, T. - Arte y reglas de la lengua tagala. Sampaloc, I740, pp. 10+I25+ 12. OYANGUREN DE SANTA INES, M. - Tagalysmo elucidado y reducido (en lo possible) a la latinidad de Nebrija: con su syntaxis... y con la alusion, que en su uso y composicion tiene con el dialecto chinico mandarin, con las lenguas hebrea y griega... Mexico, I742, pp. 8+ 228. PAGLINAWAN, M. - Grammaticang kastila-tagalog. Manila, 1914: tom. I, pp. 301; tom. 2, pp. 275. (S) - Bagong bokabulario at aklat ng mga salitaan sa kastila at tagalog. Maynila, I915, PP. 236. (S) PARDO DE TAVERA, T. H. Consideraciones sobre el origen del nombre de los numeros en tagalog. Manila, I889, pp. 26. -- El sanscrito en la lengua tagalog. Paris, I887, pp. 55. RETANA, E. - cf. Bencuchillo. RIZAL, J. - Tagalische Verskunst. Zeitschrift f. Ethnologie, Bd. 9. 1887. (S) - XIV RIZAL, J. - Estudios sobre la lengua tagala. La Patria, Manila, Dec. 30, 1899. (S) - cf. Blumentritt. SALVA, E. - Vocabulario militar y guia de la conversacion espafiol tagalog-visaya. Manila, 1884. SAN AGUSTIN, G. DE - Compendio del arte de la lengua tagala. 3a ed., Manila, 1879, pp. i68. SAN BUENAVENTURA, P. DE - Vocabulario de la lengua tagala. Pila, 1613, pp. 6+707. SAN JosE, F. DE - Arte y reglas de la lengua tagala. Manila, 1832, pp. 919. SANTOS, D. DE LOS - Vocabulario de la lengua tagala. 3a ed., Manila, 1835, PP. 8+739+ 118. SCHUCHARDT, H. - Kreolische Studien. Uber das Malaiospanische der Philippinen. Wien, I883, pp. 42. SEIPLE, W. G. - Tagalog Poetry. JHUC, 163, PP. 78-79. - The Tagalog Numerals. Op. cit., pp. 79-8I. - Polysyllabic Roots with initial P in Tagalog. JAOS, xxv, 1904, pp. 287-301. SERRANO, ROSALIO - Nuevo diccionario manual espafol-tagalo. Manila, 1872, pp. 6+398. - Diccionario de terminos comunes tagalo-castellano. 3a ed., Binondo, I869, pp. 36+ 3. - Diccionario manual de terminos comunes espafiol-tagalog. 2a ed., Manila, I913, PP. 404. (S) SERRANO LAKTAW, P. - Diccionario hispano-tagalog. Manila, 1889, pp. 626. - Diccionario tagalog-hispano. Manila, I9I4. TOTANES, S. DE - Arte de la lengua tagala y manual tagalog. 4a ed., Binondo, 1865, pp. viii + I3 + i66. WOLFENSON, L. B. - The infixes la, ii, lo, in Tagalog. JAOS, xxvii, I906, pp. 142-146. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page INTRODUCTION......... PART FIRST. ALPHABET, ORTHOGRAPHY, AND PHONOLOGY. I. ALPHABET AND ORTHOGRAPHY. ~ I. Ancient alphabet......................... 3 S 2. Spanish orthography and improvements in spelling. 3 S 3. Alphabet and diacritical marks used in this grammar....... 4 II. PHONOLOGY. VOWELS. S 4. Sounds of the vowels.................... 5 S 5. Final guttural vowels.................... 5 S 6. Vowel changes................... 6 S 7. Diphthongs..................... 6 CONSONANTS. S 8. Sounds of the consonants.................. 6 S 9. Consonant changes..................... 7 S io. ELISION, SYNCOPE AND SPORADIC CHANGES 8 S II. THE SYLLABLE.......... 8 ACCENT. S I2. Accent in general...................... 9 S 13. Words with ultimate accent.................. o S I4. Words with penultimate accent................ IO S IS. Accent as an indication of meaning............. o S i6. Secondary accent.................... II S 17. Shift of accent..................... i. XVI Page PART SECOND. MORPHOLOGY. I. FORM OF WORDS IN GENERAL. s 8. ROOTS, PARTICLES, DERIVATIVES, PARTS OF SPEECH, INFLECTION..... 12 S 19. FORMS OF REDUPLICATION...... 13 II. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. THE LIGATURE. S 20. The ligature in general.................... 15 S 21. The ligature n....................... I5 S 22. Shift of the ligature..................... I S 23. THE ARTICLES.......... 6 S 24. PRONOUNS...... ~.. 16 S 25. PERSONAL PRONOUNS........ 17 S 26. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS........ 18 S 27. RELATIVE PRONOUNS.......... 19 S 28. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS........ 19 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. S 29. Indefinite pronouns from interrogatives............. 20 ~ 30. Other indefinite pronouns................... 20 S 31. Expression of various indefinite pronominal ideas........ 21 S 32. Intensive and plural forms of certain indefinites...... 22 THE NUMERALS. CARDINALS. S 33. Forms of the cardinals.................... 22 S 34. Remarks on the cardinals........... 24 S 35- ORDINALS.............24 S 36. FRACTIONS............. 25 DISTRIBUTIVES. S 37. Cardinal distributives..................... 26 S 38. Ordinal distributives..................... 26 S 39. Distributives with prefixed tig or man............ 26 NUMERAL ADVERBS. S 40. Numeral adverbs denoting 'how many times?'.......... 27 S 41. Numerals denoting days in the past............. 28 - XVII - S 42. RESTRICTIVE NUMERALS.. ANCIENT SYSTEM OF NUMERATION. S 43. Cardinals..................... S 44. Other numerals................ Page...... 29...... 29...... 31 S45. S 46. S47. S 48. S49. S 50. S 51. NO UNS. Forms of nouns....................... 32 Indication of case and number of common nouns........ 32 Names of persons...................~ 33 Other proper nouns..................... 34 Vocative.......................... 34 Gender...........................34 Nouns consisting of reduplicated roots............. 34 S 52. S53 -5 54. S55. S 56. S 57. S 58. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. Forms of descriptive adjectives............ Plural and intensive forms.............. Comparative degree................ Relative superlative................. Absolute superlative................. Adjectives of equality............... QUASI VERBS...... VERBS. VERBAL PARTICLES IN GENERAL... VERBS MADE WITH PRINCIPAL PARTICLES..... 35.... 35.... 36.,... 36.... 36.... 37.... 37.... 38 ~... 38,.... 39.... 40.... 40 S 60. S 61. S 62. S63. The Verbal Forms in General. Active particles............... Special passive particles........... Essential passive particles........... Tense and mode forms.............. 0 Groups of Verbs. Group I. S 64. Active.............. S 65. Passive.......... Group II. S 66. In general.............. S 67. Remarks on sub-classes........ Group III. S 68. Man class.............. S 69. Manhi class....................... 41........... 42.............. 43........... 44 b.... 45.... ~46 - XVIII - Group IV. S 70. Active.................. S 71. Passive with special particle ka......... S 72. Passive with special particle ma........ Group V. Page....... 47....... 47...... 47 S 73. Active...................... 48 S 74.- Passive........................ 49 Secondary and Tertiary Derivation. S 75. Varieties of secondary verbs........... S 76. Tense and mode forms............. S 77. Tertiary verbs.................. S 78. Verbs with fully Reduplicated Roots. Irregularities and Peculiarities........50...... 51.....52...... 53 S 79. S 80. S 8I. S 82. S83. In General. Root and passive stem imperatives.. Impersonal passive imperative.... Irregular passives........ Use of ika for i in the i-passive... Emphatic or frequentative forms................ 53............. 53............. 54........... 55............. 55 Um Class. S 84. Im for um..................... 56 S 85. Present with prefix na.................. 56 S 86. Roots with initial consonant which have the formation of roots with initial vowel in the i-passive................ 56 S87. Ni for in.......................... 56 S 88. Dissyllabic roots with initial b or p.............. 56 S 89. Pollysyllabic roots with initial p............. ~ 57 S 90. S9I. S 92. S93. S 94. S 95. S 96. Other Classes. Infix in with verbs made with mag-an.............. 58 Verbs of maki class which modify initial of root...... 58 Root forms of ma class................... 58 The quasi-verb na + case treated as a verb of the ma class.. 58 Irregular forms of madlam 'know'............... 59 Passive stem of pa class as a noun............. 59 Passive stem of pa class as an adverb........... 59 VERBS MADE WITH SUBSIDIARY PARTICLES. S 97. Subsidiary Particles in General........ 59 Primary Subsidiary Particles. S98. Ka............................ 59 --- XIX - S 99. S Ioo. S 10o. S 102. S 103.. 104. S 105. Ratpa, kapagka, pagka, ag... KZ -an.......... Paka.:..... Pa............... Secondary Subsidiary N a............. An.............. Ga............ Page.............. 6i............. 61 Particles.............. 62............. 62............. 63 ADVERBS. CLASSES OF ADVERBS.......;'.. 63 ~ io6. Adverbs of Manner. S 107. Descriptive adjectives as adverbs of manner.......63 ~ io8. Adjectives of equality as adverbs of manner.........63 S 109. S IIo. ~ III. S 112. S 113. S II4. S 115. S I16. S 117. ~ II&. ~ II8. S~ i9. S 120. Oblique case of nouns and roots as adverbs of manner.....64 Adverbs of manner denoting gradual development.......64 Adverbs of manner with the prefixes ga, kasing....... 64 Adverbs of manner with the prefix pa........... 64 Interrogative adverbs of manner made indefinite by man.....64 Adverbs of Time........... 64 Definite. Adverbs denoting present and future days......... Adverbs denoting past days.............. Adverbs denoting other divisions of time in past and future Genitive, oblique, and nominative of nouns of time as adverbs Adverbs denoting a recurrent period of time........ Adverbs of time containing the idea 'every'........ ~. 65.65..65..66. 66. 66 Indefinite. ~ 121. I. Adverbs of time from demonstratives.. S 121.2. Other adverbs of time............. 66....... 66 Adverbs of Place........... 68 Adverbs of Degree. S I23. Adverbs of degree with prefix ga....... S 124. Other adverbs of degree................... 69......: 69 S 125. S 126. S 127. Affirmative or Emphatic Adverbs........ 70 Negative Adverbs... 71 Interrogative Adverbs.......... 71 Modal Adverbs.......... 72 b* s 129. S 130. S I31. S 132. S I33 -S 134. S 135. S 136. S 137. S 138. S 139. XX Page Consecutive Adverbs......... 73 FORM OF ADVERBS. Classes of adverbs with respect to form............. 74 Intensive reduplication of adverbs............... 75 Comparative and Superlative of adverbs............ 75 Case forms of adverbs................... 75 PREPOSITIONS......... 76 CONJUNCTIONS In general......................... 77 Coordinate conjunctions................... 77 Subordinate conjunctions................... 78 Remarks on the form of various conjunctions......... 80 INTERJECTIOmS.......... 8o ~ 140. III. APPENDIX. DERIVATIVE NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 82 S 141. S 142. S I43. S 144. VERBAL NOUNS. Participles..................... Nouns from future and present active......... Nouns from passive future and modal of maka potential. Verbal nouns of action................... 82.... 82.... 83.... $83 THE SUFFIXES AN AND IN, THE SUFFIX AN........... 84 THE SUFFIX IN.......... 86 S I45. S 146. THE S 147. In alone..... S 148. In-an...... INFIX-PREFIX IN.. E.... PREFIXES......... 87....... 87 S 149. S 150. S 151~ S I53. S r153. S I54. S I55. S 156. S 157. S 158. K'a alone...... Ka-an... KA. ~...... MA, MAPAG. MAG.. MAN.. MAY.. PAG.. PAGKA. PALA.. PAN.............. 88............ 89............ 91......... ~.. 92.......... 93............ 93............ 93............ 93............ 94............ 94 - XXI S 159. S I6o. S i6i. S i62. SANG............ SING, KASING........... TAG............. TAGA............ Page 95 95 96 96 PART THIRD. SYNTAX OF COMBINATIONS. I. COMBINATION OF WORDS TO FORM PHRASES.. 97 COMBINAZIONS OF THE NO UN. S 164. WITH THE ARTICLES AND PLURAL PARTICLE... 98 S i65. S 166. S i67. S I68. S 169. S 170. S 171. S 172. S I73. S I74. S 175 -S 176. S 177. S 178. S 179. S 18o. WITH THE DEMONSTRATIVES WITH THE INTERROGATIVES WITH THE INDEFINITES.. WITH THE CARDINALS.. WITH THE ORDINALS.. WITH FRACTIONS... WITH DISTRIBUTIVES.. WITH POSSESSIVES.............99......... 100........ 101...... 102........ 102....... 1 I02......... 103........ 1 03 WITH DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES...... 103 WITH INDEFINITE DEPENDENT NOMINATIVE...104 WITH AN APPOSITIVE......... I05 WITH THE GENITIVE........ Io6 WITH THE OBLIQUE AND EQUIVALENT PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AND ADVERBS........ o06 WITH OTHER ADVERBS....... I107 WITH AN INFINITIVE......... I08 WITH CLAUSES.......... o08 WITH COMBINATIONS OF MODIFIERS. COORDINATED NOUNS......... o108..... 109 S 183. ~ 184. S 185. S i86. S I87. S i88. S 189. S 190 S 19I. COMBINATIONS OF THE PRONO UN (INCLUDING NUMERALS). WITH THE OBLIQUE..........IIl WITH THE GENITIVE......... II2 WITH INDEFINIrE DEPENDENT NOMINATIVE..112 WITH AN APPOSITIVE........ I13 WITH ADVERBS EXPRESSING DEGREE..3... I3 WITH THE ARTICLE.......... II4 WITH OTHER NOMINAL MODIFIERS...... I14 POSTPOSITIVE PRONOUNS........ I I COORDINATED PRONOUNS........ 115 -- XXI - Page S 192. S 193. S 194. COMBINATIONS OF THE ADJECTIVE. ADJECTIVES IN THE POSITIVE DEGREE. With Dependent Case or Prepositional Phrase. With dependent nominative............ With the oblique.................... With a prepositional phrase.............. With Adverbs.......... With Dependent Infinitive....... With Indefinite Pronouns of Similarity..... ADJECTIVES EXPRESSING COMPARISON. Comparative and Superlative........ ii6. II6 xi6. l6. 17 II7 S 195. S 196. S 197. S 198. Adjectives of Equality. ~ I99. With dependent case............... S 200. With adverbs of degree................ n II8 S 201. ADJECTIVES WITH NOMINAL MODIFIERS.... 119 S 202. S 203. ~ 204. S 205. S 206. S 207. S 208. S 209. S 210. S 211. S 212. S 213. S 214. S 215. COMBINATIONS OF THE AD VERB. WITH OTHER ADVERBS......... 119 WITH FOLLOWING CASE......... 120 WITH THE ARTICLE.......... 121 POSTPOSITIVE ADVERBS. In general........................ 12 Affirmative adverbs.................... 122 Modal adverbs..................... 122 Interrogative adverbs.................... 122 Na-ng.......................... 122 COMBINATIONS OF THE PREPOSITION. THE PREPOSITION AND ITS OBJECT...... 123 THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE....... 125 COMBINATIONS OF THE CONJUNCTION. WITH ADVERBS.......... WITH OTHER CONJUNCTIONS...... POSTPOSITIVE MAN......... PHRASES MADE WITH COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS 125 126 126. 26 - XXIII Page II. COMBINATION OF WORDS AND PHRASES TO FORM SIMPLE SENTENCES. S 216. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE IN GENERAL. 127 SENTENCES WITH NON- VERBAL PREDICATE. SIMPLE COPULATIVE SENTENCES. S 217. With predicate noun, adjective, or pronoun.......... 128 ~ 218. With predicate denoting material or quality.......... 128 S 219. With oblique case as predicate............... 129 ~ 220. With prepositional phrase or adverb as predicate....... I29 S 221. Insertion of a word between two parts of the predicate.... 129 S 222. With interrogative pronoun in the predicate...... 129 S 223. Negative of simple copulative sentences........... 130 THE PARTICLES NA AND WALA. S 224. In general, indicating 'to be (in a place),' and 'to have (something definite)'......................... 130 S 225. With the article...................... 131 S 226. Na with sadn....................... 132 S227. Verbal forms from na object............... 132 S 228. Special peculiarities..........1..... I32 THE PARTICLES MAY and WALA. S 229. Denoting 'to have (something indefinite)'.......... I33 ~ 230. Denoting indefinite 'there is'................ 134 S 231. With interrogative pronoun as logical subject or object..,. 134 S 232. With the article...................... 135 S 233. Special peculiarities.................... 135 S 234. THE PARTICLE A 'SAY'......... 136 SENTENCES WITH NON-VERBAL PREDICATE IN GENERAL. S 235. Negative and interrogative sentences............. 136 S 236. Adverbs of time and expression of tense 137 ~ 237. Other adverbs with construction of adverbs of time...... 138 ~ 238. Predicate modified by affirmative adverbs........... 138 ~ 239. Adverbs as predicate................... 138 S 240. Adverbs joined to predicate by the ligature........ 139 S 241. Omission of subject and object..1........... 139 SENTENCES WITH VERBAL PREDICATE. COMBINA TIONS OF THE VERB. S 242. THE VERB AND ITS SUBJECT....... 140 - XXIV - Page THE ACTIVE VERB AND ITS OBJECTS. S 243. In genitive and oblique.................. 140 S 244. In indefinite nominative............... 141 THE PASSIVE VERB, ITS AGENT AND OBJECTS. S 245. In general....................... I4l S 246. Indefinite nominative for genitive............143 S 247. CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS MADE WITH PRIMARY SUBSIDIARY PARTICLES......... 143 S 248. CONSTRUCTION OF THE VERBAL NOUN..... 144 CONSTRUCTION OF THE IMPERATIVE. S 249. Modal as imperative.................... 145 S-250. Other imperative forms............... I45 S 251. THE ARTICLE WITH VERBAL FORMS.... 146 NEGATIVE VERBAL SENTENCES. S 252. In general........................ 147 S 253. Negative of the imperative............... 148 INTERROGATIVE VERBAL SENTENCES. S 254. Simple interrogative sentences............ 148 S 255. Sentences introduced by an interrogative pronoun....... 148 S 256. VERBS WITH BOTH DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECTS.. 149 THE VERB WITH ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL EXPRESSIONS. S 257. With the adverb in general................. 150 S 258. With adverbs joined by the ligature.............. 150 S 259. With adverbs in the genitive................ 150 S 260. With adverbs joined by ay................. 15I S 261. With adverbs used without connective particle........ 151 S 262. With adverbs which take the same construction as hindf.... 51 S 263. With adverbs in non-verbal predicate............ 152 S 264. With postpositive adverbs............... 52 S 265. With appositive nouns and pronouns in adverbial construction with the ligature................... 152 S 266. With prepositional phrases............... 153 S 267. With an oblique case at the beginning of a sentence...... 153 VERBS WITH DEPENDENT VERBS. S 268. With verbs used as adverbs......1...... 153 S 269. With following dependent verb in general........ 54 S 270. Modal auxiliaries..................... 154 XXV Page QUASI-VERBS WITH DEPENDENT VERBS. S 27I. May and wali...................... 155 S272. Na........................... 157 III. DIFFERENT KINDS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. S 273. SENTENCES CONTAINING A NOMINATIVE ABSOL UTE........... I57 S 274. SENTENCES CONTAINING AN INDEFINITE ELEMENT............ 57 SENTENCES CONTAINING A COMPARISON. SIMILARITY............ I58 COMPARATIVE. In General............ 159 S 276. S 277. S 278. S 279. Qualitative Comparison. Comparison of equality......... Comparison of superiority......... Comparison of inferiority.................. 6o......... i60.......... 16I S 280. S 281. S 282. S 283. S 284. S 285. Quantitative Comparison. Comparison of equality............ Comparison of superiority.......... Comparison of inferiority........... Comparison of Adverbial Ideas. Comparison of Verbal Ideas Other Comparisons.......... 6i....... 162....... I62....... 162....... 163....... 0163 S 286. S 287. S 288. SUPERLATIVE. Of adjectives................ Of adverbs................ Certain absolute superlative expressions.......... 63...... 164...... I64 S 289. COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE VERBS..... 165 NEGATIVE SENTENCES. S 290. In general.................. 165 S 29I. Negative words..................... 65 - XXVI Page INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. S 292. In general..................... 67 S 293. Special peculiarities.................... 167 EXCLAMA TORY SENTENCES. S 294. Combinations of various interjections............. 169 S 295. Use of noun and dependent genitive............. I70 S 296. Other exclamatory constructions.............. 171 S 297. Oaths and maledictions................ 171 S 298. DESIDERATIVE SENTENCES..... 172 IV. COMBINATIONS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. S 299. IN GENERAL........ f 73 COMPO UVD SENTENCES. S 300. IN GENERAL............ 73 MADE WITH COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. S 301. In general........................ 173 S 302. Sentences containing a compound element.......... 174 S 303. At introducing sentences equivalent to a subordinate clause... 174 S 304. Double questions.................... 174 MADE WITH AY. S 305. In general..................... 175 S 306. Sentences containing verbal forms made with subsidiary particle ka prefixed to partially reduplicated roots............ 75 S 307. Sentences containing verbal forms made with this ka prefixed to fully reduplicated roots.................. 176 S 308. Sentences containing verbal forms made with the subsidiary particles kapag, kapagka, pagka, ag........... 76 S 309. JUXTAPOSED SENTENCES........ 177 COMPLEX SENTENCES. S 310. IN GENERAL............ 178 SIMPLE RELATIVE CLAUSES. S 311. I. In general................... 1. 178 S 311. 2. With non-verbal predicate................ 179 S 312. With verbal predicate................... 179 S 313. With emphatic subject................... I8o S 314. Expression of genitive and oblique of the relative pronoun.. i8o --- XXVII - S 35. S 316. S 37 -S318. S 319. S 320. S 321. S 322. 5 323. S 324. S 325. S 326. S 327. COMPOUND RELATIVE CLAUSES. In general................... Subject clauses with conjunctional ang....... Ang with force of subordinate conjunction..... Clauses introduced by the article after a preposition. Page..... 18..... 182..... 82..... 183 NOUN CLAUSES INTRODUCED BY THE LIGATURE. In general..................... 83 After verbs................... 184 After impersonal predicates.........84 As object of quasi-verbs may and wald............ 84 CLAUSES OF DIRECT QUOTATION......185 CLAUSES OF RESULT....... 85 PURPOSE CLAUSES........ 86 COMPARATIVE CLAUSES.........187 TEMPORAL CLAUSES......... x88 CAUSAL CLAUSES. ~ 328. In general........................ 189 S 329. Sentences containing verbal forms made with subsidiary ka-an (c) 190 CONCESSIVE CLAUSES. S 330. In general........................ S 331. Concessive interrogative clauses.......... CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. S 332. In general................... S 333. With pa expressing an elliptical comparison in the principal clause ~ 334. DEPENDENT INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES.. I90 I91 191 192 193 CONJUNCTIONS WITH AD VERBIAL CONSTR UCTION. S 335. In general........................ 194 S 336. After the ligature and forms of the article.......... 194 V. INVOLVED SENTENCES. IN GENERAL.......... PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS.... 195 196 S 338. VI. WORD ORDER. S 339. In general.....1............. 197 S 340. Postpositive words.................... 199 -- XXVIII -- Page S 341.I S 341.2 S 342. S 343. S 344. S 345. S 346 S 347. S 348. S 349. S 350~ S 351. S 352. S 353. S 354. S 355.,. PART FOURTH. SPECIAL SYN I. IN GENERAL.... II. REDUPLICATION... III. REPETITION.... IV. ELLIPSIS.... TAX. V. THE ARTICLES. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. In general................. Use of ang................. Use of nang................ Use of sa....................... 201....... 201....... 204....... 204.......205....... 206....... 2206....... 207 THE PERSONAL AND INCL USI VE ARTICLES THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE..... VI. PRONOUNS. PERSONAL PRONO UNS...... DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.... RELATIVE PRONOUNS....... INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS..207.209 209 211I 2I12 In general........................ 213 Special uses of interrogatives............... 214 INDEFINITE PROONO UNS....... 215 S 356. S 357. S 358. S 359. S 360. VII. NUMERALS. CARDINALS AND FRACTIONS ORDINALS...... DISTRIBUTIVES.... RESTRICTIVE NUMERALS. NUMERAL ADVERBS........ 219.... 220...... 220...... 222...... 223 S 36i. S 36a. S 363. VIII. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. In general....................... 223 Uses of various derivative nouns and adjectives........ 224 Derivative particles with phrases and clauses......... 228 XXIX -- Page S 364. S 365. S 366. S 367. S 368. S 369. S 370. IX. USE OF THE CASES. In general.................... Use of the nominative............... Use of the genitive................ Use of the oblique................ Interchangeability of the case forms......... X. THE PLURAL AND USE OF MANGA.... 229.... 229.... 230.... 231.... 231.... 232 XI. APPOSITION........... 233 XII. ADVERBS. IN GENERAL........... 234 US'ES OF SPECIAL AD VERBS. S 37I. S 372. ~ 373. S 373. S 374 -S 375. S 376. S 377. S 378. S 379. S 380. In general..... I. Adverbs of time. 2. Adverbs of degree. Affirmative adverbs Negative adverbs.. Interrogative adverbs. Modal adverbs... Consecutive adverbs.................... 235................... 236................... 237................... 237................... 239................... 239................... 240................... 242 XIII. PREPOSITIONS........ 244 245 XIV. CONJUNCTIONS......... XV. VERBS AND QUASI-VERBS. S 38x. i. USE OF VERBS AND QUASI-VERBS IN GENERAL........... 246 S 381.2. USE OF THE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE... 246 MEANING AND USE OF THE VARIOUS KINDS OF VERBS. VERBS WITH TENSE PARTICLES. Um and mag Classes. S 382. Um and mag classes in general; roots taking either particle. S 383. Other verbs of the um class............... S 384. Other verbs of the mag class with mag alone....... S 385. Verbs of the mag class with secondary subsidiary particle.. S 386. Passives of um and mag; use of pag in passive of mag class. ~ 248.250 ~ 252 ~ 253.253 S 387. S 388. S 389. S 390~ S 391. S 392. S 393. S 394. S 395 -S 396. - XXX - Magsi Class..... Magsa Class..... Magka Class..... Maki Class.. Magin(g) Class.. Magkan Class... Magkapa and Magpati Classes Man Class..... Manhi Class..... Ma Class... Maka Class................ Pa Class...... Magpa Class... Magpaka Class.. Page........,254....... aa254.......,.255...... 255....... 257...... 257...... 257......... 258.........258.........259...... 261....... 261....... 264....... 265.......268 N......269 S 397. S 398. S 399. S 400. S 401. ~ 402. Causative verb Potential verbs SECONDARY VERBAL DERIVATIOI S 403. VERBS FROM FU,LLY REDUPLICATED ROOTS. ~ 404. THE SUBSIDIARY VERBAI, FORMS. VERBS FROM OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH. S 405. In General........... ~ 406. From Nouns and Adjectives... S 407. From Pronouns........... ~ 408. From Numerals..... ~ 409. From Adverbs and Phrases... 410. CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING S 4II USE OF ROOT FORMS USE OF TENSE AND MODE FORMS. S 412. Use of modal...................... S 413. Use of future. S 414. Use of preterite................... S 415. Use of present..................... S 416. Participles S 417. USE OF THE VERBAL NOUN OF ACTION. S 418. EXPRESSION OF VARIOUS TENSE AND MODAL IDEAS 270.272 ON, 272 273. 27_5. 276.279.282.283.284 285.285.285.285.286.287 289.289 291.292 S 419. S 420. 5 421. S 422. GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. Active intransitive verbs............. Active transitive verbs............... Passive verbs........... Magsi, Maka potential, and secondary and tertiary verbs.. 1 4 4 1 IN XXXI - Page XVI. CONNECTIVE PARTICLES. S 423. THE LIGATURE......... 292 424. THE PARTICLE AY......... 295 XVII. GENERAL RELATIONS OF THE GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES. S 425. IN GENERAL.......... 296 426. INTERRELATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH........... 296 S 427. INTERRELATION OF CONSTRUCTIONS.. 297 S 428. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION...... 298 APPENDICES Roots with syncopated forms........ 300 Roots taking h before suffixes........ 307 Polysyllabic roots with initial P...... 310 INDEXES Subjects........... 312 Symbolic Words........... 316 Derivative Particles.......... 319 Addenda and Corrigenda......... 322 I t INTRODUCTION. T agalog is the principal language of Luzon, the largest island of the Philippine Archipelago. It is spoken in Manila and in the middle region of Luzon. Tagalog, like all the Philippine languages about which anything is known, belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian family of speech, which embraces the idioms spoken on the islands of Polynesia, Melanesia, and Malaysia, on the Malay peninsula, and on the island of Madagascar. Tagalog has reached a high degree of linguistic development, but like all its sister tongues is primarily a spoken language. No literature in the narrower sense of elegant and artistic writing exists. There is, however, a considerable body of native poetry, some of which has been written down. The large majority of the compositions in Tagalog are of a religious character, catechisms, novenas, lives of the saints, etc., mostly translations from the Spanish. There are also several Tagalog newspapers, a number of poetical romances called corridos, dramas, and a few miscellaneous works. Tagalog has been influenced to some extent by the languages with which it has come in contact. First in some prehistoric period it was subject like most of its sister tongues to a strong Sanskrit influence, which resulted in the borrowing of a considerable body of Sanskrit words, e. g., mukha 'face' (San. mukha), bdsa 'read' (San. bhasa 'language'), salita 'story' (San. carita 'done'), dsa 'hope' (San. aca). [Compare Bibliography under BLAKE, KERN, PARDO DE TAVERA.] Later under the Spanish regime the Tagalogs naturally adopted a number of words from the Spaniards, particularly those pertaining to Christianity, the religion of their conquerors, e. g., pdrt 'priest' (Span. padre), cumpisil 'confess' (Span. confesar). The syntax I - 2 of the language was also modified in some respects under this influence, certain cumbersome native constructions being replaced by simpler ones modeled after the Spanish (cf. S~ 43, i82, I91). The Chinese of the Philippines, who form the very important class of small tradesmen and shopkeepers, have introduced a few Chinese words into the language to denote specifically Chinese things, e. g., sa 'tea' (Chin. c/ia). At the present day a number of words are being borrowed from the Americans, e. g., besbol 'baseball.' Tagalog is almost a non-inflectional language; there is no inflection to denote gender, or person or number, and none to denote case except with certain pronouns. This lack of inflection is to some extent compensated by the use of reduplication and of various derivative particles. The most characteristic features of the language, which it possesses in common with its sister Philippine tongues are, a) the prevailing use of the passive construction, b) the use of connective particles to join modifying and modified word, c) the power of verbalizing practically any word, no matter of what part of speech. PART FIRST. ALPHABET, ORTHOGRAPHY, AND PHONOLOGY. I. ALPHABET AND ORTHOGRAPHY. ~ I. When the Spaniards discovered the Philippine Islands in I52I, the Tagalogs possessed an alphabet of their own, but it was soon superseded by the Roman alphabet used by the Spaniards. At the present day the reading and writing of these ancient characters is to the natives a lost art.' ~ 2. The alphabet introduced by the Spaniards preserved all the peculiarities of Spanish orthography, which were useless and unnecessary in the spelling of native words. While the majority of books are still printed with this orthography a number of improvements in the spelling have been suggested (cf. BLUMENTRITT in Bibliography) and to some extent adopted, and most of these, with some few in addition, have been introduced in this grammar. The following are the principal changes in the old orthography, viz.: a) c before a, o, u, and q before i, e, both representing a k sound, are written k, e. g., instead of canin, aquin; kanin, akin. b) gu before i, e, representing a hard g sound, is written g, e. g., instead of saguing; saging. c) u at the beginning of a syllable before a vowel, and at the end of a word after i, and o at the end of a word after a, are written w, e. g., instead of uica, aliu, icao; wika, aliw, ikaw. I For this ancient alphabet cf. C. MARCILLA Y MARTIN, Estudio de los antiguos alfakbetos fitpinos, Malab6n, 1895. I* - 4 d) Final r is written d, e. g., instead of bucor, bucod. e) e in dropped from the alphabet (except in foreign words) being always written i, e. g., instead of babaye, babayi. f) Some attempt has been made to remedy the confusion existing between the letters u and o, o being ordinarily used only in the final syllable, e. g., mo, ano; or in the penult when the final syllable contains o, e. g., doon, tutoo. g) An apostrophe is used as the sign of elision instead of the older cumbersome device of two commas, e. g., instead of ama,t, - amat. h) A reversed apostrophe is used instead of a dash to indicate that a vowel following a consonant is preceded by the glottal catch' and stands in a different syllable, e. g., gab'i instead of gab-i. ~ 3. The alphabet used in this grammar consists of four vowel signs, a, i, o, u; and fifteen consonant signs b, d, g, h, k, 1, m, n, ng, p, r, s, t, w, y: ng when it begins a syllable is written with the tilde, viz., ng. In writing foreign words other letters are sometimes used, e. g., Elvira, Yudn, cha (tea). The acute accent - indicates the accent of a word, the grave accent ', the final glottal catch; when a final accented vowel is followed by the glottal catch, the two marks are combined into the circumflex ^ (cf. ~~ 5, 12). The apostrophe ' indicates elision (cf. ~ Io); the reversed apostrophe - indicates the glottal catch in the interior of a word, and is used after a consonant to show that the following vowel stands in the following syllable (cf. ~~ 8, o1, ii). The dash-is used to show that a word is made up of two or more distinct elements. It is regularly used between a word ending in a vowel and the ligature ng (cf. S 20), in compound nouns formed with may (cf. ~ 232), after the quasiverb a (cf. ~ 234), and after particles with separate accent (cf. $ 12). When the final ng of a word is derived from final n + the - 5 ligature ng, it is printed in a different type from the rest of the word (cf. S 20). A star i before a form indicates that the form does not actually occur in the language. II. PHONOLOGY. VOWELS. S 4. The vowels have in general the Italian pronunciation, but they are always shorter, even in accented syllables, than the corresponding long vowels ii English: a is similar to the a in 'father,' e. g., dso 'dog,' abala 'occupation.' i is similar to the i in 'marine,' e. g., big 'wish,' ind 'mother.' u is similar to the oo in 'moon,' e. g., bzukid 'country,' puti 'white.' o has a sound between o and u similar to the o in 'off,' e. g., ako 'I,' tdwo 'man.' I is sometimes pronounced as the e in bed, e. g., mnasildn or maseldn 'prudish.' Sounds written o are sometimes pronounced more like u, though rarely in a final syllable; sounds written i are often pronounced as o, e. g., itang or 6tang 'debt'; a final o generally becomes u before a suffix, e. g, ulohdn or luhdl n 'big-headed' or 'bolster' from zlo 'head.' These facts have led to the very frequent statement that there are but three vowel sounds in Tagalog, viz., a, a sound between i and e, and a sound between u and o. ~ 5. Final vowels are either simple as above, or have what the Spaniards call a guttural accent. These latter are really vowels followed by the glottal catch, a sound like that at the end of our negative no, in the colloquial pronunciation that may be represented approximately as nok. This glottal catch is represented by the grave accent as in ~ 3, e. g., wika' 'word,' hdri 'king,' paldlb 'haughty,' wala 'not having,' hingi 'ask for,' tayo 'raise.' Words ending in a glottal catch do not insert h before the suffixes an and in, i. e., the glottal catch remains between the two vowels, which stand in different syllables (cf. - 6 S II). —e. g., wikdin 'said,' kaharian 'kingdom.' The glottal catch is dropped before the ligature -ng, and before 't and 'y, the syncopated forms of at and a',, e. g., bdta-ng, wald-ng, hindi't, zvika)y for bdtta + ng, wali + ng, hindi+ at, wika + ay (cf. S~ I9, 20). These vowels with glottal catch will be called guttural vowels. ~ 6. The u of the particle um often becomes i under the influence of an i in the following syllable, e. g., imninzm for uminuim. Two o's separated by the glottal catch (cf. ~ I ) in the last two syllables of a word, e. g., tutoo 'true,' doon 'there,' are often contracted into a sound very similar to the long oo in 'moon.' S 7. The diphthongs are aw, ay, iw; aw is pronounced about as ow in 'how,' ay,,,,,,,, i in 'pine,' iw,,,,,,,, ee-oo. In some words aw and ay are contracted respectively to sounds like ow in 'low,' and ay in 'say,' e. g., ikdwz 'thou,' may 'have,' mamaya 'a while after.' Words ending in an uncontracted diphthong are treated as if they ended in a consonant; the contracted diphthongs are treated like the simple vowels, e. g., ikdwy (i. e. iko'y) for ikdw ay. CONSOVNANTS. ~ 8. The consonants b, d, k, 1, m, n, p, s, t, w, y, are pronounced about as in English: g is always hard as in 'garden,' 'girl,' r is a sound between r and d though nearer to r; it is in most cases derived from a d standing between two vowels. ng before a consonant or as final is equivalent to the English guttural nasal ng in 'sing'; the same sound may stand at the beginning of a syllable, being written in this case ng, e. g., 7ngalan 'name.' When a suffix beginning with a vowel is added to a word ending in ng, the nasal becomes part of the following syllable, and is written ng, e. g., sagingan from sdging 'banana.' - 7 When as the result of syncope (cf. ~ io) ng comes to stand before a consonant, the tilde is dropped, e. g., tinzgndn from tingin 'look' + an. The glottal catch or hiatus is really a consonant; at the end of a word it is represented by the grave accent, and in the interior of a word after a consonant by the inverted apostrophe (cf. S 3). It occurs regularly between two consecutive vowels, but here it has not seemed necessary to represent it by any special sign (cf. ~ 11). 5 9. When a d becomes intervocalic in the processes of word formation, it usually becomes r, e. g., dardcan from ddan 'road': sometimes this change takes place when the first vowel is in the preceding word; this vowel may be either simple or guttural, e. g., siy& tin, walt rini; sometimes a d becomes r when one of the adjacent sounds is a semi-vowel or liquid, e. g., lmayroon from doon, marld for *madld. There is a certain amount of interchange between n and ng; apparently the change is that of intervocalic n to ng.e. g., kanino, kangino 'whose?' kangina, kanina 'a while ago.' The final n of a prefix before the initial vowel of a root usually becomes ng, e. g., mangisda (man + isda) 'to fish'; or it may be that original ng is preserved in this position, cf. below. The consonantal combinations nb, np are regularly reduced to m (nb, np > mb, mp > mm > m); nt, ns and sometimes nd to n (nt, ns > nn > i); nk and sometimes nh to ng (nk, nh > ngk, ngh > ngng > ng); when they would occur in the processes of word formation; sometimes nh, ny become ngh, ngy (in this case n between vowel and semi-vowel suffers the same change as intervocalic n, just as in the case of r),-e. g., mamigiy (man-bigdy) 'give much,' panulat (pan-sidat) 'pen,' manguha (man-kiha) 'take much,' mangalimbdwa (man-halimbdwa) 'judge some one else by oneself'; manghuli (man-huli) 'live by rapine'; mangydri 'be able,' but mandiri 'be nauseated,' manhdnap 'scout.' It is also possible in these combinations to regard the nasal as originally ng; in which case ngb, etc. would become mb, mm, m, etc., as above, and the ng in such forms as manghzli, mang-ydri would be original. Similarly the ng before -8 initial vowels of a root may be the original sound. Cf. SS 68, 69, I53, I58. Final n + ng becomes ngtg and is simplified to ng. This ng will be printed in a type different from the rest of the word in order to indicate the presence of the connective particle, and to distinguish these words from those whose roots end in ng (e. g., gating 'good').-e. g., bayan 'town' +ng is written bdyang, baiyang. The final syllable -on of the preposition sampon 'together with' becomes o before a following n, e. g., sampo nyad 'together with him.' An h is inserted between a root ending in a simple vowel and the suffixes in, an, e. g., sabihin (sabi + in) 'said,' unahdn (una + an) 'front part' (cf. S 8 a, b). ELISION, SYNCOPE, AND SPORADIC CHANGES. ~ io. The a of the words ay and at is often elided, though not necessarily, after the final vowel, simple or guttural, of a preceding word, the guttural vowels becoming simple (cf. ~ 5), e. g., siyd'y for siya ay 'he is,' it6't for it6 at 'this and,' hindi't for hinds at 'no, for.' After a final n, both the n and the a of the particles may be elided, e. g., bdya'y for bdyan ay 'town is,' amai't for amain at 'uncle and.' The vowel of the final syllable of a root is often syncopated before the suffixes in, an; roots ending in a guttural vowel preserve the glottal catch so that the vowel of the suffix apparently begins the final syllable; roots ending in a simple vowel insert h before the suffixes.-e. g., gawein, gaw'dn from gawai 'do,' bilhin, bilzhdn from bizi 'buy,' saktin, saktan from sakit 'sickness' (cf. ~ 8, b). For certain other sporadic phonetic changes resulting from the addition of the suffixes in, an, cf. ~ 81, c, d, e. THE SYLLABLE. S II. A syllable may consist of a single vowel, consonant + vowel, vowel + consonant, consonant + vowel + consonant, - 9 consonant + diphthong. A single consonant between two vowels belongs with the second, except as stated below. No syllable can begin or end with a double consonant. When two consonants (ng though a digraph represents a single consonant) stand together, the syllable division is always between them. When two vowels stand together they form separate syllables, being separated by the glottal catch or hiatus.-e. g., a-sd-wa 'spouse,' ik-l 'shortness,' mag-la-ro 'play,' bd-hay 'house,' d-raw 'day,' pag-ga-wca 'doing,' mnuk-ha 'face,' mang-ga-ling 'come from,' mang-yd-ri 'be able,' tik-ling 'a kind of bird,' bak-ldd 'fish-pond,' sa-dn 'where?' ti-is 'firmness,' do-on 'there,' kd-in 'to eat,' ya-on 'that' When most prefixes ending in a consonant [viz., mag, nag pag, tag, tig, sang, sing; (ma)gin(g), (mag)kan] are applied to a root beginning with a vowel, the final consonant and initial vowel stand in different syllables, e. g., nag-'isip 'think,' magin'asdwa 'become married,' sang-'draw 'a whole day.' Words made with the infix-prefixes um and in, and with the suffixes an and in, follow the regular rules of syllable division, e. g., u-mibig 'love,' i-ndral 'taught,' su-mu-lat (sidat) 'write,' bi-nd-sa (bdsa) 'read,' su-ld-tin 'written,' su-ld-tan 'writing-place.' The prefixes man and its related forms (viz.. nan, pan) change n to ng before an initial vowel. This ng forms the initial of the following syllable and is therefore written ng, e. g., ma-ngisda (isd)) 'to fish.' In words consisting of two identical syllables or of two identical dissyllabic roots beginning with a vowel, the syllable division comes between the two identical parts, e. g., ol'ol 'mad,' ak'ak 'croaking,' arawdraw 'every day.' In the colloquial language of Manila and vicinity, many of these rules of syllable division are disregarded, e. g., ti-kling, ba-kldd, sdan (=- san) d6on (= doun), kdin (=== kayn), o-16l, etc. ACCENT. ~ 12. The accent of words is not so strong as in English, and is regularly on one of the last two syllables, but there is - -I no rule for determining in all cases on which of these two syllables it falls. Certain prefixes have an accent of their own in addition to the regular accent. These prefixes are makd, mnd (~ 398, d), pd (S 102) and pagkd (~ 295); a is in each pronounced as if it were aa. Usually, words which denote quick or sudden action are accented on the ultima, those which denote slow or deliberate action, on the penult, e. g., Idkad 'walk, lakdd'go hastily.' S 13. The following classes of words are generally accented on the ultima, viz.: a) all words formed by monosyllabic reduplication of a syllable ending in a consonant (including diphthongs), e. g., ak'dk 'croaking,' kamkdm 'pull up by the roots,' baybdy 'shore,' tawtdiw 'excess.' b) all words ending in a consonant formed by final reduplication as in ~ I9, (5) and (6), e. g., bulakldk 'flower.' kaliskis 'fish scale,' halokipkip 'folding of arms,' talaytdy 'flow (of blood).' c) all words which have two consonants before the vowel of the final syllable, e. g., sinddk 'sadness,' tampid 'slap,' balokt/t 'intermingled.' d) all words whose last syllable begins with a vowel following a consonant (or more accurately with the glottal catch), e. g., bigait 'weight,' bot'o 'bone, stone or seed of fruit,' tam'is 'sweetness,' tab'd 'fat.' ~ I4. The following classes of words are generally accented on the penult, viz.: a) words formed by monosyllabic reduplication of a syllable ending in a vowel, e. g., kdka 'elder brother,' pip 'dumb.' b) words consisting of fully reduplicated roots ending in a consonant, e. g., alang'dlang 'on account of,' gunamgunam 'imagination,' c) words of two syllables with identical vowels, which vowels stand in immediate juxtaposition, e. g., ddan 'road,' poon 'lord,' boo 'entire'; the most important exceptions to this rule are doon 'there,' sadn 'where?' S 15. Sometimes two entirely distinct roots differ from - II each other only in the accent, e. g., bagd 'perchance,' bdga 'live coal,' bobo 'be frightened (of chickens, animals), b1bo 'net,' sild 'they,' sila 'care, pains.' Sometimes a difference in meaning in words of identical form, derived from the same root is indicated by a difference of accent, e. g., lalaki 'will grow,' laldki 'man, male,' from laki 'grow, become large.' kaibigtn 'love,' kaibigan 'friend,' from ibig 'want, wish, love.' magtoloy 'proceed,' magtoloy 'conclude' from t6loy 'continue.' magpaardw 'expose to sun,' magpadraw 'cause sun to shine,' from draw 'sun, day.' S~ 6. Words of more than two syllables with ultimate accent, and those of more than three syllables with penultimate accent, have a secondary stress on the second syllable before the principal stress. In words with ultimate accent this secondary stress is about as strong as the primary, e. g., kdnid 'his,' ddlittc 'suffer.' ~ I7. When a suffix is added to a word with penultimate accent, the stress must be shifted to one of the last two syllables, e. g., suldtin 'written' from sulat 'write.' usapin 'case at law' from bsap 'speak, argue.' paligoan 'bathing-place' from paligb 'bathe.' bal/tan 'envelope' from bdlot 'wrap up.' When a suffix is added to a word with ultimate accent, the stress in many cases remains on the same syllable, but it is often shifted to the last syllable of the compound, e. g., tiydnin 'corpulent' from tzydn 'belly.' hulihan 'after part' from huli 'last.' inumdn 'drinking vessel' from inum 'drink.' initlogdn 'something made with eggs' from it'lg 'egg.' malologdin 'joyful' from logbd 'joy.' PART SECOND. MORPHOLOGY. I. FORM OF WORDS IN GENERAL. ROOTS, PARTICLES, DERIVATIVES, PARTS OF SPEECH, INFLECTION. S~ 8. The component parts of words are roots and particles. A root is a simple word of two or more syllables without formative element, the great majority being dissyllabic, e. g., banal 'righteous.' lakad 'walk, go.' gawa 'make, do.' sulat 'write.' inum 'drink.' asawa 'spouse.' lualhati 'glory.' Particles are of two kinds, independent and derivative. Independent particles are, viz., all monosyllabic words, and some of two syllables, these latter being usually compounded of monosyllabic particles. Those of two syllables are hardly to be distinguished from roots and are often treated as such in derivation.-e. g., ko 'my.' mo 'thy.' pa 'yet.' na 'now.' na-man 'also.' lamang 'only.' wala 'is not, has not.' Derivative particles are those which are combined with a root to form derivatives. These consist of one, two or three - 13 - syllables, those of more than one syllable being compounded of two or more monosyllabic particles. A few of these particles are suffixed or infixed, the majority are prefixed.-e. g., magma-pa- \ (verbal prefixes). mag-pa-ka- J um- (verbal infix and prefix). -an (verbal and nominal suffix). From roots other words are made by the various kinds of reduplication, and by combination with the derivative particles. Reduplicated forms of roots will be spoken of as reduplicated roots, words made with derivative particles, as derivatives. —e. g., araw-araw 'every day.' mag-bigay 'give.' l-um-akad 'go.' up6-an 'seat.' mag-bibigay 'will give.' Words are divided according to their function in a sentence into a number of classes called the Parts of Speech. In Tagalog these are the Ligature, Article, Pronoun, Numeral, Noun, Adjective, Quasi-Verb, Verb, Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction. In many cases a word which belongs to one part of speech may be used as another. Certain words are inflected, i. e., varied by changes at the beginning or end of the word, to express various modifications in meaning. The article and certain pronouns are inflected to express case; verbs, to express voice and tense.-e. g., ang, nang 'the, of the.' it6, nit6, dito 'this, of this, in this.' ak6, akin 'I, mine'. maglaro 'to play.' naglar6 'played.' paglaro (passive stem). FORMS OF REDUPLICATION. S 19. Reduplication consists in the repetition of one or more syllables at the beginning or end of a word. The final I - i4 consonant of a syllable or combination of syllables which is to be reduplicated, does not appear in the reduplication, except in cases where the reduplication is added at the end of the word as in (5) and (6), and in (i) and (3) when the consonant is the final consonant of a word or root. The following are the principal varieties of reduplication, viz.: I) monosyllabic, where a single syllable is reduplicated to form a root, e. g., olbl 'mad,' ak'dk 'croaking.' 2) partial, where one syllable near the beginning of a word is reduplicated, this syllable being either the first syllable of a root or one of the syllables of a prefix, e. g., susulat from sulat 'write.' magkakautang from magka-fitang 'owe.' mazgigitbandl from magin-bandl 'become good.' In reduplicating foreign words beginning with a mute + liquid, the liquid is not repeated, e g., nagtatrabdjo from trabdjo 'work.' nag'ppritos from pritos 'fry.' 3) full, in which the first two syllables of a word or root are repeated, e. g., araw'draw from draw 'day.' sangposangpowo from sangpbwo 'ten.' mabutiblti from ma-buti 'good.' maginhaginhidwa from ma-ginhdwa 'wholesome.' 4) combined partial and full which has a distinct meaning of its own, and is not simply a combination of the two kinds with the meaning of both, e. g., iisaisd from isd 'one.' kakatakatdwo from tdwo 'man.' babalibaligtdd from baligtdd 'toss.' 5) reduplication of the final syllable, e. g., bulakldk 'flower' from *bulak, himaymdy 'separate meat from bones' from himay (same). 6) final reduplication which consists in adding at the end of a dissyllabic word a syllable consisting of the initial consonant of the first syllable and of the vowel and final consonant of the last syllable, e. g., 15 kaliskis 'scale (of fish)' from kalis 'to scrape.' kayangkdng 'spread wings, extend the arms' from kdyang 'extend hands in menace.' II. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. LIGATURE. ~ 20. In general words that stand to one another in the relation of modified and modifier are joined together by connective particles called the ligatures. The particle is regularly -ng after a vowel or n, na after all other consonants and after diphthongs. A guttural vowel regularly becomes simple before -ng (cf. S 5). In the case of a final n, n + gg > ngng, which is simplified, becoming ng (cf. S 9).-e. g., mabuti-ng tawo 'good man.' wala-ng (wald + ng) tawo 'there is no one.' bayang (bdyan + ng) malaki 'large town.' malakas na kabayo 'strong horse.' malinaw na tubig 'clear water.' bahay na bat6 'stone house.' ~ 21. In some cases -n is used instead of -ng, e. g., baro-n kastila 'Spanish shirt.' wala-n galang 'without respect.' Words ending in n, therefore, not infrequently stand without ligature, n + n being simplified to n, e. g., di malim6tan matanda 'not to be forgotten old man.' dilan masama 'all evil.' akin ama 'my father.' ilan araw 'how many days?' S 22. When one or more words are inserted between two words which are connected by the ligature, the ligature is placed after the last of the inserted words, instead of after the first of the original group. The particle mangd, however, never causes this shift.-e. g., kapatid na babayi 'sister'-kapatid ko-ng babayi 'my sister.' bata-ng mabait 'intelligent boy'-bata ka ngani-ng mabaft 'you are indeed an intelligent boy.' -6 - I lalo-ng marunung 'more learned' - lalo pa-ng marunung 'still more learned.' ito-ng tawo 'this man'-it6-ng manga taiwo 'these men.' THE ARTICLES. S 23. There are a number of words which may be classed as articles. The most important are, viz., the definite, corresponding in general to English 'the'; the personal, used before all names of persons; the inclusive, used before names of persons to indicate that together with the person mentioned are included those who are associated with him in any way, as, for example, his relatives, friends, companions, etc.; the indefinite, corresponding somewhat to English 'a, an,' but having a much more restricted use. The first three articles have three case forms, nominative, genitive, and oblique, viz.: Definite. Personal. Inclusive. Norm. ang si sina Gen. nang ni nina Obi. sa kay kana Instead of kay and kand, sa kay, sa kand are sometimes employed. With the personal and inclusive articles may be classed the particles a, a-ng, pan 'father of,' i 'mother of,' used before the name of the first born child; and ka 'elder brother of, uncle of.' The indefinite article is expressed by the numeral isd 'one,' the cases of which are indicated by prefixing the forms of the definite article, viz.: Nom. isa, ang isa Gen. nang isa Obi. sa isa PR ONO UNS. ~ 24. Pronouns may be divided into Personal, Demonstrative, Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite. The Numerals, with the exception of numeral adverbs, are also to be classed as - 17 pronouns, but for the sake of convenience they are considered separately. The personal and demonstrative pronouns, and the interrogative sino 'who?' have, like the articles, several case forms. The other pronouns with the exception of the simple relative (which is invariable) are declined by prefixing the forms of the definite article. There is no distinction of gender. When used as adjectives, the case of the noun they modify is regularly expressed by the article except in the case of the demonstratives. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. ~ 25. The forms of the personal pronouns are, viz.: Ist pers. 2 d pers. 3rd pers. Sg. Nom. ak6 ikaw, ka siya Gen. akin, ko, (nakin) iy6, mo, (niy6) kaniya, niya Obi. sa akin sa iy6 sa kaniya. Pl. Nom. tay6 kay6, (kam6) sila Gen. atin, natin iny6, niny6 kanila, nila Obl. sa atin sa iny6 sa kanila P1. Nom. kami Gen. amin, namin Obi. sa amin Dual, Nom. kata, kita Gen. kanita, ata; ta Obl. sa kanita, sa ata The genitive forms which are the same as the oblique forms without sa, always stand before the word they modify; ndkin and niyo are used only as in S 234; the other forms are postpositive. All forms of the genitive except ndkin and niyo may be employed as possessive adjectives (cf. S 172). The oblique case may indicate 'at the house, residence of,' e. g., sa dkin,at my house,' sa amin 'at our house.' Tayo includes, kami excludes, the person spoken to. The dual katd besides meaning 'we two,' is used as equivalent to ka when a person addresses himself, and has also a peculiar signification in connection with the passive (cf. S 350, 2). Ikdw is used at the beginning of a 2 - i8 - sentence before the whole of its predicate, otherwise ka is employed; kamo is a dialectic form. The third person plural | has also fully reduplicated forms, e. g., silasil, kanikanild. The prepositive genitives of the personal pronouns are used as possessive pronouns; they are declined by means of the definite article, e. g., Norn. ang akin, akin 'mine.' Gen. nang akin ObR. sa akin The oblique preceded by the definite article has a similar meaning, e. g., ang sa akin 'that of mine. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. S 26. The forms of the demonstrative pronouns are, viz.: Nom. yari, yiri, 'this.' it6, 'this.' Gen. niri nit6 Ob. dini dito Nom. iyan 'that.' ya6n, yo6n 'that.' Gen. niyan niya6n, niy6n, ni6n, no6n Ob. diyan do6n These singular forms are also used for the plural (cf. ~ 369) when used as adjectives the plural is indicated by manga as in ~ i65. Instead of the regular case forms, the nominative | after a case form of the definite article is sometimes used, e. g., I nang it, sa it6, sa yaon, etc. On the use of ang as a demonstrative pronoun 'that,' cf. S 183. Yari denotes a thing very near the speaker, it6 a thing near at hand, equidistant from both speaker and person addressed; it6 however, is much more common, being frequently used instead of yari: iydn denotes an object near the person addressed, yaon, an object which is remote from both the speaker and the person addressed. The demonstrative pronouns may also be used as adjectives. - I9 - RELATIVE PRONOUNS. ~ 27. The simple relative pronouns 'who,' 'which,' 'that,' are expressed by the ligature ng, na, the compound 'he who,' 'that which,' 'what,' by the article ang, by siyz-ng or by ang siyd-ng: siyd-ng is used only for the nominative, in the other compound relatives the article may be varied to express case. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. S 28. The interrogative pronouns are the following, viz.: sino 'who?' (of persons). an6 'what?' (of things). alin 'which?' (of both persons and things). ilan 'how many?' magkan6 'how much?' The ordinal and distributive derivatives of ildn are used as interrogative pronouns (cf. SS 35, 37, 38, 39). The adverbs made from interrogatives by prefixing ga (cf. S 123) may also be used as interrogative pronouns. Sino is thus declined: Sg. P1. Nom. sino sinosino Gen. kanino, nino kanikanino Obi. (sa) kanino (sa) kanikanino Kanino has the by-form kangino. The plural used adjectively may also be indicated by placing the particle mangd before or after the forms of the singular, the ligature being used between the two in the second case, e. g., mantg sino, sino-ng mangd. Nino follows the word it modifies, and is employed only as in ~ 354, I; kanino precedes the word it modifies; the oblique form without sa is used especially after prepositions and in verbal sentences (cf. ~ 353). The cases of the other pronouns are expressed by the definite article before the pronoun, e. g., nang ano, sa ano. Ano and alin have intensive forms made with full reduplication which are usually plural, viz., anoano, alin'alin; the plural used 2* 20 - adjectively may also be made with mangd used as in the case of sino, either with the simple or reduplicated forms, e. g. mangd an6, an6-ng mangd, manAg anoano, mangd alin, etc. The cases of these intensive and plural forms are indicated as in the singular. Magkano with partial reduplication, viz., magkakano, has a distributive meaning, viz., 'how much apiece, per pound, dozen, etc.' The interrogative pronouns may be used as adjectives: the genitive kanino is used as an interrogative possessive adjective just like the prepositive genitives of the personal pronouns; it is also used as an interrogative possessive pronoun in the predicate of a simple copulative sentence. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. S 29. A series of indefinite pronouns are formed from the interrogatives by adding the particle man, e. g., sinoman 'somebody, anybody.' anoman 'something, anything.' alinman 'anybody, anything.' Sinomdn may be declined by the forms of the definite article placed before it, e. g., nang sinomdn, sa sinoman; or it may be declined like sino, the postpositive genitive being ninoman. The other indefinites are declined like the corresponding interrogatives. All these pronouns may be employed as adjectives in the sense of 'some, any.' S 30. Other indefinite pronouns, which may also in most cases be employed as pronominal adjectives, are: kuan 'such and such, so and so.' balang 'any, each, every.' ba.wa't 'each (adj.).' isa 'one, other (of two).' isaman 'no one (in connection with a negative).' iba 'other.' ilan 'some.' kapuwa 'both, fellow.' - 21 - lahait tanan tana pisan 'all.' dilan dila pawa b6o 'entire, complete, all.' sarisarl 'various, divers things.' maraimi madla 'much, many.' marla I kauntl ] kaun } 'little, few.' mahigit higit i 'more.' lalo J labis } mai.bis 'in excess, more.' malabis ) labi 'too much.' kulang 'less.' alangan 'insufficient, wanting.' siya kasiyahan kasiy n 'enough.' kaigihan katatagain sarili 'self, own.' para 1 paris j 'likeness, similitude.' gaya ganan 'that which pertains, belongs to.' S 31. 'Every' in time expressions is indicated also by full reduplication of the noun, or by the conjunction tziwi-ng used before the noun (cf. $ I20), or by the ordinal distributives (cf. SS 38; 358, 2). 'Self' is also expressed by an affirmative adverb, especially din (cf. SS 125; 355, 5). 'Such,' 'such a,' 'such a thing,' are expressed by the adverbs - 22 - formed from the demonstratives by prefixing ga, used as pronouns and pronominal adjectives, e. g., ganit6, ganiydn ganoon, etc. (cf. ~ 123). 'Same' is expressed by the adverb din in connection with the personal pronoun of the third person or a demonstrative; as an adjective it is also expressed by the adverbs ganit6, etc., used as adjectives + din. - e. g., siya rin, ite rin, ganitt rin, etc. 'the same.' The pronouns 'nothing,' 'no one,' and the adjective 'no' are expressed by isamdn in connection with a negative, and by the various locutions with the negative particle wala (cf. S~ 228, 229, 230, 233, 27I). ~ 32. The idea of the indefinites meaning 'little,' 'few' may be emphasized by partial reduplication, viz., kakaunti, mumuntd. These forms are used especially for the plural.' The plural of some indefinite pronouns is occasionally formed by preceding mangd just as if they were nouns, e. g., mangd ibd 'others,' mangd isd 'some.' With ildn 'some,' which is already plural, mangd simply emphasizes the indefinite idea as with the cardinals (cf. S 34); e. g., mand ildn 'some.' IHE NUMERALS. CARDINALS. S 33. The cardinal numerals from 'one' to 'ten' are as follows, viz.: isa 'one.' anim 'six.' dalawa. 'two.' pit6 'seven.' tatl6 'three.' walo 'eight.' apat 'four.' siyam 'nine.' lima 'five.' sangp6wo 'ten.' In counting consecutively p6wb is used for 'ten.' The prefix sang is an abbreviation of isd-ng 'one' (cf. below and S I59). In some districts pbol is used for powb. 1 Both simple and reduplicated forms of muntt are also employed as descriptive adjectives meaning 'small' (cf. S 53). - 23 - From 'eleven' to 'nineteen' the numerals are formed by prefixing labi 'more, over' to the units, to which it is joined by the ligature, e. g., labi-ng isai 'eleven.' labi-ng dalawa 'twelve.' The tens are expressed by combining the units with following powo 'ten'; the units are adjectives and are hence followed by the ligature. - e. g., dalawai-ng p6wo 'twenty.' tatlo-ng p6wo 'thirty.' apat na p6wo 'forty.' The numbers between the tens are expressed by adding the units to the tens, the two being connected by the conjunction at 'and,' e. g., dalawa.-ng p6wo 't isa 'twenty-one.' tatlo-ng p6wo 't dalawa 'thirty-two.' apat na p6wo 't siyam 'forty-nine.' 'One hundred' and the other powers of 'ten' are always preceded by sang- or isd-ng 'one,' e. g., sangdaan 'one hundred'. isa-ng daan sanglibo. sang libo 'one thousand.' isa-ng llbo sanglaksa 1,,,,. isa-ng laksa 'ten thousand. isa-ng laksa j sa ngy fit 'one hundred thousand.' isa-ng yuta J sang'angaw'angtaw sang an&gawangaw t 'one million.' sangpowo-ng-yuta The forms of 'ten' and its powers with sang are the ones employed in the derivative numerals, unless otherwise indicated. The other hundreds, thousands, etc., are expressed by multiplication as in the case of the tens, sang being omitted, e. g., dalawa-ng daan 'two hundred.' tatlo-ng libo 'three thousand.' apat na laksa 'four ten thousands, forty thousand.' lima-ng yuta 'five hundred thousand.' - 24 - The numbers between the various hundreds, thousands, etc., are expressed by addition, as in the case of the numbers inter- mediate between the tens; when more than one numeral (those connected by the ligature being counted as one) is added, the conjunction at is used only between the last two. - e. g., j sangda.a't isa 'one hundred and one.' apat na raian at dalawa.-ng p6wo 'four hundred and twenty.' dalawa-ng libo't tatlo-ng daan 'two thousand, three hundred.' tatlo-ng laksa't lima-ng libo 'thirty-five thousand.' siyam na yuta't pit6-ng laksa 'nine hundred and seventy thousand.' anim na raan dalawai-ng p6wo't lima 'six hundred and twenty-five.' i walo-ng libo siyam na raan tatlo-ng p6wo't isa 'eight thousand, nine hundred and thirty-one.' S 34. The interrogative ildn 'how many?' is closely related to the cardinals, and makes the same kind of derivatives, usually interrogative, but sometimes indefinite. The cardinals above the first are themselves plural. When they are preceded by the plural particle mangd they acquire an indefinite meaning 'about, some,' e. g., manga dalawa-ng p6wo 'about twenty, some twenty.' man, 1i 'about how many?' manga nan \ a 'some few.' To indicate that the number in question is more than the ten, hundred, etc., from which the count proceeds without specifying the intermediate amount, labi + the oblique case of the numeral is used, e. g., labi sa p6wo 'over ten.' labi sa dalawa-ng daan 'over two hundred.' The cardinals are used both as pronouns and adjectives. The Spanish numerals are often used instead of these here given. ORDINALS. S 35. The ordinals except the first are made by prefixing the particle ika to the cardinals; if the cardinal begins with a, I aV - 25 - this a is contracted with the a of the particle; the second and third numerals are irregular; sang may be omitted with 'ten' and its powers.-e. g., ina, nauna 'first.' ikalawa 'second.' ikatl6 'third.' ikapat 'fourth.' ikasangpwo } 'tenth.' ikapowo j ikalabi-ng isa 'eleventh.' ikadalawa-ng p6wo't lima 'twenty-fifth.' ikasangdaan } ikasangdaan 'hundredth.' ikaraan J ikasanglibo 'thousandth.' ikalibo J ikailan 'the how-many-eth?' For 'second' and 'third' pangalawd and pangatlo are also used. Forms without i, e. g., kalimd 'fifth,' are sometimes used to form verbs (cf. S 408, 2). The ordinals are used both as pronouns and adjectives. FRACTIONS. S 36. The fractions, with the exception of the word for 'half,' are formed by prefixing sa to the ordinals, or are indicated by the ordinals themselves, either alone or joined by the ligature to bahdgi 'part,' e. g., kalahatl 'half.' saikat16 t.' ikatlo(-ng bahgi) 'third.' saikapat bahgi) 'fourth.' ikapat(na bahaigi) The forms with sa seem to be obsolete. For 'half ikalawd-ng bahdgi is sometimes used. When the numerator of the fraction is more than 'one,' both numerator and denominator are expressed by cardinals, the cardinal representing the numerator being followed by the I -26 - genitive of bahdgi modified by the cardinal representing the denominator, e. g., tatl6 nang apat na bahagi 'three-fourths.' pit6 nang wal6-ng bahagi 'seven-eighths.' The combinations with bahdgi have the constructions of nouns; the other forms are used both as pronouns and adjectives. DISTRIBUTIVES. S 37. By full reduplication of the cardinals a series of distributive numerals signifying 'so many at a time' are made, e. g., isaisa 'one by one, one after another.' daladalawa 'two by two.' limalima 'five at a time.' sangposangp6w6 'ten at a time.' labilabi-ng isa 'eleven at a time.' daladalawa-ng p6wo 'twenty at a time.' sangdasangdaan 'one hundred at a time.' ilan'ilan 'how many at a time?' These numerals are used both as pronouns and adjectives. S 38. By full reduplication of the ordinals a series of distributive numerals signifying 'every two, three, etc.' are made, e. g., ikaikalawa 'every two.' ikaikatl6, 'every three.' ikaikailan 'every how many?' These are employed both as pronouns and adjectives. S 39. By prefixing tig to the cardinals, a series of distributive numerals are formed, which signify 'so many each, so many apiece.' The second and third are irregular, and from the fifth upward, all regularly reduplicate the first syllable of the cardinal. The powers of 'ten' do not take this formation. - e. g., tig'isa 'one apiece.' tigalawa 'two apiece.' tigatl6 'three apiece.' - 27 tig'apat 'four apiece.' tiglilima 'five apiece.' tigsasangp6wo 'ten apiece.' tiglalabi-ng isa 'eleven apiece.' The third and fourth have also the reduplicated forms tigatigatlo, tigatzgdpat. The forms from 'five' upwards are sometimes used without reduplication, e. g., tiglimd, tigzabi-ng isd, etc. In this series 'ten' may be, and the powers of 'ten' are always, expressed by the cardinal with prefixed man (cf. S 153), e. g., mam6o16 'ten apiece.' mandaan ) 'one hundred apiece.' manaan j manlibo 'one thousand apiece'. manlaksa 'ten thousand apiece'. manyuta 'a hundred thousand apiece'. From ildn 'how many?' are made tigjildn, tig'iilin 'how many apiece?' both with and without reduplication. These numerals may be employed both as pronouns and adjectives. NUMERAL ADVERBS. ~ 40. The numeral adverbs denoting 'so many times,' are, with the exception of the first, made by prefixing maka to the cardinals; the second, and usually the third and fourth are irregular; from the fifth upward, the first syllable of the cardinal may be reduplicated, the sang of 'ten' and its powers in this case being omitted.-e. g., minsan 'once.' makalawa 'twice.' makaitl6o 1,, makaita l 'three times.' makatatlo J x This example, based on the dialectic form pd/, is taken from Totanes (cf. Bibliography). - 28 - makaipat 'I makaipat } four times.' makaapat makal.ima 'five times.' makalilima I makasangp6wo 'ten times.' makapopowo6 makalabi-ng isa 'eleven times.' makalalabf-ng isa J makadalawa-ng p6wo w y t s. makadaralawa-ng p6wo t y ts. makasangdaan. ma\kasangd(ag } 'one hundred times.' makararaan makailan 'how many times, how often?' When these numerals refer to the past the initial m may be changed to n, e. g., ninsdn, nakalawd, etc. The unreduplicated forms with initial m are those in common use. In some mountainous districts maki and naki are used for maka and naka. Bsess (Sp. veces) 'times' modified by the cardinals is sometimes used instead of the adverbs, e. g., tatlo-ng beses 'three times.' ilang beses 'how many times?' S 4r. By prefixing ka to these numerals, from the second upward, the third and fourth being somewhat irregularly made, are formed a series of numerals indicating 'so many days ago'; sang is omitted with the tenth.-e. g., kamakalawa 'day before yesterday.' kamakatl6 'three days ago.' kamakapat 'four days ago.' kamakalima 'five days ago.' kamakap6wo 'ten days ago.' kamakailan 'formerly, in days gone by.' These are used either as adverbs, or as adjectives with draw 'day' in adverbial expressions (cf. S I6). - 29 - RESTRICTIVE NUMERALS. S 42. By reduplicating the first syllable of the cardinals, distributives with prefixed tig and man, and numeral adverbs, numerals are formed which have the added meaning of 'only so many,' e. g., iisa 'only one.' titig'isa 'only one apiece.' miminsan 'only once.' dadalawa 'only two.' titigalawa 'only two apiece.' mamakalawa 'only twice.' sasangdaan 'only a hundred.' mamanaan 'only one hundred apiece.' mamakasangdaan 'only a hundred times.' iiln l 'just how many?' J 'some few.' titig'lan 'just how many apiece?' mamakailain 'just how many times?' The restrictive meaning is still further enhanced by combining full with the partial reduplication, e. g., iisaisa 'only one.' dadaladalawa 'only two.' miminsanminsan 'only once.' These restrictive numerals have the same constructions as the unreduplicated forms. The names of pieces of money except salapi 'four reals' have the same reduplication, e. g., pipisopiso sasaikawalo 'only half a real.' tatatlotatlo-ng bahagi 'only three reals.' ANCIENT SYSTEM OF NUMERATION. S 43. The intermediate numbers from twenty-one upward were formerly made in a way much more cumbersome than - 30 - the one described in the preceding paragraphs. The numbers between the tens were represented by the intermediate unit, preceded by a combination of the prefix ma + the ordinal of the ten (with powo omitted wherever it occurs) towards which the count was proceeding. The initial i of the ordinal and the a of the prefix formed the diphthong ay. The two words were joined by the ligature when the compound with mayka ended in a vowel, and sometimes when it ended in a consonant. - e. g. maykatlo-ng isa 'twenty-one.' maykatl6-ng siyam 'twenty-nine.' maykapat dalawa 'thirty-two.' maykadaan tatl6 'ninety-three.' In the same way were represented the numbers intermediate between the even hundreds, thousands, ten thousands, etc., except those intermediate between the first and second hundred, first and second thousand, etc., e. g., maykatl6-ng daan isa 'two hundred and one.' maykapat na raan sangp6wo 'three hundred and ten.' maykatl6-ng lib6-ng labi-ng isa 'two thousand and eleven.' maykatlo-ng lib6-ng tatl6-ng daan 'two thousand, three hundred.' maykalima-ng yuta-ng lima-ng p6wo 'four hundred thousand and fifty.' The numbers intermediate between the first and second hundred, the first and second thousand, and so on with all the powers of 'ten,' were formed in a way similar to the teens, the numbers between the first and second tens. The hundred, thousand, etc., from which the count was proceeding, preceded by labi sa 'more than, over' was placed before the intermediate amount, and joined to it by the ligature except in the case of labi sa raan, e. g., labi sa raan isa 'one hundred and one.' labi sa raan labi-ng dalawa 'one hundred and twelve.' labi sa raan dalawa-ng p6wo 'one hundred, and twenty.' labi sa lib6-ng tatl6-ng daan 'one thousand three hundred.' labi sa yuta-ng tatlo 'one hundred thousand and three.' Ia r.:~.S,,1 - 31 The intermediate amount after labi sa raan, etc. might be itself an intermediate numeral beginning with mayka-, e. g., labi sa raan maykatlo-ng isa 'one hundred and twenty one.' To indicate that the number in question was more than the ten, hundred, etc., from which the count proceeded without specifying the intermediate amount, the tens, hundreds, etc., with labi sa and mayka were used without following intermediate unit: here powo was retained in the tens, with mayka; labi sa stood only before 'ten' and its powers; at the present time labi sa is used before all the cardinals (cf. S 34). - e. g., labi sa p6wo 'over ten.' maykatlo-ng p6wo 'over twenty. maykaraan 'over ninety.' labi sa raan 'over a hundred.' labi sa raan maykatlo-ng p6wo 'over a hundred and twenty.' maykapat na daan 'over three hundred.' S 44. The ordinals, fractions, distributives, adverbs, and restrictives corresponding to the intermediate numerals beginning with labi were formed according to rule, e. g., ikalabi sa daan isa, 'one hundred and first.' saikalabi sa daan isa ' /11.' labilabi sa daan isa 'one hundred and one at a time.' makalalabi sa daan isa 'one hundred and one times.' Those derived from the numerals beginning with mayka offer a number of peculiarities. The cardinals may be used without change as ordinals, or ika may be substituted for mayka or prefixed to it, e. g., maykatlo-ng isa I ikatl6-ng isa 'twenty-first.' ikamaykatlo-ng isa, These ordinals may be used as fractions with or without prefixed sa, e. g., maykatlo-ng isa / 1/ ' samaykatlo-ng isa J f" - 32 - I The distributives meaning 'so many at a time' were formed by reduplicating the two syllables following may, e. g., maykatlokatlo-ng isa 'twenty one at a time.' No distributives with prefixed tig were formed. The adverbs were formed regularly, e. g., makamaykatlo-ng isa 'twenty one times.' The restrictive numerals were made from the cardinal by partial or combined partial and full reduplication of the syllables following may, e. g., maykakatlo-ng isa maykakatlokatlo-ng isa only twenty-one NO UNS. S 45. Nouns may consist of the uncombined root, e. g., tawo 'man.' 61o 'head.' bata 'boy.' aso 'dog.' ama 'father.' bahay 'house.' of reduplicated forms of a root, e. g., lalaki 'man' (laki 'grow'). babayi 'woman' (bayi). mulamula 'the very beginning.' or may be derived, formed from the simple or reduplicated root by combination with derivative particles, e. g., inum-in 'drink' (inum). pala-anito 'idolater' (anito). ka-banal-an 'goodness' (banal). lalaki-nin 'virago.' For a systematic treatment of derivative nouns cf. S 140 —62. S 46. The plural of a common noun is formed by placing the particle mangd before it. The cases of a definite noun, both in singular and plural, are indicated by the forms of the definite article placed before it.-e. g., j -33 Sg. PI. Nom. ang tawo ang manga tawo Gen. nang tawo nang manga tawo Obi. sa tawo sa manga tawo An indefinite noun in the nominative is without article except when one individual is to be specified, in which case isa or ang isa is used before it; the genitive is indicated by nang, or, when one individual is to be specified, by nang isa before the noun; the oblique case, by sa or sa isd as in the genitive. Isd and its noun are joined by the ligature; ang isa is used only when the nominative is the subject of a sentence. The declension of the indefinite noun is therefore, Sg. Sg. Nom. tawo (ang) isa-ng tawo Gen. nang taiwo nang isa-ng taiwo Obl. sa tawo sa isa-ng tawo PI. Nom. manga tawo Gen. nang manga tawo Obl. sa manga tawo In many cases an indefinite noun depending on or modifying a preceding word has the form of a nominative, and for the sake of convenience will be spoken of as an indefinite dependent nominative, though, of course, it is not nominative in meaning, being rather akin to the genitive (cf. ~~ 174, I85, 210, 229, 230, 244, 246, 265). When a noun is modified by a preceding demonstrative pronoun, the article is usually not employed, and the case is indicated by the demonstrative, cf. ~ I65. ~ 47. The cases of names of persons are indicated by the personal or inclusive articles. The plural of such names may be formed by prefixing the definite article with manga as in common nouns, or by a circumlocution (cf. ~ 348).-e. g., Sg. P1. Nom. si Pedro 'Pedro.' ang manga Pedro 'Pedros.' Gen. ni P6dro nang manga P6dro Obl. kay Pedro sa manga P6dro 3 - 34 Incl. Nom. sina Pddro 'P. and his companions.' Gen. nina Pedro Obi. kana Pedro In the abbreviated pet names from names of persons, the last two syllables are usually preserved and y is added to the final vowel, e. g., Ikoy from Frederico. Titay from Margarita. ~ 48. Other proper nouns, names of places, etc., are treated as common nouns and have the definite article, e. g., Nom. ang Maynila 'Manila.' Gen. nang Maynfla ObN. sa Maynila S 49. In the vocative, nouns are used without article, and are frequently preceded by the particles ay, oy, e. g., ay, oy tawo 'O man.' ay, oy Pedro 'O Pedro.' ay, oy Maria 'O Maria.' manga lalaki 'O men.' ~ 50. There is no distinction of form in nouns to denote gender. The sex of a noun of common gender is often determined by the context, but it may be explicitly indicated by the words laldki 'man, male,' babdyi 'woman, female,' placed after the noun and joined to it by the ligature, e. g., kapatid na lalaki 'brother.' kapatid na babayi 'sister.' pusa-ng lalaki 'tom-cat.' kabayo-ng babayi 'mare.' S 51. In nouns consisting of a reduplicated root, the reduplication is often non-significant, i. e., has no special meaning, e. g., lalaki 'man.' bulaklak 'flower.' Certain nouns take full reduplication to denote an intensive or a distributive idea, e. g., I - 35 - mulamula 'the very beginning.' tawotawo 'each man.' araw'araw 'every day.' buwanbuwain 'every month.' bagaybagay 'thinks of different sorts.' Certain names of pieces of money take restrictive reduplication like the restrictive numerals (cf. S 42). Certain nouns have partial reduplication after sa with a special meaning (cf. S 347). DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. ~ 52. Descriptive adjectives sometimes consist of unchanged roots, e. g., hunghang 'stupid.' ol'ol 'mad.' mahal 'noble.' bago 'new.' but usually they are formed by prefixing the particle ma to the root (for other derivative adjectives not expressing degree (cf. S~ 142, I43, 145, 146, I47, I49, 151, 157), e. g., ma-galing 'good.' ma-ganda 'beautiful.' ma-lakas 'strong.' ma-itim 'black.' ~ 53. The plural of the ma adjectives may be formed with man gd, or by reduplicating the first syllable of the root, or by both means combined, e. g., manga magaling magagaling manga magagaling. The plural of root adjectives and other derivative adjectives except adjectives of equality (cf. S 57), is formed as in the case of the noun by means of mandi, e. g., manga hunghang, etc. 3* I - 36 - Muntt 'small' makes an intensive form, which is usually employed as a plural, by reduplicating the first syllable of the word, viz., mzumunti (cf. S 32). ~ 54. The comparative degree is expressed by the positive, or by the positive preceded by idlb or idlb pa, or followed by pa; Idlb and Idlb pa take the ligature.-e. g., magaling lalo-ng magaling 'better.' lalo pa-ng magaling magaling pa j A comparative degree of inferiority may be formed by the positive preceded by pasubdli 'less,' the two being joined by the ligature, e. g., pasubali-ng magaling 'less good, not so good.' S 55. The relative superlative is expressed by the comparative with the definite article, e. g., ang magaling ang lalo-ng magaling 'the best;' etc. or by a nominal form made with prefixed ka and suffixed an on the basis of the fully reduplicated root (cf. S 150, d) preceded by the article, e. g., ang kagalinggalingan 'the best.' ~ 56. The absolute superlative, which indicates a high degree of the quality without specific comparison, is expressed in several ways. a) The adjectives are modified by the adverbs lubkh, masakit, totro, di sapdaa, di hkdmak, di jaldk 'very': the compounds with di always follow, the others may stand either before or after the adjective, adjective and adverb being joined by the ligature.-e. g., lubha-ng magaling very good.' magaling na lubha j maganda-ng di sapala 'very handsome.' b) The descriptive adjective is repeated, the two being joined by the ligature, e.-g., magaling na magaling 'very good.' I i. r - 37 - The plural of this superlative may be formed by placing mangd before the combination of the two adjectives, or by reduplicating the first syllable of the root in each, e. g., manga magaling na magaling magagaling na magagaling. c) The nominal form with prefixed ka and suffixed an described above (S 55) is employed. ~ 57. Adjectives of equality which contain the idea of 'as, equally as' are formed from the root with the prefixes ka, magka, sing, kasing, magkasing, or by substituting these prefixes for ma (cf. S~ I49, e; I52), e. g., kalaki magkalaki singlaki 'as large, equally as large.' kasinglaki magkasinglaki The forms with iag are used only of more than one. If more than two individuals are compared, the sing adjectives with the first syllable of the root reduplicated, or the magka or magkasing adjectives with reduplicated ka may be employed, e.g., singlalaki magkakalaki 'equally large.' i magkakasinglaki, QUASI- VERBS. ~ 58. Certain important verbal ideas are expressed by independent particles, which may be called quasi-verbs. These particles are, viz., ay 'to be.' na 'to be.' may 'to have, be.' wala 'not to have, not to be.' a-'to say.' - 38 - Na may insert an n, taking the form nan before adverbs beginning with d, e. g., nandito 'be there' (cf. S 224). Wal. makes the superlative form wald-ng wal/ (cf. S 56, b). VERBS. VERBAL PARTICLES IN GENERAL. ~ 59. The use of the simple root as a verb is comparatively rare except in colloquial speech (cf. S 411). Verbs are regularly formed by combining various particles with the root. These particles may be classified as follows, viz., A. Principal {Active Special |Passive Essential B. Subsidiary f Primary B Secondary The principal particles are employed to form the ordinary finite verb, the subsidiary make certain special verbal forms. VERBS MADE WITH PRINCIPAL PARTICLES. The Verbal Forms in General. ~ 60. Verbs made with the principal particles are divided into seventeen classes according to the active particle, and these classes fall into five groups, as follows, viz.: I. II. III. IV. V. a um mag man ma pa b magsi manhi maka magpa c magsa magpaka d magka e maki f magln(g) g magkan h magkapa i magpati I - 39 - These classes denote in general the following, viz.: I, II a - action. II b - plurality of agents. II c - 'be like something.' II d - 'have something.' II e - action in company with someone. II f - 'become something.' II g - involuntary action. II h - 'remain, be in a certain position.' IIi - 'put oneself suddenly in a certain position.' III a - frequentative action. III b - 'search out and clean from.' IV a - state or condition. IV b - I) causative action (maka causative). 2) ability, 'be able' (maka potential). V a - I) 'let, order to be done to or for oneself.' 2) motion. Vb - 'let, order, cause someone or something.' V c - voluntary action. ~ 61. All of these classes with the exception of I, have a special passive particle which is used instead of the active particle when the verb is passive. The special passive particles are, viz.: I. II. III. IV. V. a - pag pan ka, ma, maka pa b pagsi panhi, hi ka, ma pa, pagpa c pagsa, sa paka,pagpaka d pagka e paki f pagin(g) g pagkan h pagkapa i pagpati In II (except sometimes in c) and III a, the passive particles are formed' by changing the initial m of the active top, and I The rules given here and in the following paragraphs for the formation of the various verbal forms are empirical, and do not represent the way in which the forms developed historically. - 40 - this rule applies also usually in IIIb and in certain cases in Vb, c; Va and sometimes IVa have the same particle in active and passive: in II c, III b, and V b, c, the special passive particles are sometimes formed by dropping the mag or man of the active particle. ~ 62. The passive stems formed by the combination of these special passive particles with the root, must, with the exception of certain forms of IV with the particle ma or maka, be still further combined with the essential passive particles in order to form passive verbs. In I the essential passive particles are applied to the root, which is used as passive stem. The essential passive particles are four in number, viz., the prefix-suffix i and the suffixes in and an, which make different kinds of passive; the prefix-infix in, which is used in the preterite and present tenses of all three kinds of passives: i is always a prefix except in the impersonal imperative (cf. S 80). The combination of the first three essential particles with the passive stems will be spoken of as the in, i and an passive themes. Examples of these passive themes in the mag class are pag-ar-pag-aroin, i-pag —araa-an from the passive stem pag-laro of laro 'play.' ~ 63. Every active stem and every passive theme distinguishes four mode and tense forms which will be called tense stems, viz., a) modal (subjunctive, imperative, infinitive), b) future, c) preterite, d) present. The active modal form is identical with the active verbal stem, the passive modal forms, with the passive themes, e. g., mag-lard is both active verbal stem and modal, pag-lar'-in, both passive theme and modal of the in passive, etc. The preterite active, except in Groups I and V a, is formed by changing the m of the modal to n, e. g., nag-laro. The preterite passive except in Group IV with special particle ma, maka is made by combining the passive stem of the in passive, and the passive themes of the i and an passives a - 41 - with the infix-prefix in. This is prefixed to roots with initial vowel, but inserted after an initial root consonant or the first consonant of a special passive particle, e. g., in-dral from dral 'teach,' s-in-zlat from sulat 'write,' p-in-ag-laro from passive stem pag-laro, i-p-in-ag-laro and p-in-ag-laro-an from the passive themes i-pag-laro, pag-aro-an. Except in Group I, the future and present of both voices are formed from the modal and preterite respectively by partial reduplication; in general the root is reduplicated when the active or special passive particle is monosyllabic, some syllable of the particle itself, when the particle is of more than one syllable: e. g., mag-la-laro, nag-la-lar, pag-la-lard-in, i-p-inag-la-laro; magsi-si-alis, nagsi-si-alis, p-in-agsi-si-alis-an' from magsi-alis 'go away (of many).' All tense stems are invariable for person, gender, and number. Groups of Verbs. Group I. ~ 64. In the active, roots with initial consonant form their modal by inserting the particle um in the first syllable of the root; the future, by the reduplication of the initial syllable of the root; the preterite and the present, by inserting um in the first syllable of the simple and partially reduplicated roots respectively, the preterite being thus identical with the modal. In roots with initial vowel the syllable um is prefixed instead of infixed. No root with initial m is verbalized in this class. -e. g., Root. suilat 'write.' ibig 'wish.' Mod. sumulat umibig Fut. susulat iibig Pret. sumulat umibig Pres. sumusuilat umiibig. Instead of um in preterite and present ungrm may be used, e. g., sungmnlat, sungmusulat, ungrmibig, ungniibig. - 42 S 65. The three passive themes are made from the simple root, no special passive particle being used. In the in theme the modal is formed by suffixing in to the root; the future, by suffixing in to the partially reduplicated root: the preterite and present are made from the simple and partially reduplicated roots respectively, by inserting in in the first syllable, if the initial is a consonant; and by prefixing in, if it is a vowel.-e. g., Root. sulat 'write.' aral 'teach.' Mod. sulatin aralin Fut. susulatin aaralin Pret. sinuilat inaral Pres. sinusulat inaaral. In the i theme the modal and future are formed by prefixing i to the simple and partially reduplicated roots respectively. Roots with initial consonant in general make their preterite and present by prefixing i to the corresponding tense stems of the in passive; roots with initial vowel form their preterite and present by prefixing ini or ina to the simple and partially reduplicated roots respectively.-e. g., Root. sulat aral Mod. isuilat iaral Fut. isusuilat iaaral Pret. isinuilat iniaral, inaaral Pres. isinusulat iniaaral, inaaaral. In the an theme the modal and future are formed by suffixing an to the simple and partially reduplicated roots respectively; the preterite and present by suffixing an to the corresponding tense stems of the in passive.-e. g., Root. suilat aral Mod. sulatan aralan Fut. susulatan aaralan Pret. sinulatan inardlan Pres. sinusulatan i ralan. M. \ V I I - 43 - Group II. S 66. In the active the modal is formed by prefixing the various active particles to the root, the future, by reduplicating one syllable of the modal; the first syllable of the root when the particle is monosyllabic, the second syllable of the particle when the particle is dissyllabic, and the syllable pa of the particle, when the particle is trisyllabic. The preterite and present are formed from the modal and future respectively by changing the initial m to i. The passive tense stems are made from the corresponding active forms by changing m or n of the active to p, and applying the essential passive particles as in Group I, the infix in being inserted after the first consonant of the special passive particle, and i being prefixed to it. When the particle ends in a consonant, as in the case of mag, magin(g), magkan, this consonant does not unite with the initial vowel of a root to form one syllable, the syllable division falling between the two. As examples of the inflection of this group will serve maglaro 'play,' mag'isip 'think,' magsialis 'go away (of many),' viz.: Active. Mod. maglar6 mag'isip magsialis Fut. maglalaro mag'iisip magsisialis ~Pret. naglaro nag'fsip nagsialis Pres. naglalar6 nag'ilsip nagsisialis IN Passive. Mod. paglar6in pag'isipin pagsialisin Fut. paglalar6in etc. pagsisialisin Pret. pinaglar6 pinagsialis Pres. pinaglalar6 pinagsisialis I Passive. Mod. ipaglar6 ipag'isip ipagsialis Fut. ipaglalar6 etc. ipagsisialis Pret. ipinaglar6 ipinagsialis Pres. ipinaglalar6 ipinagsisialls -I bP-1 l ' I ar7 - 44 - AN Passive. Mod. paglar6an pag'isipan pagsialisan Fut. paglalar6an etc. pagsisialisan Pret. pinaglar6an pinagsialisan Pres. pinaglalar6an pinagsisialisan ~ 67. Many verbs of the mag class have no special particle in the passive, their forms thus being identical with those of the um class. Such forms are especially frequent in the in passive, e. g., isipin from mag'isip 'think.' itanim from magtanim 'sow.' lagyan (I 8I) from maglagay 'put.' Like magsialis are conjugated in general the magsa (except in the in passive), magka, maki, magin(g) and magkan classes. The in passive of the magsa class is made with the special particle sa as follows, e. g., JMod. sakastilain 'be like a Spaniard.' Fut. sasakastilain Pret. sinakastila Pres. sinasakastila The present and future of some verbs of the magka class are made by reduplicating the first syllable of the root instead of ka, e. g., Pres. nagkasisiya 'come to terms.' Fut. magkasisiya J In the magin(g) and magkan classes, according to the regular rule, the final consonant of the particle is not repeated in the reduplicated forms; the particle magin(g) may end either in n or ng, viz., magin or maging; in the magkan class the root is always partially reduplicated in all tense stems.-e. g., Mod. magin — banal 'become righteous. { magiging Fut. magigin - banal tmagiging etc. - 45 - Mod. magkanluluha },,, Fu. magkakanluhih weep uncontrollably. Fut. magkakanluluha' etc. The two classes with trisyllabic particle, viz., magkapa and magpati, differ from the paradigm of magsialis only in the forms with reduplication, in which the syllablepa of the particle is always the repeated element, e. g., magkapangisi 'show the teeth' and magpatiluhod 'fall on the knees' make the future active magkapapangisi, magpapatiluhod, etc. The mag, magsi and magsa classes may have all three kinds of passive, the other classes make only the i and an passives. Group III. S 68. The conjugation of verbs of this group follows in general the same rules as that of verbs of the preceding group. The prefix is here regarded as having been originally man, tho as stated above in ~ 9, it is also possible to regard the final consonant of the particle in all its forms as ng. In some verbs of the man class the special verbal particle is prefixed to the root without change, e. g., manlibdk 'scoff,' mangaling 'come from.' Certain roots with initial h and y take the prefix in the form mang, e. g., manghuli 'live by rapine,' mangydri 'be able.' Both these kinds of verbs are conjugated exactly like verbs of the mag class, e. g., Active. Passive. Mod. manlibak panlibakin ipanlibak panlibakan Fut. manlilibak panlilibakin ipanlilibak panlilibikan Pret. nanlibak pinanlibak ipinanlibak pinanlibakan Pres. nanlilibak pinanlilibak ipinanlilibak pinanlilibakan Similarly mangydri, mangyaydri, etc. In the majority of cases, however, the n of the particle man (nan, pan) is combined with the initial of the root according to $ 9, nb, np becoming m; ns, nt and sometimes nd becoming n; nk and sometimes nh becoming ng. Roots with initial vowel take the particle in the form man&, the ng of which forms part of the following syllable. In these verbs, in tense stems with reduplication, the syllable following the ma, na or pa of the particle is repeated; otherwise they follow exactly the verbs of - 46 - the mag class,-e. g., from the roots bigdy 'give,' sumpa 'curse,' kzha 'take,' isda 'fish': - Active. Mod. mamigay manumpa manguha mangisda Fut. mamimigay manunumpa mangunguha mangingisda Pret. namigay nanumpa nanguiha nangisda Pres. namimigay nanunumpa nangunguha nangingisda Passive. Mod. ipamigay panumpaan pangunin (~ 8I) Fut. ipamimigay panunumpaan pangungunin Pret. ipinamigaiy pinanumpaan pinanguha Pres. ipinamimigaiy pinanunumpaan pinangunguha S 69. In verbs of the manhi class the initial consonant of the root is modified as in the man class, just as if the particle were manhin (or manhing), e. g., manhimalay (pailay) 'glean.' manhininga (tinga) 'clean teeth.' manhingok6 (kok6) 'cut the nails.' The special passive particle in the in and an passives may be hi instead of panhi. The conjugation of verbs of this class follows the norm of the magsi class except in passive forms with special particle hi: in these forms hi is the syllable reduplicated in future and present; the infix in is inserted in this particle just as in any other special passive particle.-e. g., Active. Mod. manhimalay Fut. manhihimailay Pret. nanhimalay Pres. nanhihimalay Passive. Mod. panhimalayin or himalayin Fut. panhihimalayin hihimalayin Pret. pinanhimalay hinimilay Pres. pinanhihimalay hinihimalay Mod. ipanhimalay etc. Mod. panhimalayan or himaldyan etc. etc. - 47 - Group IV. S 70. All verbs of this group follow in the active the norm of the mag class, reduplicating the first syllable of the root in future and present. Maka forms causative verbs from roots denoting state, potential verbs from roots of action.-e. g., Mod. matuiwa makatakot'cause makalakad 'be 'rejoice.' fear.' able to walk.' Fut. matutiwa. makatatakot makalalakad Pret. natuwa nakatakot nakalakad Pres. natutuiwa nakatatakot nakalalakad In some districts ka is repeated in the reduplicated forms of the maka class, instead of the first syllable of the root, e.-g., makakatdkot, makakaldkad, etc. Certain potential verbs of the maka class have a separate accent on the second syllable of the verbal particle, viz. maka-, nakd (cf. ~ 398, d). S 71. Verbs of this group which make their passives with the special particle ka, i. e., most verbs of the ma class, and verbs with maka causative, follow the norm of the mag class; ma verbs make only the an passive, maka causative verbs, only the i passive; this i passive, may also be considered as derived from the ma class.-e. g., from matdy 'die,' tdkot 'fear':Mod. kamatayan ikatakot Fut. kamamataiyan ikatatakot Pret. kinamatayan ikinatakot Pres. kinamamatayan ikinatatakot S 72. Verbs which make their passives with ma, i. e., some verbs of the ma class and verbs with maka potential, omit the essential particle in wherever it would occur either as suffix or infix; the essential particle i is inserted between the particle and the root. The future is made from the modal by reduplicating the first syllable of the root; the preterite and present are formed from the modal and future respectively by changing initial m to n just as in the active. Verbs of the ma class with the special particle maka in the passive are conjugated like verbs with ma, except that ka, and not the first syllable of the root, is reduplicated in future and present. Verbs of the - 48 - ma class make only the an passive, verbs of the maka potential class, all three passives, e. g., from matdy 'die,' limot 'forget,' kiiha 'take,' szlat 'write':Ma. Maka. Mod. mamatayi.n makuiha Fut. mamamatayan makukuha Pret. namatayain nakuiha Pres. namamatayain nakukuiha Mod. makalim6tan maisulat Fut. makakalimotan maisusuilat Pret. nakalim6tan naisulat Pres. nakakalim6tan naisusuilat Mod. masulatan Fut. masusulatan Pret. nasulaitan Pres. nasusulatan Certain verbs of the maka class have here as in the active (cf. S 70) a separate accent on the verbal particle, viz., rmd-, nd (cf. S 398, d). Group V. 5 73. In the active, verbs of the pa class form their preterite by prefixing na to the modal. The first syllable of the root is reduplicated in future and present, except in verbs of motion, in which pa may also be reduplicated; verbs of the magpa class follow the norm of the magsi class, verbs of the magpaka class, that of the magpati class, of Group II. —e. g., Mod. pat6long 'ask for help.' parito 'come here.' Fut. patot6long paririto, paparito Pret. napat6long naparito Pres. napatotolong naparirito, napaparito Mod. magpasfulat 'have magpakaisip 'think written.' with special effort.' Fut. magpapasuilat magpapakaisip Pret. nagpasuilat nagpakaisip Pres. nagpapasuilat nagpapakaisip - 49 - ~ 74. The special passive particle of the pa and usually of the magpa classes is pa, the two classes coinciding in these forms. The conjugation follows the norm of the mag class, e. g., from patblong:Mod. patolongin ipatolong patol6ngan Fut. patotol6ngin ipatotolong patotolongan Pret. pinatolong ipinatolong pinatolongan Pres. pinatotolong ipinatotolong pinatotol6ngan In the same way from magpasulat, are made pasuldtin, etc. Verbs of motion of the pa class, however, may also have reduplication of the pa as in the active; the in passive is not formed.- e. g., Mod. iparito parit6han {I ipin t I aririto tohan ipinaparito pinaparit6han etc. etc. Verbs of the magpa class sometimes make their passive with the special particle pagpa, particularly when the action of the verb is frequentative; in which case they follow the norm of the magsi class. - e. g., from magpalamig 'let freeze':Mod. pagpalamigan Fut. pagpapalamigan Pret. pinagpalamigan Pres. pinagpapalamigan etc. Verbs of the magpaka class have in the passive the special particles pagpaka or paka, pagpaka being regularly used with verbs which have an intensive or frequentative meaning. Passives made with pagpaka follow the norm of the magpati class, those made with paka, the norm of the mag class. Only the i and an passives are formed. - e. g., from magpakab ti 'beautify oneself,' magpakatandd 'pay attention to':Mod. ipagpakabuti pakatandaan Fut. ipagpapakabuti pakatatandaan Pret. ipinagpakabuti pinakatandaan Pres. ipinagpapakabuti pinakatatandaan 4 - 50 - Secondary and Tertiary Derivation. ~ 75. The principal verbal particles of the various classes are often combined in the same verb, the secondary particle, active or passive, being regularly prefixed to the passive stem of the primary verb, except in the following cases, viz.: a) verbs made with mag and magka on the basis of active stems of the first group, e. g., magsumakit 'exert oneself' from s-um-akit. magdumali 'hasten',, d-um-ali. magkasumon6d 'follow',, s-um-on6d. b) verbs made with maka potential on the basis of maka causative (rare), e. g., maka-maka-ginhaiwa 'be able to cause alleviation.' c) the peculiar form magpa-um-anhin(ano) 'be patient' (cf. S 407, 2). As the passive stem of the first group is identical with the root, verbs made on this basis are primary and not secondary. The first group furnishes the basis for secondary derivation only in the few cases mentioned above. The principal varieties of secondary derivation upon the basis of the other groups are, viz.: a) Maka potential with all classes except IV a, b (ma, maka potential), e. g., maka-pag-laro 'be able to play.' maka-pa-rito 'be able to come.' maka-pagpa-gawa 'be able to order to do.' b) Magsi with all classes except IV b (maka potential), e. g., magsi-pag-aral 'study (of many).' magsi-pang-airal 'preach (of many).' c) Pa with any class including its own except IV b (inaka) and II b (magsi), e. g., pa-pag-labas 'have taken out.' pa-pa(V b)-kain 'ask to give to eat.' d) Magpa with any class including its own except IV b (maka) and IIb (magsi), e. g., magpa-pag-aral 'make study.' magpa-pa-sulat 'order to order to write.' - 5 - e) Maki with II a (mag), III a, b (man; manhi, hi being used as special passive particle), V a, b (pa, magpa), and even with its own class, e. g., maki-pag-lar6 'play with.' maki-hi-nakay (sakay) 'embark.' maki-paki-usap 'join in conversation without being invited.' f) Ma with II e (maki), V a, b, c (pa, magpa, magpaka), and II i (magpati), the special passive particle in the last three cases being without pag, e. g., ma-paki-bili 'buy by chance.' ma-pa-ibaba 'go down, flow down.' ma-paka-laki 'grow much.' ma-pati-holog 'fall.' Ma in the preterite of the an passive is combined with various classes in the sense of 'get or gain by an action,' e. g., na-pag-kanta-han 'gain by singing.' na-panulait-an (suilat) 'get by writing.' na-pagpa-opa-hain 'get, gain by day-labor.' g) Um with IIIb (manhi, with special passive particle hi) and V a (pa), e. g., h-um-i-lamos 'wash.' p-um-a-ri'o 'come.' h) Mag with III a, b (man; manhi, with special passive particle hi), and V a (pa), e. g., mag-panulat (sulat) 'be busied in writing.' mag-hi-napang (tapang) 'give courage.' i) Maka causal, only in the i passive instead of any simple i passive denoting cause, especially with II f, i (maging, magpati) and V a (pa), e. g., i-ka-pagin(g)-dapat 'become worthy.' i-ka-pagpati-holog 'throw oneself forward.' i-ka-pa-rito 'come.' ~ 76. The active modal of these secondary verbs is identical with the active stem; the preterite is made according to the rule for the secondary particle..When the secondary particle 4* 52 is one of those which have reduplication of the particle in the future and present in primary derivation, these tenses are regularly formed in the same way in these secondary verbal forms (i. e., by reduplication of the secondary particle) though sometimes the form has in addition the reduplication of the primary verb; otherwise the reduplication is regularly as in the primary verb, the root or the primary particle being reduplicated; except that the pa of V a may be reduplicated after a secondary particle instead of the first syllable of the root. In those verbs made with mag on the active stem of the first class, however, the stem is treated just like a simple root. In applying the essential passive particles, the whole secondary verbal stem is treated like a verbal stem with only one particle. — e. g., Fut. act. makikipaglar I from maki-paglar6 'play Pres. act. nakikipaglaro wit Pres. pass. pinakikipaglar6an w Pres. act. nagsisiparoro6n from magsi-paro6n 'go there (of many).' Fut. act. magkakasumund ro magka-sumun Pres. act. nagkakasumun6d 'fo Pres. p a ss. 'follow.' Pres. pass. ipinagkakasumun6d Fut. act. makapag'aral from maka-pag'aral 'be able Pres. act. nakapag'aaral to learn.' Fut. act. makapagpapapanhik! from maka-pagpapanhik Pres. act. nakapagpapapanhik l'be able to make come up.' Pres. pass. ipinagpapahindi from mag-pahindi 'say no often.' Fut. act. magsusumakit ~ from mag-sumakit 'exert Pres. act. nagsusumakit ) oneself.' ~ 77. Sometimes a secondary verb is combined with an additional particle, forming a tertiary verb, the secondary verbal stem being treated like the primary stem in secondary derivation. The principal tertiary particles are maka potential and magsi.e. g., maka-pagsi-pag-alis 'be able to take away (of many).' magsi-paki-pag-laro 'play together (of many).' - 53 - Verbs with Fully Reduplicated Roots. S 78. The fully reduplicated root is often used as the basis of verbal derivation in the various classes. In some cases full is combined with partial reduplication (cf. S 83). In verbs made with man, the n remains unchanged before the initial of the root. Verbs derived from these reduplicated forms have sometimes an emphatic, sometimes a diminutive meaning, sometimes either according as they are pronounced with more or less emphasis.-e. g., sumusulatsulat (pres.) 'writes a little.' magnilaynilay 'meditate profoundly.' dinaraladala (pres.) 'is carried a little while.' sulatsulatan 'be place of writing a little.' manbagyobagy6 'be something like a hurricane.' nagkasirasira (pret.) 'was destroyed completely.' When the simple verbal form consists of only two syllables, as in certain irregular verbs of the um class (S 88), and in syncopated passives (~ 8I), the corresponding formation is made by repeating the complete verbal form as in full reduplication of a root, e. g., mulimuili (uli) 'repeat all the time.' dalhindalhin (dala) 'carry a little.' hintinhintin (hintay) 'wait a little.' Irregularities and Peculiarities. In General. ~ 79. Certain roots and passive stems may be used without change as active imperatives, e. g., lakad 'go.' kuha 'take.' pag'aral 'study.' pakilaro 'play with others.' S 80. Besides the regular modal forms of the three passives, each passive possesses a special imperative form which will be called impersonal, as it is regularly employed without expressed agent. In the in passive the in is dropped, the root returning to its original form if it is syncopated; in the i passive - 54 - the prefix i is dropped and a suffixed an added; in the an passive, i is substituted for the suffix an, the root usually returning to its original form if it is syncopated. These imperatives are made principally from roots, but cf. S Io2.-e. g., dbut for abutin 'get.' higit,, higtin 'stretch out.' tap6nan,, itapon 'throw.' bukasi,, buksan 'open.' takpi,, takpan 'cover.' ~ 81. In a number of verbs the passive forms made with the suffixes in and an are somewhat irregular. a) Roots ending in a simple vowel insert an h before the suffixes (cf. S 9), e. g., aryahin, aryahan from arya 'defend.' sabihin, sabihan,, sabi 'say.' takb6han,, takb6 'run.' b) Many roots, including some which take h according to (a), syncopate the vowel of the final syllable before the suffixes according to ~ 0o, e. g., gaw'in, gaw'an from gawa 'do.' salit'in, salit'an,, salita 'talk.' bigyan,, bigay 'give.' saktin, saktan,, sakit, 'sick.' sundin,, sun6d 'follow.' bilhin,, bill 'buy.' dalhan,, dala 'carry, bring.' lakhan,, laki 'grow.' c) Some roots, besides syncopating the vowel of the final syllable, transpose the last two consonants of the root; the principal roots having this formation are, viz., atip 'thatch,' aptin, aptan. bilin 'commend, commit,' binlan. habilin 'deposit,' habinlan. korot 'pinch,' kotdin, kotdain. silid 'put in,' sidlan. talab 'penetrate,' tablan. tanim 'sow,' tamnan. - 55 d) The following four roots syncopate, besides the vowel of the final syllable, the h which precedes it, viz., bihis 'change clothes,' bisin, bisa.n. b6hos 'pour out,' bosan. hihip 'blow,' hipan. lihis 'lose the way, err,' lisan. e) The following are still more irregular, viz., ayaw 'not to want,' aywin ayuan, iwan. bihasa 'accustom oneself,' bisanhin, bisanhain. dating 'arrive,' datnin, datnan. halik 'kiss,' hagkin, hagka.n. halili 'substitute,' halinhin, halinlin, halinhan. kilala 'know,' kilanlin. kuiha 'take,' kunin, kunan. lirip 'take soundings,' ligdin, ligdan. sala 'be deficient,' sanlan. The abbreviation syn. will be used with a form to denote that it is a syncopated passive; i. e., that it belongs to one of the above groups from (b) to (e). The uncontracted forms of these passives are also sometimes used, especially when the root has a verbal particle prefixed, e. g., pa-kainin 'give to eat' from kain (syn. kanin) 'eat.' pa-halikin 'allow tosfiss' from halik (syn. hagkan) 'kiss.' pagka-sakitan 'labor excessively' from sakit (syn. saktan) 'sickness, pain, work.' ~ 82. The i passive denoting cause may be made in any class by ika instead of simple i (cf. S 75$). ~ 83. Special emphatic or frequentative forms are made in many classes by reduplicating an additional syllable of the root in all tense forms, by shifting the accent from penult to ultima, or by both means combined. The simple verbs corresponding to mag verbs of this kind are of the um.class.-e. g., magbibili (mod.) 'buy much' (bumili 'buy'). nagbibibili (pres.) 'buys much.' mag'aral (mod.) 'teach much' (umaral 'teach'). nahahahapis (pres.) 'is very sad.' - 56 kinaiiibigan (pass. pres. of ma class.) 'is being loved.' makagigiginhawa (fut.) 'will greatly benefit.' magkakagot6m (mod.) 'prevail [of famine],' (g6tom 'hunger'). Sometimes the fully reduplicated forms in S 78, take this. partial reduplication in addition, e. g., magkasisirasira 'be utterly destroyed.' Urn class. ~ 84. In roots with i in the first syllable, the u of the particle um may be assimilated to the following i, giving im (cf. S 6), e. g., luminaw, liminaw from linaw 'clear.' uminum, iminuim,, inum 'drink.' ~ 85. Instead of the regular present forms like sumusidat or sungmuszlat, forms like nasulat, consisting of the root with prefixed na, may be used. S 86. The i passive of roots with initial h, I and w, though sometimes made according to the rule for roots with initial consonant, regularly follows the norm of the i passive of roots with initial vowel. Roots beginning with other consonants have sometimes the same formation.-e. g., Root. holog 'fall.' pasok 'enter.' Pret. inih6log, inaholog inipasok, inapasok Pres. inihoholog, inahoholog inipapasok, inapapaisok etc. etc. ~ 87. Some roots beginning with vowels, or with I or y, take the prefix ni in preterite and present of the in and an passives instead of the prefix or infix in, e. g., niunahan (6na 'first') 'was preceded by.' nilol6to 'is cooked.' niyakap 'was embraced.' S 88. Dissyllabic roots beginning with b or p, besides having the regular active forms, may change b or p to m for the modal, to n for the preterite, and reduplicate the first syllable of the preterite for the present; the future is always regular. -e. g., - 57 - Root. basa 'read.' pasok 'enter.' Mod. masa masok Pret. nasa nasok Pres. nanasa nanasok Fut. babaisa papasok The following additional roots may also have this formation besides the regular one, viz., ka6n 'call.' ihi 'urinate.' kuha 'take.' inum 'drink.' tuka 'peck, bite.' una 'go first, before.' tuks6 'tempt.' urung 'turn back.' akyat 'bring up.' os6os 'descend.' alis 'go.' ot'6t 'chew.' ayaw 'not to want.' uwt 'go home.' igib 'go for water.' Roots with initial consonant change it to m and n as above, those with initial vowel prefix m and n, e. g., Root. toks6 alis Mod. mokso malls Pret. noks6 nalis Pres. nonokso nanalis Fut. totokso aalis In the construction described in S 383, k, in which the active modal and the modal of the in passive are used in juxtaposition, the modal of the in passive of these verbs is made on the basis of the active modal, e. g., matl matiin (bati) 'all salute.' migib migibin 'all go for water.' ~ 89. A large number of polysyllabic roots beginning with pa form their active tense stems by changing p to m in the modal and future, to n in the preterite and present, and reduplicating the second syllable of the root in the future and present, e. g., Root. pakinabang 'administer or receive the Holy ComMod. makinabang [munion.' Fut. makikinabang Pret. nakinabang Pres. nakikinabang. - 58 In the passive these roots are treated like dissyllabic roots, except that in future and present, the second syllable and not the first, is reduplicated, e. g., Mod. pakinabangan Fut. pakikinabangtan Pret. pinakinabangan Pres. pinakikinabangan. These roots are in many cases simply the passive stems of different verbal classes (cf. under SEIPLE in Bibliography). Certain polysyllabic roots with initial p make their tense forms as in S 88, e. g., palipit 'twist.' pakimatyaig 'listen, hear.' Other Classes. 90g. Some fully reduplicated roots combined with mag-an (cf. S I04) may take the infix in in the first syllable of the root with a distributive meaning, e. g., maghinanaphanapan 'to seek each his own.' ~ 9I. Certain verbs of the maki class modify the initial of the root in the same way as verbs of the manhi class, e. g., makimalita (balita) 'ask for news.' makin6so (s6so) 'ask to be suckled.' ~ 92. Verbs of the ma class, especially those which denote destruction, are used in the root form to indicate a present state, usually one in which the action of the verb has reached its completion, e. g., son6g 'is burnt.' sira 'is destroyed.' pataiy 'is dead.' tapus 'is finished.' yarl 'is ready.' $ 93. The combination of the quasi-verb na and its follow — ing oblique case is sometimes treated as if it were an active verb of the ma class, the present form being especially frequent, e. g., -59 - naririto 1.. naririto 'is here.' naririni naroroon }.naririy 'is there.' nanriyan nasasaan 'where is?' masasaan 'where will be?' nasasabahay 'is in the house.' S 94. The an passive of alam 'know' in the maka potential class has, besides the regular preterite and present of the an passive, the forms pret. naldman, pres. nalaldman., S 95. The passive stem of many verbs of the magpa class may be used as a sort of verbal noun to indicate 'a thing ordered to be done' or 'a thing given as something,' e. g., padala 'thing ordered to be brought, thing sent.' pamana 'thing given as inheritance, inheritance.' parusa 'thing given as punishment, penance.' ~ 96. The passive stem of verbs of this class denoting 'to put in a certain position', are used as adverbs indicating the manner or position in which anything is done, e. g., paupo 'seated.' patindig 'erect.' pahaba 'lengthwise.' paluh6d 'on the knees, kneeling.' VERBS MADE WITH SUBSIDIARY PARTICLES. Subsidiary Particles in General. ~ 97. These may be classed as primary and secondary, the latter being used only in connection with the tense particles. The primary subsidiary particles are, ka; kapag, kapagka, pagka, pag; ka-an; paka; pd. The secondary subsidiary particles are nsa, an, ga. Primary Subsidiary Particles. S 98. Ka is used as a prefix as follows, viz.: a) With partially reduplicated roots to form emphatic active imperatives, e. g., katataipang 'exert yourself.' kalalakad 'go quickly.' b) With partially reduplicated roots or passive verbal stems reduplicated as in future or present in the sense of 'have just,' e. g., kararating 'have just arrived.' kaaalis 'have just gone.' kapangangaral 'have just preached.' kapagiginkapitan 'have just been made kapitn.' c) With fully reduplicated roots or passive stems, to which it imparts the idea of 'as soon as-had-,' 'as soon as-began to,' 'scarcely had-': the passive stems may be reduplicated as if they were simple roots, or the reduplication may begin with the same syllable as in the reduplicated forms of the corresponding verb.-e. g., katakbotakb6 'as soon as-began to run.' kapangupangusap 'as soon as-began to speak.' kapaggantiganti 'as soon as-changed clothes.' kapangusapnguisap 'as soon as-began to speak.' A number of roots with this last formation are used as adverbs meaning 'suddenly, immediately,' e. g., kaalamalam kaginsaginsa karingatdingat karakaraka. S 99- Kapag, kapagka, pagka, pag are used as prefixes to roots and passive verbal stems in a sense very similar to that of ka with fully reduplicated roots; kapagka and pagka refer more particularly to the finishing of an action.-e. g., kapagalis 'as soon as-went, when-had gone.' kapagkasabi 'as soon as-said, having said.' pagkatapus 'having finished.' pagbati 'after saluting.' kapagkapatolong 'as soon as-asked for help.' kapagpatiholog 'as soon as-fell.' Kapag is also prefixed to nouns in the sense of 'being, if-is, inasmuch as-is,' e. g., - 6i - kapagpaire 'being a priest, inasmuch as he is a priest.' kapagkastila 'if he is a Spaniard.' The compounds of the root ddka with these particles are used as adverbs meaning 'immediately,' e. g., pagdaka kapagdaka kapagkaraka. These particles are also used as independent conjunctions (cf. ~S I37, 327). S Ioo. Ka-an. These particles are used together as prefix and suffix respectively, as follows, viz.: a) With roots in the sense of 'to be about to,' e. g., kamataiyan 'being about to die.' kasulatan 'being about to write.' b) With roots and passive verbal stems to denote that the action indicated falls to the lot of the agent, e. g., katan6ran 'turn to be shepherd.' kapagmisahan 'turn to say mass.' c) With roots, indicating 'the reason why,' e. g., katak6tan 'because of fear.' kaopahan 'because of salary.' S Io1. Paka is prefixed to any word in the sense of 'to be like, fill the place of.' These compound words are treated as passive stems, and are used in the in passive, ordinarily in the preterite with the meaning of a present, sometimes in the imperative, e. g., pinakamagutlang 'be like, supply the place of a parent.' pinakatinapay 'be in place of bread.' pakapilakin 'take in place of silver.' ~ 102. The prefix pa pronounced with separate accent, viz. pa (cf. ~ 12), forms emphatic imperatives, indicating 'to perform the action with greater energy than before,' pa being treated like a special passive particle. It makes passive imperatives according to rule, and also imperatives like those in S 80.-e. g., pa-hampasin 'be beaten still more severely.' ipa-taas 'elevate still more.' pa-bigyan 'be presented with still more.' - 62 - pa-lakad 'go still more.' pa-lapit 'approach still nearer.' pa-palo 'be beaten still more soundly.' pa-taponan 'be thrown with still greater force.' pa-buksi 'open still more quickly.' Secondary Subsidiary Particles. S I03. The particle naga is inserted after the first vowel of certain of the active verbal forms beginning with mag, ma or their derived forms nag, na, to indicate plurality of agents. The principal verbal classes that take this particle are the mag, magsi, magka, and ma classes.-e. g., mangagtianis 'to weep (of many)' from mangagtatangis 'will weep (of many)' magtangis nangagtangis 'wept (of many)' 'weep nangagtatangis 'are weeping (of many)' J (of many).' mangagkakauitang 'will owe (of many)' from magkaunangagkakauitang 'owe (of many)' tang 'owe.' mangamamatay 'are about to die (of many)' di nangamamatay 'are dying (of many) j ~ o04. The particle an is suffixed to the active forms of certain of the verbal classes, the most important of which are the nag, magka, maki, and manki classes. It usually imparts a reciprocal meaning or emphasizes that meaning when the verb is already reciprocal; with intransitive verbs it indicates to perform the action in competition with others.-e. g., magtulongan 'help one another.' magtakb6han 'run in competition with others, race.' makitaniman 'hate one another.' mahingot6han (k6to) 'clean one another's heads of vermin'._ Certain transitive verbs double this suffix to indicate competition, e. g., magtolak 'push (of many).' magtolakan 'push each other.' magtolakanan 'push one another to see which will push the hardest.' - 63 S 105. The particle ga is prefixed to a verbal form in the sense of 'to feign to be or do what the verb indicates,' e. g., ga-nagbibill 'he feigns to be selling.' ga-bungmibili 'he feigns to be buying.' ga-nagtatangis 'he feigns to be weeping.' AD VERBS. CLASSES OF ADVERBS. S 106. With regard to meaning, adverbs may be divided into the following classes, viz.: Adverbs of manner. Adverbs of time. Adverbs of place. Adverbs of degree. Affirmative or emphatic adverbs. Negative adverbs. Interrogative adverbs. Modal adverbs. Consecutive adverbs. Numeral adverbs (cf. SS 40, 41). Sometimes the same adverb may belong to two or more classes. Adverbs of manner. ~ 107. Simple adverbs of manner are usually identical with the mfa adjectives, e. g., magaling 'well' (as adj. 'good'). masama 'badly' (as adj. 'bad'). malakas 'severely' (as adj. 'strong'). But not all ma adjectives can be so employed, e. g., mabait 'judicious,' marnunng 'learned.' Adjectives of the root form are not usually employed as adverbs of manner. ~ oS8. Certain adjectives of equality modified by an adverb with prefix ga (cf. 5 123), are used as adverbs of manner, e. g., ganiyang karahan 'so slowly.' gaan6 kalimit 'how often?' - 64 - S Io9. Some adverbs of manner are expressed by the oblique case of a noun or root, e. g., sa hayag 'openly, publicly.' sa lihim 'secretly.' sa bait 'judiciously.' S I I. Adverbs of manner indicating a gradual development are expressed by fully reduplicated roots, e. g., untiunti 'little by little.' inot'inot 'slowly, gradually.' S III. The particle ga 'like' prefixed to the genitive or nominative of the demonstrative pronouns makes a number of indefinite adverbs of manner, e. g., ganito, gait6 'like this, thus.' ganiyn. ' ganiya6n g 6 like that, thus.' ganoon, gay'on Prefixed to interrogative pronouns it forms interrogative adverbs of manner, e. g., gaan6 'like what, how?' gaalin 'like which, how?' Certain of these adverbs may take the prefix kasing (cf. S I6o), e. g., kasinggay'6n } kasingganiyin 'in that very manner. kasingganiyan j S 112. The particle pa prefixed to certain interrogative pronouns and adverbs with prefix ga makes adverbs of manner, e. g., paano 'how? paanoano6 J' paganiy6n 'thus.' For verbal roots indicating position with this pa cf. S 96. S II3. Interrogative adverbs of manner may be made indefinite by the addition of man, e. g., paan6 man 'in some way, anyhow.' Adverbs of Time. S II4. Adverbs of time may be either definite, referring to some special point of time, or indefinite, indicating some modification or limitation of time in general. - 65 - Definite. S II5. The present day is denoted by ngay'6n 'today, now.' ngay'6ng araw na it6 'today.' Days in the future are expressed bybukas 'tomorrow;' the numeral adverbs up to 'nineteen' inclusive, e. g., makalawa 'day after tomorrow,' makatl6 'three days from today,' makalabi-ng isa 'eleven days from today;' the cardinals modifying the word for day from 'twenty' upward, e. g., ikalawa-ng powo-ng araw 'twenty days from today.' ikatl6-ng p6wo-ng araw 'thirty days from today.' An indefinite day in the future is expressed by bukas makalawa 'someday or other.' These numeral adverbs are often preceded by sa, e. g., sa makalawa 'day after tomorrow.' sa ikalawa-ng p6wo-ng araw 'twenty days from today.' S 16. Days in the past are expressed by the prefix ka with nouns of time, and the numeral adverbs, e. g., kahapon 'yesterday.' kagab'i 'last night.' kamakalawa 'day before yesterday.' kamakalima 'five days ago.' kamakailan 'in former times.' From 'ten' upward they are usually expressed by a circumlocution with may 'there is, it is' followed by a noun clause (cf. S 321), meaning 'it is now so and so many days since.' The forms with kamaka may modify the noun draw, e. g., kamakalima-ng araw 'five days ago.' kamakailadng araw 'in former times.' S II7. Other divisions of time are enumerated, in the future by the oblique, in the past by the genitive of the noun of time modified by the ordinal numerals, except for the first, where isd is employed; the oblique may have the same meaning as the genitive in connection with a preterite (cf. S 373. I).-e. g., nang isa-ng lingg6 'last week.' nang ikatlo-ng ta6n 'three years ago.' 5 - 66 - sa isai-ng lingg6 'next week.' sa ikalima-ng ta6n 'five years hence.' S II8. Other definite adverbs are expressed by the genitive and oblique, and sometimes by the nominative of nouns of time, e. g., nang umaga 'in the morning.' sa hapon 'in the evening.' it6-ng lingg6 'this week.' isa-ng araw 'one day.' S II9. Definite adverbs which denote a recurrent period of time are formed by placing kun 'when' before a noun of time, e. g., kun gab'i 'at night (when it is night).' kun domingo 'on Sundays.' kun tagaraw 'in the summer.' S I20. Distributive adverbs of time containing the idea 'every' are made by full repetition of a noun of time or by placing the conjunction tzwi-ng 'whenever,' before a noun of time, e. g., araw'araw 'every day.' taonta6n 'every year.' tuiwi-ng araw 'every day.' tuwi-ng lingg6 'every week.' Indefinite. S 121. I. The genitive of the demonstrative yaon 'that,' either alone or modifying a following noun or root denoting time, or the combination of such a noun with isd 'one,' forms adverbs referring to indefinite past time, e. g., no6n ni6n I niyon I'then, at that time.' niy6n niyaon no6ng uina 'ever, at any previous time, formerly.' no6ng isa-ng airaw 'the other day.' S 12I. 2. The principal other indefinite adverbs are, viz.: na (postp.) 'now, already.' pa (postp.) 'still.' - 67 unauna 'at first, in the first place.' kailan 'when?' kanna 'a short time ago, just.' kanima kangikangmna. kaniaikan ina a very short time ago. kanikangina sa makailan 'some days ago.' baigo 'newly, recently, just.' mamaya 'a short time afterwards, soon.' mamayamaya 'a very short time afterwards.' saka 'then, afterwards.' muna (postp.) 'first, sooner.' parati 1 palaigi Ipalagi 'always.' tuwi magpatoloy man saan ) magparating man saan \ 'for ever.' hanggan kailan man kailin man 'ever, never (in connection with a negative). kaikailan J minsan 'once, at one time.' kun minsan maminsanminsan 'sometimes.' manakanaka uli 'again.' madalas malimit \ 'often, frequently.' di mamakailan J minsan duwa misanduwa misanu 'rarely, seldom.' madalang bihira karaniwan 'generally.' bihasa 'customarily.' dati 'usually, as in the past.' sa ugall 'usually.' bigla 'suddenly.' - 68 - agid alipala kagyat ambng immediately.' kaginsaginsa karakaraka 'suddenly, immediately (cf. ~ 98).' kaalamalam pagda.ka kapagdaka 'immediately (cf. S 99).' kapagkaraka katapustapusan 'finally (cf. S I29).' etc. Adverbs of Place. S 122. As adverbs of place are used: a) the oblique case forms of the demonstratives, viz., dini 1 dlto 'here.' dito J diy. n 'there.' doon J b) forms containing the oblique case of the article prefixed to a particle an, probably equivalent to ano 'what?', viz., saan 'where?' (literally 'in what,' cf. S 226). saan man 'anywhere, everywhere.' c) the oblique case forms of nouns of place, the principal of which are, viz.: sa itaas 'above.' sa ibaba 'below.' sa harap 'before.' sa lik6d 'behind.' sa tapat 'in front, opposite.' sa ibabaw 'on the top.' sa ilalim 'underneath.' sa piling 'at the side.' sa tabi 'alongside.' sa kanan 'on the right.' -69 - sa kaliwa 'on the left.' sa l6ob 'within.' sa labas 'without.' sa gitna 'in the middle, midst.' sa pagitan 'in the middle, half-way.' sa kabila 'from one side to another.' sa magkabila 'from both sides.' sa magkabikabila 'from all sides.' sa pallbot 'round about.' Adverbs of Degree. S 123. Adverbs of degree denoting 'to the degree of, like,' are formed from pronouns and nouns by prefixing ga to the nominative, except in the case of demonstratives where the genitive is usually employed. Those made from demonstratives and interrogatives are also used as adverbs of manner (cf. S III).-e. g., gaano 'to what extent, how?' gaalin J ganit6 'to this extent, so.' gabat6 'like, as a stone.' gaak6 'like me, as I.' Instead of ga, gaga and gangga, the latter usually indicating plurality, are also used, e. g., gagapowing 'as tiny as a mote.' gangganit6 'like these.' S 124. The principal other adverbs of degree are, viz.: lalo 'more.' pasubali 'less.' lubha masakit mainam tot6o 'very.' di sapala di hamak di palak J - 70 - tunay 'really, truly.' polos I toganas 'purely. mistula J parapara } magkaparis 'equally.' magkapara halos 'almost.' bahagyi } 'scarcely, hardly. bulinya naman (postp.) 'also.' labis 'too much, too.' lamang (postp.) 'only.' tbukn } especially, particularly. pa (postp.) 'more, besides, else.' unt } 'a little.' munti manaw } 'not at all (in connection with a negative).' isaman J tumbas 'for each.' Affirmative or Emphatic Adverbs. S 125. These are, viz.: nga ngani mandin pala man (postp.) 'even, however.' tant6 'surely, certainly.' 60 'yes.' kasi 'it seems so.' totoo 'certainly.' (absolute affirmatives). totoo-ng tot6o 'most certainly.' mangyari 'of course.' - 71 Negative Adverbs. ~ 126. These are, viz.: a) the categorical negatives di dili di| ' not.' indi hindi b) the prohibitive negative huwag 'don't.' c) the optative negatives bak } 'may it not be that.' ma di 'may it not be that not.' d) and kapalapa 'it is surely not so that.' The quasi-verb wala is similar to a negative adverb (cf. ~~ 224, 229, 230). The absolute negative is expressed by hindi, indi 'no,' unless the negation is prohibitive, in which case huwdg is used; or unless it refers to ideas that are expressed in the affirmative by the quasi-verbs may and na, when it is usually wala, tho hindt, indc may also be used. Interrogative Adverbs. ~ 127. These are of three kinds, viz., a) indefinite, which simply indicate a question, viz., bagi (post.) untranslatable. kaya (postp.) wanr (postp.) expects a negative answer. b) special, which inquire concerning time, place, manner, cause, or means; the principal of these are, viz., kailan 'when?' makailan 'how often?' Saa n 'where?' bakit] an6't 'why?' at - 72 - maan6 'how, in what condition?' paano 'how, in what way?' gaan6o 'how, like what?' gaalin J c) what might be called absolute interrogatives, viz., hani, hania, 'do you understand?' hindi gano6n 'is it not so' hindi gay/on J sadi 'why not?' san pa dpa di 'how can it be any different (it saan pa di gay'6onJ is perfectly clear)?' diyata' 'is it possible?' Some of those under (b) are made indefinite by adding man (cf. S 29), e. g., kailan man 'ever, never (in connection with a negative).' saan man 'anywhere, everywhere.' paan6 man 'anyhow.' Kaildn may also be made indefinite by full reduplication, viz., kkaikailn. Modal Adverbs. S 128. The principal modal adverbs are, viz.: mard'hil1 marahil 'perhaps, probably, it seems. upan sakali (postp.) 'perchance.' sana (postp.) ] give verb meanings similar to those sa,, of English forms with the auxiliaries disin, 'should,' 'would.' maano give the verb force of an optative kahimanwr 'would that.' kahimanwari daw (post.).. daw (,st, p) indicate a quotation. kono,, anaki diwa kasi (postp.) 'it seems, I think that.' tila yata (postp.) tabi 'with your permission.' - 73 - kuisa 'willingly.' sariya ) tikis 'voluntarily, on purpose.' paksa talaga 'by nature.' mahanga 'it would be better.' karaniwan bihasa cf. S I21. 2. dati huwag mak& aka cf. S 126. kapalapa Consecutive Adverbs. S 129. The principal consecutive adverbs and adverbial expressions, which are very similar to coordinate conjunctions, are, viz.: toloy 'at the same time.' bago 'yet, however, nevertheless.' kaya 'therefore.' di b ikin 'for do you not see that, for. dl bakin J diyata 'therefore, and so, that is to say.' sanhi, 'in a word.' sa makatuwid agsa makatiiwid ~'as if you would say, that is.' kun sanan sa kun sana sa kun s'n, sa 'if you can speak of-in this case' (used kun sanakun sana a after metaphors). kun baga sa phors). kun baga J katapustapusan kawakaswakasan sa katapusan 'finally.' sa kawakasan an6 pa ay an6 'well then.' - 74 - FORM OF ADVERBS. S 130. With regard to form adverbs may bea) simple, consisting of a particle or root, e. g., na 'already.' bukas 'tomorrow.' b) derivative, made with various prefixes: these prefixes are, viz.: gakasingga- form adverbs of manner and degree, gaga- indicating 'likeness' (cf. S~ III, 123). ganggaka- forms a few adverbs of past time (cf. S 16). kamaka- forms adverbs indicating 'so many days ago'(cf. SS 41, I 6). ma- in maano 'how?' (cf. S 127). maka- forms the numeral adverbs (cf. S 40). pa- forms adverbs indicating the position in which the action is performed: also certain adverbs from pronouns and other adverbs (cf. ~ I12). c) adjectival; adjectives used as adverbs (cf. e.g., S~ 107, io8). d) verbal, consisting of some verbal form or phrase, e. g., karakaraka 'immediately,' 'suddenly.' pagdaka 'immediately.' magparating man saan 'for ever.' e) genitive, consisting of the genitive case of a noun, pronoun or root, e. g., nang umaga 'in the morning.' nang isai-ng lingg6 'last week.' no6n 'then.' f) oblique, consisting of the oblique case of a noun, pronoun, or root, e. g., sa hapon 'in the evening.' sa lihim 'secretly.' dito 'here.' sa labas 'without, outside.' g) compound, consisting of two or more words, none of which is a verb or a form of the definite article, e. g., - 75 - no6ng una 'ever, at any time.' saan man 'anywhere, everywhere.' ngay'o6ng araw na ito 'today.' kun gab'i 'at night.' di sapala 'very.' hanggan kailan man 'for ever.' mandin 'indeed, surely.' kaya nga 'therefore.' h) reduplicative, made by full reduplication of a root or adverb, the meaning of the root or adverb being generally intensified, e. g., untiunti 'little by little.' kangikangina 'a moment ago.' maminsanminsain 'sometimes.' sa magkabikabila 'from all sides.' katapustapuisan 'finally' (cf. ~ 55). In kkaikaildn 'ever' from kaildn 'when?' the reduplication changes interrogative to indefinite. D mnamakaildn 'often' is an instance of partial reduplication. ~ I31. In addition to the reduplicated forms given in the lists, there are many other adverbs, the meaning of which may be intensified by full reduplication as in (h), e. g., magparaparating man saan 'for ever and ever.' kaikailan man 'for ever and ever.' saansaan man 'anywhere, everywhere.' S 132. Adverbs of manner and those of the other classes which imply a manner of acting, form a comparative and an absolute superlative like the descriptive adjectives (cf. ~~ 54, 56), e. g., lalo-ng magaling 'better.' magaling na magaling 'very well.' bihira-ng bihira 'very rarely.' ~ 133. Many adverbs of the various formations other than the so-called genitive and oblique adverbs (cf. S 130, e, f), may be preceded by nang or sa, i. e., may stand in the genitive or oblique case; sometimes those in S 130, e, f, may take an additional case sign: the meaning is often about the same as in the case of the simple adverb; the genitive, however, usually - 76 - indicates past time, or is used after a verb (cf. SS 118, 259), the oblique may have the various significations of that case.-e. g., nang magaling 'well.' nang minsan 'once.' nang buikas makalawa 'some day or other (in the future).' sa bigla 'suddenly.'. sa tuiwi-ng umaga 'every morning.' sa no6n 'for then.' sa buikas, 'for tomorrow.' sa gay'6n 'thus.' sa araw'araw 'every day.' PREPOSITIONS. ~ 134. Prepositions may be divided into three classes, viz.: a) Those which govern the oblique case, the principal of which are, viz.: ga 'like.' b tungk 'as for, concerning, with respect to.' dahil },. /., dahil. ' on account of. dahilan J awa 'out of compassion for.' pakundangan 1 pasubali 'out of respect to.' alang'alang J libin 1},. libn } 'except.' tang} } P buk6d 'besides.' laban 'against.' tapat 'facing, opposite.' ayon } 'according to.' alinsonod j bago 'before (of time).' ibam 'aside from, apart from.' b) Those with sa as the first element which govern the genitive, for the most part identical with the adverbs of place in S 122. Others are, e. g., - 77 - sa lagay 'instead of.' sa hol6p 'in exchange for.' sa mula 'beginning from' (cf. S 210). sa tabi 'beside.' c) Those which have other constructions, viz., kundi 'except, but.' kundang an 'if it were not for.' dangan j hol6p 'worth, of the value of, equivalent to.' ball 'something like;' kulang 'without, lacking.' ganan 'for, belonging to, concerning.' samp6n } 'together with, in addition to.' toloy 'together with.' mula buhat 'beginning from, from.' hanggan 'up to, until.' daiko dapit 'towards.' dapit J Muld-ng mula 'from the very beginning of is a sort of superlative of mula (cf. ~ 56). For nouns with prefix ka used as prepositions cf. S 362, 7. CON7UNCTIONS. S 135. Conjunctions may be divided into two classes, viz.: a) those which connect words, phrases, or sentences of the same rank, coordinate; they may be either simple or correlative, the latter consisting of two parts one of which is used with each of the two sentences connected: b) those which join two sentences, one of which is dependent in some way on the other, subordinate. S I36. The principal coordinate conjunctions are, viz.: Simple. at 'and, for.' kun. 'or.' o; - 78 alintana bagkus datapuwa kundi n-'ini sabnl sabali 'but.' kundi na-ng bagkus 'but on the contrary.' (in ~ 209 practically a coordinate conjunction). Correlative. man (postp.).. nman (postp) t 'either... or; neither... man (post.).{namn (postp.) nor (in connection with a negative).' magfn(g)......... magfn(g) 'either... or, both... and.' nayang......... nayang 'now..... now.' hindi-lamang (postp.).... kundi-naman (postp.) 'not only-but also.' S I37. The principal subordinate conjunctions are, viz.: na, -ng (the ligature) 'that.' na,, 'so... that, so that; in order that.' gay 6ng ' para nang I para-ng 'as, just as, ac gaya nang ayon sa konowari 'as if.' nang 'when, in order that.' upan 'in order that.' maka }'lest.' baka. no6n niyaon tiiwi(-ng) } sa tuiwi(-ng) 'whenever.' sa tuwi(-ng) bago 'before.' tambay 'after.':cording as.' - 79 - kaipag kapagka pagka pag sa 'as soon as, after.' saya6ng 'from the time that.' samantala(-ng) while.' hanggan sa pagka 1 dahil sa 'because.' dahilan sa kaya 'just because.' mayiap 'simply because.' palibhasa *,, palibhasa } 'since, in as much as.' bawa yamang yayamang hamang 'seeing that, since, if.' ha.yang hayamang man (postp.) bagaman kahi kahfman 'although.' bista sukdan matayman huwag lamang 'provided that not. kun 'when, if, whether.' sagan6 } sakall 'if perchance. kundi 'if not, unless.' kundangan ] haringa J liban sa,,,,, libin sa } 'except that, unless.' pasubaili sa - 80 - ~ 138. The ligature is used itself as a. conjunction, and besides may form the final element of certain other conjunctions, being sometimes essential, sometimes not, e. g., gay'dng, pard-ng, thwi(-ng). Conjunctions ending in n and ng have in many cases byforms in ng and n respectively; the ng of these forms probably contains the ligature, e. g., kung, updng, sukddng; hdman, haydman. Certain conjunctions, especially adversative and concessive conjunctions ending in a vowel or n are usually followed by at 'and,' e. g., kdhi't, kahima't, bist't, datapuwd't, nni't, sapagkd't, haringa't: at or o 'or' may stand between the two correlatives man... man: kundt is not used with this at. A conjunction of purpose is sometimes preceded by at, e. g., at nang. Palibhdsa is regularly followed by the particle ay, viz., palibhdsay. INTER3ECTIONS. S 139. The principal interjections are, viz.: abai 'oh, ah, hello, alas!' aya 'oh!' oh oyi 'hello!' ay vocative particles. oy J siya 'well!' siya nga 'surely, of cc siya nawa manawa di nga salamat di nga bahagya siya na l 'enough!' suikat na J ary 'alas, oh woe!' aray J pala 'there, well!' )urse, yes indeed!' be it, amen!' - 8i - a (postP.) l ay5. (postp.) bap (postp.) i particles denoting wonder, admiration. si sayang 'what a pity!' dali 'quick, be quick!' sulong 'forward, cheer up!' urung 'back!' tbi } 'away!' lag aa 'I don't want to!' buti nga 'good, all right, bravo!' ina ko nako 'gracious, goodness (oh mother)!' naku ay Di6s ko 'oh God!' kaawaawa 'poor thing!' salamatf 'thank you, thanks!' 'welcome!' it6 na 'here, take it!' manaa 'behold!' narito 'behold, lo!' pikh used to insult or affront a person, the user spitting at the same time in the direction of the person addressed. lintik 'the devil!' a-ha-a laughter. ha-ha-ha sa used to frighten chickens 'shoo!' su J o 'who is there (at the door)? stop!' (used by women). Bapd and ayd may be combined with following a viz., bapaa, ayda. Here are also to be classed the absolute affirmatives, negatives, and interrogatives (cf. SS 125, I26, I27). 6 -2 - III. APPENDIX. DERIVATIVE NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. ~ I40. Derivative nouns and adjectives may be considered under four heads, viz.: a) those made from the verbal stem without external addition, or with the prefix pag. b) those made with the suffixes an and in: in nouns of this class the same irregularities of formation that occur with the corresponding verbal suffixes are usually found (cf. S 81); the first syllable of the root is sometimes reduplicated, without change of meaning, especially in those roots which have irregular forms, and in those which begin with 1. c) those made with the infix-prefix in, alone and in connection with the suffix an.' d) those made with various prefixes, either alone or in conjunction with the suffixes an, in. The accent of words derived with the suffixes an, in is shifted according to S 17. The accent of derivative not made with these suffixes, is often different from that of the root. VERBAL NOUNS. ~ 141. The forms, active and passive, of all tenses, of the various verbal classes may be employed without change as participal nouns or adjectives (cf. ~ 416). S 142. From the active future, and sometimes from the active present stem of all the verbal groups except the first, are formed frequentatives, i. e., nouns or adjectives denoting the frequent exercise of the action, e. g., magbabaka warrior nagbabaka )war magsasaka 'laborer, farmer.' manandahl 'tailor.' I An infix with the varying forms la, li, lo seems to occur in certain words, e. g., salaysdy 'explain' from saysdy 'explain', but as it has practically become a part of the root in every case, and has ceased to be a living derivative element, it need not be considered here (cf. WOLFENSON in Bibliography). * *% 83 mangingisda 'fisherman.' makahihiya 'that which makes ashamed, shameful.' makamamatay 'that which causes death, mortal.' ~ 143. From the passive future or modal stem of the maka potential class are made frequentative adjectives like those which end in English in '-able, -ible.' The future and modal forms are in general used interchangeably, but the modal is the regular form after a negative (cf. ~ 412, d).-e. g., makakain } 'eatable.' makain magagawa } 'feasible.' magawa di makain 'not eatable.' di masabi 'unspeakable.' di malapitan 'inaccessible.' ~ I44. All the verbal classes make abstract nouns of action. In group I they are formed by prefixing pag to the root, e. g., pag-sulat 'act of writing;' in group IV, by prefixing pag to the passive stem with special particle ka, e. g., a pag-kalumbay 'condition of being sad,' b pag-katdkot 'act of causing to fear,' b pag-kalakad 'condition of being able to go;' in group V a, by prefixingpag to the passive stem with special particle pa, e. g., pag-paalam 'act of asking permission.' All the other verbal classes (viz., groups II, III, and V, b c) make these nouns by changing the initial m or n of the active future or present respectively to p. In the magka class however, the reduplicated syllable is always ka, even when it is not the reduplicated syllable in the verb.-e. g., II a pag'aaral 'act of learning.' d pagkakasala 'act of sinning.' f pagigin(g)banal 'act of becoming virtuous.' III a pandidiri 'act of being nauseated.' pamimili(bili) 'act of buying much.' Vb pagpapagawa 'act of causing to make.' 6* - 84 - Irregular polysyllabic verbs beginning with p, and the auxiliary mangydri 'be able' have the same formation, e. g., pakikinabang 'act of administering or receiving the Holy Communion.' pangyayari 'condition of being able.' The passive stems of a number of verbs are used without change as nouns, e. g., pakinabang 'advantage.' paalam 'permission.' pangalan 'name.' From such polysyllabic nouns regarded as roots are derived most of the irregular polysyllabic verbs in S 89. THE SUFFIXES AN AND IN. THE SUFFIX AN. ~ 145. This suffix is used as follows. a) It forms nouns which denote place from roots or the verbal nouns in S~ 44, e. g., up6an 'seat' inuman 'vessel' sagingan'banana orchard' tubigan 'place for throw- - ing water' f lalam6nan 'gullet' kakanan 'refectory' pagbabaonan 'burying place' J pangangarailan 'pulpit' from upo 'sit down.' inum 'drink.' saging 'banana.',, tubig 'water.', lamon 'swallow.' kaiin 'eat.',, pagbaba6n 'burying.',, pangangaral 'preaching.' b) With words of measure and weight it denotes a measure or weight of so much, e. g., sa6pan 'measure of one from salop 'ganta (about three ganta' liters).' tatlohan 'measure of three,, tatl 'three.' gan tas' hel. tahelan 'weight of one 1 tahel' " tahel - 85 - ilanan 'measure of how many?' from ilan 'how many?' magkanohan 'measure of how,, magkano 'how much?' much?' In the case of certain compound numerals the suffix may be added to the first part, e. g., labihan isa 'measure of eleven gantas' from labi-ng isa 'eleven.' Some of these nouns may take the prefix sang (cf. S 159), e. g., sang'apatan 'a four-ganta measure full.' Under this head are probably to be classed nouns which denote a wager of so much, e. g., salapian 'wager of half a peso' from salapi 'half-peso.' kor6tan 'wager of a pinch',, korot 'pinch.' patayan 'wager of life',, pataiy 'die.' anohan 'wager of how much?',, ano 'what?' c) With roots indicating color this suffix denotes 'dressed in or covered with (literally 'place of') such and such a color,' e. g., putian 'covered with, dressed in white' from puti. pulahan 'covered with, dressed in red',, pula. d) With nouns denoting parts of the body it indicates 'having the part abnormally large,' e. g., olohan 'big-headed' from 6oo 'head.' ilongan 'having a big nose',, ilong 'nose.' e) With certain roots it denotes 'having such and such vices or faults' (cf. pala S 157), e. g., bibigan 'babbler' from bibig 'mouth.' somb6ngan 'tale-bearer',, somb6ng 'complaint.' opasalaan 'treacherous',, opasala (same). f) With certain verbal roots it denotes that which happens, is spoken about, forms the topic of discussion, etc. in a place, e. g., sabihan 'what is spoken about.' tan6ngan 'what is asked about.' g) With fully reduplicated roots it forms diminutives, e. g., ibonib6nan 'little bird' from ibon 'bird.' tawotaw6han 'manikin',, tawo 'man.' prinseprinsesahan 'little princess',, prinsesa 'princess.' - 86 - THE SUFFIX IN. ~ I46. This forms nouns which in general denote either likeness or similarity to what the root indicates; or the object of the action of the root. It is used as follows. a) With names of birds it makes names of cocks having color of bird, e. g., uwakin 'cock black as a raven' from uwak 'raven.' lalawinin 'cock colored like a kite',, lawin 'kite.' b) From various roots it forms complimentary terms which are applied to women in love-making, e. g., polotin 'sweet woman' from polot 'honey.' gandaihin 'beautiful woman',, ganda 'lily.' c) From names of money it forms with partial reduplication nouns which signify something having the value of the money, e. g., sasalapfin from salapi 'half peso.' sasaikapatin,, saikapat 'real.' d) From laldki 'man' and babdyi 'woman' are made the irregular nouns, lalakinin 'virago.' babayinin 'effeminate.' e) With roots indicating action it denotes that upon which the action is habitually exercised, e. g., inumin 'drink' from inum 'drink.' kinin },, k. '.' kaanin 'food, boiled rice',, kin 'eat.' kakanin J hampasin 'one who is often beaten',, hampas 'beat.' f) With roots indicating diseases, defects and faults it denotes 'affected by them,' e. g., galisin 'having the itch' from galls 'itch.' tomahin 'lousy',, t6ma 'louse.' tiyanin 'corpulent',, tiyan 'belly.' g) From a few roots it makes frequentatives (cf. ~ 142), e. g., libakin 'scoffer' from libak 'scoff.' tamp6hin 'deserter',, tamp6 'anger.' bir6in 'jester, scoffer',, biro 'jest, play.' -87 \ o^ TTHE INFIX-PREFIX IN. S ~ I47. This particle, which is infixed in the first syllable of words or roots with initial consonant, and prefixed to those with initial vowel, forms nouns similar in meaning to those formed with the suffix in. a) From names of flowers, fruits, etc. it forms names of jewels which resemble them, e. g., sinampaga from sampaga 'a flower like jasmine.' b) From various names of colored things it forms names of colors, e. g., ginulay 'greenish blue, blue' from guilay 'vegetables, greens.' c) From various nouns it forms names of species of rice resembling them in some way, e. g., kinarayum 'long, thin rice' from karayum 'needle.' d) From nouns of relationship with partial reduplication, it forms nouns, signifying to partake in some measure of the relationship indicated by the underived words, e. g., inaama 'god-father' from ama 'father.' kinakapatid 'like a brother',, kapatid 'brother.' inaasawa 'concubine',, asawa 'wife.' e) From roots denoting action it forms nouns indicating what is formed by the action, e. g., tinapay 'bread' from tapay 'knead.' sinuilid 'spun cotton',, silid 'spin.' S I48. The infix-prefix in may be combined with the suffix an. Nouns of this sort are of two kinds, viz.: — a) Those indicating the refuse, scraps etc, produced by the action of the root, e. g., tinabasan 'scraps of cloth' from tabas 'cut.' kinayasan 'parings',, kayas 'scrape, pare.' b) Those indicating something made with the root, or by the action of the root, e. g., pinolotan 'something made with honey'from polot 'honey.' sinulaman 'embroidered mat, handkerchief' from sulam 'work with needle.' -88 - In order to indicate abundance the particles are applied to the root with prefixed pag, e. g., pinagtabdsan, pinagkaydsan. PREFIXES. KA. S I49. The function of this prefix ka seems to be in general to indicate an individual one of a number of persons or things; it is used as follows. a) It forms nouns of simple individuality, e. g., katawo 'one man.' kap6tol 'one piece.' To accentuate the idea of unity reduplicated forms like kakapotol and kakatakatdwo are sometimes made. Some of these nouns take the suffix an. e. g., kahanapan 'what is sought at one time.' katahian 'a needle full (of thread).' b) With various words it makes nouns denoting one of a number who are associated in some way, e. g., kasama 'companion' from sama 'accompany.' kasangbahay 'of the same house',, sangbahay 'one house' (cf. S I59). Sometimes the first syllable of the word to be derived is reduplicated, e. g., kababayan 'of the same town' from baiyan 'town.' c) With roots denoting reciprocal action, it indicates one of those that perform the action. The addition of an at the end makes these nouns frequentative. - e. g., katolong 'one of those that help one another' from tolong 'help.' kaaway 'one of those that quarrel' from away 'quarrel.' katolongan 'one of those that often help one another.' d) It forms nouns which denote one of a number of friends who have joined together for the purpose of eating the same thing or drinking from the same vessel, being prefixed to the thing eaten or drunk, e. g., kaatay 'companion in eating liver' from atay 'liver.' katubig 'companion in drinking water',, tubig 'water.' - 89 - e) It forms nouns and adjectives denoting one of those that are similar in a certain respect, being prefixed to that in which the similarity consists; these adjectives will be known as adjectives of equality. - e. g., kapara 'like' from para'likeness.' kamukha 'resembling in face',, mukha 'face.' kagalisin 'equally affected with itch',, galisin 'affected with itch.' kaolohan 'having an equally large head',, olohan 'bigheaded.' From adjectives beginning with ma this formation is made by changing ma to ka, e. g., karunung 'equally learned' from marunung 'learned.' kalapad 'equally wide',, malapad 'wide.' kapagson6d 'equally obedient',, mapagson6d 'obedient.' In these adjectives, instead of the prefix ka, the prefixes sing or kasing may be employed with the same meaning, e. g., singdznunug, kasingdzfnung. Adjectives with prefixed sing have the root partially reduplicated when they refer to more than two, e. g., singdurzunung. f) Prefixed to fully reduplicated roots it forms adjectives which denote qualities that affect the mind, e. g., kaibig'ibig 'lovable' from ibig 'want, like.' katuwatuwa 'causing joy',, tuw& 'rejoice.' katakottakot 'fearful',, takot 'fear.' g) Prefixed to simple or partially reduplicated roots it forms abstracts which are used only in exclamations, e. g., karami 'muchness, quantity' fron dami 'quantity.' kagagalit 'anger',, galit 'be angry.' ~ I5o. The prefix ka is often used in conjunction with the suffix an. This combination is employed as follows. a) It forms collective nouns from various words, e. g., kabataan 'boys' from bata 'boy.' kakristianohan 'Christendom',, kristiano 'Christian.' kapol6an 'archipelago',, p616 'island.' b) With the roots of adjectives it forms abstract nouns, e. g., - 90 kabanalan 'virtue' from banal 'virtuous.' kagalingan 'goodness',, magaling 'good.' kagandahan 'beauty',, maganda 'beautiful.' karunungan 'knowledge',, marunung 'learned.' These abstracts may be intensified by partial or full reduplication of the root or by full reduplication of the compound, e. g., karurunungan karunungdunungan 'knowledge.' karukarunfngaan j These reduplicated forms are used especially in exclamations (cf. ~ 295) and in the construction in ~ 362, II. c) With nouns denoting nations, living beings, and with roots denoting action it forms nouns which indicate custom, habit or manner, e. g., katagalogan 'custom of the Tagalogs'ifrom Tagalog. kahay6pan 'habit of animals',, hyop 'animal.' kasulatan 'manner of writing',, sulat 'write.' d) With fully reduplicated roots of adjectives it forms superlatives, e. g., katam'istam'isan 'sweetest' from matam'is 'sweet.' e) With names of things which are made, it makes nouns signifying 'material sufficient to make them, e. g., kabar6an 'material for a shirt' from baro 'shirt.' kabahayan 'material for a house',, bahay 'house.' These nouns may be compounded with the ka of individuality, e. g., ka-kabar6an 'material for a single shirt,' with reduplication, kakabakabaroan. f) With various roots it forms nouns denoting share or part in what the root indicates, e. g., kamanahan 'share in an inheritance' from mana 'inherit.' katongkolan 'share in obligacion; duty',, tongkol 'pertaining to.' g) It forms nouns of place a) from various nouns, denoting place where there is much of what the noun indicates; b) from verbal roots, denoting the place, person, or thing upon which everyone exercises the action in question.-e. g., - 9 - kapalayan 'place of many rice fields' from palay 'rice.' kabukiran 'place of many fields',, bukid 'field.' kanigoan 'place where they shoot at a target',, nigo 'hit what is aimed at.' kasabihan 'person spoken of by all',, sabi 'say.' Sometimes the root is partially reduplicated, e. g., katitis6ran'place where people usually stumble',, tisod 'stumble.' kahohologan 'place where people usually fall',, h6log 'fall.' h) Ka is used with an also as in ~ I49, a, c. MA, MAPAG. ~ I5I. The prefix ma forms adjectives and frequentatives. It is used as follows. a) With simple roots it forms descriptive adjectives (cf. S 52). b) It is combined with nouns in the sense of having an abundance of what the noun denotes, e. g., mapalay 'having much rice' from palay 'rice.' masalapi 'having much money',, salapi 'money.' mabat6 'having many stones',, bat6 'stone.' c) It is combined with partially reduplicated roots to form the plural of the ma adjectives (cf. ~ 53). d) It is combined with fully reduplicated roots to form diminutive adjectives, e. g., mabutibuti 'somewhat, pretty good.' masamasama 'somewhat bad.' malakaslakas 'somewhat strong.' e) It is combined with the passive stems of the different verbal classes, most frequently with II a (mag) to forms nouns and adjectives which indicate frequency of action, e. g., mapagbaka 'fighting much.' mapagsonod 'obedient by habit.' mapanulat (sulat) 'given to writing.' - 92 - Mapag, a combination of this ma with the passive particle of the mag class may be used before derivative nouns and passive stems not beginning with pag or pan to form similar frequentatives, e. g., mapagkasalanan 'sinning much.' mapagpakilangis 'begging continually for a little oil.' f) It is combined with simple and sometimes partially reduplicated roots, and with passive verbal stems, in conjunction with the suffix in, to form nouns and adjectives similar to those in (e), e. g., matan6ngin 'asking continually.' masun6rin 'obedient.' matatakotin 'afraid, timid.' masasaktln 'sickly.' malulumbayin 'sad.' mapakiosapin 'given to joining in conversation.' mapasabukirin 'going often into the field.' g) It is prefixed to adjectives made with prefix ka from fully reduplicated roots, the meaning being intensified, e. g., makahiyahiya 'very shameful.' makasindaksindak 'very terrible.' For the prefix mapag cf. e above. MAG. S 152. This prefix joined to nouns of relationship forms nouns which include in their meaning both the person indicated by the simple noun and the person upon whom the relationship depends, e. g., magiama 'father and son or} from am 'father.' daughter' f mag'ina 'mother and son or ia mo ndaughter' L1, \ ~ aini 'mother.' daughter' magkapatid'brother and sister, kapatd 'brother.' two brothers'\,, kapatid 'brother.' two brothers' J magpangin6on 'master and ser- s vant', pangin6on 'master. - 93 - Mag may be combined with the nouns of companionship with prefixed ka, kasing to denote 'two,' e. g., magkasama 'two companions' from kasaima 'companion.' magkasingdunong 'equally wise' from kasingdunong. By doubling the first syllable of the noun combined with mag, a group of three or more is indicated, e. g., mag'aama 'father and sons, daughters.' magkakapatid 'three or more brothers or sisters.' magkakasama 'three or more companions.' MAN. ~ I53. This particle prefixed to names of money or measures, and to 'ten' and its powers (cf. ~ 39), imparts a distributive meaning equal to 'apiece.' When the simple noun begins with p, k, s, d, the phonetic changes described in ~ 9 take place. Before vowels the prefix has often the form mang. The first syllable of these nouns is reduplicated to indicate the idea of 'only.' —e. g., mamiso 'a peso apiece' from piso. mangualta 'a cuarto apiece',, kualta 'cuarto.' manaikolo 'a half-real apiece',, saikolo'half-real.' mangaliw 'a cuartillo apiece',, aliw 'cuartillo.' mananalapi 'only four reals apiece',, salapi 'four reals.' MAY. S 154. The quasi-verb may + its object constitutes in many cases practically a compound noun (cf. S 232). PAG. ~ I55. This particle is employed to form the verbal abstracts of certain verbal classes (cf. S 144), and to indicate abundance in nouns made with infix-prefix in and suffix an (cf. S I48). PAGKA. S I56. This prefix forms in general abstract nouns which denote essence, mode of construction, form, etc., of what the root or word to be derived indicates: it may be prefixed to almost any word, root, noun, or adjective, simple or derivative.-e.g., - 94 -- pagkadios 'divinity' from dios 'God.' pagkabuti 'goodness, beauty',, buti 'goodness. pagkakaluluwa 'essence of the soul',, kaluluwa 'soul.' pagkabahay 'style, build of a house',, bahay 'house.' pagkakaibigan 'mutual love',, ka-ibig-ain'love.' With roots that denote a change of state it indicates the superior limit of the change, e. g., pagkalaki 'the height of the tide' from laki 'grow.' pagkalubha 'the highest point',, lubha 'very.' These abstract nouns are employed in exclamations either unchanged or with partial or full reduplication of the root, pagka in this case having a separate accent viz., pagka (cf. SS 12, 295), e. g., pagkd-buti, pagkdi-bubuti, pagkd-butibuti. PALA. ~ I57. This prefix forms, usually from verbal roots, nouns of agency which generally indicate vices or faults, e. g., palainum 'drunkard' from inum 'drink.' palasumpa 'curser, swearer',, sumpa 'curse.' palaanito 'idolater',, anito 'idol.' These nouns may be recompounded with mapag and with ma-in (cf. ~ 15I, e, f), the meaning being intensified, e. g., mapagpalainum 'great drinker.' mapalainumin 'continual drinker.' In connection with the suffix an, pala forms a few nouns of place, e. g., palaasinan 'salt cellar' from asin 'salt.' palapandaiyan 'smithy',, panday 'workman.' PAN. S I58. This prefix forms, usually from verbal roots, nouns denoting instruments. The changes mentioned in connection with the preceding prefix man (cf. S I53), are usually, though not always, found in nouns of this class, e. g., pamalo 'beater' from palo 'beat.' panuilat 'pen',, suilat 'write.' - 95 - pangimot 1 pangamot 'scraper' froms kamot 'scrape.' pankamot panahit 'razor ahit 'shave.' panahit J When it is combined with nouns which already denote instrument, it indicates something used in place of the instrument, being equivalent to pinaka (cf. ~ IoI), e. g., panwalls 'something such as a branch, etc. used for a broom' from walls 'broom.' SANG. S I59. This prefix, which is an abbreviation of the numeral isd 'one' with following ligature, viz., isd-ng, forms nouns indicating the entirety of that expressed by the word to be derived, e. g., sang'araw 'a whole day, one day' from araw 'day.' sangta6n 'a whole year, one year',, ta6n 'year.' sang-Maynila 'all Manila',, Maynfla. sang'infierno 'all hell',, infierno 'hell.' With 'ten' and its powers sang is used in the sense of 'one, a' (cf. S 33). With names of vessels, receptacles, measures, etc., it gives the added idea of 'full,' e. g., sangtapayan 'a jar full' from tapalyan 'jar.' sangsalopan 'measure of one ganta',, salopan (ditto). sang'apatan 'measure of four gantas',, apatan (ditto). In some words the suffix an is used in connection with sang, in others sang is prefixed to the root derived with ka-an, without adding anything to the meaning, e. g., sangbahayan 'all the household' from bahay 'house.' sangbayanan 'all the town',, bayan 'town.' sangkataw6han 'all mankind',, tawo 'man.' sangkalupaan 'all the earth',, lupa 'earth.' SING, KASING. ~ I60. The prefix sing is employed in the same sense as the ka of equality. The combination of the two, viz. kasing is also used in the same meaning. Cf. S 149, e. - 96 TAG. ~ I6I. This prefix indicates the time of that which the root signifies, and thus forms the names of the seasons, e. g., tag'ulan 'rainy season, autumn' from ulan 'rain.' taglamig 'cold season, winter',, lamig 'cold.' tag'araw 'sunny season, summer',, araw 'sun.' TAGA. ~ I62. This prefix is used as follows. a) With roots and passive stems it forms nouns denoting menial occupations, e. g., tagatanod 'shepherd.' tagapagbantay 'sentinel, watchman.' tagapagsaing 'cook.' b) With a few roots it forms nouns similar to those made with pala, e. g., tagakain 'great eater.' tagatahan 'very lazy fellow.' c) Prefixed to names of places, certain adverbs of place and ano 'what?' it forms nouns denoting an inhabitant or native of the place, e. g., taga-Maynila 'an inhabitant of Manila.' tagabund6k 'an inhabitant of the mountains.' tagaro6n 'an inhabitant of that place.' tagasaan 'inhabitant of where?' tagaan6 'inhabitant of what?' PART THIRD. SYNTAX OF COMBINATIONS. I. COMBINATION OF WORDS TO FORM PHRASES. ~ I63. Any combination of a word with one or more modifiers which does not form a complete sentence, including words modified by a dependent clause, may be called a phrase. As a phrase is also to be considered the combination of two or more words joined by coordinate conjunctions which do not form a complete sentence. A noun may be modified by the articles, pronominal adjectives, numeral adjectives, descriptive adjectives, another noun or pronoun in various cases, a prepositional phrase, certain adverbs, an infinitive, or a clause. A pronoun (including numerals not adverbs) may be modified by an oblique, a genitive, an indefinite dependent nominative, an appositive, an adverb expressing degree, the definite article, and various nominal modifiers. Descriptive adjectives in the positive degree may be modified by a definite dependent nominative, an oblique or prepositional phrase, an adverb, a dependent infinitive, a pronoun of similarity; the comparative and superlative degree may be followed by the oblique and certain adverbs; adjectives of equality may be modified by the genitive or an adverb of degree: in general an adjective may be used as a noun and take various nominal modifiers. Those words which express their cases by means of the article when standing alone, regularly express them in the same way when combined with one or more modifiers, except when modified by a demonstrative. The article stands before the combination of word and modifiers. 7 - 98 - An adverb may be modified by another adverb, an oblique, or a genitive, and may be preceded by the genitive or oblique of the definite article. A preposition is modified by its following case; a preposition and its object together form a prepositional phrase; such a phrase may be modified by certain adverbs, and may take the definite article. A conjunction may be modified by an adverb. In general in the above, modified and modifier, except all articles but the indefinite, a following genitive, a following oblique and equivalent prepositional phrases and adverbs, and postpositive adverbs, are joined by the ligature; the plural particle mzang never takes the ligature before a following word, and thus never causes the shift of the ligature (cf. ~ 22). As verbs and interjections themselves practically constitute sentences, their combinations are best considered under the sentence. In general a verb may be combined with its subject, with a dependent case, nominative, genitive, or oblique, with an adverb or adverbial expression, and with a dependent infinitive or dependent clause. An interjection may be used with the various cases or with another interjection. In the combinations discussed under each part of speech, the part of speech in question is, as a usual thing the word modified, i. e., the essential element of the phrase, but in some cases it was more convenient to discuss the use of certain parts of speech as modifiers, under the section devoted to that part of speech, rather than under the various parts of speech which it modifies. Coordinated words are treated in part under the words coordinated, in part under the connective. COMBBINA TONS OF THE NOUN. WITH THE ARTICLES AND THE PLURAL PARTICLE. S I64. The articles and mangd stand before the noun they modify. In general si and sind are used before names of persons, ang before other nouns (cf. SS 46, 47, 48). - 99 - Names of persons may also be modified by the particles a, a-ng, pan, i, ka (cf. S 23) placed before them, e. g., a 1 a-ng -Maria 'the father of Maria.' pan j i-Pedro 'the mother of Pedro.' ka-Jun f 'the elder brother of Juan, 'the uncle The personal and inclusive articles, the oblique case sa of the definite article, and the particles a, pan, i, ka, are used without ligature. The ng of the nominative and genitive of the definite article, viz., ang, nang, is the ligature which has become an integral part of the article. The ng of a-ng- seems also to be the ligature. The combinations of the noun (except names of persons) and its various modifiers are regularly preceded by the nominative of the definite article, viz., ang, when they stand as subject of a sentence, or when they are used as predicate to indicate some special person or thing. The article, however, is usually not employed when the noun is modified by a demonstrative (cf. S 165), and may be omitted when the modifier is an indefinite pronominal adjective or a numeral. WITH THE DEMONSTRATIVES. S I65. The demonstratives used adjectively may stand, a) before the noun, b) both before and after the noun, c) after the noun modified by the definite article. The ligature is always used between the noun and the demonstrative, whether preceding or following, except between a demonstrative in the oblique case and following noun. The demonstrative after the noun has always the nominative form The oblique case of the definite article is always employed between the oblique case of a demonstrative and following noun, and in (c) the noun must be preceded by the article in all cases. In (a) and (b) the case of the noun is indicated by the preceding demonstrative, in (c) by the article.-e. g., 7* - I00 - a) it6-ng tawo 'this man.' iyang tawo 'that man.' nit6-ng tawo niyang tawo dito sa taiwo diyain sa tawo b) it6-ng tawo-ng it6 iyaing tawo-ng iyain nit6-ng tawo-ng it6 niyang ta.wo-ng iyan dito sa tawo-ng it6 diyain sa tawo-ng iyan c) ang tawo-ng it6 ang tawo-ng iyan nang tawo-ng it6 nang tawo-ng iyan sa tawo-ng it6 sa tawo-ng iyan When the noun is plural, mangd regularly stands directly before the noun in all three constructions, e. g., it1-ng manga tdwo, etc. It may, -however, be placed before a preceding demonstrative, e. g., mangd ito-ng tdwo. Forms in which the article precedes the uninflected demonstrative adjective before the noun are also found, e. g., ang it6-ng sacram6nt 'this sacrament.' sa it6-ng panah6n 'for this time.' Through what is apparently a mistaken division, the genitive is sometimes used after the word modified, instead of the ligature and the nominative, e. g., nang bario nit6o nang bario-ng (bario-n) it6 'of this village.' sa isda niyan = sa isda-ng (isda-n) iyain 'for that fish.' When a personal name is modified by a demonstrative, the article si is usually retained before the noun, though it may be omitted, e. g., it6-ng si Pedro-ng it6 'this Pedro.' it6-ng Pedro-ng it6 WITH THE INTERROGATIVES. S I66. Those interrogatives which are used as adjectives precede the noun and are joined to it by the ligature, e. g., an6-ng bulaklak 'what flower?' aling push 'which cat?' ilang anak 'how many children?' kanino-ng bahay 'whose house?' - 101 - anoan6-ng papdl an6-ng manga papl 'what papers?' manga an6-ng pap6l These interrogatives may be accompanied by the interrogative adverbs bagd and kaya, which stand between interrogative pronoun and noun, the ligature being placed after them instead of directly after the pronoun, e. g., an6 baga-ng bulaklak, alin kaya-ng push. No ligature is used between ildn 'how many?' and nouns with prefixed ka denoting a single individual or object, e. g., ilan katawo 'how many men?' WITH THE INDEFINITES. S I67. Indefinite pronouns used adjectively usually, but not always, precede the noun, and with the exception of bdlang 'any, every,' bdwa't 'each,' take the ligature, e. g., sinomaSzng I asinomng ta}wo 'any man.' alinma ng iba-ng tawo 'another man.' balang araw 'some day.' kasama-ng isaman 'no companion (with a negative).' bawa't dila 'each tongue.' kaunti-ng tuibig 'a little water.' marami-ng isda 'many fish.' marami-ng damit 'much clothing.' salapi-ng kasiyahan 'money enough.' salapi-ng labis 'too much money.' The adverbs used to express the idea of 'such' may stand either before or after the noun, being joined to it by the ligature, e. g., ganit6-ng 6ras 'such an hour.' tawo-ng ganiyan 'such a man.' In the expressions for 'same' the demonstrative or adverb with prefixed ga may stand either before or after the noun, din standing between them and the noun, and taking the ligature, e. g., - 102 - ang ganiyan ding kuilay the same color.' ang kulay ding iyan WITH THE CARDINALS. S i68. The cardinals precede the noun and are joined to it by the ligature except in the case of nouns with prefixed ka which denote a single individual or object, e. g., isa-ng tawo 'one man.' tatlo-ng bahay 'three houses.' apat na araw 'four days.' isa katawo 'one man.' apat kap6tol 'four pieces.' labi-ng isa-ng babayi 'eleven women.' dalawa-ng p6wo't apat na kabayo 'twenty-four horses.' WITH THE ORDINALS. S~ 69. The ordinals may stand either before or after the noun, being joined to it by the ligature. The cardinal isd is sometimes used for 'first' (cf. S II7).-e. g., ang ikatlo-ng bagay 'the third matter.' ang kabanata-ng nauna 'the first chapter.' ang ikawalo-ng araw 'the eight day.' WITH FRACTIONS. S I70. /The fractional numerals when modifying nouns stand before them and are joined to them by the ligature if the fraction ends in a vowel or n, otherwise no ligature is employed, e. g., kalahati-ng kaban 'half a kaban (a large measure).' saikatlo-ng kaban 'one third of a kaban.' saikapat kabain 'one fourth of a kaban.' Fractions made with bahdgi 'part', have the construction of a noun, e. g., ang ikaipat na bahagi nang tinapay 'the fourth part of the bread.' tatl6 nang apat na bahagi nang bagay 'three fourths ot the thing.' N' - 103 - WITH DISTRIBUTIVES. S 171. The distributives stand before the noun they modify and are joined to the noun by the ligature, e. g., tatlotatlo-ng ta6n 'three years at a time.' ikaikatlo-ng iraw 'every three days.' tigalawa-ng pisos 'two pesos apiece.' tigsangp6wo-ng saikaipat 'ten reals apiece.' WITH POSSESSIVES. ~ 172. The prepositive possessive adjectives stand before the noun and are joined to it by the ligature; the postpositive follow without interposition of the ligature. The prepositive forms precede the plural particle manta.-e. g., aking ulo }, aiking ulo 'my head.' uilo ko kaniya-ng manga mata 'his, her eyes.' manga mata niya J a mingm bahay },, amig bahay min our (excl.) house.' bahay nammin J WITH DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. ~ 173. These may stand either before or after the noun, the two being joined together by the ligature. The plural is indicated by the plural of the adjective; mangd, however, always precedes the noun: the adverb which expresses the comparative degree stands on the same side of the noun as its adjective. An adjective with following modifier, excepting postpositive adverbs (cf. ~~ I92-200), regularly stands after the noun. When the noun is definite, the article precedes the combination of adjective and noun. —e. g., mabuiti-ng tawo good man tawo-ng mabuti m ang malakas na lalaki 'the strong man.' ang lalaki-ng malakas manga 61'ol na tawo mad people.' manga tawo-ng 61ol - 104 - ang mababait na baita ang bata-ng mababait ang manga mabait na bt 'the sensible boys.' 'the sensible boys.' ang manga bata-ng mabait ang manga mababait na baita ang manga baita-ng mababait ang lailo-ng masaraip na bunga he mot avoy fruit. an bfina-ng l,.1o-ng masar.p 'the most savory fruit.' ang bunga-ng lalo-ng masarap When the noun is the name of a person it is preceded by the personal article. A preceding adjective takes the definite article, the personal article being usually retained after the ligature; a following adjective is similar to an appositive.-e. g., si Alexandro-ng dakil 'Alexander the Great.' ang dakila-ng (si) Alexandro When two descriptive adjectives modify the same noun, they are connected by the conjunction at 'and,' and this combination is joined to the noun by the ligature, e. g., ang tawo-ng malakas at matapang 1 'the strong, ang malakas at matapang na tawo I brave man.' WITH INDEFINITE DEPENDENT NOMINATIVE. ~ 174. a) The nouns laldki 'man, male,' babdyi 'woman, female,' are used after nouns denoting living things, to indicate the gender (cf. S 50). b) Nouns denoting material and content or value, stand after the noun they modify and are joined to it by the ligature, e. g., salaming pilak 'silver mirror.' bahay na bat6 'stone house.' isai-ng b6ti-ng alak 'a bottle of wine.' isa-ng salop na bigais 'a ganta of rice.' tapaiyang liup 'an earthen jar, a jar of earth.' halaga-ng isa-ng piso 'price of one peso.' In cases which may denote either material or content, ambiguity is avoided by prefixing sang (cf. ~ 159) to indicate.that content is meant, e. g., '3 1 F' - 105 - sangtapayang lipa 'a jar full of earth.' c) A noun or the combination of a noun and an adjective, denoting a quality of another, or the class or species to which it belongs, is placed after the noun it modifies and is joined to it by the ligature if the modified noun ends in a vowel, but usually not if it ends in a consonant, e. g., mukha-ng santo 'face of a saint, saint-like face.' l6ob ama 'father-like heart.' baro-ng Kastila 'Spanish shirt.' damit Tagalog 'Tagalog costume.' tawo-ng mabuti-ng asal 'man of good habits.' tawo-ng marup6k na loob 'man of faint heart.' d) The nouns in S I46, c, or a combination of a noun with a distributive numeral, may be joined by the ligature to a preceding noun in the sense of 'worth so much apiece,' e. g., kandila-ng sisikolohin 'candle worth half a real apiece.' tinapay na sisikapatin 'bread worth a real a loaf.' libro-ng tigalawa-ng pisos 'a book worth two pesos a copy.' e) The nouns anmd 'father,' ind 'mother,' are joined by the ligature to the name of the first born child placed after them to indicate a genitive relation, e. g., ama-ng Maria 'father of Maria.' ina-ng Juan 'mother of Juan.' WITH AN APPOSITIVE. S I75. An appositive noun regularly follows the noun it modifies and is joined to it by the ligature. The personal article si may be omitted when standing after the ligature, but is usually retained: a common noun in apposition does not take the article unless the ligature is omitted. A title may stand between the proper article and its noun, often without ligature. The appositive is always in the nominative, no matter what the case of the noun it modifies.-e. g., ang nang bata-ng kaniya-ng alipin 'the boy his slave.' sa J si Juang anluwagi 'Juan the carpenter.' ang aking pinsang (si) Ant6nio 'my cousin Antonio.' si kapitan Fernandez 'mayor Fernandez.' si Pedro, ang anak nang kaapidbahay mo 'Pedro, your neighbor's son.' si Pare Juan 'Father Juan.' si ali-ng I16y 'Aunt Iloy.' WITH THE GENITIVE. ~ I76. A noun or pronoun not personal (cf. S I72) in the genitive, follows the noun upon which it depends without interposition of the ligature, e. g., ang asawa nang lalaki 'the man's wife.' ang ina nang baita 'the boy's mother.' ang ama ni PNdro 'Pedro's father.' ang bukid nina Juan 'the field of Juan and his family.' ang manga anak nang babayi 'the woman's sons, daughters.' ang manga asawa nang manga babayi 'the women's husbands.' ang pusa nang ali ni Aquilino 'the cat of Aquilino's aunt.' ang bahay nit6-ng tawo 'this man's house.' ang ama nang lahat 'the father of all.' WITH THE OBLIQUE AND EQUIVALENT PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AND ADVERBS. S 177. The oblique case of a definite noun, common or personal, without other modifier, may be used in the sense of a genitive before another noun, to which it is joined by the ligature. The article belonging to the second noun, stands before the oblique.-e. g., ang sa bata-ng ama 'the boy's father.' ang kay Pedro-ng bahay 'Pedro's house.' ang kana Arturo-ng bukid 'the field of Arturo and his family. The oblique case is used after a noun it modifies without interposition of the ligature, to indicate various case relations, which are usually expressed in English by prepositions, e. g., - 107 - manga sulat sa aking ama 'letters for my father.' gam6t sa ulo 'medicine for the head.' pint6 sa simbahan 'door in the church.' alak sa Kastfla 'wine from Spain.' saksi sa bagay na it6 'witness of this thing.' A noun may be modified by a following adverb of place equivalent to these oblique cases, e. g., ang singaw dito 'the climate here.' A noun may be modified by a following prepositional phrase, which may be preceded by the ligature, e. g., ang balita tungkol sa pagkamatay niya 'the news concerning her death.' dalita niya-ng awa sa atin 'his suffering for us.' ang isa-ng lalaki na dati-ng pilay na buhat sa tiyan nang kaniya-ng ina 'a man crippled from his mother's womb.' kasalanang laban sa Di6s 'a sin against God.' sa bukid na dako-ng dagat 'in the field towards the sea.' WITH OTHER ADVERBS. S I78. A noun is modified by the adverbs namndn 'also,' Idmang 'only,' which stand after it without ligature, e. g., ang bata naman 'the boy also.' ang kabanalan lamang 'virtue alone.' A noun may be modified by certain adverbs employed as adjectives, usually before the noun; the ligature stands as with ordinary adjectives, except with adverbs ending in a consonant not n immediately before the noun.-e. g., kahapong araw 'the day before.' saan mang paraan 'some way or other.' saka-ng araw 'on the day after.' kahapong hapon 'yesterday evening.' kangina-ng umaga 'this morning.' ganit6-ng 6ras 'such an hour.' tumbas karakot 'a handful for each.' lubha-ng tawo 'a very man, a real man.' bigla-ng sakit 'a sudden sickress, fit.' - io8 - WITH AN INFINITIVE. ~ I79. A noun may, in certain constructions, be followed by the modal used as infinitive, the two being joined by the ligature, except when the noun ends in a consonant not n, e. g., kasabay gumawa companion in doing.' kasalo-ng kumain 'companion in eating.' buti bapa-ng pano6rin 'how beautiful to see!' buti bapa.-ng tikman 'how pleasant to taste!' ugali-ng ngumuya 'habit of chewing.' WITH CLAUSES. S I80. A noun may be modified by a relative clause (cf. SS 3II,I-314). A noun denoting 'reason, cause,' may be followed by a clause introduced by the conjunction kaya, which clause may be regarded as standing in apposition to it (cf. S 334). WITH COMBINATIONS OF MODIFIERS. S 181. An interrogative adjective can not be used in conjunction with a demonstrative or possessive adjective. Before the noun, the articles, demonstratives, interrogatives, and indefinites stand before all other modifiers; certain indefinites may be preceded by the definite article, the demonstratives, and the interrogatives. An indefinite which modifies another indefinite or numeral precedes it. A prepositive possessive precedes the plural particle and the cardinals and ordinals, which in their turn stand before descriptive adjectives. A postpositive possessive may stand between a descriptive adjective and following noun. An adverb of time used as an adjective may precede a cardinal. After the noun the postpositive possessives occupy the first position, and a demonstrative precedes a descriptive adjective; a genitive or noun used adjectively follows these modifiers. Oblique cases, adverbs of place and time, prepositional phrases, infinitives, and clauses, generally stand after other modifiers. - 109 - The ligature is employed between all the modifiers and the adjacent word except after the articles and manga, the indefinites ba6lang, bdwa't, and before a postpositive word, a genitive, an oblique case, or equivalent adverb or prepositional phrase, e. g., isa-ng kaibigan ko 'a friend of mine.' no6ng isa-ng araw 'the other day.' balang iba-ng tawo 'every other man.' bailang ikatlo-ng araw 'every third day.' ang kaniya-ng maganda.-ng mukha 'her beautiful face.' ya6ng mahal na tawo 'that noble man.' ang iba-ng manga mangangalakal 'the other merchants.' ang bibig mo-ng malaki 'your big mouth.' ang minamahal ko-ng kaibigan 'my esteemed friend;' it6-ng aking puso6 'this heart of mine.' anoan6-ng iba-ng manga libro 'what other books?' ang aiking dalawa-ng libro 'my two books.' ang bilin nila-ng ya6n 'that command of theirs.' sa bahay na iyaing malaki 'in that large house.' ang bahay na bat6 nang ama ko 'my father's stone house.' ang serm6n nang pare kangina-ng umaga sa simbahan 'the sermon of the priest this morning in the church.' COORDINATED NOUNS. S 182. Two nouns which in English are joined by the conjunction 'and' take the same construction in Tagalog, except in the case of nouns of relationship with prefixed mag (cf. S 152), and names of persons, e. g., ang langit at ang liuph 'the heavens and the earth.' ang manga lalaki at ang manga babayi 'the men and the women.' When in English a personal name is coordinated with a noun denoting a relative of the person, in Tagalog the noun of relationship is compounded with mag, and followed by the personal name in the genitive, e. g., ang mag'ama ni Pedro 'Pedro and his father.' ang mag'anak ni Juan 'Juan and his son.' - IO - When the names of both are mentioned, the name of the relative indicated by the noun of relationship is placed before this noun and its dependent genitive, and joined to it by the ligature, e. g., si Juaing mag'ama ni Pedro 'Pedro and his father Juan.' si Pedro-ng mag'asawa ni Juana 'Pedro and his wife Juana.' When in English the two coordinated nouns are both personal names, the first noun takes either the personal or inclusive article and the second follows in the genitive. The two personal names may, however, also be connected by at as in the case of ordinary nouns, and this is the most common construction at the present day.-e. g., si Pedro ni Juan sina P6dro ni Juan 'Pedro and Juan.' si Pedro at si Juan si Alfr6do nina Maria 'Alfred and Maria-and-her-family.' ang damit nina Adan ni Eva 'the clothing of Adam and Eve.' Formerly nouns indicating weights and measures and other nouns which stand to one another in a relation similar to that of whole and part, were coordinated with fractional parts of themselves by means of the numerals with prefixed mayka (cf. S 43), the noun expressing the whole being understood, e. g., maykalawai-ng saikawalo 'a salap^ (about $.25) and a saikawal6 (= l/8 salapf) [a saikawal towards the second salapA].' maykalawa.-ng saikatlo-ng kaban 'one and a third kaban (a large measure).' maykalima-ng isg bat 'four men and a boy (a boy towards the fifth man).' boy towards the fifth man).' i I - III - COMBINATIONS OF THE PRONOUN (INCLUDING NUMERALS). WITH THE OBLIQUE. S 183. The article, and certain of the interrogative and indefinite pronouns and numerals, may govern the oblique case. The article + oblique case expresses the idea of 'that of, that on,' etc., e. g., ang buhay nang manga tawo at ang sa manga biat 'the life of men and that of children.' ang sa kainan 'that on the right.' After the cardinals, interrogatives, and indefinites meaning 'some, any,' the oblique case has the force of a partitive genitive, e. g., dalawa sa inyo 'two of you.' apat sa manga tawo-ng it6 'four of these men.' sino sa kanila 'which of them?' alin sa manga babayi 'which of the women?' ilan sa kanila 'how many of them?' alinman sa dalawa 'any one of the two.' After indefinite pronouns meaning 'more,' 'less,' the oblique case may be translated 'than,' e. g., mahigit sa isa-ng ta6n 'more than one year (old).' kulang sa isa-ng ta6n 'less than one year (old).' labi sa p6wo 'more than ten, over ten.' Iba followed by the oblique case means 'different from,' e. g., iba sa manga asal nang manga Kastila 'different from the customs of the Spaniards.' Gandn is followed by an oblique case in the sense of 'to,' e.g., ganan sa akin 'that which pertains, belongs to me.' ganan kay Pedro 'that which pertains to Pedro.' The first of the ordinal series may be followed by the oblique in the sense of 'previous to,' e. g., nauna dito 'previous to this.' - 112 - WITH THE GENITIVE. S 184. Certain pronouns and numerals may govern the genitive. Lahat 'all' may be followed by the genitive plural of the noun it modifies, e. g., ang lahat nang manga bagay 'all the things.' Pronouns meaning 'more,' 'less,' besides taking an oblique case in the sense of 'than', may be followed by a genitive denoting the degree of difference, e. g., labis nang isa-ng ta6n sa iy6 'older than you by one year.' kulang nang sipag sa manga Amerikano 'not so industrious as the Americans (less than the Americans with respect to industry).' Pdra, pdris, and gdya, 'what is like, likeness,' are followed by the genitive of that to which something is compared; after pdra, however, a common noun, instead of standing in the genitive may be joined to pdra by the ligature.-e. g., gaya nang ibon 'like a bird.' para-ng ita 'like a negrito.' para nang pilak 'like silver.' The interrogative ano may be followed by the genitive in the sense of 'what relation to?', e. g., an6 nit6-ng taiwo 'what relation to this man?' an6 mo 'what relation to you?' The ordinals may be followed by a genitive in the sense of after,' e. g., ikalawa ko 'the second after me.' WITH INDEFINITE DEPENDENT NOMINATIVE. S 185. Certain indefinite pronouns may be followed by a noun in the construction in ~ I74. Pronouns meaning 'more' and 'less' have this construction in the sense of 'more than,' 'less than,' the ligature being usually employed, e. g., mahigit na tatlo-ng daan 'more than three hundred.' kulang na sangdaang' pisos 'less than a hundred pesos.' For para in this construction cf. S 184. r - 3 - WITH AN APPOSITIVE. S 186. The personal pronouns in any case may be modified by an appositive, which may be a noun, an indefinite pronoun or a cardinal. The appositive stands in the indefinite nominative no' matter what the case of the preceding pronoun, and the two are connected by the ligature.-e. g., tayo-ng manga Kastila 'we Spaniards.' sila-ng lahat 'all of them.' kayo-ng tatlo 'you three.' nating lahat 'of us all.' sa ating lahat 'to us all.' The pronouns lahat 'all,' kapuwa 'both,' may stand without ligature before plural personal pronouns and demonstratives in the sense of 'all of,' 'both of,' e. g., lahat sila 'all of them.' lahat it6 'all of these.' kapuwa sila 'both of them.' WITH ADVERBS EXPRESSING DEGREE. S 187. Many pronouns and cardinals may be modified by adverbs of degree and other adverbs expressing degree; postpositives stand after the pronoun without ligature (cf. also S 189); other adverbs take the ligature as in S I78.-e. g., kaunti lamang 'only a little.' sino pa 'who else?' an6 pa 'what else?' isa lamang 'only one.' isa pa 'one more.' iba pa 'still another.' lalo pa 'still more.' para rin 'just like.' gay'on marami 'so many.' gay' 6g kaunti 'so little.' tumbas kaunti 'a little for each.' 1 8 - I"4 - WITH THE ARTICLE. S 188. The possessives, indefinites, and the cardinal, ordinal, and fractional numerals, used as pronouns, are regularly preceded by ang when they stand as subject of a sentence, though ang is sometimes omitted with indefinites. In the predicate, ang is also used if an especially definite person or thing is denoted.e. g., ang akin 'mine.' ang kaniya 'his.' ang iba 'the other.' ang dalawa 'the two.' ang lahat 'all.' ang ikapat 'the fourth.' ang kalahatl 'the half.' WITH OTHER NOMINAL MODIFIERS. ~ I89. Many pronouns, including numerals, may be modified by the various nominal modifiers, just like the nouns they stand for; here belong certain compound cardinal numerals (cf. S 33). -e. g., it6-ng dalawa 'these two.' aling tatl6 'which three?' it6-ng ikalawa 'this second one.' it6-ng ibai 'this other.' dalawai-ng dalawa 'two two's.' manga sino 'who (pl.).' manga ibai 'others.' bailang iba 'every other one.' it6-ng lahat 'all this.' ang muntf-ng akin 'the little of mine.' anoman tungkol sa bagay na ito 'anything concerning this matter.' siyai naman 'he also.' it6 naman 'this also.' ak6 lamang 'I alone.' I ii J'4 I - 15 - Descriptive adjectives modifying indefinite pronouns meaning 'something, anything,' stand after them as a sort of apposition, e, g., anomang mabuti 'something anything good.' POSTPOSITIVE PRONOUNS. S I90. The postpositive forms of the personal pronouns, viz., ka and the postpositive genitives ko, mo, niyi, etc., stand after the word they modify or after a preceding modifier of such a word. When they are used in connection with pronominal subjects they regularly precede them except as in S 336. They also precede, when placed after the word they modify, all following non-postpositive modifiers of that word. For the order when they are used in connection with postpositive adverbs cf. S 205. For examples cf. SS 172, 221, 229, 234, 245, 253, 269, 270, 340. COORDINATED PRONOUNS. S I9I. Coordination of two personal pronouns or a personal pronoun and a noun is expressed by the genitive as in S 182. The first person precedes the second, and the second, the third, and a pronoun precedes a noun; the pronoun which comes first is put in the plural, while the other pronoun or the noun follows in the genitive.-e. g., kami niya 'he and I.' kami ni Andr6s 'Andres and I.' sila nang maestro 'he and the teacher.' If more than two persons are referred to, the second pronoun also stands in the plural, while a personal name takes the inclusive article. In this case the expressions are ambiguous; there may be two or more persons in either group, or in both. -e. g., kay6 nila 'thou and they,' 'you and he,' 'you and they.' kay6 nina Juan 'you and J.,' 'thou or you, J. and those with him.' These involved constructions are yielding to the more natural constructions like the English. 8* - ii6 - COMBINATIONS OF THE ADJECTIVE. ADJECTIVES IN THE POSITIVE DEGREE. With Dependent Case or Prepositional Phrase. S 192. The nominative case of a definite noun may be used after an adjective to denote 'with respect to what;' preceded by the ligature these phrases are similar to the relative clauses in S 3I4. —e. g. mabuiti ang lagay 'in good condition, health (good with respect to condition).' malaki ang 61o 'big-headed (large with respect to the head).' tawo-ng malaki ang 61o 'big-headed man.' S I93. Adjectives may be followed by the oblique case in various senses, e. g., malapit sa daan 'near (to) the road.' malayo sa Maynila 'far from Manila.' marunung sa paggam6t 'learned in medicine.' mabuiti sa pagkain 'good to eat (for eating).' bulag sa isa-ng mata 'blind in one eye.' ~ I94. Some adjectives may be modified by a following prepositional phrase, e. g., matapang laban sa kaaway 'brave against the enemy.' With Adverb. ~ 195. Adjectives may be modified by various adverbs. The simple negatives hind2, di, etc., are used without ligature before an adjective in the sense of the English negative prefixes un-, in-; these compounds are treated just like simple adjectives.-e. g., ang hindi marunung 'the ignorant person (the unknowing one).' si Pedro-ng di marunung 'ignorant Pedro.'., B -Ei; IW J "I I - II7 Other adverbs, with the exception of all postpositive adverbs (cf. S 205), are joined to the adjective by the ligature; the superlative in S 56, b, probably belongs here, one of the adjectives being an adverb.-e. g., lalo-ng malaki 'larger (more large).' lubha-ng maganda 'very beautiful.' mataas pa 'taller.' mabdti-ng mabuti 'very good.' With Dependent Infinitive. S 196. Adjectives may be modified by a following modal used as infinitive, the two being joined by the ligature when the adjective ends in a vowel, e. g., madali-ng gaw'in 'easy to do.' mallwag sabihin 'hard to say.' maliksi-ng tumakb6 'swift in running.' kahapishapis alalahanin (alaala) 'sad to relate.' With Indefinite Pronouns of Similarity. S I97. Adjectives may be followed by the pronouns para, pdris, gdya 'likeness' in the sense of 'as-as'; the adjective may be joined to Jdra, etc, by the ligature. These pronouns are followed by the genitive or noun joined by the ligature according to ~ I84.-e. g., maitim para-ng fta,, paris nang ita 'as black as a negrito.', gaya nang ita maputi para nang pilak 'as white as silver.' maliit para ko ),, paris,, 'as small as I.', gaya,, mabait para ni Pedro 'as intelligent as Pedro.' maganda-ng para mo 'as beautiful as you.' mataas na para ni Juan 'as tall as Juan.' s - i8 - ADJECTIVES EXPRESSING COMPARISON. Comparative and Superlative. S I98. The comparative degree of an adjective is followed by the oblique case in the sense of 'than,' e. g., magaling sa akin 'better than I.' lalo-ng magaling kay Juan 'better than Juan.' lalo pa-ng magaling diyan 'better than that.' magaling pa sa tawo-ng it6 'better than this man.' pasubali-ng magaling kay Juan 'not so good as Juan.' The comparative degree of an adjective may be modified by a preceding numeral adverb in the sense of 'so and so many times as,' e. g., makalawa lalo-ng malaki 'twice as large.' The relative superlative is followed by the oblique case in the sense of a partitive genitive, e. g., ang magaling ang llo-ng magaling sa lahat 'the best of all.' ang kagalinggalingan Adjectives of Equality. ~ I99. Adjectives of equality are followed by the genitive of one of the terms of the comparison, e. g., karinung ni Juan 'as learned as Juan.' singhaba niy6n 'as long as that.' kasingtaa.s nang kapatid mo 'as tall as your brother.' kasinglaki ko 'as large as I am.' Certain adjectives of equality may also take a genitive or oblique case to denote that with respect to which the comparison is made, e. g., kaparis nang dami nang kaniya-ng manga libro 'equal in number to his books.' kahalimbawa ni Luisa sa ganda 'the equal of Luisa in beauty.' S 200. Adjectives of equality may be modified by the adverbs with prefixed ga (cf. S 123), or prepositional phrases I - I9 - with ga. The adverbs and prepositional phrases precede the adjective; the ligature may be used, but is not necessary.e. g., gabat6 katigas 'as hard as stone.' ganito kahaba 'as long as this.' gaano-ng kalaki 'as large as what, how large?' ga sa Akin kalaki 'as large as I.' They may also be modified by preceding magka adjectives, (cf. S I52) made on the basis of indefinite pronouns of similarity, used as adverbs. The ligature is not employed.-e. g., magkaparis kara.mi magkapra,..kdmi 'equally numerous. magkapara singdami ADJECTIVES WITH NOMINAL MODIFIERS. S 201. In general, any adjective may be used as a noun and take various nominal modifiers, e. g., ang magaling 'the good, what is good.' ang manga matanda 'the old, aged.' ang mababaft 'sensible people.' ang lalo-ng mabuti 'the best.' COMBINATIONS OF THE AD VERB. WITH OTHER ADVERBS. S 202. Adverbs may be modified by other adverbs. Adverbs of manner which are modified by other adverbs are simply adjectives + adverbial modifier or modifiers used adverbially (cf. S 195). Certain adverbs may be modified by adverbs of degree, the rule for the use of the ligature being in general the same as in the last case; tumbds does not take the ligature. —e. g., lalo pa 'still more.' kangina pa 'just a while ago.' kaunti lamang 'only a little.' tumbas minsan 'once for each.' The optative negative maka may be modified by the adverb sakdZl 'perchance', viz., maka sakall 'I hope it is not perchance.' - 120 - The consecutive adverbs alalaong., and sa makatuwid may be modified by the modal adverb bagd 'as it were,' viz., alaIdong bagd, sa makatzwid bagd 'that is, as it were.' The consecutive adverb kaya may be modified by various postpositive adverbs, and may be used in connection with at, the meaning remaining practically the same, viz., kaya nga, naini kaya nga yata 'therefore.' kaya nga't J Adverbs used absolutely, which really constitute the predicate of an elliptical expression may be modified by the various affirmative adverbs, e. g., 60 nga, ngani 'yes indeed.' hindi nga 'no indeed.' kasf nga 'it seems so indeed.' The modal adverbs bagd and sdna' are used in connection with kun 'if' to form certain consecutive adverbial expressions (cf. S 129). WITH FOLLOWING CASE. S 203. Adverbs of place may be modified or defined by a following oblique case, e. g., do6n sa Espafia 'there in Spain.' do6n sa iny6-ng bayan 'there in your town.' dito sa amin 'here with us.' Definite adverbs of time may be modified by the genitive and oblique of nouns of time, e. g., bukas nang umaga 'tomorrow early, tomorrow morning.' kahapon nang hapon 'late yesterday, yesterday evening.' kahaipon sa gab'i 'yesterday night.' Certain indefinite adverbs of time may govern a genitive indicating 'time how much,' e. g., mamayamaya nang kaunti 'just a little while afterwards.' The indefinite adverbs of manner with prefix ga may govern a genitive case, being then practically pronouns like pdra, etc. (cf. S 184), e. g., gay'on ni Pedro 'like, such as Pedro.' As the predicate of a simple copulative sentence, they may govern the oblique in the sense of 'to be, act so to,' e. g., d ~-.... I I - 121 - gay on sa kanila 'be thus to them.' Numeral adverbs may be followed by a genitive in the sense of 'so many times as much,' e. g., makap6w6 nang palay 'ten times as much unhusked rice.' WITH THE ARTICLE. ~ 204. An adverb may be preceded by the genitive and oblique of the definite article (cf. ~ 133). POSTPOSITIVE ADVERBS. S 205. The postpositive adverbs stand after the word they modify, or after a preceding modifier of that word. The compound adverbs dT sapaia, dt hdmak, di paldk, although they always follow the word they modify, are not to be classed with the other postpositive adverbs. Postpositive adverbs are never joined by the ligature to a preceding word; the three adverbs above mentioned are so joined. The postpositive adverbs of degree, pa, namdn, idmang may modify nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, and non-verbal predicates. The others, viz.: the adverbs of time na, mona; the affirmative adverbs, nga, ngdni, din, mandin, pald; the interrogative and modal adverbs bagd, kayd, wdrp; and the modal adverbs sakadl, sdna, sa, disin, nawa, daw, kono, kasi, ydat, usually modify predicates, but some of them may also modify single words. When these adverbs are used in conjunction with one another or with other postpositive words, na and pa precede all postpositive words except ka, ko, and mo; the other adverbs are preceded by po (~ 350, 4); the affirmatives precede the remaining adverbs; din precedes nga, and nga, pald; the affirmative adverbs and sadn precede the interrogative adverbs; bagd and kaya may be used together, either standing first; namdn stands after the interrogatives. All the adverbs precede the postpositive genitives of the personal pronouns of the third person singular and of the plural, the prepositive genitives of all persons when they stand after an adverb, conjunction or auxiliary at the beginning of a sentence, and the subject personal pronouns when they stand after the whole or part of I - 122 - the predicate. When used after the word they modify they precede all non-postpositive modifiers of that word. Some of these postpositive adverbs, e. g., sdn2, namdn, sometimes violate these rules. For examples cf. S~ 229, 235, 252, 254, 264, 340. ~ 206. Affirmative postpositive adverbs are usually employed to emphasize the meaning of a predicate, verbal or non-verbal, but they may also be employed to emphasize single words of almost any part of speech, e. g., ya6n nga 'that very one.' it6 ngani-ng sacrament 'this sacrament indeed.' kaya nga 'therefore.' gay'on din 'just thus.' siya rin 'the same.' dahil nga diyan 'just on that account.' ~ 207. Certainl postpositive modal adverbs are used to modify various conjunctions and consecutive adverbs, e. g., kaya nga ya'ta 'therefore, just because.' kun baga kun sakall 'if perchance.' kun bagai sakail sa makatuwid baga 'that is, as it were.' ~ 208. The interrogative adverbs bagd, kaya are often used in connection with the special interrogative words, i. e., interrogative pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs. They stand after the interrogatives and precede the noun modified by an interrogative adjective.-e. g., sino kaya 'who?' an6 baga 'what?' alin bagai-ng bahay 'which house?' saan kaya 'where?' kailan baga 'when?' S 209. The adverb na + the ligature, viz. na-ng, may be used between any two words to denote repetition. Verbs stand usually in the root form or in the modal or future, all in the sense of a continued present (cf. SS 412, d; 413, d); the modal may also denote the imperative; other forms of the verb are also employed.-e. g.,.4 I I I;,,4 - 123 - tawo na-ng tawo 'man and man alone.' si Santa Marfa na-ng si Santa Maria 'always Saint Mary.' ak6 na-ng ak6 'always I.' dasal na-ng dasal 'prays and prays.' susulat na-ng susulat 'writes continually.' sumulat na-ng sumuilat 'keep on writing.' tinataiwa na-ng tinatawa 'always being laughed at.' COMBINATIONS OF THE PREPOSITION. THE PREPOSITION AND ITS OBJECT. ~ 2IO. The object of a preposition, which may be a noun, pronoun or adverb, regularly follows the preposition, except.with prepositions of class (b) governing a personal pronoun, where the preposition is just like the oblique case of a noun modified by a possessive adjective, the genitive standing after it or between its two parts. Examples of classes (a) and (b) areliban sa hairl 'against the king.' tungkol sa iy6 'concerning you.' dahilan kay Luis 'on account of Luis.' buk6d dito 'besides this.' buk6d dito sa bagay 'besides this thing.' sa ilalim nang luipa 'under the earth.' sa tapat niny6 'in front of you (pl.).' sa harap ni Agripa 'before, in the presence of Agrippa.' sa inyo-ng tabi 'beside you.' The prepositions of the third class have a variety of constructions. Kundz, kunddngan and ddngan are really conjunctions (cf. ~ 332), and take the nominative, which is really the subject of an elliptical clause, e. g., kundi ikaw 'except you.' kundangan ang ama mo 'if it were not for your father.' Holop, ball and kulang govern their object directly in the indefinite nominative, e. g., hol6p apat 'woith, equivalent to four.' 124 - hol6p marami 'equivalent to many.' ball bagy6 'something like a hurricane.' kulang bunt6t 'without a tail.' kuilang palad 'without fortune, luck.' Sampon, pdti and toJly are followed by either the nominative or genitive; sampon usually becomes sampo before the n of a following genitive.-e, g., samp6n ang iba-ng bagay 'together with the other thing.' ak6 pati ikaiw 'I together with you.' kay6 pati niyai 'you (pl.) together with him.' samp6 nang manga matapang 'together with the brave.' tol6y nang bay6ng 'together with the bag.' Gandn is followed by the prepositive genitives of the personal pronouns. In the sense of 'as for, for-part' it is preceded by sa. The ligature may be used before its object.-e. g., ganan akin 'for me.' ganan kaniya 'for him.' sa ganan kaniyai 'as for him.' sa ganang akin 'for my part.' Mula, hanggdn, and ddko may be joined to their object by the ligature; these three, 'buhat and ddpit may be followed directly without intervening particle by certain words; all five sometimes govern the oblique case; note sa mula + genitive, and sa ddko + ligature or oblique case; ddpit may also have the construction of gandn with personal pronouns.-e. g., mula-ng bata't hanggang katandatandaan 'both child and old man (from... to).' dako-ng kalun6ran 'towards the west.' mula ngay'6n fro today. buhat ngay'on J hanggan dito 'up to here.' dako diyan 'thither (toward there).' dapit ibaba 'downward (towards down).' mula sa Maynila 'from Manila.' buhat sa tiyan nang kaniya-ng ina 'from his birth (the womb of his mother).' hanggan sa bayan 'up to the town.' dapit sa iy6 'towards you.' r J tII j..,1I I I.,I I X l" X: 6~ts Q - 125 - sa mula nang kalalangan nang sangdaigdigan 'from the creation of the world.' sa dako do6n 'about that time.' sa daiko-ng flog 'towards the river. dapit iy6 'towards you.' Certain prepositions may govern a whole clause (cf. S 318). THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE. S 211. Certain prepositional phrases may be modified by various postpositive adverbs, e. g., buk6d pa dito 'besides this.' isa-ng hokbo laban naman sa isa 'one army against the other.' A prepositional phrase not beginning with sa may be joined to a preceding modified word by the ligature (cf. ~ 177 end). A compound preposition beginning with sa, being really the oblique case of a noun, has in general the same construction as the oblique case both in verbal and non-verbal sentences. A prepositional phrase may be preceded by the article, forming with it a compound relative clause, e. g., ang buk6d sa lahat 'one who is beside all, unique, special.' ang tungkol sa bagay na it6 'what pertains to this thing. COMBINATIONS OF THE CONYUNCTION. WITH ADVERBS. S 212. Certain conjunctions may be modified by various adverbs. Those expressing a contingency may be modified by the adverbs bagd, sakali 'perchance,' e. g., kun baga kun sakalt 'if perchance.' kun baga sakali maka sakall,est perchance.' kaya as a causal conjunction may have the same combinations as the consecutive adverb (cf. S 202). I - 126 The conjunctions kun, o 'or' may be used in connection with the modal adverb kayai, which stands after the whole or part of the second element connected by the conjunction, e. g., kun Kastila kaya 'or Spanish.' WITH OTHER CONJUNCTIONS. S 213. Sometimes a compound conjunction is made by using two conjunctions of similar meaning together, e. g., kun tuwl 'whenever.' dahilan sapagkai 'because.' kundi bagkuis 'but on the contrary.' Cf. also S 138. POSTPOSITIVE MAN. S 214. The conjunction man, subordinate and coordinate, must stand after the first word of the sentence it introduces, taking in general, with reference to the words after the first, the same position as the affirmative adverb man (cf. S 205). PHRASES MADE WITH COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. ~ 215. The simple coordinate conjunctions stand between the words or phrases they connect; the two parts of the correlatives precede respectively the two words or phrases connected, except in the case of the postpositives, which follow the whole or part of the connected elements.-e. g., amat ina 'father and mother.' ang daan at ang bukid 'the road and the field.' it6't ya6n 'this and that.' tatl6 kun apat 'three or four.' si Pedro kun si Juan 'Pedro or Juan.' magin bata magin matanda 'both young and old.' magin sa bahay magin sa lansangan 'whether in the house or in the street.' si Luis man si Juan man 'either Luis or Juan.' sa it6 man sa ya6n man 'either for this or for that.' When the same word modifies both words connected by a coordinate conjunction, it is sometimes omitted with the second, e. g., I I 11 I I ! | s fl S {,g -I g S r v.. X By W.t r; | g - 127 - ang langit at lupa 'heaven and earth.' sa kaluluwa mo at kataw'an 'for your soul and body.' si p6on San Agustin man San Pablo man 'either St. Agustine or St. Paul.' For coordinated proper nouns and personal pronouns cf. SS I82, I9I. II. COMBINATION OF WORDS AND PHRASES TO FORM SIMPLE SENTENCES. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE IN GENERAL. S 216. A simple sentence is a combination of words and phrases consisting of two parts or terms, viz., a) the subject, that about which something is said or asserted; b) the predicate, that which is said or asserted of the subject. The subject may be a noun or a pronoun or anything used as a noun, either alone or combined with their various modifiers. The subject stands in the nominative case and is practically always definite, at least in form. All subjects must be preceded by the definite article ang except personal names, personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, or nouns modified by preceding demonstrative adjectives. The article is also sometimes omitted before an indefinite pronoun. The predicate is of two kinds, viz., non-verbal and verbal. A non-verbal predicate may be, a) the nominative case of a noun, adjective or pronoun; b) the oblique case of a noun or pronoun, a prepositional phrase, or an adverb; c) a quasi-verb (not ay); av does not constitute a predicate, but simply connects. Sentences under (a) and (b) will be known as simple copulative sentences. A verbal predicate is a verb. These predicates may stand alone or be accompanied by their various modifiers. A nominative predicate is ordinarily indefinite and stands without ang unless some special person I - 28 - or thing is referred to. But ang is never used with personal (not including possessive) and interrogative pronouns. In general either subject or predicate may stand first. When the subject precedes, the two terms must be connected by the particle ay; when the predicate precedes, they are justaposed without connective particle; the subject may stand between two parts of the predicate. SENTENCES WITH NON- VERBAL PREDICATE. SIMPLE COPULATIVE SENTENCES. S 217. When the predicate corresponds to an English predicate noun, adjective, or pronoun, it stands in the nominative case. It is regularly indefinite, no article being used, even with possessives, unless the predicate denotes a specified person or thing. Names of persons may sometimes stand without si.-e. g., sila'y manga duw.a. | 'they are cowards.' manga duwag sila J ang matapang ay ak6} ang matapang ay ako6 'the brave one is I (myself).' ak6 ang matapang it6-ng lalaki ay mataas this man is tall mataas it6-ng lalaki ako'y magaling I am good.' magaling ako J ang akin ay malaki 'mine is large.' ito'y akin 'this is mine.' aikin it6 iyang binata'y kaibigan ko 'that boy is my friend.' ang kanila-ng ngalan ay (si) Ram6n 'his name is Ramon.' ang lahat ay mababaft 'all are sensible.' S 218. Nouns and combinations of nouns and adjectives denoting material, composition or quality (cf. S 174) may be used as nominative predicates, e. g., ang singsing mo'y gint6 'my ring is of gold.' ang lamesa'y kahoy 'the table is (made) of wood.' ak6'y mababa-ng loob 'I am humble (of humble heart).' a,. c B. i - 129 mabuti-ng asal siya 'he is kind (of good habits).' it6-ng buinga ay masamai-ng lasa 'this fruit has (is of) a bad taste.' dadalawa-ng bahaigi ang taiwo, ang kataw'an at ang kaluluwa 'man consists of two parts, the body and the soul. S 219. The oblique case of a noun may be used in the predicate in the sense of 'for,' or to denote possession, e. g., it6-ng baro'y kay Ant6nio 'this shirt is Antonio's, for Antonio.' ya6n ay sa tawo-ng it6 'that belongs to, is for this man.' S 220. The predicate of a simple copulative sentence may also be a prepositional phrase or an adverb (cf. S 239), e. g., ak6'y laban sa iy6 'I am against you.' it6-ng bahay ay tapait sa silangan 'this house faces (is opposite to) the east.' siya'y hol6p apat 'he is equal to four.' dako-ng kalun6ran ang tay6 niya6ng bahay 'the outlook of that house is towards the west.' S 221. When the predicate consists of two parts, a pronominal subject may be placed between them, the ligature, when it stands between the two parts of the predicate, being shifted as in S 22, e. g., bata ka-ng mabaft 'you are an intelligent boy.' lubha siya-ng banal 'he is very good.' lubha ka-ng maganda 'you are very beautiful.' buk6d ka sa lahat 'among all you are unique.' gaan6 siya katanda 'how old is he?' laban sila sa Di6s mo 'they are against your God.' S 222. When the sentence is introduced by an interrogative pronoun or adjective, ay is not used, as the interrogative constitutes the predicate. When the subject is any noun not a personal name it must be preceded either by a demonstrative, the article, or the ligature used as the equivalent of the article, e. g., sino ka 'who are you?' sinosino ya6ng mang tawo 'who are those men?' sino kaya iyang babayi-ng iyan 'who is that woman?' 9 r: - 130 - kanfno baga it6-ng bahay 'whose is this house?' -alin sa manga. tawo-ng ya6n ang ama mo 'which of these men is your father?' an6-ng ngalan mo 'what is your name?' S 223. The negative of simple copulative sentences is expressed by one of the adverbs di, dili, ind, hind i 'not', placed before the predicate, e. g., ang tawo'y di mabuti. ang tiwo'y di mabiti 'the man is not good.' dl mabuti ang tawo When the subject of the negative sentence is a personal pronoun, the negative is placed before it, and the predicate follows without the interposition of ay, e. g., hindi ka marunung 'you are not wise.' hindi sila matatapang 'they are not brave.' When the predicate of a negative sentence is a noun modified by a possessive pronoun, the postpositive possessive may stand between the negative and the noun, e. g., hindi ko art it6 'this is not my possession.' hindi ko ina siya 'she is not my mother.' THE PARTICLES NA AND WALA. S 224. The particle na and its negative wala followed by the oblique case express the idea of 'to be in a place temporarily;' 'to be in a place permanently, to belong there,' is expressed as in 5 409, i. These particles are usually invariable for person, number, and tense. They constitute the predicate, and ay must be employed before them when they are preceded by the subject.-e. g., ang bata'y na sa bahay 'the boy is in the house.' na sa bahay ang baita ang pare ay wala sa simbahan 'the priest is not in the wala sa simbahan ang pare church.' These constructions are also employed to express the possession or non-possession of a definite object; the literal meaning is 'there is to,' 'there is not to.'-e. g., ang kabayo ni P6dro 'y na sa akin 'I have Pedro's na sa akin ang kabayo ni Pedro horse.' a: B c r, ii a,, ;i a 'i ~I I - I3 - ang salapi ay wala kay Juan 'Juan has not the money.' wala kay Juan ang salapi When the oblique case is a personal name or personal pronoun, it may denote 'at the house of,' e. g., siya'y na sa amin 'he is at our house.' wala sa kanila ang tawo 'the man is not at their house.' Instead of an oblique case, the adverbs of place dini, dito 'here,' doon, diyan 'there' may be used, forming the combinations narini, narito, naroon, nariydn, wala rini, etc. Sometimes an n is inserted after na, e. g., nandini, nandito; sometimes instead of the adverb, the nominative of the corresponding demonstrative is used, e. g., nayari, naitM.-e. g., narito siya 'he is here.' wala ro6n ang aking ama 'my father is not there'. These forms may be used in connection with a following oblique case; when the subject follows the quasi-verb it may stand between adverb and oblique case, e. g., siya'y nariyan sa iy6 'he is there with you.' naro6n siya sa flog 'he is there on the river. The subject of wala may stand between wals and the following oblique case or adverb, e. g., wala si Pedro sa ba.hay 'Pedro is not in the house'. wala ak6 do6n 'I was not there.' S 225. The particles na and wala may be preceded by the article, which in this case is practically equivalent to 'the one who,' 'that which,' 'what,' e. g., ang aking bahay ay ang na sa kaliwa 'my house is the one on the left.' ang wala sa kaniya 'what he has not.' When the predicate of a sentence is an interrogative pronoun or adjective, the article or equivalent ligature must be used before na and wala (cf. S 222), e. g., sino ang na sa bahay 'who is in the house? sino-ng j sino ang nariyan 'who is there?' ano-ng bulaklak ang na sa kaniya 'what flower has he?' kanino-ng kabayo ang na sa iy6 'whose horse have you? 9* - 32 - The article is also retained in answering such questions, e. g., ang na sa akin ay ang kabayo nang ama ko 1 'I have my ang kabayo nang ama ko ang na sa akin I father's horse.' S 226. 'Where is?' is expressed by na sadn, sadn naroon, rarely by na hadan. The element an of sadn seems to be ultimately identical with ano 'what?', hence saan means literally 'in what?'.-e. g., na saan saan naroon ang iny6-ng ama 'where is your (//.) father?' na haan This construction may be employed to express the idea of 'who has?', though this may also be rendered by na followed by the oblique of sino, e. g., na saan kaya ang libro ko, 'where is, who has my book?' na sa kanino bagai ang kabayo niya 'who has his horse?' Sadn followed by a noun denoting 'place' may be used in its literal meaning 'in what, which,' equivalent to sa alin. Sadn may take the ligature.-e. g., na saan I na saan ] bahay ang ina ko 'in which na saa.ng' } na saang, house is my mother?' na sa aling j S 227. Sometimes na + its case is treated as a verb of the ma class (cf. S 93). These forms have the same construction as the quasi-verb.-e. g., sino-ng naririyan 'who is there?' saan naroro6n ang ama mo 'where is your father?' ang ama ko'y nasasabahay 'my father is in the house.' masasaan baga si Pedro 'where will Pedro be?' S 228. Instead of na sa, sa sa is sometimes used, and instead of na kay and na kand, na sa kay and na sa kand, e. g., sa sa kulonign ang ibon 'the bird is in the cage.' na sa kana ali ko siyai 'he is at the house of my aunt and her family.' A negative of wald is made by placing a categorical negative before it, viz., di wala; this is used after wald-ng and followed by the oblique case in a strongly affirmative sense.-e. g., wala-ng di wala sa _akin 'I have absolutely everything.' ij I t! l R - 133 - These quasi-verbs sometimes take an additional oblique case modifying the first, e. g., na saan na tay6 sa ating paglatakbay 'where are we now in our journey?' na sa pagitan na tay6 sa ating lakarin 'we are now half way on our journey.' THE PARTICLES MAY AND WALA. S 229. The particle may and its negative wata are used to express the possession or non-possession of something indefinite. Instead of may, its compounds with the adverbs of place dini, dito, diydn, doon, viz., maydini, maydito, maydiyan, mayroon may be employed: mayroon is the most common, meaning simply 'have;' the others have an added idea of locality 'have here,' 'have there.' The noun or pronoun which denotes the possessor constitutes the subject. The thing possessed, which will be spoken of as the object, stands in the indefinite nominative after the particle, except in the case of an expression containing a demonstrative where the genitive is used in the sense of 'some of this,' etc. The particles may and wala with their object constitute the predicate, and ay must be used before them when the subject precedes. A pronominal subject, the noun pa, postpositive adverbs, and various other elements may stand between these particles and their object; for the order cf. SS I90; 205; 350, 4. May is usually employed when the object follows immediately, though mayroon may also be used; otherwise mayroon is the common form. Mayroon, maydini, etc., and wala take the ligature before an immediately following object, may is without ligature. When one or more words intervene between any of these particles and their object, the ligature is affixed to the word immediately preceding the object; the ligature, however, is omitted before an object containing a demonstrative. The subject ka may stand between the object of may and a following modifier. The quasi verb may be modified by an oblique case indicating place.-e. g., ang tawo'y may isda 'the man has ish.' may isda ang tiwo - 134 - ak6'y may baro have a shirt.' may baro ako J siyd'y mayro6ng ib6n 'he has birds.' mayro6ng kapatid na babAyi sila 'they have sisters.' mayro6n ak6-ng tinapay 'I have bread.' ako'y wala-ng asawa 1,,....,, ak6'y wal.-ng asaiwa 'I have no wife, am unmarried. wala ak6-ng asa.wa maydini ak6-ng salapi 'I have money here.' mayro6n pa ak6-ng magulang 'I have still parents.' wala na ak6-ng anak 'I have now no son.' may kasalanan ka-ng malaki 'are you in mortal sin (have you great sin)? wala siya nit6 'he has none of this.' mayro6n siyai nit6-ng halaman 'he has some of these plants.' kami ay mayro6ng marami sa bahay 'we have many at home.' S 230. These particles are also used without subject to express 'there is,' 'there is not,' literally 'it has,' 'it has not;' 'the place in which' stands in the oblique case or is represented by an adverb.-e. g., may tawo sa bahay 'there are people in the house.' may namang volcan do6n 'there is also a volcano there.' mayro6ng dalawa-ng p6w6 'there are twenty.' maydlni-ng pAlay 'there is rice here.' wala-ng tawo sa lansingan 'there is no one in the street.' S 231. When the subject of these particles is an interrogative pronoun, it stands first and is joined to the particle by ang or the ligature (cf. S 222), e. g., sn ang sino ng } mayroong barl 'who has a gun?' -ng J ilan kaya sa kanila ang may sanga 'how many of them have branches?' When the object contains an interrogative pronoun, it may stand before the quasi-verb with or without ligature, or it may follow the construction of an ordinary object, e. g., an6-ng mayro6n ka 'what have you?' iling bahay mayro6n siya 'how many houses has he?' a 8t I 3 i a:: 5 I I I I I - 35 - may ilan na-ng ta6n a anank mo 'how many years old is your son (how many years has)?' S 232. These particles with their objects may take the article and the plural particle. May and its object often constitute practically a derivative noun. Mayroon may stand alone with the article.-e. g., ang mayro6n 'the one who has.' ang may-anak 'the father (possessing a son).' ang manga may-anak 'the fathers.' ang may-sakit 'the sick man (having sickness).' ang wala-ng asawa 'he who is unmarried.' ang manga wala-ng sanga 'those that have no branches.' ang mayroon pa-ng magulang 'those who have still parents. In the oblique case the compounds with may denote. 'in the vicinity of, near,' e. g, sa may-bahay 'in the vicinity of the house.' sa may-ilog 'near the river.' These compounds with may are treated as nouns and are usually followed by the genitive of the thing possessed, though the oblique may also be used, especially if the object has a verbal idea. The dependent noun is sometimes the same as the object of the particle.-e. g., anImay.bS. h ay nit6o 'the owner of this ang may-bhay nit6-ng bahay house.' sino ang may-an k nit6-ng bata 'who is the father of this boy?' hanggan sa may-habangan nang aming bayan 'up to where the boundary of our town is.' ang may-anak dito sa bata-ng it6 'the father to this boy.' ang may-gawa sa akin 'the one who made me. S 233. The superlative form wald-ng wala has the same construction as the simple form except that the ligature is usually omitted after the second wali, e. g., wala-ng wala tungk6d ang bata 'the boy has no stick at all.' ak6 'y wala-ng wala 'I have nothing at all.' The adjective mardmi 'much, many' has sometimes the same construction as mayroon, in the sense of 'have much, many,' 'there is much, are many,' e. g., - 36 - marAmi ak6-ng abala 'I have much to do (much occupation).' maraimi ka-ng salapi 'have you much money?' marami baga-ng flog do6n 'are there many rivers there?' But alsoit6-ng kahoy ay may marmi-ng sangi 'this tree has many branches.' mayr6on baga-ng marami-ng flog do6n 'are there many rivers there?' THE PARTICLE A 'SAY'. S 234. The particle a is used before the genitive of a noun or pronoun to express the idea of 'said,' usually in parenthetical phrases. The postpositive genitives of the personal pronouns are employed, ndkin and niyo being used in the first and second person singular, instead of ko and mo. The postpositive genitive of sino, viz., nino is also employed.-e. g., a-nang Santo-ng Sulat 'say the Scriptures.' a-ni Pedro 'said Pedro.' a-nit6-ng tawo 'said this man.' a-nakin 'say I.' a-niy6 'you say.' a-niya 'says he.' a-nino 'who says it?' SENTENCES WITH NON-VERBAL PREDICATE IN GENERAL. S 235. For the negative of sentences with non-verbal predicate cf. SS 223, 224, 229. For the use of special interrogative words in such sentences cf. SS 222, 225, 226, 231. The interrogative of sentences with non-verbal predicate may be indicated simply by the tone of the voice, but ordinarily the interrogative adverbs bagd or kaya are employed after the predicate. The predicate or some part of it, usually stands first in the sentence; the interrogative adverbs follow the oblique case or adverb governed by the quasi-verb na, but stand immediately after its negative wala; they stand t:i i - 137 - between may and its negative walt and their object. For the position of these adverbs in general cf. S 205.-e. g., malaki baga ang iy6-ng aso 'is your dog large?' magaganda baga sila 'are they beautiful?' mayaman ka baga 'are you rich?' na sa bahay baga ang ina mo 'is your mother in the house?' na sa iy6 baga ang salapi 'have you the money?' wala baga sa bayan ang pare 'isn't the pnrest in town?' wala baga sa kaniya ang damit ko 'hasn't he my clothes?' may baga-ng bulaklak,ang kapatid mo-ng babayi 'has your sister any flowers?' mayro6n baga-ng marami-ng isda sa flog 'are there many fish in the river?' mayro6n baga sila-ng salapi 'have they any money?' mayroon pa p6 kay6-ng ina 'have you still a mother?' mayro6n ka baga-ng tindpay 'have you any bread?' mayro6n ka pa-ng sakit 'are you still sick (have you still sickness)?' S 236. Adverbs of time are used in sentences with nonverbal predicate to indicate tense. They stand either absolutely without connective particle, usually at the beginning or end of the sentence, or they may stand between two parts of the predicate, or at the beginning of a sentence followed by the particle ay, the subject, in this last case, usually standing after the predicate: postpositives stand after some part of the predicate.-e. g., kahapon ikdw ay mayaman 'yesterday you were rich.' bukas ikaw ay dukha 'tomorrow you will be poor.' maganda siya no6n, ngay'6n ay pangit 'then she was beautiful, now she is ugly.' ikalima-ng araw ngay'6n nit6-ng lingg6 'to-day it is the fifth day of the week.' nang hapong ya6n ay malaki ang sigla sa bayan 'on that evening great was the joy in town.' kahapon na sa Maynfla siya 'yesterday he was in Manila.' bukas narito ang ama ko 'tomorrow my father will be here.' kahapon mayro6n ak6-ng isa-ng mabuti-ng kabayo 'yesterday I had a good horse.' - 38 - bukas mayro6n na ak6-ng salapt 'tomorrow I shall have money.' wala na ak6-ng ama 'I have now no father.' ~ 237. Adverbs of place may stand in simple copulative sentences and sentences containing may 'there is' or its negative wala, in the same constructions as adverbs of time. For adverbs of place after na, and for their usual construction after may and wala, cf. SS 224, 226, 229, 230.-e. g., do6n sa iny6-ng bayan ay may mabuti-ng bahay 'there in your town, are there good houses?' do6n sa amin ay mabubuiti ang manga bahay 'there with us the houses are good.' Certain adverbs of other classes may also have the same constructions as adverbs of time and place, e. g., marahil bukas ay na sa Maynilb siya 'perhaps tomorrow he will be in Manila.' halos wala pa siya-ng tatlo-ng ta6n 'he is scarcely three years old.' S 238. A non-verbal predicate may be modified by the affirmative adverbs, especially in affirmative answers, e. g., siya na ang duwag 'he is indeed the coward.' 60, na sa akin nga ang damit mo 'yes, I have your clothes.' wala nga-ng tungk6d ang tawo 'the man has no walkingstick at all.' S 239. Certain adverbs may stand as the predicate, especially in sentences whose subject is a verbal idea; special interrogative adverbs, except sadn with quasi-verb na, have usually this construction; after a special interrogative adverb, the ligature may be used instead of the article before the subject.-e. g., ang pagpasok niya dito ay kahapon 'he entered here yesterday (his entering here was yesterday).' ganiyan ang na sa kautosain 'thus it is in the law (that which is in the law is thus).' paan6 ang pagkalagay nang manga kahoy sa halamanan mo 'how are the trees placed in your garden (how is the placing)?' saan ang pasimula nit6-ng daan 'where does this road begin (where is the beginning)?' -i i I i: 11 I.1 - 39 - paan6-ng pangyayari niya.n 'how is that possible (how is the possibility of that)?' paan6 kaya ya6n 'how was that (how did it take place)?' makailan ang langis 'how many times (something else) is the oil (worth)?' S 240. Certain adverbs may be joined by the ligature to a non-verbal predicate, but they are in this case rather adjectives than adverbs (cf. S 178), e. g., tant6 mo-ng bukid ya6n 'that is my field without doubt.' ang mag'alam ay para.ti-ng pakana 'knowledge is always useful.' S 241. When the subject of a sentence is of the third person and refers to something that has already been mentioned, it may be omitted. May 'there is' (cf. S 230) is of course always impersonal. The object of may and wala may also be omitted under the same conditions. The use of the affirmative adverbs is especially frequent in this case. The predicate of simple copulative sentences may be preceded by ay, which connects it with the subject understood.-e. g., ak6 nga 'it is I, I am.' 6o, maganda nga 'yes (she) is indeed beautiful.' akin 'it is mine.' hindi nga ak6 'it is not I, I am not.' hindi ka rin 'it is not you either.' malalaki bagai 'are they large?' iy6 baga 'is it yours?' ay ang ama nang bayaw mo 'he is the father of your brother in-law.' ay sa pinsan mo kaya 'is it your cousin's?' na sa bahay '(he) is in the house.' wala sa akin 'I haven't (it).' na sa iy6 baga 'have you (it)?' mayro6n na-ng pag'iisip '(he) has now reached years of discretion (has now reason).' 60, mayro6n nga 'yes he has.' wala na baga 'is there no one else?' 60, mayro6n pa 'yes, there is.' - 140 SENTENCES WITH VERBAL PREDICATE. COMBINATIONS OF THE VERB. THE VERB AND ITS SUBJECT. S 242. As in sentences with non-verbal predicate, the subject may stand either before or after the predicate, ay being used between the two when the subject precedes. The subject may be omitted under the same circumstances as in sentences with non-verbal predicate (cf. ~ 24I).-e. g., ak6 'y sumusilat 1 'I write, am writing. sumusuilat ak6 ang bata 'y naglalar | 'the boy is playing.' naglalar6 ang bata siya 'y iniibig siy* 'y inilbig } 'he is loved.' iniibig siya j sumusulat 'he (already mentioned) is writing.' THE ACTIVE VERB AND ITS OBJECTS. ~ 243. The use of the active and passive is not optional as in English. In any given sentence the voice of the verb depends upon the relative importance of the various elements, the most emphatic idea being made the subject of the sentence. If this is the agent of the action expressed by the verb, the active voice is employed. The object of the active verb is usually indefinite, but it may be definite provided that the principal emphasis still rests on the agent. The object may stand in the genitive or oblique case. Personal pronouns and names of persons are always in the oblique case, and verbs made with maka causative regularly govern the oblique case. 'On account of, with respect to' after an intransitive verb is expressed by the genitive. Otherwise, generally speaking, the genitive corresponds to the direct object in English, the oblique to the indirect. The genitive object always, the oblique usually, stands after the verb and its subject; an oblique case may also stand at the beginning of the sentence (cf. ~ 267). For the construction when the verb takes both direct and indirects objects cf. S 256. -e. g., 4 i'~ - I4I - ak6'y sumusuilat. a,sumuslat ak6 nang libro 'I am writing a book.' sumusulat ako tumawag ka nang isa-ng bata 'call a boy.' ikaw ay gumulang f sa manga matatanda 'respect gumulang ka aged people.' ako'y nanginginig nang tak6t 'I am trembling with (on account of) fear.' naparo6n ako sa ilog 'I went to the river.' ikiw ay susungdo nang pare, kami'y hahanap nang gam6t 'you call the priest, we will look for medicine.' it6-ng tawo'y magkakamit nang langit 'this man will attain heaven.' ang gracia'y nakabubuti sa kaluluwa 'Grace beautifies the soul.' S 244. In some idioms the object of the active is placed directly after the verb in the indefinite nominative, forming with it a sort of compound. When the verb ends in a vowel the two are connected by the ligature.-e. g., magbalik l6ob sa Di6s 'turn (your) heart to God.' siyay naghahanap buihay 'he is earning his living.' ak6'y magbibigay alam sa iy6 'I will let you know.' manira-ng puri 'dishonor (destroy [sirk] fame).' kumuha-ng hatol 'take counsel.' THE PASSIVE VERB, ITS AGENT AND OBJECTS. S 245. The passive voice is used when the object of the verbal action, or some accessory circumstance is the most emphatic element, and hence the subject, of the sentence. A definite object is usually more emphatic than the agent of the action, hence the passive is regularly employed when the object is definite. Passive constructions are far more frequent than active, in fact they may be said to be the rule, and active constructions the exception; they are usually to be translated by the English active. In general the in passive is used when the object of an action towards the agent (e. g., to take), is made the subject; the i passive, when the subject is the object of an action away from the agent (e. g., to give), or the - 142 - instrument or cause of the action; the an passive, when a place or anything regarded as place, stands as subject. The agent of the passive is put in the genitive, except when it is a noun standing before the verb, which is put in the oblique case. The prepositive and postpositive genitives of the personal pronouns are used with the verb just as with nouns (cf. S 172), the prepositive forms taking the ligature. An agent in the oblique case before the verb, also takes the ligature. A pronominal agent stands next to the verb, and can be separated from it only by certain adverbs. A genitive nominal agent follows the verb. An agent in the third person may be omitted under the same conditions as a subject of the same person (cf. S~ 241, 242). A passive verb may also be accompanied by one or more indirect objects which correspond to English prepositional phrases. When the indirect object of the i or an passives corresponds to the direct object of the active in English, it stands in the genitive; 'with (of means and instrument)' and 'with respect to' are also expressed by the genitive: 'to,' 'for,' 'in,' 'from,' are expressed by the oblique. A genitive object always follows the verb, an oblique case usually follows but may also stand at the beginning of the sentence (cf. S 267). The order of genitive nominal agent, indirect objects, and the subject when it follows the verb, is not fixed, but in general pronouns precede nouns.-e. g., ang libroy binasa ko binasa ko ang libro 'I read the book (the book was ang libro'y aiking binasa read by me).' a.king binasa ang libro si Maria ay iniibig ni Luis 'Luis loves Maria.' it6'y kay Pedro-ng ginawa 'this was made by Pedro.' ang libro'y hanapin mo nang flaw 'look for the book with the light (let the book be sought by you with the light).' ipanhik mo sa bahay it6-ng manga saging 'bring these bananas up to the house.' panhikan mo ak6 niying manga saging 'bring those bananas up to me (let me be brought to by you with these bananas).' ibili mo ang bath nang kanin 'buy the boy some food.' t 3 I; i t 1 ij: s it I -43 - ipagbili mo sa amin iyang manga manik 'sell us these chickens.' binigyan siya nang bulaklak nang kapatid mo 'your brother gave him some flowers.' ilabas mo ang aking salawal sa kabain 'take my trowsers out of the chest.' ang sulat ay hinanap niya nit6-ng ilaw sa silid 'he looked for the letter in the room with this light.' binasa it6-ng libro 'this book is the one he (already mentioned) read.' S 246. An indirect object which would ordinarily stand in the genitive is sometimes simply joined to the preceding verb by the ligature (cf. S 244), e. g., ikaw ay binigyadng panah6n (-= nang panah6n) 'you were given time.' bigyan mo-ng manga saging (- nang manga saging) 'give some bananas.' ako'y itinawag na kompision (=nang kompision) 'a priest was called to confess me (I was the cause of calling for confession).' CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS MADE WITH PRIMARY SUBSIDIARY PARTICLES. S 247. The verbal forms made with the primary subsidiary particles have, with the exception of the emphatic imperatives with ka, which have the same construction as the ordinary active imperative, and pd (cf. S 250), a passive construction. Passive forms with ka, kapag, kapagka, pagka, pag regularly stand first in the sentence, and do not admit the definite article; they differ from other passive verbs in taking the logical object in the genitive or oblique. Forms with ka-an and paka have the same construction and position as other passive verbs. The forms with ka upon partially reduplicated roots are usually accompanied by one or more of the adverbs, din, pa, Idmang. They may stand in a simple sentence.-e. g., kararating ko pa 'I have just arrived.' kaaalis lamang niya 'he has just gone.' kapagaalis din ni Pedro nang damit'Pedro has just undressed.' 144 - kapangangaral din nang par6 'the priest has just stopped preaching.' Or, the sentence in which they stand may be joined to another sentence which indicates a contemporaneous action (cf. S 306). The forms made with ka prefixed to fully reduplicated roots and those with the prefixes kapag, kapagka, pagka, pag occur always in this last construction (cf. SS 307, 308). The forms made with ka-an (a) and (b) stand as the verb of a simple sentence, or of a dependent clause, e. g., (a) kapanawan ko it6-ng lingg6 'I shall bear a child this week.' kaalisan ko na 'I am about to go.' kun kasulatan na niya 'when he was about to write.' (b) katanoran ko ngay6n 'it falls to my lot, it is my turn to be shepherd to day.' kapagmisahan ko ngay6n 'it falls to me to say mass today. The forms made with ka-an (c) may stand with the article as the subject of a copulative sentence, or as in S 329, e. g., ang kaalisan ko'y kalaka.san ni Ant6nio 'the reason I went was on account of the violence of Antonio.' Sentences containing forms made with paka are, e. g., kay6 po'y pinakamagulang namin 'you, sir, are like a father to us.' pinakamatay ko si ama 'I believe my father to be dead.' pakapilakin mo it6-ng damit 'take this clothing in place of silver.' sino ang pinakap6no niny6 ngay'6n 'who acts as your leader today.' CONSTRUCTION OF THE VERBAL NOUN. S 248. The verbal abstract nouns (cf. S 144) have also a passive construction. The agent of the action is put in the genitive, the object in the genitive or oblique according to the construction of the corresponding verb.-e. g., ang pagpasok ko 'my entering.' ang pagkakamit nang langit 'the attaining of heaven.' I I - 45 ang pagllihi sa mahal na Virgen 'the conceiving of the Virgin (by her mother).' ang paglilihi ni Maria kay Jesus 'Mary's conception of Jesus.' CONSTRUCTION OF THE IMPERATIVE. ~ 249. The modal used as imperative stands in the active or passive voice according to the regular rule. The agent of the verbal action may be of any person, singular or plural. In the active this logical agent is made the grammatical subject; in the passive it is the grammatical agent, the subject being the logical object. The construction and order are the same as in the case of the other tenses.-e. g., sumulat tayo I ~., taysumlat tay6 'let us write. tayo6 y sumiulat J umibig siya 1 umy umi big nang kabanalan 'let him love goodness. tumiwag ka ik.w ay tumawag nang isa-ng bait 'call a boy.' bigyan mo sila. i. ily bigyn mo sil nang tinapay give them bread.' sila'y bigyan mo J paghanapin nila ang libro 'let them look for the book.' ang libro'y paghanapin nila ~ 250. The emphatic active imperative from roots and passive stems is used either absolutely or with following subject, e. g., lakad, lakad kay6 'go.' kiha, kuha ka 'take.' pagaral, pagaral kay6 'study.' The impersonal passive imperative stands without agent, and usually, though not always, without subject. It is used of things in the hand or in close proximity.-e. g., abut 'get it.' tap6nan 'throw it.' bukasi 'open it.' abut ya6ng kaban na mapula 'get that red box.' The emphatic imperative with prefixed ka regularly stands first and takes the same construction as the simple active imperative, e. g., IO - 146 - kaiingat ka 'be very careful.' katata.pang kay6 'be very brave.' kaiisip kay6 'think well.' katatawag kay6 sa mahal na Virgen 'call fervently on the Virgin.' The emphatic imperatives with prefixed pa follow the various constructions of the other imperative forms, according as they are regular passive, emphatic active or impersonal passive, e. g., pa-hampasin mo siya 'beat him still more severely.' pa-lapit, pa-lapit ka 'approach still nearer.' pa-bigyi 'give him still more.' THE ARTICLE WITH VERBAL FORMS. ~ 25I. Any tense stem may be preceded by the article in the sense of a compound relative (cf. SS 315-318), and be treated just like a noun. The verbal forms preceded by the nominative ang usually constitute the subject of the sentence, but they may also be treated as predicate when the other term of the sentence is definite. Sentences containing such verbs are practically simple copulative sentences; when the subject precedes the predicate, the particle ay stands between them. In these sentences the predicate has usually special emphasis. Various elements may stand between the article and its verb.-e. g., ikaw ang nagsabi nito 'you are the one that said this.' mapalad ang naglilingk6d sa Di6s 'happy is he who serves God.' iyaing palakol ang ip6tol mo nit6 'cut this with that hatchet (let this hatchet be your cutting-instrument of this).' ang silid ang paghanapan mo nang iy6-ng libro 'look for your book in the room (let the room be your searching-place of your book).' ang hinahanap ko'y isa sa aking manga kaibigan 'I am looking for one of my friends.' ang Pangin6ong Di6s ay ang maghohok6m sa atin 'the Lord God will judge us.' I - 47 - ang Panginoong Di6s ang maghohok6m sa atin 'the one who will judge us is the Lord God.' hindi ko naringig ang sinabi mo sa akin 'I did not hear what you said to me.' mam'in ang aiking nginanganga 'betel is what I am chewing.' ang pagkamatay nang kaniya-ng ina ang sa kaniya'y nakahapis 'the death of his mother was what made him sad.' hindi lahat nang sinasabi sa manga peri6diko ay tot6o 'not all that the papers say is true.' ang pagsampalataiya sa di natin nakikita 'the belief in what we do not see.' siya'y ang anak nang pinatay nang manga tulisan 'he is the son of the one who was killed by the robbers.' ak6'y natutuiwa sa sinasabi mo sa dkin 'I am delighted at what you tell me' NEGATIVE VERBAL SENTENCES. S 252. The negative of sentences with verbal predicate (not imperative) is expressed by the categorical negative adverbs dz, hindi, etc., placed before the verb. The sentence usually begins with the negative. When the verbal form is preceded by ang the negative stands between ang and the verb. The verb precedes a nominal subject or a nominal agent in the genitive, but when the subject or agent is a personal pronoun, it regularly stands between negative and verb. A preceding pronominal subject in this case is not joined to its verb by the particle ay. Certain postpositive adverbs and the noun p6 may also occupy this position. When one or more words intervene between the negative and the verb, the word immediately preceding the verb sometimes takes the ligature.-e. g., hindi ko naaalaman 'I don't know.' ang hindi mo nasasakupan 'that which does not concern you.' di ko masabi sa iyo 'I can't tell you.' hindi ko nga naaalaman 'I don't know indeed.' indi rin niya naaalaman 'neither does he know it.' hindi pa dumating ang kaibigan mo 'your friend has not yet arrived.' 1o* - 148 - hindi pa nga ungmalis 'he has not gone yet.' hindi ko pa binasa 'I have not yet read it.' hindi ka-ng kumuha nang pilak 'you did not take any silver.' di na ak6-ng uuli 'I won't do it again (now).' ~ 253. The imperative is negatived by the adverb huwdg placed before it. Pronominal subjects and agents, and postpositive adverbs stand between the two, the word directly preceding the verb taking the ligature.-e. g., huwag ka-ng paro6n 'don't go there.' huwag mo-ng sabihin 'don't tell.' huwag niya-ng gaw'in 'he must not do it (let it not be done by him).' huwag matakot 'let him not fear.' INTERROGATIVE VERBAL SENTENCES. ~ 254. The interrogative of verbal sentences is expressed as in sentences with non-verbal predicate (cf. ~ 235). In affirmative interrogative sentences the verb usually stands first. In negative interrogative sentences, the negative adverb comes first as in negative declarative sentences, and pronouns and postpositive adverbs stand between the negative and the verb according to S 252. For the position of the interrogative adverbs in general cf. S 205.-e. g., ininum baga nang may-sakit ang gam6t 'did the sick man take (drink) the medicine?' tinawag baga ak6 'did anyone call me (was I called)?' nahihiya ka baga 'are you ashamed?' binasa mo baga ang manga libro 'did you read the books?' dungmating na baga ang pare 'has the priest arrived (already)?' aalis ka na baga 'are you going now?' hindi mo baga nakikita ya6wng madilim na ulap 'don't you see that dark cloud?' hindi ka baga-ng nahihiya 'are you not ashamed?' ~ 255. When a sentence containing a verb is introduced by an interrogative pronoun or adjective, the interrogative is made the predicate, and the verb takes the article according I I: I -- I49 to ~ 251, or the interrogative and verb are joined by the ligature. The verb stands in the active when the interrogative is the agent of the action, in the passive when it is the object. In other words the English nominative of an interrogative is represented by interrogative + active; the objective case, or the interrogative after a preposition, by interrogative + passive. -e. g., sfno ang tungmatawag sa akin 'who is calling me?' sino ang hinahanap niny6 'whom are you (pl.) seeking?' sino kaya ang ilalagay ko dito sa pintoaing it6 'whom shall I place at this door?' sino ang itinatan6ng mo 'for whom are you inquiring?' sino ang binigyan mo nang sulat 'to whom did you give the letter?' ano ang ginawa niya 'what did he do?' ano kaya ang kinakain mo 'what are you eating?' allng kahoy ang aakyatan mo 'which tree will you climb?' sin6-ng nagsabi sa iy6 'who told you?' ano-ng ibinibigiy mo sa manga bata-ng iyan 'what are you giving those boys?' an6-ng iginagawa mo nit6 'with what did you make this?' In answering such questions, the person or thing inquired after is made predicate, the verb taking the article, e. g., ak6 ang tungmatawag sa iy6 'I am calling you.' VERBS WITH BOTH DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECTS. ~ 256. In sentences which contain both a direct and an indirect object of the verbal action, the verb is usually put in the i or an passive even though the object of the action is indefinite, e g., bigyan (~ 8i) mo sila nang tinapay 'give them bread.' ibinilf ko sila nang bunga 'I bought them some fruit.' tutur6an niyai kami nang daan 'he will show us the road.' Sometimes an active construction is used, the direct object usually preceding the indirect. When the indirect object is a personal pronoun it may precede the direct.-e. g., kumuiha ka nang dalawa-ng libro sa librerfa 'take two books from the library.' - 150 - ako'y humihingi nang tawad sa iny6 'I ask pardon of you (pl.).' In sentences of this kind which begin with an interrogative pronoun or adjective, active and passive are used as in S 255, e. g., sino ang nagbigay sa iy6 nang manga libro 'who gave you the books?' sino ang binigyan mo nang suilat 'to whom did you give the letter?' THE VERB WITH ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL EXPRESSIONS. S 257. A verb may be modified by adverbs of all classes. The position of the adverb is very free, it may stand at the beginning or end of a sentence, between subject and predicate, or between the verb and its other adjuncts. The combination of the verb with negative and interrogative adverbs has already been discussed (cf. ~~ 252-255). Adverbs and the verb are combined in a number of ways. S 258. The ligature is often used to connect verb and adverb, when the adverb directly precedes the verb and ends in a vowel or n, or when it directly follows a verb. If one or more words intervene the ligature is shifted as in S 22 (cf. also S 262).-e. g., mabuti baga ak6-ng sumulat 'did I write well?' masama ka-ng sungmulat 'you wrote badly.' maano-ng lumaki ka sa kabanalan 'may you increase in righteousness.' si Pedro'y lubha-ng nagpapakasakit 'Pedro works very hard.' it6'y bago-ng ginawa 'this is just made.' isinulat na marikit 'it was elegantly written.' it6'y gaw'in niny6-ng mahusay 'do this well.' sumun6d ka-ng palagi sa manga uitos niyi 'always follow his commandments.' S 259. Excluding genitives 'used as adverbs of time (cf. SS 118, 133), nang is employed only before adverbs standing after the verb as the equivalent of the ligature in the preceding paragraph, e. g., hampasin mo siya nang malakas 'beat him soundly.' - I5s - hindi na ak6 uup6 nang ganit6 'I will not sit down in this fashion.' S 260. Many adverbs when they stand at the beginning of a sentence, may be joined to what follows by the particle ay. The subject in this case stands usually though not necessarily, after the verb.-e. g., kahapon ay nabasag ang palay6k 'yesterday the pot broke.' mamaya'y namamalisbis ang manga luha 'then the tears flowed forth.' diyata'y sabihin mo sa kanila 'well then, tell them.' kun minsan ay nangingisda ak6 sa manga ilog 'sometimes I fish in the rivers. S 261. Many adverbs may be used absolutely without connective particle. So usually the interrogatives sadn, kaildn, bdkit, ano't, adverbs ending in a consonant immediately before the verb, and adverbs beginning with sa after the verb.-e. g., maka mah6log ka 'may you not fall.' saka bantayan mo-ng malgl ang silid 'then watch well the room.' saan tumitira kay6 'where do you live?' kailan aalis siya 'when will he go?' bakit nagsabi ka sa akin 'why did you tell me?' an6't hindi ka lungmalakad nang matulin 'why don't you walk fast?' tikis ginawa 'it was done purposely.' tila naporo6n 'I think he went.' kaya nga aralan mo ang hindi marunung 'therefore teach the ignorant.' tabl ako'y daraan 'with your permission I will go.' aking hinalihaw sa l6ob at sa labas 'I looked for it within and without.' ~ 262. Adverbs at the beginning of a sentence may take the same construction as the negatives hindz, etc. (cf. S 252). Adverbs ending in a consonant, which do not take a ligature when directly preceding the verb, may have the ligature in this construction. When the ligature is used, this construction is identical with certain forms of that in ~ 258.-e. g., madalas ak6-ng pal6in 'I am often beaten.' 152 dito ka umupo 'sit down here.' saan kay6 tungmitira 'where do you live?' kailan siya aalis 'when will he go?' kailan ka-ng paparito 'when will you come?' makailan ka-ng ungmumit sa iy6-ng manga magulang 'how often have you robbed your parents?' S 263. Certain adverbs may be used as the predicate or as a modifier of the predicate of a simple copulative sentence, the verb they refer to standing as the subject with the article; in the first case the verbal noun of action is more frequent than the finite verbal forms (cf. S 239).-e. g., ang isinag6t sa kaniya ay ganoon 'he answered him thus.' ako muna ang minura niya 'he insulted me first.' S 264. Postpositive adverbs stand after the verb without ligature; when some adverbial modifier precedes the verb, they are placed between this modifier and the verb. For the relative order of postpositive adverbs and personal pronouns, etc., cf. S 205.-e. g., matotolog na ak6 'I am going to sleep.' ak6'y magaaral sana 'I would study.' lumaban ka nawa sa lahat na tuks6 'may you resist all temptations.' darating daw si Pedro 'they say that Pedro will come.' darating yata 'I think he will arrive.' maglagay naman kayo dito nang isa-ng lagari 'put a saw there also.' ~ 265. A noun or pronoun in the indefinite nominative may be used after a verb in the adverbial construction described in ~ 258, as a sort of apposition to the subject, in the sense of 'as, like' or of what is in English a second object after a verb of 'making,' 'calling,' etc.; the idea of 'as, like' is emphasized by using, instead of the simple noun, one of the indefinite pronouns of similarity pdra etc. followed by the noun (cf. S 275).-e. g., siya'y pumasok na kasama nili sa templo 'he entered the temple with them (as their companion).' sila'y nangagkakasama-ng lahat sa isa-ng lugar 'they were all gathered together in one place.' 1.4 i i 4 - 153 si Matias ay nahalal na apostol 'Matthias was chosen apostle.' an6 baga ang ginagawa-ng salapi 'what is money made of (is made into money)?' tinawag ang halamanang yaon sa kanila-ng sarili-ng wika na Aceldama 'that field was called in their own language, Aceldama.' inaari kata-ng (cf. ~ 350, 2) anak 'I treat you like a son.' ginagamit namang para-ng sustantivo 'it is used also as a substantive.' ~ 266. A verb may be modified by a prepositional phrase, which may stand after the verb in the same general position as the oblique case (cf. SS 243, 245), or at the beginning of a sentence. In the latter case the prepositional phrase is usually followed by ay as in the adverbial construction described in S 260.-e. g., umuulan dako-ng Maynila 'it is raining in the direction of (towards) Manila.' huma.tol alinsun6d sa otos 'give sentence according to the law.' sungm6poy sa harap nang hok6m 'he presented himself before the judge.' dahilan kay Luis ay di kita-ng (~ 350, 2) hinampas 'I did not beat you on account of Luis.' mula sa Lilio'y napasa-Maynila (cf. ~ 409, 3) 'from Lilio he went to Manila.' sa loob nang lima-ng araw ay namatay 'within five days he died.' ~ 267. An oblique case, especially of a verbal noun, may also stand at the beginning of a sentence and take the same construction as a prepositional phrase, e. g., sa pagtakbo niya ay natisod sa isai-ng bato 'while running (in his running), he stumbled against a stone.' sa bagay na it6 kay6 ang sinasakdalan ko 'therefore (for this reason) I take refuge in you.' VERBS WITH DEPENDENT VERBS. ~ 268. Verbal forms may modify preceding verbs as adverbs in the construction described in ~ 258; the voice of the two verbs may be different.-e. g., - I54 - gaw'in mo-ng mag'isa 'do it alone.' it6'y gagaw'in mo-ng paupo 'you must do this seated.' S 269. Verbs may govern a following verb of the same voice, either in the same tense form or in the modal used as infinitive. If the dependent verb follows directly and the governing verb ends in a vowel or n, the two are joined by the ligature, but if the governing verb ends in any other consonant, the ligature is usually omitted. If one or more adjuncts of the two verbs intervene between the two verbs, the ligature is regularly affixed to the word immediately preceding the dependent verb. The common subject or agent of the two active or two passive verbs is expressed only once, standing with the governing verb. The personal pronominal subject of a dependent verb may stand immediately before the ligature connecting the two verbs. These dependent infinitives are closely similar to noun and purpose clauses (cf. SS 320, 325). When the subjects or agents of the two verbs are different, or when they stand in different voices, the dependent verbs are to be so considered, except with impersonal auxiliaries (cf. S 270).-e. g., ak6'y tungmakb6-ng umalis 'I hastened to go.' kinuisa-ng ginawa ni Pedro it6 'Pedro did this voluntarily (was willing and did).' ak6'y paroroong kukuha nang akin 'I shall go there to take what is mine.' pinapan6od at pinapanood at inuulit niya-ng panoorin 'he looks at it and looks at it and looks at it again (repeats to look).' hindi ka bagai-ng nahihiya.-ng mahiga sa ganit6-ng 6ras 'are'nt you ashamed to lie in bed at such an hour.' paroro6n sa bayang karatig na dumalaw sa manga kaibigan 'they are going to the next village to visit their friends.' ang boo-ng bayan ay nakita siya-ng luma.kad 'the whole town saw him walk.' siya'y nagpipilit masok 'he endeavors to enter.' S 270. An important class of verbs that govern another verb in the infinitive are those which correspond to the English modal auxilaries 'will, 'would,' 'should,' 'can,' 'must,' etc. They are viz., ibig 'will, want.' I s sf I( I is - 155 - ayaw 'be unwilling, not to want.' dapat 'ought, be proper, suitable.' sukat 'should, deserve, be able.' mangyari 'be able.' marinung 'know how. maalam kailangan 'be necessary, must.' All except sometimes mangyari (cf. S 68) are invariable for tense. Ibig, kaildngan, and sometimes aydw, have the construction of passive verbs; the others (including aydw in most cases) are usually to be regarded as having the same subject as the dependent verb, i. e., as being in the same voice as the dependent verb; sometimes they are to be considered as impersonal verbs, governing either voice. The rules for the ligature, are the same as in the preceding paragraph.-e. g., ibig ko-ng umalis 'I want to go.' ayaw ak6-ng kumain 'I don't want to eat.' ayaw sumun6d 'he will not obey.' dapat nga-ng gumalang sa mangd matatanda 'it is right to respect the aged.' hindi ka dapat bumuwis 'you ought not to pay tribute.' hindi mangyari-ng lumuwas sa Maynila ang kapatid ko 'my brother can not go down to Manila.' hindi ak6 maruinung bumasa 'I don't know how to read.' sukat ka-ng hampisin 'you deserve to be beaten.' kailangan ko-ng ipahayag 'I must show it.' hindi kailangang sabihin 'it is not necessary to tell it.' ibig ko siya-ng makita 'I wish to see him.' ibig mo ak6-ng pautangin nang salapi 'will you lend me some money?' sukat baga siya-ng parusahan 'ought he to be punished?' hindi siya sukat parusahan 'he should not be punished.' ang manga pinsan mo'y dapat gantihin 'my cousins should be rewarded.' QUASI-VERBS WITH DEPENDENT VERBS. S 27I. The quasi-verbs may and wala, which are used to express the possession of something indefinite (cf. S 229), are -- 56 - also employed before a verb in any tense form, active or passive, as a sort of auxiliary to indicate that the subject of the verb is indefinite. The verb and its subject constitute the object of the particle, the verb being really a participle agreeing with its subject, to which it is regularly joined by the ligature. Sometimes, however, the article is used instead of the ligature under the influence of the construction of the independent verb. When the subject has the meaning of the indefinite pronouns 'anything,' 'something,' 'anyone,' 'someone' it is usually not expressed. When the verb is active, the particle stands without subject and has an indefinite meaning as in ~ 230. When the verb is passive the agent of the action becomes the subject of the quasi-verb. The rules for the use of the ligature between the quasi-verbs and their object, and for the position of their subject, are the same as in ~ 229.-e. g., may tawo-ng nagnakaw } 'there was a man who robbed, may nagnakaw na tawo a robber.' may siya-ng pinatay na tawo 'he has killed a man (he has a killed man).' mayro6n kay6-ng hinahanap 'are you (pl.) looking for anyone, anything?' mayro6n siya-ng sinabi 'did he say anything?' mayro6n ak6-ng gagaw'in 'I have something to do.' may pinatay ka-ng tawo 'have you killed anyone?' may ak6-ng sasabihin sa iyo-ng isa-ng bagay 'I have a certain matter to tell you.' wala ak6-ng sinabi 'I said nothing (have not anything said).' wala sila-ng ibili 'they have not wherewith to buy (instrumentof-buying).' wala ako-ng sasabihin 'I have nothing to say.' wala ka-ng damit na isimba 'you have no clothes to go to mass in (mass-going clothes).' wala siya-ng ginawa-ng kasalanan sa iy6 'he has not committed any offence against you.' wala kayo-ng makikita ang isa mang golo 'you will not see any disturbance at all (even one disturbance).' - I57 ~ 272. The quasi verb na is sometimes used as a sort of auxiliary before verbs denoting position, e. g., naro6n nakaluh6d siya sa may-altar 'he is kneeling (having knelt down) near the altar.' III. DIFFERENT KINDS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. SENTENCES CONTAINING A NOMINATIVE ABSOL U TE. ~ 273. A noun or pronoun often stands absolutely at the beginning of a sentence in the nominative case, its relation to the other words in the sentence being indicated by an article or pronoun (italicized words in examples) which refers back to it. The absolute case takes the adverbial construction in ~ 260, except when it is followed directly by an interrogative pronoun, in which case the two are joined by the ligature.-e. g., kay6 nang anak mo'y mabuti baga ang lagaiy 'you and your son, are you well (is the condition good)?' ang magasawa kailan man ay hindi dapat sild-ng magaway 'husband and wife should never quarrel.' ang talagai-ng mangungusap ay minulan niyd ang salita nang ganit6 'the one appointed to speak, began his speech thus.' siya-ng sino ang ngalan 'he, what is his name?' si Pedro-ng'sino ang pamagait 'Pedro, what is his nickname?' SENTENCES CONTAINING AN INDEFINITE ELEMENT. ~ 274. The indefinite character of a noun is regularly indicated by the construction of the sentence. A predicate noun in a simple copulative sentence is usually indefinite, e. g., bata ka-ng mabait 'you are an intelligent boy.' kayo'y manga d6wag 'you (pl.) are cowards.' When the subject of such a sentence is a verbal form with the article (cf. S 25 ), the predicate denotes class or species, e. g., tawo ang gungmawa nit6 'this is the work of man.' ang bibilhin ko'y isda 'I am going to buy fish.' - 58 - An indefinite subject, introduced in English by 'there is,' is expressed by the object of may and wala (cf. S 230). An indefinite object of the action of a verb is expressed by the direct object of an active verb (cf. SS 243, 244), or the object of the i or an passives (cf. SS 245, 246), or by using the auxiliaries may and wald before the verb (cf. S 27I). The indefinite article is used with nouns in these constructions when the idea of individuality is to be emphasized, e. g., ito'y isai-ng kahoy 'this is a tree.' may isa-ng harl 'there was a king.' magpanaog ka nang isa-ng up6an 'bring down a chair.' may ak6-ng sasabihin sa iyo-ng isa-ng bagay 'I have a certain matter to tell you.' A subject consisting of an indefinite pronoun or a noun modified by the indefinite article or an indefinite pronominal adjective, although indefinite, regularly takes the article, e. g., ang lahait ay mabubuiti 'all are good.' ang isa-ng ta6n ay may ilang araw 'a year has how many days?' nagsisipasok baga. sa simbahan ang marami-ng ta.wo 'are many people entering the church?' Sometimes, however, ang is omitted, e. g., isa. mang tawo'y di pinagnakawan nit6-ng libro 'I did not steal this book from any body.' isa man sa amin ay hindi naguguitum 'not one of us is hungry.' bawa't isa-ng tawo ay mayro6n damit na sarili 'each man has his own clothes.' isa-ng itak ay isinugat mo sa kaniya 'you wounded him with a knife.' SENTENCES CONTAINING A COMPARISON. SIMILARITY. S 275. The idea of 'like, as' is expressed by the indefinite pronouns of similarity, pdra, gdya, etc.; followed by the thing likened in the same construction as in S I84, or by an indefinite adverb of manner governing the genitive (cf. S 203). These 4 11' I - 59 - phrases may constitute the predicate of a simple copulative sentence, or they may stand as adverbial elements in a sentence with verbal predicate.-e. g., ak6'y para mo 'I am like you.' siya'y gaya nang ibon 'he is like a bird.' gay'on ni Pedro si Juan 'Juan is such a one as Pedro.' ginagamit namang para-ng sustantivo 'it is used also as a substantive.' patawairin mo kami nang aming manga uitang paira nang pagpatawad namin sa nangagkakautang sa amin 'forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors (as our forgiveness to our debters).' A predicate of this sort in a simple copulative sentence may also be expressed by the prefix ga compounded with the word with which the comparison is made, or by the preposition ga and its object, e. g., gabat6 ang loob mo 'your heart is like stone.' ang paniki ay ga sa isa-ng ibon 'the bat is like a bird.' COMPARATIVE. In General. S 276. Sentences containing a comparative idea are of various kinds. According to the mutual relation between the terms of the comparison, it may be a comparison of a) equality, b) superiority, c) inferiority. According to the character of the comparison, it may bea) Qualitative, comparison of two or more persons or things with reference to a common quality. b) Quantitative, comparison of two or more persons or things with reference to number or quantity, or of two or more agents with reference to the quantity of the same thing, which they both possess or act upon. c) Adverbial, comparison of the manner in which two actions are performed. - 6o - d) Verbal, comparison of two verbal ideas, or of a verbal and a nominal idea with reference to some quality. e) Comparison of sentences. In some of these comparisons, the number of times one term exceeds another in a certain respect is expressed. Qualitative Comparison. S 277. The comparison of equality is made by using an adjective in the positive degree followed bypdra, etc. (cf. ~ 197), or one of the combinations of adjectives of equality (cf. ~~ 199, 200), as the predicate of a simple copulative sentence, the subject of which is one term of the comparison, e. g., siya'y mabait para ni Pedro 'he is as intelligent as Pedro.' it6-ng babayi ay maganda-ng para mo 'this woman is as beautiful as you.' si Pedro'y karuinung ni Juan 'Pedro is as learned as Juain.' it6'y singhaba niy6n 'this is as large as that.' ika.w ay kasinglaki ko 'you are as large as I.' gabat6 katigas it6-ng kahoy 'this wood is as hard as stone.' When the two persons or things compared stand together in the subject, the sing, magka, or magkasing adjectives, or the ma adjectives modified by preceding parapdra 'equally,' are employed. When more than two are compared, the reduplicated forms of these adjectives may be used.-e. g., singhaba it6-ng dalawa 'these two are equally long.' singtataas sila 'they are equally tall.' ang manig bata ay magkasingdunong 'the children are equally wise.' ang manga bata nang amain ko at ang sa manga aking pinsan ay magkakaparis nang taas 'my uncle's children are as tall as those of my cousins.' parapara-ng mabuiti sila 'they are equally good.' S 278. The comparison of superiority is made by using the comparative degree of an adjective followed by the oblique case of the inferior term of the comparison, as the predicate of a simple copulative sentence, the subject of which is the superior term, e. g., I II 6- 6 - si Pedro'y maruinung kay Juan 'Pedro is more learned than Juan.' it6'y lalo-ng magaling diyan 'this is better than that.' mataais pa ak6 sa iy6 'I am taller than you.' S 279. The comparison of inferiority is usually not employed; instead of saying 'he is less intelligent than you,' the thought is ordinarily expressed by the comparison of superiority, viz., 'you are more intelligent than he.' It may, however be expressed by putting the inferior term in the subject, and using as predicate either the comparative degree of inferiority followed by the oblique of the superior term, or the indefinite pronoun kziang 'less' followed by the genitive of the noun indicating the quality, and the oblique of the superior term.- e. g., si Pedro'y pasubali-ng marunung kay Juan 'Pedro is less learned than Juan.' ang manga Tagalog ay kulang nang sipag sa manga Amerikano 'the Tagalogs are less industrious than the Americans (less with respect to industry).' Quantitative Comparison. S 280. The mode of expressing the comparison of equality here is similar to that employed in qualitative comparison. Either adjectives of equality derived from the root dami 'quantity, number' are used, or other adjectives of equality in conjunction with this root.-e. g., ang manga itak ay kasingdami nang manga panulat 'there are as many knives as pens (the knives are as numerous as the pens).' mayroon kaya sila-ng tinapay na kasingdami nang alak (tinapay na kapairis nang alak ang dami [cf. S 314]) 'have they as much bread as wine?' mayro6n baga siyai-ng saping kaparis nang dami nang kanila-ng medias 'has she as many shoes as stockings?' ang kape at ang sa ay magkasingdaimi baga 'is there as much coffee as tea?' ang salapi nang dking amain at ang sa aiking amai ay magkapairis karami 'my uncle has as much money as my father.' II - 62 - ~ 281. The comparison of superiority is made by placing the inferior term in the oblique case after a pronoun meaning 'more,' or a noun modified by a pronominal adjective of the same meaning, e. g., ang manig Amerikano 'y Illo pa-ng marami sa manga Tagalog 'the Americans are more numerous than the Tagalogs.' ang anluwagi ay may lalo-ng mara;mi-ng paiko sa pamokp6k 'the carpenter has more nails than hammers.' mayro6n siya-ng lalo-ng tuibig (lalo pa-ng tuibig) sa alak 'he has more water than wine.' ang manga magsasaka'y mayro6n lalo-ng baka sa manga tagabayan 'the countrymen have more cattle than the townspeople.' ikaw'y mayro6n lalo pa-ng pilak sa akin 'you have more silver than I.' ngay'6'y mag'iinum ak6 nang mahigit pa sa aking iniinum sa b6o ko-ng buhay 'today I am going to drink more than I ever drank in my whole life.' S 282. The comparison of inferiority may be expressed by making the inferior term subject, and using as predicate the pronouns kuzang 'less' or alangan 'insufficient, wanting,' followed by the oblique of the superior term; these pronouns may also be modified by the genitive of ddmi.-e. g., ang manga lalaki ay kulang nang dami sa manga babayi 'there are fewer men than women.' ang manga pamokp6k niya'y kulang sa manga pak6 'he has not so many hammers as nails.' ang kayamanan nang manga Tagalog ay alangan sa kayamanan nang manga Amerikano 'the wealth of the Tagalogs is less than that of the Americans.' Comparison of Adverbial Ideas. S 283. Adverbial comparison is expressed by the comparative forms of. the adverbs of manner modifying the verb which indicates the action, and governing the second term just as if they were adjectives, e. g., I It - 63 -nagbibili ang manga Insik nang lalo-ng mura sa iba-ng manga mangangalakal 'do the Chinese sell cheaper than other merchants?' bakit ang kapatid mo'y hindi nagsasalita nang lalo-ng magaling nang wika-ng ingles 'why doesn't your brother speak English better.' Comparison of Verbal Ideas. ~ 284. Verbal ideas are compared by using the verbal nouns of action or the modals as the two terms in ordinary qualitative comparison; or one of the terms is made the subject of a verb modified by an adverb expressing comparison, and the other stands in the oblique case; or one term stands as infinitive after a verb, the other in the oblique case. One of the terms may be represented by a pronoun.-e.g., ang paglakad ay lalo-ng mabuiti sa pagtakb6 'walking is better than running.' mabuiti ang maglakad sa mangabayo 'it is better to walk than to ride on horse-back.' lalo-ng naiibig nang Di6s it6 sa mag'ayunal 'God prefers this to fasting.' ibig ko pa-ng mamatay sa magkasala sa Di6s 'I would rather die than sin against God.' Other Comparisons. ~ 285. For the comparison of sentences cf. Comparative Clauses (S 326). A comparison in which the number of times one thing exceeds another is given, is expressed by comparative words modified by numeral adverbs (cf. S I98), or as in S 408, 6. SUPERLATIVE. 5 286. The relative and absolute superlatives may be used both attributively and predicatively, e. g., siya'y ang malilt sa lahat 'he is the smallest of all.' ang r6sa'y ang karikitdikitan sa lahait na bulaklak 'the rose is the most beautiful of all flowers.' II * - I64 - sino sa kanila ang lalo-ng maliksi 'which of them is the most active?' ang mangga'y ang bunga-ng masarap sa lahat na binga 'the mango is the most savory fruit of all fruits.' iyang bahay ay lubha-ng malaki 'that house is very large.' ang katam'istam'isangVirgen ay ina natin 'the most sweet Virgin is our mother." sila'y manga mahal na mahal na lalaki 'they are most noble men.' The oblique case depending on a relative superlative may stand at the beginning of a sentence in the adverbial construction in S 260, e. g., sa manga anluwaigi ay ang lalo-ng marunung si Pedro 'of the carpenters, Pedro is the best (wisest).' When the question is asked as to which of two persons is superior in a certain quality, the names of the two persons stand first in the above construction, either in the oblique case of the combination described in ~ 182, or both in the genitive connected by at, e. g., kay Pedro ni Juan alin ang maliksi 'of Pedro and ni Pedro at ni Juan f Juan, which is the most active?' S 287. The absolute superlative adverb 'most' is expressed by Idlb used as verbal modifier; it may govern the oblique case.-e. g., an6 ang lalo mo-ng hinahangaan 'what do you admire most?' sino bagai ang iniibig mo-ng lalo sa lahat 'whom do you love most of all?' S 288. A sort of absolute superlative idea is expressed by may and wala followed by nouns with prefixed ka meaning 'equal' (cf. S 149, e), or ikalawd 'second,' as object; that with respect to which the comparison is made stands in the genitive when it directly follows the object, but it may be put in the oblique when the subject intervenes.-e. g., wala siya.-ng kapara 'he has no equal.' ya6ng bulaklak ay wala-ng kapantay nang ganda 'that flower has no equal in beauty.' may kapara kaya si Luis sa (or nang) dunung 'has Luis any equal in knowledge?' iI I - 65 wala siya.-ng ikalawai nang taipang 'he has no second in courage.' Instead of these nouns like kapdra adjectives of equality followed by the genitive of that which is compared may be employed, e. g., wala-ng kabuiti ni6ng baba.yi 'there is no one as good as that woman.' An absolute superlative idea is expressed by the noun sakddl 'pith, essence', followed by a noun in the construction in S 174, or by the genitive, e. g., siya'y sakdal kabanalan 'he is the essence of goodness.' ang sakdal nang linis 'the purest.' COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE VERBS. S 289. Comparative and superlative ideas are also often expressed by verbs which have a comparative or superlative meaning, e. g., lungmalalo ang kabanalan ni Maria sa kay Juana 'Maria's virtue surpasses (that of) Juana.' humigit kumulang 'more or less (be it more, be it less).' ang asawa ko'y lungmulubha sa kaniya-ng sakit 'my husband's sickness is worse.' ano-ng pinakamalaki sa lahat nang kasamaan 'what is to be considered the greatest of all evils?' lungmalabl siya sa dalawa-ng pulga.da 'he exceeds by two inches.' NEGATIVE SENTENCES. S 290. In negative sentences in general, the predicate usually precedes the subject, but the subject may stand first if it is specially emphasized, e. g., it6'y hindi mabuiti 'this is not good.' ang pare ay wala sa simbahan 'the priest is not in the church.' iya'y di ko ginawa 'I didn't do that.' S 29I. The negative of simple copulative expressions and declarative statements with verbal predicate is indicated by - x66 - the categorical negatives di, indi, hindt, dili before the predicate (cf. SS 223, 252). The negative of the quasi-verbs na and may is wala, which stands in the place of na or may and not in addition to them (cf. SS 224, 229). The prohibitive negative is huwdg (cf. S 253). The optative negative is huwdg or maka, baka (cf. S 298), or is expressed by the modal of certain verbs without negative adverb (cf. S 389, 398, d). For the absolute negatives cf. ~ 126. The negative of purpose clauses is usually huwdg, though the categorical negatives are also sometimes employed (cf. SS 317, 325). A negative after other conjunctions is indicated as in simple sentences; kun in connection with di may form one word, viz., kundi or be separated by other words, viz., kun... di. The negative indefinite pronominal expressions 'no one,' 'nothing,' 'no,' are rendered according to S 31. The negative adverb 'never,' and the negative correlative conjunction 'neither-nor,' are expressed respectively by kaildn man 'ever,' and man-man 'either-or,' in connection with a negative, e. g., ang magasawa kailan ma'y hindi daipat sila-ng magaway 'husband and wife should never quarrel.' kailan pa man ay huwag ka-ng magsinongaling 'never tell a lie.' ak6 man siya man ay hindi rin 'it is neither he nor I.' The adverb din in connection with the negatives has the force of 'either, on the other hand,' e. g., hindi ko nga kapidba.hay at hindi ko rin kababayan 'he (already referred to) is not my neighbor, nor is he my countryman either.' wala ako-ng ina at wala rin ako-ng amai 'I have no mother, neither have I a father.' On the negative di in questions cf. S 293; on dili as the second part of a double question cf. S 304. - 167 - INTERROGA TIVE SENTENCES. S 292. These are of two kinds, viz.: I) simple interrogatives of declarative statements. 2) sentences introduced by an interrogative pronoun or adjective (cf. S 28), by a special interrogative adverb (cf. S 127), or by nominal or verbal derivatives of these pronouns or adverbs (cf. S~ 145, b; 162; 407, 2; 408; 409, I, 9). In interrogative sentences in general, the predicate usually precedes the subject, but the subject and the other elements of the sentence may stand first when they are especially emphasized. The interrogation may be expressed simply by the tone of the voice in sentences of the first class, but the indefinite interrogative adverbs bagd, kaya are usually employed; negative sentences are made interrogative in the same way.as affirmative sentences; the adverbs bagd, kaya are also frequently used in sentences of the second class. For the regular construction of simple interrogative sentences cf. SS 235, 254; for sentences containing some special interrogative word cf. ~~ 222; 225; 226; 231; 239; 255; 26I; 262; 353; 354; 362, 13; 376; 407, 2; 408; 409, I, 9. ~ 293. The conjunction at 'and' may stand at the beginning of an interrogative sentence, especially when another question has preceded, e. g., mayro6n pa kay6-ng magulang 'are your parents still living?' at mayro6n pa kay6-ng kapatid 'and have you any brothers?' An element other than the predicate may stand first when it is specially emphasized, e. g., ang pusa mo-ng babayi ay maputi (baga) 'your tabbycat, is she white?' siya'y kababayan mo bagai 'is he (already referred to) your countryman?' kay6 nang kapatid mo-ng babayi ay mayro6n bagai-ng damit 'you and your sister, have you clothes?' at ang lahait ay may manga asawa 'and all (referring to persons already mentionea) are married?' - x68 - at ang pangalan nit6-ng babayi ay sino 'and this woman's name is what?' at ang kasama mo'y tagasain kaya 'and your comrade, where is he from?' it6-ng gam6t na it6'y sukat baga-ng makaginhawa sa may-sakit 'will this medicine be able to relieve the sick man?' at ya6n ay kanino-ng anak 'and that one, whose child is he?' at it6-ng damit ay magkan6 'and this clothing is how much?' ang isa-ng buwan ay mayro6n kaya-ng ilaing araw 'a month contains how many days?' ang bdro'y saan ko hahanapin 'where will you look for the shirt?' do6n sa iny6-ng bayan ay may mabuti-ng baihay 'in yoour village are there any fine houses?' at ama ay mayro6n pa p6 bagai 'and how about your father, have you still one?' kay P6dro ni Luis ay alin ang maliksi 'of Pedro and Luis, which is the more active?' The adverbs baga and kaya may sometimes stand after a subject at the beginning of a sentence instead of after the predicate, e. g., ikaw baga'y Tagalog 'are you a Tagalog?' siya baga'y daralawin ko araw'draw 'shall I visit him every day?' ang Di6s baga'y wala-ng hanggan 'is God eternal?' The particle wdri indicates that a negative answer is expected, e. g., ak6 wairl kapuwa mo wala-ng bait 'I am not without sense like you, am IT The particle ay may stand before some interrogative adverbs and pronouns at the beginning of a sentence, e. g., ay bakit ayaw siya 'why doesn't he want to' ay at di ka nagkumpisal 'why haven't you confessed?' ay an6 ang salapi 'what about the money?' The negative dl may stand at the beginning of an interrogative sentence in the sense of 'is it not so that?', e. g., - I69 di hindi 'is it not so that it is not?' di kun baga sakali ikaw isinasalita nang di magaling, ak6 ang tungmatangol sa iy6 'is it not so that whenever you are maligned, I defend you?' The absolute interrogatives may stand alone or after an affirmative sentence, e. g., paro6n ka, hania 'go there, do you understand?' iya5ng tawo'y kaibigan mo, hindi ganoon 'this man is your friend, isn't he? On the elliptical use of pa in a question which expects a negative answer cf. S 333. For double questions cf. S 304. For dependent interrogative sentences cf. S 334. EXCLAMA TORY SENTENCES. S 294. An exclamatory sentence may consist of a simple interjection (cf. S I39) or of an interjection combined with other words. The most important of these combinations are the following. Abd 'alas' is followed by the genitive in the sense of 'for,' and by an oblique case to indicate that on account of which the misfortune comes, e. g., aba ko 'alas for me!' aba mo 'alas for you!' aba ko sa iy6 'alas for me (who am thus) on your account!' The repeated form abd na-ng abd takes the oblique instead of the genitive, e. g., aba na-ng aba sa akin 'alas, alas for me!' Saldmat 'thanks!' takes the genitive of the person thanking, the oblique of the one thanked, e. g., salamat ko sa iy6 'I thank you.' Saldmat 'welcome!' is usually followed by some form of the verb dumating 'arrive,' e. g., salamat sa pagdating mo welcome!' salamat at dumating ka -- 170 - Manad 'behold!' is followed by the nominative case, e. g., manaa ang bangaw 'behold the foolish one.' Narito 'behold!' governs a noun clause (cf. S 321). Ay and oy are used before the vocative of a noun or pronoun cf. S 49. Bapd and ayd are used principally in connection with other exclamatory expressions. They may stand alone or in combination with following a; bapa precedes ayd.-viz., bapd, ayd, bapda; ayda, bapd aya, da ada. ~ 295. Those exclamatory expressions which in English, contain a noun modified by an adjective, e. g., 'A beautiful night!' or 'how beautiful is the night!' are generally rendered by a noun with following genitive, the noun representing what is in English the adjective, and the genitive, what is in English the noun: those expressions which in English contain an infinitive depending on an adjective, e. g., 'how beautiful to see!' are similarly rendered by noun plus following infinitive (cf. S I79). The nouns used in these exclamations are abstracts of the root form, or with the derivative particles ka, ka-an, orpagkd (cf. SS 149, g; I50,b; 156); pagkd has separate accent. These nouns may have partial, in the case of pagka also full, reduplication of the root, in order to make the exclamation more emphatic, or when the following genitive is plural. These nouns may stand in the indefinite nominative or be preceded by the interrogative adjective ano, or the nominative or oblique of the definite article. One or more of the interjections si, bapad, ayd are often used with these nouns: bapa is more used by men, ayd, by women; both are falling into disuse. The particle a may be suffixed to these particles or may stand at the end of the expression. The particles ay, oy may be used at the end of an exclamatory expression.e. g., laki ayaa 'how large!' buti bapaia 'how fine!' buiti ayaa nang langit 'how beautiful is the heaven (oh, beauty of the heaven)!' bubuti ayala nila 'how beautiful they are!' tam'is aya niyan a 'oh how sweet that is!' I - 171 - dami bapa nit6 (a) daimi bapa ayala nit6 karami nit6 'how much this is!' sa dami nit6 sa dami ayaa nit6 sa gaganda ayaa nang langit 'how beautiful is the heaven!' si kagagalit ayaa ni Antonio 'how angry Ant6nio is!' si katatampalasan ayaa nang anak ni Maria 'how insolent is Maria's child!' si buti ayaa nang langit 'how beautiful is the heaven!' katatapangan nila oy 'O, what strength they have!' pagka-buti nit6 ay 'how beautiful this is!' buti bapa-ng pano6rin 'how beautiful to see!' an6-ng dami nit6 'what a quantity of this!' an6-ng dikit niya 'how beautiful she is!' an6-ng pagka-rikitdikit nang manga bulaklak sa halamanan eI: ~ mo 'how beautiful are the flowers in your garden!' ang taas niyo6ng bahay 'how high that house is!' ang liksi ni Luls 'how agile Luis is!' ang kapangyarihan nang Dios 'how mighty God is!' karunungan mo 'how learned you are!' pagka-galing nit6 'how good this is!' pagka-luwang nang dagat 'how wide the sea is!' pagka-tataaas ni6ng manga kahoy 'how high those trees are!' ~ 296. Various other constructions similar to the English are also used. Adjectives of equality, and those made with prefixed ka from fully reduplicated roots (cf. S I49, e, f) are used with an exclamatory meaning similar to that indicated in English by 'how!'-e. g., karami-ng tawo 'so many, how many men!' kaibig'ibig si Juana 'how amiable Juana is!' o tawo-ng salamatin 'oh lucky man!' o gaano katam'is sa 16ob ko 'oh how sweet to my heart!' For exclamatory sentences containing pali cf. ~ 374. S 297. The following are the most important asseverative expressions in addition to the absolute affirmatives (cf. ~ 125), e. g., matay 'by my life.' _i I? t I* - 172 pisanan 'I hope I may die.' muksai kami-ng mag'anak 'may I and my child be consumed.' saksi ko ang Di6s 'as God is my witness.' saksi ko ang Santa Cruz 'as the Holy Cross is my witness.' In maledictions the verb stands either in the modal or preterite, e. g., kanin ka nang buaya 'may the crocodile eat you!' lam6nin ka nang lupa 'may the earth swallow you up!' tinamaan ka nang haingin 'may the wind blast you!' tinuka ka nang ahas 'may a snake bite you!' DESIDERA TIVE SENTENCES. S 298. A desiderative meaning is given to a sentence by the adverbs nawa, madno, kahimanwdrl 'would that, may,' used in connection with the modal: nawa is postpositive and has generally the same relative position with regard to pronouns and other adverbs as the affirmatives nga, etc; madno and kahimanwdr) stand at the beginning of a sentence, madno being joined to what follows by the ligature.-. g., lumaban ka nawa sa lahat na tuks6 'may you resist all temptations.' lo6bin nawa nang Di6s 'God grant.' maano-ng lumaki ka sa kabanalan 'may you grow in goodness.' maano-ng sum6lat kay6 'would that you would write.' kahimanwarl makamtan mo ang langit 'would to God you may attain heaven.' The negative is expressed by maka, baka, or by huwdg in connection with one of the affirmative desiderative adverbs, before the modal, e. g., maka maholog ka 'may you not fall.' maano-ng huwag mo-ng gaw'in iyan 'please don't do that.' The verb 'to be' in desiderative sentences is expressed affirmatively by siya, negatively by huwdg modified by a desiderative adverb; after huwdg the place of the verb may be taken by an indefinite adverb of manner.-e. g., siya nawa 'so be it, amen.' huwag nawa-ng gay'6n 'may it not be so.' - 73 i r i s I il IV. COMBINATIONS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. IN GENERAL. S 299. Two simple sentences may be combined to form compound and complex sentences. A compound sentence consists of two sentences of the same kind or rank. A complex 'sentence consists of two sentences, one of which is modified by the other. The component simple sentences of a compound sentence are called members, those of a complex sentence, clauses, viz., the principal or independent clause, and the dependent or subordinate clause. COMPOUND SENTENCES. IN GENERAL. S 300. The members of a compound sentence may be connected by coordinate conjunctions, or by the particle ay, or may stand in juxtaposition without connective. MADE WITH COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. S 301. The coordinate conjunctions, when simple, stand between the two members; when correlative, one part before each member, except in the case of postpositives, the two postpositive parts of which must follow respectively some portion of the two members. The construction of the various members does not ordinarily differ from that of simple sentences, but cf. S 335.-e. g., ang iba'y maririkit at ang iba'y pangit 'some are pretty and some are ugly.' paroon man di man paro6n 'he may go or not.' naya6ng mahiga naya6ng magbaingon 'now he lies down, now he gets up.' siyay nagaaral nang ingles at ungmaaral nang tagalog 'he is learning English and teaching Tagalog.' huwag ka-ng malumbay bagkus maniwala ka sa Di6s 'do not be sad, but trust in God.' - 74 di ko siya tinawag kundi siya'y aking kinauwaiyan 'I did not call him but I nodded to him.' S 302. Sentences containing a compound element (cf. ~ 215) may be regarded as compound sentences with a portion of one member omitted, e. g., maglagay kay6 rito nang isa-ng lagarl at nang isa-ng kikil 'put here a saw and a file.' sa ito man sa ya6n man ay hindi magaling 'it is good neither for this nor for that.' ang bahay nami'y hindi marikit kundi mabuiti 'our house is not beautiful but good.' mainit baga o malamig ang tubig sa dagat 'is the water in the sea hot or cold?' S 303. The conjunction at is often used to introduce a 'sentence which gives a reason for the preceding statement, where, in English, 'for,' or no conjunction is employed; it is often practically a causative conjunction, equal to 'because.'-e. g., marikit bagai ang iy6-ng baro? hindi't masama 'is your shirt pretty? No, it is ugly.' matanda na baga? hindi't bata pa 'is he old? No, he is still young.' hindi ak6 makaluwa's sa Maynila't ako'y may sakit 'I can't go down to Manila, for I am sick.' ak6'y hinampa's at ako'y tungma.nan 'I was beaten because I ran away.' The conjunction at may also be used to introduce a sentence which indicates the purpose of a preceding action, e. g., ak6'y paroro6n at magsisimba 'I am going there to attend mass.' ako'y paroro6't tatawa.gin ko si Ant6nio 'I am going to call Antonio.' S 304. The two parts of a double question are connected by kun or o 'or,' baga or kaya being used with either or with both parts, e. g., arawaraw kaya kun ba.lang ikalawa-ng airaw 'was it everyday or every other day?' mainft baga o malamig ang tubig sa dagat 'is the water in the sea hot or cold?' - 75 samantala ka-ng nagsisimba ay nagpilit ka-ng magb6o nang iy6-ng loob sa Panginoon Di6s, kun nalibang ka kaya.-ng tikis sa iba. 'while you were at mass did you take care to give your complete attention to God, or were you diverted voluntarily to something else?' masakit kaya ang paggawa mo-ng maghapon kun may iba ka kaya-ng dahilan 'were you working hard the whole day or had you any other reason?' 'Or not' as the second part of a double question is expressed by dili, e. g., babayad siya., dili 'will he pay or not?' paririto ka, dili 'will you come or not?' MADE WITH AY. S 305. Two sentences may be connected by the particle ay, becoming respectively the subject and predicate of a simple copulative sentence. Such sentences are best considered as compound, though the meaning is usually that the action of one verb is contemporaneous with that of the other.-e. g., naglalakad kami'y naulanan (cf. ~ 398, g) 'as we were going along, we were overtaken by the rain.' nagog6tom na ak6'y wala-ng ap6y sa kalan 'I am hungry and there is no fire on the hearth.' at pagkasabi nang manga bagay na ito, siya'y nakikita nila ay siya'y itinaas 'and after saying these things, while they were looking at him, he was taken up.' This construction is especially common with the verbal forms made with the primary subsidiary particles; cf. the following paragraphs. S 306. Sentences containing verbal forms with subsidiary particle ka upon partially reduplicated roots stand before another sentence to which they are usually connected by ay, in the sense of 'to have just, hardly-when-,' e. g., kapapasok pa lamang niya sa bahay ay sinalubong na siya nang kaniya-ng asawa nang manga tungayaw 'he had hardly entered the house, when his wife came to meet him with chiding words.' I i Ii - 176 When the predicate of both sentences is one of these forms, the meaning is 'now-now-,' e. g., kadarating ay kaaalis niyai 'now he comes and now he goes.' kapapasok ay kalalabas niya 'now he enters and now he goes out.' S 307. Sentences containing verbal forms with this ka on the basis of fully reduplicated roots regularly stand before another sentence, to which they are usually connected by ay. The first sentence bears to the second the relation of a subordinate temporal clause, introduced by 'just as soon as,' 'the very minute that.' The verb of the second sentence may be from the same root as that of the first, in which case it stands in the past tense of maka potential, indicating completed action, and is usually followed by the adverb na; or it may be from a different root, in which case the past tense of any class may be employed. In the first case the meaning is that as soon as a certain thing was begun, it was accomplished; in the second, that a soon as one thing was begun, another happened.-e. g., kahanaphanap ko nang libro'y nakah1anap na ak61 'as [ nahainap ko na J soon as I looked for the book, I found it.' katagpitagpi ko nang damit ay natagpi ko na 'as soon soon as I began to mend the clothes, they were mended.' kalakadlakad ko'y natis6d (IV a) ak6 'as soon as I began to walk, I stumbled.' kapangupangusap niya'y umalis ak6 'as soon as he began to speak, I departed.' kapangupanigsap niya'y nagkamali siyai 'as soon as he began to speak, he made a mistake.' S 308. Sentences containing verbal forms with the subsidiary prefixes kapag, kapagka, pagka, pag are practically temporal clauses and regularly stand before another sentence containing the principal idea, to which they are usually connected by ay; they sometimes, however, follow the sentence containing the principal idea, ay being always omitted in this - 177 - case. The meaning of these compound sentences is very similar to that just discussed; it is often equivalent to the English absolute participial constructions with 'having,' 'having been;' the participle of 'to be' viz., 'being' is expressed by kapag prefixed to the word which serves as predicate. The verb of the second sentence may stand in any tense form of any class. Kapagka and pagka refer more particularly to the completion of an action.-e. g., kapagalis nang aking ama'y ak6'y ungmalis din 'as soon as my father departed, I went also.' kapagkasabi nit6 nang angel ay nawala 'as soon as the angel said this, he disappeared.' pagkatapus nang mfsa'y malilig6 (cf. ~'89) tay6 'after mass is over, we are going to take a bath.' pagbatl mo sa kaniya'y parini ka 'after saluting him, come here.' kapagkatapus niya nang kaniya-ng gawa'y pinarit6han niya ak6 'having finished his work, he came to where I was.' pagkaringig ko niyan, umup6 ak6 'when I heard that, I sat down.' kapagpare' ay marunung 'being a priest, he is learned.' an6-ng aiting gagaw'in pagkayarl nit6 'what shall we do after finishing this?' aalls pagkapanhapon 'he will go after supper (supper being over).' JUXTAPOSED SENTENCES. S 309. A sentence may stand in juxtaposition to another sentence without connective in the sense of an adverbial modifier, e. g., di baga siya binigyan nang ganti di pa nalalaon 'did he not give him a reward some days ago (it is not yet far distant).' ano-ng ginawa nang sang-Maynila di iilang taon ang laon 'what did the population of Manila do, many years ago (the distance is not a few years).' Cf. also SS 304 end, 306, 307, 308, 323. 12 A 4 - 178 - COMPLEX SENTENCES. IN GENERAL. ~ 3o1. The dependent clauses of a complex sentence are introduced by relative pronouns or subordinate conjunctions, which stand at the beginning of the clause except in the case of postpositive man (cf. ~ 214). Subordinate clauses may precede or follow the principal clause, or may stand between two parts of it. When the subordinate clause follows the principal, the two are joined simply by the relative or conjunction, but when the principal clause, or part of it follows the subordinate, the latter is usually followed by the particle ay. The verbs of the clauses of complex sentences stand frequently in the modal. The subordinate conjunction sometimes takes the construction of an adverb at the beginning of a sentence (cf. ~~ 335, 336), otherwise the conjunction does not affect the construction of the subordinate clause. Relative clauses have certain peculiarities, which will be discussed under the proper heading. The principal clause, of course, follows the construction of simple sentences. Subordinate clauses may be divided into:Simple Relative, Compound Relative, Noun Clauses introduced by the ligature, Clauses of Direct Quotation, Clauses of Result, Clauses of Purpose, Comparative, Temporal, Concessive, Conditional, Interrogative. SIMPLE RELATIVE CLAUSES. S 311. I. The relative pronouns are the ligatures -ng, na used according to rule (cf. ~ 20), except that na is sometimes used after a vowel. The relative clause always follows its antecedent, to which it bears an adjectival relation. - I79 - S 311. 2. When the relative clause has a non-verbal predicate, i. e., when the predicate is an adjective or noun or contains the quasi-verbs na, may, wala (cf. ~~ 217-233), the relative, when it is the grammatical subject, is directly followed by the predicate without the interposition of ay. When the predicate is an adjective, the construction does not differ from that of noun and attributive adjective; when the predicate is a noun, the construction is similar to that of noun and appositive.-e. g., ang tawo-ng mabuiti ay minamahal nang lahat 'a man who is good is esteemed by all.' isa-ng kaluluwa-ng kalarawan nang Di6s ay dapat mo-ng mahaling masakit 'a soul which is conformed to God (a similitude of God) you should esteem highly.' maririkit baga ang manga bulaklak na na sa halamanan!s ~ nang kapatid mo 'are the flowers that are in your brother's garden pretty?' may dalawa-ng libo't labi-ng walo-ng may-asawa dito sa bayang it6 'there are 20I8 married people (who s-# ~ have spouses) in this town.' Hi ~ tay6'y hinihintaiy nang isa-ng buhay na wala-ng hanggain (Is ~ 'we are awaited by a life which has no end.' S 312. In relative clauses with verbal predicate the particle ay is not used when the verb follows the subject relative directly, but when some other element of the sentence intervenes between subject and predicate, ay is placed before the verb. After the subject relative the dependent verb stands in the active when the antecedent of the relative is the agent of the action, and in one of the three passives according to S 245 when the antecedent is the object or some accessory circumstance of the verbal action; i. e., when in English the relative is in the accusative case, or stands after a preposition. The modal is used to express a contingency.-e. g., ang hari-ng nagdaramdam na nang malaki-ng gitom ay nagwfka nang gay'6n 'the king who was very hungry (felt a great hunger) spoke as follows.' ang libro-ng binabasa mo ay akin 'the book which you are reading is mine. 12* - 80 - ang suilat na ipinadala mo sa akin ay tinangap ko 'I received the letter which you sent.' ak6'y naparoro6n sa bahay na kinamatayan nang aking bayaw 'I am going to the house in which my brother-in-law died.' may manga tawo na, sa kanila-ng paglakad, ay nakatatawa 'there are men who cause laughter by their way of walking.' dalhin mo rito ang karayom na itinahl mo nang aking baro 'bring here the needle with which you sewed my shirt.' ang ba.ta-ng magaral na magaling ay binigyan ko nang kualta 'the boy who studies (if any boy studies), I will give him some money.' ~ 3I3. When the antecedent of the relative is the logical subject of the relative clause, this subject may be emphasized by a personal or demonstrative pronoun after the relative, as the grammatical subject of the clause; instead of siya ang, siyd-ng may be used.-e. g., ang pinamamahagi (bahagi) niya ay natatalastas nang aking manga kapatid na sila ang pinamamahaginan 'what he is distributing is known to my brothers to whom he is distributing it.' at isa-ng lalaki-ng pilay ay dinarala do6n na it6'y inilalagay nila sa araw'araw sa pint6an nang templo 'and they brought there a lame man whom they were accustomed to place everyday at the temple gate.' dungmating siya nang buwan nang Marzo na siya-ng ikatlo-ng buwan nang ta6n 'he arrived in the month of March, which is the third month of the year.' S 3I4. The genitive of a relative pronoun is expressed by the ligature in connection with a following article or genitive; an oblique case relation may be expressed by the ligature in connection with a following oblique case. The word order in the relative clause is the same as in independent sentences. -e. g., I~ I I - 8 - si Juana na si Handfng ang palayaw 'Juana whose surname is Handing.' si Ant6nio na sa kaniya-ng bahay paroro6n ako buikas 'Antonio to whose house I am going tomorrow.' may tawo sa labais na ibig niya-ng pumasok 'there is a man outside who wishes to enter (whose wish it is).' ang bahay na ang bub6ng ay pawid ay nasunog 'the house with the nipa roof has burned down (of which the roof is).' na saan ang lalaki na ang asawa'y namatay kahapon 'where is the man whose wife died yesterday?' ang bata na ang ama'y pinatay nang manga tulisan ay na sa amin 'the child whose father was killed by [it ~ the robbers is at our house.' ang pagkaap6stol na dito'y nahulog si Judas 'the apostleship from which Judas fell.' ~i ang matanda-ng kaibig'ibig na ang pagaalaala sa kaniya ay di mapawl kailan man 'the lovable old man whose memory will never fade.' |[ nagsitipon ang lahat sa isa-ng bahay na do6n nga'y nananatili sa pagsisipanalangin 'all gathered together in a house where (in which) they remained in prayer.' COMPOUND RELATIVE CLAUSES. S 315. A compound relative clause is introduced by a compound relative pronoun (cf. ~ 27). When the pronoun constitutes the subject of the clause, it is followed directly by the predicate unless some element is inserted as in ~ 336. Otherwise the regular rules of order after a subordinate conjunction prevail (cf. ~ 3Io). These clauses are practically nouns and have the various constructions of definite nouns. The modal is used as in simple relative clauses. For the definite article with verbs cf. ~ 251. Other compound relative clauses are, e. g., ang di iy6 'that which is not yours.' huwag ka-ng magnasa nang di mo arl 'don't wish for what is not yours.' huwag ka-ng magnasa sa di mo asawa 'thou shalt not desire her who is not thy wife.' - 82 - ang kahinhina.n ay siya-ng ikinagagaling nang manga dalAga 'modesty is what beautifies maidens.' ang aking nuno'y siya-ng nagpalakf sa akin 'my grandfather was the one who brought me up.' ang manga langam ang siyai-ng lungmipol nang lahat 'the ants destroyed everything (were the ones that).' ang pagkakaibigain siya-ng sagisag nang manga kristiano 'the motto of Christians is mutual love.' S 316. Subject clauses, i. e., clauses that take the place of a subject noun, may be introduced by ang meaning 'the fact that.' The verb often stands in the modal.-e. g., hindi magaling ang ikaw ay magpakarami nang wika mo 'it is not well that you should talk so much.' lubha-ng ikinaawa nang Di6s sa tawo ang siya'y maawa sa kapuwa 'the fact that he (a man) is merciful to his neighbor makes God very merciful to him.' ~ 3I7. Clauses introduced by ang have sometimes the force of clauses introduced by subordinate conjunctions. The verb of the dependent clause is often modal, especially in purpose clauses. The negative of the modal in these purpose clauses is usually indicated by huwdig, though the categorical negatives di, etc. may also be used.-e. g., ang ipinagmamarunung nang manga bangal ay ang sila'y purihin 'fools pretend to be wise in order to be praised.' ang ipinarusa niya sa akin ay ang ak6'y mag'ayuno 'he imposed as a penance that I should fast.' ang ipinagsasangley nang manga paire ay ang sila'y huwag makilala 'the priests act like Chinese in order that they may not be recognized.' ang ipinagsakitsakitan niya'y ang di siya parusahan 'he feigned to be ill in order not to be punished.' ak6'y hinampas ang ak6'y tungmanan 'I was beaten because I ran away.' Ang is in this case practically a conjunction. It may also be combined with a following conjunction of cause or purpose, and with preceding at indicating cause.-e. g., - 83 - ang ipinagpapakabuti nang aking pinsaing babayi'y ang nang siya'y mapuri 'my cousin adorns herself that |i ~ she may be (able to be) praised.' ak6'y hinampas at ang ako'y tungmanan 'I was beaten because I ran away.' it6'y malaki ding lubha-ng kasalanan ang bakit di naiibig nang Di6s na ang manga kahalili 'niya y hok6man ~| ~ nang sinomain 'this is a very great sin also, because ~j ~ God does not wish his ministers to be judged by anyone (cf. ~ 320).' S 318. Under the head of compound relative clauses are to be classed clauses governed by a preposition followed by some form of the article, which is here a compound relative pronoun. Sometimes the article standing before the nominative of a sentence takes the case form required by the preposition instead of being preceded by another article in the proper case form.-e. g., maholog dahil sa siyay lasing 'he fell because he was drunk.' iwala siya-ng makain at mainum buk6d sa wala pa-ng pinggan at inuman 'he has nothing to eat or drink in addition to not having any plate or drinkingvessel.' ang dagat ay payapa sampo nang hangi'y amihan 'the sea is calm and the wind also is mild.' These prepositions + article are practically subordinate conjunctions, and the most important of them will be treated under the various kinds of subordinate clauses. NOUN CLAUSES INTRODUCED BY THE LIGATURE. S 319. A noun clause is one that takes the place of a noun. Compound relative clauses are practically noun clauses. Other noun clauses are introduced by the ligature, na, however, being frequently used after a vowel instead of -ng; at the beginning of a sentence with principal clause omitted, only na can be used. A dependent verb stands in the modal to indicate a subjunctive or potential idea. The subordinate clause regularly follows the principal. - 184 - S 320. The subordinate clause may depend on a verb of saying or one indicating an operation of the mind, taking the place of the object of the active or the subject of the passive, e. g., sino ang nagsaibi sa iy6-ng ak6'y may-sakit 'who told you that I was sick.' hungmihiling ak6 sa kaniya na ak6'y pagkalo6ban niyan 'I am begging him to give me that.' sabihin mo sa iy6-ng kapatid na tinatawag ko siya 'tell your brother that I am calling him.' iniisip ko na siyay bungmabasa 'I think that he is reading.' an6 ang sinabi mo sa kaniya 'what did.you tell him?' na ang ibon ay akin 'that the bird is mine.' ibig p6 baga niny6-ng umup6 ak6 sa iny6-ng tabi 'do you want me to sit beside you.' ~ 321. The subordinate clause may depend on an impersonal predicate, usually representing the logical subject or agent of the sentence, e. g., mala6n na-ng hindl ak6 hungmihipo nang salapi 'it is (a) long (time) that I have not touched money.' tot6o nga na siyai'y naparito 'it is indeed true that he came.' mayro6n na-ng ilang araw na may-sakit ang anak mo 'how many days is it that your son has been sick?' Some verbs of the form in ~ 99, become in this construction practically subordinate conjunctions; the whole complex sentence is used before the principal clause like a simple sentence containing a similar verbal form.-e. g., pagkatapus na makapagbigay nang manga utos sa manga ap6stol, ay tinanggap siya sa kaitaasan 'after (it being past that) he had given the commandments to the Apostles, he was taken up on high.' Here belongs the clause after the interjection narito 'behold!' which contains the quasi-verb na, e. g., narto na ang dalawa-ng lalaki ay nangagsitindig sa tabi niya 'behold, two men stood up beside him.' S 322. The subordinate clause may stand as the object of the quasi-verbs may and wala, the ligature that introduces the - I85 - clause taking the place of the regular ligature before the object, e. g., may kaya sa iny6 na sukat maawa sa dukha-ng Lufs 'is there among you (anyone) that can take pity on poor Luis?' CLAUSES OF DIRECT QUOTATION. S 323. These are often similar to the clauses in S 320. They are either placed after the clause containing the verb of saying, with or without ligature, or are made the predicate of a copulative sentence whose subject is the verb of saying preceded by the article. The quotation may be preceded by a demonstrative pronoun which stands for the following sentence.-e. g., nagsabi siyai sa kanila, bumasa kay6 'he said to them "read".' sinabi niya sa kaniya-ng alila-ng pakainin mo sila 'he said to his servant, "feed them".' ang sina.bi niya'y huwag ka-ng patuks6 'he said, "don't let yourself be tempted".' ang ipinangaral niyay it6, ilaigan niny6 ang kasalanan 'what he preached was this, "avoid evil".' CLAUSES OF RESULT. S 324. These are introduced by the ligature, and are somewhat similar to relative clauses; the dependent clause regularly follows the principal.-e. g., pinataiwad mo na siya sa tanan mo-ng l6ob na wala na-ng kasukalan ang l6ob mo sa kaniya 'did you pardon him with all your heart so that you have no feeling against him?' nagpatiwakal ka kaya sa awa nang Dios sa iy6 na ang isip (cf. S 411) mo'y hindi ka na mangyari-ng patawarin nang Panginoon Di6s 'have you despaired of God's mercy towards you so that you thought it was not possible for the Lord God to pardon you?' - i86 - PURPOSE CLAUSES. S 325. These clauses are introduced by conjunctions of purpose, among which is the ligature. Those introduced by the ligature are practically noun clauses, like those in S 320, after a verb expressing purpose. The principal conjunctions of purpose are, viz.: nang upan 'in order that.' -ng, na maka 'lest, for fear that. baka J These are regularly followed by the modal or future. The negative of the purpose clause is regularly huwag, though the categorical negatives may also be employed. Examples of sentences containing purpose clauses arehuwag ka-ng gumawa nang kabanalan nang purihin ka nang manga tawo 'don't do good in order that men may praise you.' ang kaginoohan ay napasugo nang manga katiwala nang sasalubungin ang harl 'the senate sent deputies in order to meet the king.' ang bulag ay namanhik na siya 'y limusan 'the blind man went up that he might be given alms.' siya'y dungmaing sa ina nang huwaig parusahan ang baita 'he asked the mother not to beat the boy.' umalis kayo-ng umaga nang di kay6 maarawan 'go early that you may not be harmed by the sun.' huwag ka-ng magdaan sa bund6k maka harangin ka nang manga tulisan 'don't go by way of the mountain, lest robbers attack you.' alls ka na baka magab'ihan ka sa gutbat 'go now, lest night overtake you in the wood.' Sentences introduced by at (cf. S 303) and ang (cf. S 317) are sometimes equivalent to purpose clauses. i I j I - I87 - COMPARATIVE CLAUSES. 326. These are introduced by comparative conjunctions, the principal of which are, viz.: gay'6ng para nang para-ng 'according as.' gaya nang ayon sa konowarl 'as if.' The principal clause of a sentence containing a comparative clause after gay'ong, may be introduced by an indefinite adverb of manner, the subordinate conjunction and the adverb forming a combination very similar to a coordinate correlative conjunction. Examples of sentences containing comparative clauses arenakaiibig ka kaya-ng magin'asa.wa niri-ng babayi para nang iniuutos nang Di6s 'do you wish to marry this woman, according as God commands?' para nang sinabi sa akin, ibinabalita ko 'I am relating it just as it was told to me.' para nang gawa (cf. S 411) mo sa kanila ay gano6n din gagawa nila sa iy6 'just as you do to them, so they will do to you.' diyan sa kaluluwa mo ay nalolobalob sila para-ng sa sarili nila-ng pusalian 'there in your soul they (the devils) wallow as if in their own filth.' di (cf. S 293) para-ng inaalls mo sa kaniya ang kaniya-ng pagkadi6s 'isn't that just as if you took from his him divinity?' sundin (S 8x) ang loob mo dito sa lupa para nang sa langit 'thy will be done on earth as (it is done) in heaven.' sumag6t ka ayon sa itatan6ng ko sa iy6 'answer according as I shall question you.' gay'6ng ang kaluluwa'y nagpapabuhay sa kataw'an ay gay'on din naman ang gagairan ay nagpapabuhay - I88 - sa manga pangungusap 'just as the soul animates the body, so also imitation gives life to speech.' For comparisons expressed by conditional sentences cf. SS 332, 333. TEMPORAL CLAUSES. S 327. These are introduced by temporal conjunctions, the principal of which are, viz.: nang no6n nion.niy 'when.' niy6n niyaon kun tuiwi-ng } sa tiwi-ng. 'whenever.' sa tuwi-ng bago 'before.' kapag kapagka pagka 'as soon as, after.' pag sa sayaong 'from the time that.' samantala(-ng) 'while.' hanggan 'while.' Nang, noon, nion, etc. are used of past time, kun of present and future, or of continued action in the past. Tiwi is regularly joined to the predicate of the dependent clause by the ligature, either directly or as in S 335. After bdgo the verb regularly stands in the modal, the adverb mzna being used with the verb of the principal clause. Nang and sa also frequently take the modal. Kdpag, etc. are used where in English an absolute participial construction is often employed. Examples of sentences containing temporal clauses arekahaipon nang ikaw ay tungmatangis (ay) nalumbay ak6 'yesterday when you were weeping, I was sorry.' noon ak'y na sa Espanya (ay) maginhaiwa ang lagay I r1l. - 189 - ko 'when I was in Spain, I was in comfortable circumstances (my position was easy).' sila'y nangagulat nang makita nila ang ahas 'they were frightened, when they saw the snake.' kun ak6'y nagaaral ay hindi ak6 sungmusulat 'when I study I do not write.' bago kumain ay magdarasail (cf. S 413, b) ka muna 'before you eat, you must pray.' tuwi-ng kungmakaiin ak6 ay ungmiinum 'whenever I eat, I drink.' kapag ginawa niya ya6n ay nawala siya 'after he had done that, having done that, he disappeared.' pag sinabi niyai it6 ay namataiy 'having said this, he sa siyay nagsabi nit6 ay namatay died.' hanggan kasama ko siya ay magaling ang gawa 'while he was my companion, he worked well (his work was good).' CAUSAL CLAUSES. $ 328. These are introduced by causal conjunctions, the principal of which are, viz.: sapagka dahil sa 'because.' dahilan sa mayapa 'simply because.' kaya 'the reason why, just because.' palibhsasa. palbbawsa,'inasmuch as, since. bawa yamang yayamang hamang 'seeing that, since.' hayang hayamang Sapagkd is the conjunction ordinarily used in answer to a sentence introduced by the interrogative bdkit 'why?' Examples of sentences containing causal clauses are - 90 - Ibakit hindi mo iniinum ito-ng alak 'why don't you drink this wine?' _ sapagagk } ako'y may-sakit 'because I am sick.' sapagkat kaya nga siya'y babayi magpakahinhin siya. 'just because she is a woman, she is modest.' ang kabataan at ang katandaan ay isa rin sa harap nang kamatayan palibhasa'y ang kamatayan ay wala-ng galang sa kanino man 'youth and age are the same thing in the presence of death, since death is no respecter of persons (has no respect for any body).' hamang kinuha mo ay iy6 na 'seeing that you have taken it, you may keep it (it is yours already).' Sentences introduced by at (cf. S 303), and ang (cf. S 317), are sometimes equivalent to causal clauses. S 329. Sentences containing verbal forms made with ka-an (c) stand regularly in principal clauses, modified by a subordinate clause introduced by kaya or one of its compounds. The second sentence gives the cause for the action expressed by the first, the verb of which may stand in any tense form of any class.-e. g., kaya siya'y naparito ay katak6tan 'the reason he come was because he was afraid, because of fear.' kaya ak6'y nagsisilbi ay kaupaha.n sa akin 'the reason I serve, is because of the salary [they pay] to me.' kaya pinaalis ang hok6m ay kabagsikan niy 'the reason the judge was ordered to depart was because of his cruelty.' CONCESSIVE CLAUSES. S 330. These are introduced by concessive conjunctions, the principal of which are, viz.: man (postp.) bagaman kahi kahiman 'although, though.' bista sukdan matayman I - I9I - The modal is used in the subordinate clause to express a contingency. Examples of sentences containing concessive clauses aremarunong man sil'y hindi magaganda 'although wise, they are not beautiful.' patayin man ak6 ay paroro6n din ak6 'though they kill me, still I shall go there.' bagaman ak6'y dukha wala ak6-ng utang 'although I am poor, I have no debts.' kahi't ako'y hampasin wala ak6-ng sasabihin 'although they beat me, I shall say nothing.' bista't napopoot sa akin ay bibigyan din ak6 'although he is angry with me, he will give it to me.' S 33I. Concessive clauses which in English begin with an interrogative followed by 'ever', e. g., 'whoever, however,' etc., are rendered in general by an interrogative in conjunction with a concessive conjunction; 'however' as an adjectival modifier may be expressed simply by the conjunction, or by the conjunction in connection with an6, which is joined to the following adjective by the ligature.-e. g., paparito ak6 sukdin an6 ang mangyari 'I shall go whatever may happen.' malaki man ang manga kasalanan mo'y patawarin ka Niya 'however great your sins, He will pardon you.' kahi't an6-ng marunung kami ay hindi rin naitin matar6k ang pagkadi6s nang Di6s 'however wise we may be, we cannot conceive the divinity of God.' CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. S 332. These are introduced by conditional conjunctions, the principal of which are, viz.: kun 'if.' sagan6} 'if perchance.' saka.1t kundi 'if not, unless, except.' kundangan dangan 'if it were not that, if it were not for.' haringai - 92 liban sa 1 asubai sa 'except that, if not.' pasubali sa j huwag lamang 'provided that not.' The modal adverbs sana and disin are frequently used in one or both clauses of conditional sentences. Interrogative words used in the subordinate clause have an indefinite meaning; such sentences often express a comparison. The verbs often stand in the modal. The prepositions kundncgan and ddngan + object practically constitute conditional clauses. Examples of sentences containing conditional clauses arekun ikaw ay magaling ay mamahalin ka nang lahat 'if you are good, every body will esteem you.' kun iyan sana ay totoo, ako'y mamatay disin 'if that should be so, I should die.' kun ibig mo saina ay susulat ak6 'if you wish I shall write.' kun mayro6n disin siya-ng alak hindi siya iinum nang tubig 'if he had wine he would not drink water.' ak6'y magaaral sana, kun bigyan (~ 8i) mo ak6 niyaing libro 'I would study if you gave me that book.' ang bata'y hindi magaral kundi bumasa 'the boy will not learn unless he reads.' ang isa nama'y wala-ng ginagawa (cf. ~ 415, b) kundi kumain nang kumain nang lamangkati-ng maalat 'another did nothing but eat salt meat continually.' kundangan ikaw ay kaibigan ko hindi ko siya-ng aakayin 'if it were not that you were my friend, I would not guide him.' ikaw disin ang hahampasin kundangan ang ama mo 'you would be beaten if it were not for your father.' kun an6 ang amai ay siya rin ang anak 'like father like son (if anything the father, just so the son).' kun paan6 ak6-ng (cf. ~ 258) nagaaral ay magaral ka naman 'study just as I study (if thus I study, study thou likewise).' ~ 333. After a negative conditional clause the agent of the independent clause may be used elliptically with the adverb pa in a question which expects a negative answer, e. g., ~/ - I93 - kundi ko kaya-ng gaw'n iyain, si Juan pa 'if I could not do it, do you think Juan can?' kun ang manga malalakas ay dl nila-ng mabuihat iyang sikang, ak6 pa 'if strong men are not able to lift that beam, shall I then?' DEPENDENT INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES. S 334. The conjunction kun is also used to introduce a dependent interrogative clause in the sense of 'whether, to see whether': when in English the indirect question is introduced by a special interrogative word, viz., 'who?' 'what?' 'where?' etc., this conjunction must be used before the interrogative. In this latter case the subordinate clause is the logical subject of the verb of the principal clause, which stands in the passive. The verb of the dependent clause may stand in the modal to denote a future contingency.-e. g., ibig ko sana-ng tuman6ng sa iny6 kun dapat ak6-ng bumuwis 'I should like to ask you whether I ought to pay tribute.' hindi ak6-ng makapagsaibi sa iy6 kun ak6'y makapagdadailaw sa kaniya. 'I cannot say whether I shall be able to visit him.' ak6'y mangingisda kun makapangisda 'I am going fishing to see whether I can catch anything.' hindi ko naaalaman kun sino ang sungmulat niyan 'I do not know who wrote that.' itan6ng mo sa kaniya kun an6-ng ngalan niya 'ask him what his name is.' naringig ko kun saan naparo6n 'I heard where he went.' sabihin mo kun kanino it6 'tell whose this is.' 'Why?' introducing an indirect question may be expressed by a noun meaning 'cause' or 'reason' followed by a clause introduced by kayac, used as the subject of the principal verb, e. g., ipinagsusulit ni David sa Di6s ang dahilan kaya siyai hindi pinaghahand6gan nang manga haying natitigmak nang dug6 'David told God why he did not offer bloody sacrifices (which are soaked with blood).' I3 - 194 CON7UNCTIONS WITH AD VERBIAL CONSTRUCTION. S 335. The subordinate conjunctions for the most part do not affect the construction of their clauses, the order after the conjunction being the same as in simple sentences. Sometimes, however, certain subordinate conjunctions take the adverbial construction in S 262. The coordinate conjunction kund bagkfis may take the same construction.-e. g., ak6'y nagdarasal bago ak6-ng bumaisa 'I pray before I read.' tuiw ak6-ng nag'aaral ay bungmabasa ak6 'whenever I study, I read.' sukdain ak6-ng patayin ay paroro6n din ak6 'although they should kill me, yet will I go.' ak6'y nagdarasal bago ak6 bumasa 'I pray before I read.' kundi niya ipahahayag ang kinatatag6an nang kaniya-ng asawa 'unless she would show her husband's hiding place.' hindi, kundi bagkuis sila-ng dapat mag'ibigan 'no, but on the contrary they should love one another.' S 336. This adverbial construction may also be employed after the ligature (as relative or conjunction of purpose) or after a compound relative or a conjunction identical with some form of the article; but in this case the subject pronouns (including siya or siya-ng, SS 313, 315) must precede the genitive.-e. g., ang manga Tagalog ay pinamamatnog6tan (patn6got) ni Aguinaldo na siyai nila-ng pinanaligan 'the Tagalogs were led by Aguinaldo, whom they trusted.' pakagalingin mo ang iy6-ng pagkokompisal na ka-ng patawarin nang Panginoong Di6s 'make a good confession that you may be pardoned by the Lord God.' na mo ngani-ng maalaman 'that you indeed may know.' ang aking ina ang siya ko-ng ipinaglol6t6 'my mother is the one for whom I am cooking.' linalang ni Jesucristo ang sacramento nang Confesi6n nang siya ko-ng paghugasan nang dungis at libag - I95 nang aiking kaluluwa 'Christ instituted the sacrament of confession in order that I might cleanse my soul from impurity.' V. INVOLVED SENTENCES. IN GENERAL. ~ 337. Involved sentences are those which consist of more than two sentences combined. As in the case of sentences made up of two simple sentences (cf. S 299), the parts of an involved sentence connected by coordinate conjunctions will be called members, those introduced by a relative or subordinate conjunction, subordinate clauses. They may be compound, consisting of three or more sentences or members connected by coordinate conjunctions; complex, containing a principal and two or more subordinate clauses; or a combination of compound and complex, two or more complex sentences or complex and simple sentences being joined together by coordinate conjunctions. In complex sentences the order of the clauses is very free, they may be juxtaposed in almost any order, or one may be inserted in another; in this last case the inserted clause is always followed by ay. The members, whether simple or complex, of a compound sentence follow one another in order; when at 'and' connects three or more members, it is ordinarily omitted except between the last two.-e. g., kahi't an6-ng pagkakilala natin sa Di6s ay hindi rin natin matad6k na lub6s ang kaniya-ng kamahalan; bagkus lalo-ng malaki pa ang dl natin naaabut 'whatever may be our knowledge of God, we cannot completely comprehend his excellence, but on the contrary that which we cannot conceive of is much greater.' kun ibig mo-ng huwag ka-ng ibaba nang Di6s ay magpakumbaba ka 'if you do not wish God to humble you, you will be humbled.' kun ya6n ay nahuilog ay mangyayairi rin naman ak6-ng mahulog, palibhasa'y ak6'y tawo-ng mahina-ng paira 13* - 196 - rin niya 'if he had fallen it is possible that I would have fallen too, since I am a weak man just as he is.' ang kabayo-ng lalo-ng baliw ay tungmitigil nang pagtakb6, kapag pinagbabalaan nang sandata; datapowa't ang tawo-ng makasalanan ay hindl tungmitigil kahi't pagbalaan siyai nang nagbabaga-ng espada nang galit nang Di6s 'the most furiously going horse stops in his career when he is threatened by a sword, but the sinner does not stop, though he be menaced by the flaming blade of God's anger.' may isa-ng maglalayag na, nang makita-ng itinataipon sa dagat ang lahat na nakabibig'at, ay kinuha ang kaniya-ng asawa't itatapon din, at nang makaligtas sa kaniyai sa ganit6-ng paraan, sapagka't, sinasabi niya-ng kailan ma'y hindi siya nakakita nang gay'6ng kabig'at na para nang kaniya-ng asawa 'there was a sailor, who, when he saw them throwing everything heavy into the sea, seized his wife, and was about to throw her in too, that he might free himself by this means, because, he said, he had never seen any thing so heavy (such a heavy thing) as his wife.' pagdaka'y tumindig siya, tumakb6 sa akin, lumuh6d siya't humalik sa akin nang kamaiy 'immediately he got up, ran to me, knelt down and kissed my hand.' PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS. S 338. Various parenthetical words and expressions may be inserted in the various parts of the different kinds of sentences. When they are inserted between two words which are joined by the ligature or ay the particle is shifted to the last word of the parenthesis or is used both before and after the parenthesis; otherwise the construction of the sentence is unchanged. Of a similar character are the subordinate clauses which are inserted between the two parts of a principal or another subordinate clause.-e. g., I I - I97 - huwag ka, ang wika-ng matakot 'do not fear, he said' & ka-ng ang wika-ng j ak6, a-niya, ay huini nang huni 'I, he said, sing all the time.' kun gay'on, ang wika niya'y sasabihin ko ang tapat 'it that is so, said she, I will tell the truth.' alin, sa akala mo, ang lalo-ng mabuti-ng bunga sa lahat which, in your opinion, is the best of all fruits?' sapagka't kun tagairaw, a-niya'y marami ako-ng gawa't abala 'because in the summer, said he, I have a great deal to attend to.' si Juan, sa katotohanan, ay nagbinyag nang tubig, datapuwa't kay6'y bibinyagan sa Espiritu Santo 'John, in truth, baptized with water, but you will be baptized with the Holy Spirit.' it6-ng tawo'y kahi't sila'y manga dala (cf. ~ 4I) ay nagsisiparoro6n sa pilitan 'these people are forced to go there, even though they have to be carried.' VI. WORD ORDER. ~ 339. The articles, the plural particle manga, interrogative pronominal adjectives, cardinal, distributive and fractional numerals, an oblique case used as a genitive and adverbs (not postpositive) used as adjectives, precede the noun or pronoun they modify (cf. ~~ 164, i66, I68, 170, I71, 177, I78, 188, 189). An indefinite dependent nominative, an appositive, a genitive, an oblique case (except as above) or equivalent prepositional phrase or adverb, and an infinitive or clause, follow the-noun or pronoun they modify (cf. S~ 174, 175-177, 179, I80). A descriptive adjective and an ordinal numeral may stand either before or after the modified noun or pronoun (cf. SS I69, I73); indefinite pronouns usually precede but may also follow the modified noun or pronoun (cf. S 167, I89); possessive adjectives have two series of forms, one prepositive, the other postpositive (cf. SS 172, 189); demonstrative adjectives may - 198 - stand either before or after the modified noun or pronoun, or both before and after (cf. SS i65, 189). For the construction of coordinated nouns and pronouns cf. ~~ 182, 19I. For the relative order of the various nominal modifiers cf. ~ I8I. The modifiers of a descriptive adjective regularly follow except in the case of certain adverbs (cf. ~~ 192-200); when an adjective is used as a noun, however, it may, of course, take various nominal modifiers before it (cf. ~ 201). The modifiers of adverbs, except the forms of the definite article and certain other adverbs, stand after them (cf. ~S 202 -204). A preposition is followed by its object, except sometimes those of class (b) governing a personal pronoun (cf. ~ 210). In a simple sentence the order may be: subject + predicate, or predicate + subject (cf. ~~ 217, 224, 229, 242), or the subject may be placed between two parts of the predicate (cf. S~ 221, 224, 229, 236, 240, 252, 253, 258, 260, 26I, 262, 269, 270, 27I). Negative and interrogative sentences regularly take one of the last two forms, unless special emphasis is laid on the subject (cf. SS 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 229, 231, 235, 252-255, 290-293). The objects of the quasi-verbs na, wala, may (cf. ~~ 224, 229, 230, 271), and of active and passive verbs (cf. SS 243 -246), regularly stand after them. A pronominal agent of a passive verb may stand before or after according as it is prepositive or postpositive, and an agent in the oblique case precedes; otherwise the agent follows (cf. ~ 245). An adverb (not postpositive) may have a great variety of positions (cf. SS 235-240; 257-263). Prepositional phrases and oblique cases have in general the same rules of position, except that an oblique case equivalent to a genitive precedes the word it modifies (cf. S~~ 77, 245). A prepositional phrase or an oblique may stand as the predicate of a simple copulative sentence (cf. SS 219, 220). They regularly follow the quasi-verbs na, may, and wala (cf. - 99 ~~ 224, 229; 2II). In a verbal sentence they may either follow or stand at the beginning of a sentence (cf. SS 243, 245, 266, 267). They may be inserted as parentheses in almost any part of a sentence (cf. ~ 338). A genitive, except a prepositive possessive, regularly follows the word it modifies (cf. SS 176, 184, 199, 203, 20o, 243, 245); when used adverbially and in certain forms of comparison it may stand at the beginning of a sentence (cf. SS 260, 26I, 286). A dependent verb follows the verb on which it depends (cf. SS 268-270). A conjunction (not postpositive) and a relative pronoun, regularly stand at the beginning of the sentence they introduce (cf. SS 30o, 3Io). A sentence following a conjunction has the same rules of order as an independent sentence (cf. SS 301-304; 3I0-334), except in certain relative clauses (cf. SS 3II. 2-313), and after conjunctions with adverbial construction (cf. SS 335, 336). A subordinate clause may either precede or follow its principal, or stand between two parts of the principal (cf. SS 310-334; 337). A parenthetical word, phrase or clause may be inserted in almost any part of a sentence (cf. S 338). ~ 340. The postpositive words form a special class. They are, viz., the noun p6 (cf. S 350, 4), the postpositive pronominal forms (cf. S I90), the postpositive adverbs (cf. S 205), the conjunction man (cf. S 214), and the interjections bapl, aya (cf. SS 294, 295). These follow in general the rules of position laid down in the paragraphs referred to. When a postpositive word modifies a word which has in addition a preceding modifier, the postpositive word is regularly, though not necessarily, placed directly after the modifier instead of after the word modified. The principal phrases in which a postpositive word is thus inserted are discussed in the following paragraphs, viz., a) two words joined by the ligature (cf. S~ 22, I64-175, 178, I79, i86, 187, I89, I95-I97, 200, 201, 202, 2I0, 21I, 229, 240, 244, 246, 258, 268-27I). b) a word and a modifier which stand in juxtaposition - 200 - without ligature (cf. ~~ 167, I70, 174, 195, 196, 197, 2Io, 223, 229, 244, 252, 253, 262, 269, 270, 271, 335). Postpositive adverbs modifying a prepositional phrase stand between preposition and object (cf. S 211). Some additional examples of the order of postpositive words arenarlto nga baga sila sa bayan 'are they indeed in the town?' ikaw din baga ang naparoon sa Maynila 'is it you yourself who went to Manila?' ikaw baga kaya (kaya bagai) ang kapatid ni Maria 'are you Maria's child?' ak6 nga pala 'I am most assuredly.' siyai rin nga ang naparo6n 'he himself indeed is the one that went.' huwag kalim6tan niny6 'don't forget.' iinum sana kaya siya nang tubig kun mayro6n disin 'would he drink water if he had any?' hindi ko nga kapidbaihay 'he is not my neighbor.' paroroon ka kaya namain 'will you also go?' ipinagpipritos mo naman siya nang saging 'fry him also some bananas.' iniibig mo bagai naman ang iy6-ng ina 'do you also love your mother?' si Juan sana'y dumating kundang-an nagkasakit 'Juan would have come, if he had not been sick.' kun iny6 sana-ng sinilip 'if you could have seen him.' kundi kulankap din niya naman 'but is its very substance also.' dumating siya nawa 'may he come.' ang baiyang malapit nga sa Jerusalem 'the town which was near indeed to Jerusalem.' tawo na ang kaliwa ay para ring kanan 'a man whose left hand is just like his right.' ako'y tawo-ng mahina-ng para niya 'I am a weak man just like him.' buk6d pa dito 'in addition to this.' buk6d pa naman dito 'in addition also to this.' dahil nga diyan 'verily on account of that.' PART FOURTH. SPECIAL SYNTAX. I. IN GENERAL. ~ 341. i. In the syntax of combinations, the material of the language is treated mainly from the standpoint of that word of the combination which is modified by the others; in this part, all the uses of the various elements and principles of the language will be discussed from the standpoint of the individual element or principle. The matters to be treated fall into the following classes, viz.: a) the parts of speech; the interjection, being really a sentence, has already been sufficiently discussed (cf. SS 139, 294-297). b) various forms of the parts of speech which are varied to express case, tense, etc. c) various morphological and syntactical principles, as, e. g., reduplication, apposition. d) individual words belonging to the various parts of speech. The various forms and individual words are treated in connection with the part of speech to which they belong. The sections dealing with principles are inserted where it seemed most convenient. In the final section the interrelations of the parts of speech and the various types of construction found in the language are discussed. II. REDUPLICATION. ~ 34I. 2. The various kinds of reduplication have already been enumerated in S~ 9. Reduplication may be either significant or non-significant, significant when it changes the meaning of the word reduplicated, non-significant when the reduplication is apparently without definite meaning. 202 Varieties (I), (5) and (6) are always non-significant; partial reduplication (2) is non-significant in the following cases, viz.: a) in certain nouns simple and derivative (cf. SS 51; I40, b; 145; 146; I47; 149, b; I50, g; i5i, f), e.g., lalaki 'man.' babayi 'woman.' masasaktin 'sickly.' inaama 'god-father.' b) in the numerals dalawa 'two.' tatl6 'three.' c) in roots of the magkan class (cf. S 67), e. g., magkanluluha 'to weep (modal).' Significant reduplication, generally speaking, emphasizes or strengthens in some way the meaning of the simple word. The various significant uses of (2), (3), and (4) are the following. Partial reduplication (2) has the following meaningsA. emphasis, intensiveness or plurality in, a) adjectives with prefixed ma (cf. SS 53; 5I, c). b) adjectives with prefixed sing (cf. ~~ 57; 149, e). c) the pronouns and adjectives kaunti, muntz (cf. SS 32, 53). d) nouns with prefix mag (cf. S I52). e) abstract nouns (cf. ~~ 149, g; I5o, b; I56). f) restrictive numerals and names of money (cf. SS 42, 5i). g) nouns with prefix ka denoting individuals (cf. S I49, a). h) present and future (cf. ~ 63), and the verbal nouns derived from them (cf. SS I4I —44). i) active imperatives with prefix ka (cf. S 98, a). j) other verbal forms with subsidiary ka denoting 'to have just' (cf. ~ 98, b). k) certain nouns and roots after sa (cf. SS 51, 347). In a), b), c), d), e), the reduplication regularly denotes plurality, though at times it intensifies some idea other than number; in f), g) it emphasizes the idea of indivi I - 203 duality; in h), i), j) it indicates additional vividness in time relations; in k) it has a peculiar emphatic meaning. B. distribution in, a) distributives with prefix tig (cf. ~ 39). b) certain derivative nouns (cf. SS 146, c). c) magkakano (cf. S 28). d) numeral adverbs (cf. S 40). Full reduplication (3) has the following meaningsA. emphasis, intensiveness or plurality in, a) the pronoun of the third person plural (cf. S 25). b) interrogative pronouns (cf. ~ 28). c) root nouns (cf. ~ 51). d) derivative nouns (cf. SS 149, f; 150, b, d; 156). e) adverbs (cf. ~~ 130, I31). f) the verbal classes (cf. S 78). g) verbal forms with subsidiary ka (cf. ~ 98, c). The reduplication in b) usually, though not necessarily, denotes the plural; in d) it also often indicates plurality, sometimes the superlative of adjectives; in g) it denotes additional vividness in time relations; otherwise it is simply intensive. B. distribution in, a) root nouns (cf. S 51). b) the distributive numerals tigatob, tigdpat (cf. S 39). c) cardinal and ordinal distributives (cf. S~ 37, 38). C. a diminution of the original meaning in, a) nouns with suffix an (cf. S 145, g). b) adjectives with prefix ma (cf. ~ 5 I, d). c) the verbal classes (cf. S 78). Combined reduplication (4) indicates a greater degree of restriction than that implied by (2) in, a) restrictive numerals and names of money (cf. ~ 42, 5I). b) nouns of individuality with prefixed ka (cf. S I49, a). Various combinations of the different kinds of reduplication occur, in which case the meaning is that of both kinds combined, e. g., magkakanluliuha, future of magkanluliuha 'weep' (non-significant + future reduplication). - 204 - natotoyotoyo, present of matoyotoy 'be very dry (intensive + present reduplication). III. REPETITION. ~ 342. Closely connected with reduplication is the phenomenon of repetition. The various cases of repetition are the following, viz.: I) without connectivea) repetition of oblique sign case (cf. SS 23, 228, 347). b) doubled sa for na sa (cf. S 228). 2) with intervening ligaturea) absolute superlative of adjectives and similar forms of some other parts of speech (cf. SS 56, b; 58; I32). b) two words connected by na-ng (cf. S 209). c) double demonstrative with intervening noun (cf. ~ 165). Full reduplication of a whole word or root is of course practically repetition (cf. ~ 341. 2). IV. ELLIPSIS. ~ 343. An element of a sentence which has already been mentioned either in the same or a preceding sentence, is often omitted. The principal varieties of ellipsis are the following, viz.: I) The omission of a modifier or word modified, e. g., ang iba'y maririkit (pl.) at ang iba'y pangit (sing.) 'some are pretty and some are ugly.' may iba pa-ng pamokp6k at kataim 'he has another hammer and another plane.' ang wika-ng latin kun kastila 'the Latin language or the Spanish language.' Cf. also S 215. 2) The omission of the subject or agent: a subject or agent of the first or second person is usually not omitted unless it has been previously expressed in the same sentence, except with certain imperative forms (cf. ~ 250): when they are of the third person they are often omitted if they have been expressed in some previous sentence (cf. ~ 241, 242, 245).-e. g., - 205 - huwag ka-ng mahiya at huwag matakot 'don't be ashamed and don't fear.' inaasahan mo namaing matibay na matibay at pinananaligan ang iting Pangin6ong Di6s 'do you trust firmly and hope in our Lord God?' 3) The omission of the object of may or wal (cf. S 241). 4) The omission of the whole or a portion of a predicate, e. g., ak6 man siya man ay hindi rin 'it is neither he nor I.' ang iba'y maririkit at ang ibay hindi 'some are pretty and some are not.' ang manga hayop ay nao6kol sa luipa, ang manga tawo ay sa Di6s 'animals belong to the eartl-, man, to God.' 5) The omission of ay, e. g., ang ina ko'y buhay pa, ang aking amai patay na 'my mother is still living, my father is dead.' 6) The omission of at in a series of more than two connected elements (cf. ~~ 33, 337). 7) The omission of the second term of a comparison, e. g. bakit ang anak mo'y hindi nagsasalita nang lalo-ng magaling nang wika-ng ingles 'why doesn't your son speak English better (than he does)?' 8) The omission of a clause, e. g., ibig ko sana 'I should like to (if-).' sapagka't ak6'y may-sakit 'because I am sick.' at kun kami'y magab'ihan sa daan 'and if night overtakes us?' V. THE ARTICLES. THE DEFINITE AR TICLE. S 344. The forms of the definite article are rather signs of case than signs of determination, and while they usually indicate both, they frequently stand before indefinite nouns and pronouns. This article is sometimes used as a demonstrative pronoun (cf. S I83), as a compound relative (cf. S 27, 315, 316), and as a conjunction (cf. ~~ 316, 317; also nang, sa S~ 346, 347). - 206 - S 345. The nominative of the definite article, viz., ang, is regularly used with the subject of a sentence, when the subject is, a) a noun (except names of persons) or any word used as a noun, alone or with other modifiers, except in the case of a noun with preceding demonstrative adjective (cf. ~ 164). b) a possessive pronoun (cf. S I88). c) an indefinite pronoun or numeral (cf. S 188). d) a verb or quasi-verb and its adjuncts (cf. SS 225, 232, 25 I). A nominative absolute (cf. ~ 273) follows the rules for the subject. a), b), c), and d) used as predicate may also take ang when the predicate denotes some particular person or thing; otherwise they stand without article (cf. SS 216, 217). Ang is also employed when the subject or predicate is the plural of a personal name (cf. S 47); and rarely when it is a demonstrative pronoun or noun modified by a preceding demonstrative adjective (cf. SS 26, i65). Ang in connection with a preceding relative pronoun may indicate the genitive of the relative (cf. S 314). For the use of ang in exclamatory expressions cf. S 295. Ang is sometimes used instead of the ligature with the subject of the verb after may or wala (cf. ~ 271). Ang is usually not employed with a noun used as an appositive (cf. S 175); it is not used with verbal forms made with any of the primary subsidiary particles except ka-an and paka (cf. S 247). Ang is sometimes omitted with an indefinite subject (cf. S 274). S 346. The genitive of the definite article, viz., nang, forms the genitive case of all words, except personal names in the singular, personal pronouns, the interrogative sino, and (usually) demonstrative pronouns (cf. S~ 47, 25, 28, 26). It stands before the direct object of an active verb, and the indirect object of the i or an passive, even when these are indefinite (cf. S~ 243, 245). It may stand before an adverb after a verb (cf. S 259). It is also employed as a conjunction (cf. S 137, 325, 327). -207 Nang, the genitive of the definite article, must be carefully distinguished from nang, the adverb na 'now, already' plus the ligature. In this grammar the latter is always written na-ng.-e. g., ilan na-ng ta6n 'how many years?' S 347. The oblique case of the definite article viz., sa, forms the oblique case of all words except personal names in the singular and, usually, demonstrative pronouns (cf. SS 47, 26). The sign of the oblique case is sometimes doubled, e. g., sa sa tapait niny6 'before you.' isai pa sa do6n 'one thing besides that.' sa dito 'here.' Cf. also sa kanino S 28. Instead of using sa twice, kay sa, is sometimes employed, e. g., iba ang tinitingnan (tingin) kay sa tinitigan 'there is a difference between one who is looked at and one upon whom the vision is fixed.' Double sa, viz., sa sa, may be used for na sa, na sa kay and na sa kand, for na kay and na kand respectively (cf. S 228). Sa followed by a partially reduplicated noun or root indicates 'to stay in a place, to be doing something which is displeasing to the speaker.' The oblique case constitutes the predicate of a simple copulative sentence.-e. g., sa bubukid ka 'you stayed in the field.' sa titingin ka 'you kept on looking.' Sa is also employed as a conjunction (cf. S 137), in exclamations (cf. S 295), and as a prefix in the formation of fractional numerals (cf. S 36). THE PERSONAL AND INCLUSIVE ARTICLES. ~ 348. The personal article si is used as follows, viz.: a) With proper names of persons and animals, e. g., si Pedro, 'Pedro.' si Maria, 'Maria.' si Sampaga 'a dog so named.' b) With names of persons preceded by a title (cf. ~ I75), e. g., si p6ong San Jose 'Lord St. Jose.' - 208 si kapitan Fernandez 'Capitan Fernandez.' si gat Luis 'Don Luis.' c) With certain nouns of relationship and the nouns in ~ 149, d, usually to express the respect or affection of an inferior for a superior, being about equivalent to the definite article plus the possessive of the first person, e. g., si ama 'Father, my father.' si ina 'Mother, my mother.' si panginoon 'Master, my master.' si katubig 'my drinking companion.' These are equal to ang ama ko, etc. The nouns of relationship kamag'dnak, hinl6g 'relative,' biandn 'father-in-law,' inaama 'god-father,' iniina 'motherin-law,' always take the definite article. When a person speaks of a younger relative the definite article must be employed, e. g., ang aking anak 'my son,' except in the case of si bongs6 'my youngest.' d) In connection with a possessive adjective not referring to the speaker to express ridicule and mockery, e. g., si ama mo 'your rascal of a father.' e) with the nouns ama and ind modified by the names of the first born as in S 174, e, e. g., si ama-ng Maria 'the father of Maria.' si ina-ng Juan 'the mother of Juan.' A parent may be called by the name of the first-born either thus, or by prefixing the particles, a, a-ng, pan; i to the child's name (cf. SS 23, 164). Si may be omitted with the predicate of a simple copulative sentence (cf. ~ 217), and after a ligature not a relative pronoun or conjunction (cf. S~~ 65, 175), but it may also be employed in both these cases. The plural of a personal name may be indicated like that of a common noun, e. g., ang mangk Pedro 'Pedros,' (cf. S 47), or better by circumlocutions such as, e. g., 209 - a I { tinataiwag na} a tinatanwag nalag Pedro 'those called Pedro. a pinangangalang J ang lahait na si Pedro ang ngilan 'all whose names are Pedro.' ang magkalagy6-ng si Pedro 'two namesakes called Pedro.' ang magkakalagy6-ng sina Pedro 'three or more called Pedro.' The inclusive article sind is used before proper names of persons, and has also some of the other uses of si, e. g., sina ali 'my aunt and her family.' In the constructions of coordinated nouns and pronouns, it denotes that there are three or more in the group (cf. 5~ I82, I9I). THE INDEFINITE AR TICLE. S 349. The indefinite article may be used before an indefinite noun or pronoun that denotes an individual or unit (cf. S 274). VI. PRONOUNS. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. ~ 350. The personal pronouns in the nominative may stand as the subject or predicate of a sentence, after certain prepositions which are practically conjunctions (cf. S 2IO), and after the particle ga (cf. S I23). The genitives with a noun, pronoun, adjective or preposition are practically possessive adjectives (cf. S 172,, 189, 99, 2). With verbs they are used as agents of the passive (cf. S 245). In connection with a preceding relative pronoun, it may indicate the genitive of the relative (cf. S 314). The prepositive genitives used as possessive pronouns (cf. S 25) may have the various uses of the nouns they represent. The prepositive genitive corresponds in many of its uses to the oblique case of a noun (cf. ~ I77, 245, 217, 219). The oblique case has in general the same use as the oblique of the noun it represents; it is always used when the pronoun is the object of a verb (cf. S 243). 14 - 210 - Note the following uses of special pronouns. I) Tay6 includes, kami excludes, the person addressed, e. g., tay6-ng manga Kastila 'we Spaniards (Spaniard addressing a Spaniard).' kami-ng manga Kastila 'we Spaniards (Spaniard addressing a Filipino, American, etc.).' 2) kata, kitd, besides being dual, are used as follows, viz.: a) As the subject of passive verbs, containing both subject and agent of the action, being equivalent to 'you... by me,' e. g., sinisinta kata = ikaw ay sinisinta ko 'I love you (you are loved by me).' hahampasin kata 'I will beat you.' do6n babayaran kita 'I will pay you there.' b) As a pronoun of self-address, in complaining or lamenting, being practically equivalent to the first person 'I,' e.g, kita'y anak ni Adan, an6-ng di ipagkakasala sa Di6s. 'you (= I) are a son of Adam, how can you help sinning against God?' kita-ng tawo-ng makasalanan 'you sinner=sinner that I am.' 3) The plural of the pronouns of the second and third persons is sometimes used for the singular to indicate respect. The third person plural is used for the second person singular in very respectful address (cf. 4, below).-e. g., pumanhik kay6 -- pumanhik ka 'come up.' ang wikain mo do6n na it6 nga ang hinahanap nila-ng (= niya-ng) kagab'i 'say there that this is what he was looking for yesterday.' 4) The pronouns denoting address, are often accompanied by po 'sir,' 'ma'am' to indicate respect. P6 follows ikdw and ka, and kayo at the beginning of a sentence, but precedes kayo when this pronoun follows any part of its predicate.-e. g., ikaw po'y pumanhik 1ce up sr..., ^ \ 'come up sir. pumanhik ka po kayo po'y pumanhik 1 k pumanhik p6 kay6 come up sir, gentlemen (sg. or p.).' pumanhik po kayoExc y st sila po'y umupo 'will your Excellency sit down.' - 211 Pd is very often used alone parenthetically, like English 'sir,' 'ma'am,' e. g., ak6 po'y si Mateo 'I, sir, am Mateo.' 6o p6 'yes sir.' wala p6 'there is none sir.' A noun is sometimes used in address instead of a pronoun, e. g., pipi baga it6-ng bata 'are you dumb (is this boy dumb)?' matamad na matamad it6-ng tawo 'what a lazy fellow you are (this man is very lazy)!' 5) Siya, besides being employed as the pronoun of the third person singular, masculine or feminine, is used:a) followed by the ligature as a compound relative pronoun, either alone or preceded by the article ang (cf. S 27); b) with various postpositive adverbs to form certain idioms, e. g., |lsi siya na 'it is enough.' siya nga 'surely, of course, yes indeed.' 5| ~ siya nawa 'let it be so, amen.' 6) Instead of the possessive pronouns preceded by the article (cf. ~ 25), ang+oblique case may be employed, e. g., ang sa akin 'mine.' ang sa kaniya 'his.' 7) The reflexive pronouns are represented by the personal pronouns in connection with din or sarili, e. g., ak6'y ungmiibig sa akin din 'I love myself.' sila'y hindi gungmagamot sa kanila-ng sarili 'they do not heal themselves.' DEMONS TRA TIVE PRONOUNS. ~ 35I. The demonstratives as pronouns have in general the various uses of the nouns they represent. The nominative may stand after the quasi-verb na, instead of the oblique (cf. S 224). The genitives of certain demonstratives are used as adverbs of time; the obliques of all demonstratives, as adverbs of place (cf. S~ 121. I, 122). As adjectives they modify nouns, and pronouns which have nominal modifiers, according to ~ I65. I4* - 212 - Note the following additional points. I) A demonstrative may stand before a clause of direct quotation as the equivalent of the clause (cf. S 323). 2) A demonstrative sometimes indicates or emphasizes the case of a relative pronoun (cf. SS 313, 314). 3) A demonstrative pronoun or adjective, standing as the whole or part of the direct object of an active verb, when this object is something capable of division, has an indefinite meaning, viz., 'some of this, that,' e. g., uminuim kay6 nit6 'drink some of this.' ak6'y kungmakain na niya.ng lamangkati 'I am eating some of that meat.' pumitas ka niy6ng manga bulaklak 'pluck some of those flowers.' The genitive of a demonstrative after may and wali has a similar meaning (cf. ~ 229). A demonstrative may stand as the whole or part of an object in its definite meaning, provided the subject is specially emphasized, e. g., ak6 nga ang babasa nit6-ng libro 'I am the one who will read this book.' RELATIVE PRONOUNS. S 352. A simple relative pronoun is used to join a clause which has the value of an adjective to a preceding noun or pronoun, its antecedent (cf. S~ 3II. 1-314). The case of the relative is indicated by something in the relative clause. The relative is nominative when its antecedent is the logical subject of the relative clause. When the verb in the relative clause is passive, the relative, though grammatically the subject of the clause, corresponds to the English relative in the objective case, or after prepositions. In clauses containing a quasi-verb meaning 'to have' the relative corresponds to the English objective relative, when it is the logical object of the idea 'to have.' The genitive and oblique are indicated by an article or pronoun in the relative clause referring back to the antecedent. A compound relative pronoun includes both antecedent and relative. A clause introduced by a compound relative is prac - 213 tically a noun and has the various constructions of a noun, the article being varied to express case (cf. S~ 315-318). IN TERROGATI VE PRONOUNS. ~ 353. An interrogative pronoun may stand as predicate of a sentence, or in the genitive or oblique like the noun it represents, but it cannot be used as subject of a sentence; the prepositive genitive of sino is used as adjective and pronoun like the prepositive genitives of the personal pronouns (cf. S 28). All interrogative pronouns may be used as adjectives to modify nouns and pronouns with nominal construction (cf. SS I66, I89). An interrogative pronoun in the nominative case, standing as predicate in a simple copulative sentence, a sentence containing the quasi-verb na 'be' or its negative wala, or one containing an active verbal form, corresponds to the English nominative interrogative. When the verb of the sentence is passive the interrogative corresponds to the English interrogative in the objective case or after prepositions. When the sentence contains a quasi-verb meaning 'to have,' the interrogative corresponds to the English nominative or objective according as it indicates the possessor or the thing possessed. See ~~ 222, 225, 231, 255. The genitive and oblique cases of the interrogatives are used mainly though not exclusively in sentences with non-verbal predicate (cf. ~~ 222, 226), the corresponding case relations in verbal sentences being ordinarily represented as above by the nominative and the passive. When the oblique cases of interrogative pronouns and adjectives stand in verbal sentences, they usually come first, and may take the adverbial construction in S 262, e. g., sa kanino sasaluibong ka 'whom are you going to meet?' sa kanino baga hungmahampas ang iy6-ng ama 'whom does your father beat?' kanino ka baga hungmingi nang tawad 'whom did you ask for pardon?' laban kanino nanhimagsik (bagsik) ang manga Tagalog 'against whom did the Tagalogs rebel?' -- 214 sa an6 mo kinakailangan iyatng up6an 'for what do you need that chair?' sa aling tawo do6n ibibigay it6 'to which man there is this to be given?' sa an6-ng tapayan isisilfd ko it6 'in what sort of a jar shall I put this?' An interrogative pronoun is sometimes used in a sentence in the same construction as the word it stands for, e. g., nagpanggap sino siya? siya'y nagpanggap oficial (cf. S 244) 'whom did he impersonate? he impersonated an official.' ihinolog baga nino it6 'this was thrown down by whom?' S 354. Note the following special points with reference to the interrogative pronouns. I) Kanino is the common genitive form in the singular; nino is employed only, a) after a- 'say' (cf. S 234), b) absolutely in repeating a question as to possession, when the first answer is not understood, or to represent a genitive in a preceding statement about which further information is desired, e. g., I t Q. kanino-ng bahay ito 'whose house is this?' A. kay Ant6nio 'Antonio's.' 2nd Q. nino 'whose (did you say)?' Ist Sent. gagaw'in na it6 'this has to be done.' Q. nino 'by whom?' c) rarely in a verbal sentence as above ~ 353 end. The genitive case of the other interrogatives is also sometimes used in a way similar to nino in (b), e. g., ist Sent. ang paa nang gadya 'the foot of an elephant.' Q. nang an6 'of what?' (the genitive in thefirst statement not having' been heard or not having been understood). 2) Ikaildn is used of order in a series either of space or time, e. g., ikailan ka sa escuelahan 'how do you stand in school?' ikailan na tay6 ngay'on 'what day is it (are we) today?' 3) Ano, especially when preceded by ay or at, is used in the sense of 'what about,' e.g., I I Ii1 - 215 - at an6 ang usap mo 'what about your law-suit?' ay an6 ang salapi 'what about the money?' 4) Ano followed by the genitive is used in questions regarding relationship, e. g., an6 ka nit6-ng babayi 'what relation are you to this woman?' ano mo it6-ng tawo 'what relation is this man to you?' 5) For ano in exclamatory expressions cf. S 295. 6) IlAn is also an indefinite pronoun 'some.' The other interrogative pronouns are sometimes used as indefinites especially in.conditional sentences (cf. S 332). Anoano is used indefinitely after walg meaning 'without flaw,' 'without reason,' e. g., wala-ng anoan6 ang gawa-ng it6 'this work is without flaw.' [ tinampal ak6 niya wala-ng anoan6 'he slapped me without the least reason.' 7) In inquiring the price of anything, magkan6 means 'how much for all of it,' magkakano, 'how much for a certain portion, one, a pound, a dozen, etc.,' e. g., magkan6 it6 'how much is this (all of it)?' magkakan6 ang manga itlog 'how much are eggs?' INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. S 355. Indefinite pronouns have in general the same use and construction as the noun they represent. When modifying a noun or pronoun they have in general the construction of descriptive adjectives (cf. ~~ 167, 189). Some of them, however, have other constructions (cf. ~~ 184, I86). Note the following special points. I) 'Other' in general is expressed by iba; 'other' meaning 'one of two' may also be expressed by isa.-e. g., iba-ng bagay 'another thing.' ang iba-ng babayi 'the other woman.' isa-ng hokbo laban naman sa isa 'one army against the other.' The correlative pronouns 'some-some (others)' may be expressed by ang ibd-ang iba, ang mangd isdi-ang mangi ibd, e. g., - 216 - ang iba'y magaganda, ang iba'y manga pangit 'some are beautiful, some are ugly.' Ibd followed by the oblique case of a personal pronoun is used in the sense of 'not akin,' e. g., iba sa akin siya 'he is not related to me.' naaalaman mo na ang kaniya-ng asawa ay hindi iba sa akin 'do you know that his wife is related to me (not unrelated to me)?' Ibd is also employed as a preposition (cf. ~ 134). 2) Kapuwa 'both' is adverbial in character and has often the construction of an adverb; it means rather 'one the same as the other;' it may stand in apposition with a personal pronoun as in S I86.-e. g., kapuwa sila'y nagkakamukha 'both of them look alike.' kapuwa'y nagkakaibigan 'both love one another.' si Elvira ni Matilde ay kapuwa sila-ng ungmalis kanaina 'Elvira and Matilde both departed a little while ago.' si Juan at si Luis, kapuwa'y nagsusulatan 'Juan and Luis correspond with one another.' Kapuwa is also used in reference to one person in the sense of 'likewise, one just like, fellow, neighbor.' When used adjectively in this sense it stands before the noun it modifies without ligature, nor is the ligature employed after a postpositive word inserted between the two: it forms with its noun a single idea and is preceded by the nominal modifiers which come before the noun.-e. g., kapuwa ka-ng paroro6n sa P6lo 'you likewise are to go to Polo.' ang bulag ay dili mangyari-ng sundan nang kapuwa bulaig 'the blind man can not be led by his blind fellow.' ang kanila-ng manga kapuwa tawo 'their fellow men, neighbors.' ak6'y ungmiibig sa kapuwa ko tawo 'I love my fellow man, neighbor.' 3) The pronouns meaning 'all' differ somewhat in their signification: while they are all more or less interchangeable, lahdt and tanan refer rather to individuals, indicating the I - 217 plural; dildn refers to sort or kind; pisan means 'all' in the sense of 'nothing but;' pdwa refers to individuals, but is usually employed in the predicate of the noun it modifies as a sort of apposition 'all of them,' and is joined by the ligature to the following word; bob means 'complete, entire, in every respect;' the forms tana, dild are used adjectively instead of tandn, dildn when some postpositive word is inserted between the pronoun and the noun it modifies.-e. g., ang lahait na taiwo 'all the men.' ang tanaing tawo ( --- ang sangkataw6han) 'all mankind.' ang dilang buinga 'all kinds of fruit.' pisang bulaklak 'all, nothing but flowers.' pawa-ng mapuputi sila 'they are all of them white.' ang pawa-ng halaman 'all plants.' boo-ng tinapay 'all the bread.' pinsaing b6o 'own (complete) cousin.' sa tana ko-ng l6ob 'with all my heart.' nang dila niya-ng anak 'of all his sons.' For the various combinations of lahdt cf. SS 167, 184, I86. 4) The pronouns meaning 'more' and 'less' are used in stating approximate ages, in the sense of 'more, less with respect to age' (cf. S I83), e. g., ang kapatid ko'y kulang sa labi-ng anim na taon 'my brother is less than sixteen years (old).' ang aking kapatid na buns6'y mahigit na sa walo-ng buwan 'my little brother is now more than eight months (old).' ang pinsan ko'y labis nang dalawa-ng ta6n sa akin 'my cousin is two years older than I.' For these pronouns with following dependent nominative cf. 85. 5) Sarili as a pronoun, either alone or modified by a possessive adjective, signifies 'self,' e. g., ang tawo-ng tampalasan ay wala-ng kuiha-ng (cf. S 411) tam6 sa sarili 'the wicked man is of no use to himself.' iniisip ko sa aking sarili 'I think to myself.' As an adjective, either alone or accompanied by a possessive adjective, it signifies 'own,' e. g., - 2i8 - sa sarili-ng kasiraan 'to his own destruction.' sa sarili mo-ng kataw'an 'to your own body.' As an adjective before a possessive pronoun, it emphasizes the idea of possession, e. g., ang sarili-ng akin 'that which is my own, that which I have.' The emphatic English pronouns 'myself, himself,' etc. in apposition to a pronoun or noun, are expressed by the affirmative adverbs, especially din, after the pronoun or noun, e. g., ak6 rin 'I myself.' ikaw din 'you yourself.' siya rin 'he himself.' Sarili and din may be used together, e. g., ang sarili mo ring ari 'your very own possession.' 6) Gandn is also used as a preposition, and its pronominal and prepositional uses are often confused, e. g., miha ka nang ganan sa akin; nang ganang ibig mo 'take what belongs to me; what you want.' ano-ng ganan kay Mr. Reynolds 'what is that about Mr. Reynolds?' ang pagbabayaran niya'y ang sa ganang sangta6n 'he will pay a year's rent (that which pertains to a year).' 7) 'Every' in time expressions is indicated by bdlang, by full reduplication of a noun of time, or by the conjunction tuwi-ng used before a noun of time (cf. ~ 31); the noun after tzwi-ng may be modified by a cardinal. These expressions are used absolutely as adverbs, or may be preceded by sa.-e. g., pasasaescuela (cf. ~ 409,3) ka baga tuwi-ng Jueves 'do you go to school every Thursday?' ak6'y napapado6n araw'araw 'I go every day.' dinadalaw niya siya sa tuwi-ng dalawa-ng araw 'he visits her every two days.' balang ikalawa-ng araw 'every two days.' 8) A word or root which the speaker does not remember or for any reason does not wish to mention is represented by kudn 'so and so,' which has the same construction as the word or root in question would have, e. g., ang kuan 'such and such a thing.' - 219 - si kuan 'such and such a person.' kungmukuan siya 'she is becoming so and so.' magpakuan ka sa kaniya 'order him so and so.' nakikikuan siya 'he meddles in such and such a thing.' 9) For the use of the pronouns of similarity, pdra, etc., cf. SS 184, 185, 197, 265, 277. Clauses introduced by a conjunction containing one of these pronouns (cf. S 326) are similar to relative clauses depending on the pronoun. VII. NUMERALS. CARDINALS AND FRACTIONS. S 356. The cardinals and fractions as pronouns and adjectives, have in general the same use as nouns or indefinite pronominal adjectives respectively (cf. SS 33, 36, i68, 170, 187, i88, I89). Fractions ending in bahdgi have the same use as nouns (cf. S I70). Note the following additional points in the use of the cardinals. I) Cardinal numerals are added by means of the conjunction at 'and, plus,' e. g., dalawa't dalawa'y apat 'two and two are four.' 2) They are multiplied by placing the ligature between them, e. g., dalawa-ng dalawa'y apat 'twice two (two two's) are four.' A distributive may be used instead of one or the other of the multiplied cardinals, e. g., apat na tiglilima 'four times five.' tiglilima-ng walo 'five times eight.' 3) A cardinal that indicates a collective idea rather than a number of individual parts may be preceded by the indefinite article, e. g., isa-ng dalawa-ng pisos 'a couple of pesos.' 4) Isd besides being a cardinal, is used as the indefinite article (cf. S 23), as an indefinite pronoun 'one, other' (cf. ~~ 30, 355), as an ordinal (cf. ~ II7). - 220 - ORDINALS. S 357. The ordinals usually modify nouns and pronouns as adjectives, but they may also stand as pronouns in the same constructions as the nouns they represent (cf. SS 35, I69, 184, 188, I89). Note the following points. I) The ordinals are used without article in the enumeration of chapters, e. g., kabanata-ng ikalawa 'chapter second.' ikatlo-ng kabanata 'chapter third.' 2) The ordinals and ikaildn are employed in giving the day of the week, month, or year. The day enumerated may be followed by the genitive of a larger unit of time. The expression containing the ordinal is used as predicate, the subject being either personal or impersonal.-e. g., ikalabi-ng tatl6 ngay'on 'today is the thirteenth.' ikailang araw ngay'6n nang buwa.ng it6 'what day of the month is it today?' ikailan tay6 ngay'on 'what day is it (are we) today?' ikatlo-ng draw ngay'on tayo 'this is the third.' ikalima-ng draw ngay'on nit6-ng lingg6 'today is the fifth day of this week.' 3) An ordinal modified by a genitive may constitute the predicate of a sentence, e. g., ikalawa ko si Pedro 'Pedro is the second after me.' 4) On the use of ikalawd after may and wala in comparisons cf. S 288. DISTRIB UTIVES. S 358. Distributives, while they may be used as pronouns and adjectives (cf. $ I71) like the cardinals and ordinals, have usually a more or less adverbial construction. Note the following points. I) The distributives formed by reduplicating the cardinals may stand, either alone or with modified nouns, as predicate in a sentence whose subject is a verbal idea, e. g., 221 isaisa ang pagbibigay ko nguni't ang aking pangin6on ay tatlotatl6 ang pagbibigay 'I give (them) away one by one, but my master gives (them) three at a time.' tatlotatlo-ng ta6n ang maliban 'let three years pass between each time.' 2) The distributives made by reduplicating the ordinals are usually employed in connection with a noun of time as the predicate of a sentence, e. g., ikaikailang airaw ang lagnat 'what is the period of the fever (every how many days)?' ikaikatlo-ng araw 'every three days.' 3) The cardinals and ordinals modified by bawa't and bdlang form series of distributive numerals which have about the same meaning and use as these cardinal and ordinal distributives, e. g., balang isa } biwang isa, 'every, each one. bawat isa j balang dalawa every two.' bawa't dalawai balang ikalawa 'every second one.' balang ikatl6 'every third one.' 4) The distributives with prefixed fig and the nouns with prefixed man (cf. S 153) have similar constructions. Like the distributives of the reduplicated class, they may stand as predicate in a sentence whose subject is a verbal idea; with tig'ildn the verbal subject may be preceded by kun instead of the article; otherwise they have the usual constructions of pronouns.-e. g., tig'ilan ang pamamahagi niya nang kandila 'into how many apiece did he divide the candles?' tig'isai ang ibinigay niyai sa manga lalaki 'he gave one each to the men.' nagbigay ak6 nang tigpipit6 'I gave seven to each.' opahan mo sila nang manalapi 'pay them a salapi apiece.' ang manga pluma'y tig'ilan kung ibigay mo 'how many pens did you give to each?' -222 - tig'ilan kun pagbibigay mo nang salapi sa manga bata mo 'how much money did you give to each of your boys? mamiso ang pagbibigay ko 'I gave them each a peso.' 5) These distributives used as adjectives and their noun may stand in the same constructions as the pronouns in (4), e. g., tigalawa-ng pisos ang ibinigay mo sa kanila 'I gave them two pesos apiece.' tiglilimai-ng pisos ang kaban 'each kaban is worth five pesos.' 6) For distributives modifying a dependent nominative cf. S 174, d. The unreduplicated distributive forms like tiglimdz are used in this construction to indicate the stamped or coined value of anything.-e. g., salapi-ng tiglima-ng pisos 'a coin worth five pesos.' seyo-ng tiglabi-ng lima-ng sentimos 'a fifteen-cent stamp.' 7) For the use of these distributives in multiplication cf. 356. RESTRICTIVE NUMERALS. S 359. These have in general the same use as the numerals from which they are derived. They may also be expressed by the simple numerals modified by the adverb idmang 'only,' or the restrictives themselves may be followed by this adverb to emphasize the restrictive meaning, e. g., isa lamang iisa iisa lamang 'only one.' iisaisa iisaisa lamang minsan lamang miminsan miminsan lamang 'only once.' miminsanminsan miminsanminsan lamang - 223 NUMERAL AD VERBS. ~ 360. The numeral adverbs follow in general the constructions of other adverbs. Those with prefix maka are used also in bartering one article for another to indicate how many times one is worth the other; they may be followed by the genitive of the article enumerated (cf. ~ 203 end); 'just as much' is indicated by magszkat in the same construction.-e. g., makailan iyang langis 'what (how many times something else) [do you ask] for that oil?' makap6wo nang palay 'ten times as much unhusked rice.' maikatl6 nang bigais 'three times as much husked rice.' magsukat nang palay 'just as much unhusked rice.' VIII. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. S 36I. A noun may stand as the subject of a sentence with either verbal or non-verbal predicate (cf. SS 216; 217, 224, 229, 242); it may be the predicate, in nominative or oblique case, of a simple copulative sentence (cf. SS 217-219); in its various case forms it may depend on another word, noun, pronoun, adjective, quasi-verb, verb, adverb, or preposition (cf. S~ I74, I76, I77, I83, 184, I85, 192, I93, I98, 199, 203, 2I0, 224, 229, 243-248); an abstract noun is used in a peculiar way in exclamations (cf. S 295); the nominative may be used absolutely at the beginning of a sentence (cf. S 273). An adjective may stand as the predicate of a simple copulative sentence (cf. ~ 217), or it may modify a noun or pronoun (cf. S~ 173, 189); an adjective may also be used as an adverb (cf. ~ 130). The relation between noun and adjective is very close; practically any adjective may be used a noun (cf. 201); the various classes of derivative nouns are sometimes nouns, sometimes adjectives, sometimes both (cf. S~ I41-I62); almost any noun is capable of being used as an adjective, e. g., gint6-ng panulat 'gold pen' (better according to S I74, b). ang karaniwan niya-ng pagsasalita 'his customary manner of speaking.' - 224 - ang kaniyai-ng kadatihang asal 'his usual custom.' ang may-kapangyarihang tawo 'the man who has power or authority.' Derivative nouns and adjectives with regard to their meaning may be classed approximately as: — I) Participles (cf. ~ I4I). 2) Frequentatives (cf. ~~ 142; 143; 145, e; 146, f, g; 149, c; 15i/e, f; 157; i62, a, b). 3) Simple descriptive adjectives (cf. SS I49, f; 151,. a, b, c). 4) Superlative adjectives (cf. S 150, d). 5) Nouns and adjectives of equality (cf. S I49, e; I60). '6) Nouns of likeness (cf. ~~ 146, I47). 7) Associative nouns, indicating a companion (cf. S I49, b, c, d). 8) Nouns of individuality (cf. ~ I49, a). 9) Nouns of entirety (cf. S I59). io) Abstract nouns of action (cf. S I44). i ) Abstract nouns of state or stative abstracts (cf. SS I50, a, b, c, e, f; 156). 12) Objective nouns, indicating the object or effect of on action (cf. SS 146, e; 147, e; 148). 13) Nouns of place (cf. SS I45, a, b, c, f; 150, g; I57). 14) Nouns of instrument (cf. S 158). 15) Nouns indicating possession (cf. S I54). I6) Distributive nouns and adjectives (cf. SS I46, c; I53). 17) Correlative nouns of relationship (cf. S 152). I8) Nouns indicating origin (cf. S~ 62). I9) Nouns indicating time or season (cf. ~ i6I). 20) Augmentatives (cf. ~ 145, d). 21) Diminutives (cf. SS 145, g; 151, d). S 362. Derivative nouns when used as nouns have in general the same constructions as simple nouns. When used as positive or superlative descriptive adjectives, they follow the construction of ma adjectives. Note the following special points; the numbers refer to the classification in the last paragraph. I) For participles cf. ~ 416. 2) The frequentatives of disease in ~ 146, f, denote 'to I - 225 - suffer habitually from such and such a disease;' 'to have an attack of the disease' is indicated by the in passive of the root.-e. g., ak6'y piy6hin 'I suffer with the gout.' ak6'y pinipiyo 'I have an attack of gout.' ak6'y gagalisin yata 'I think I am going to have the itch.' The adjectives of ability may also be expressed by the future of the auxiliary mangydri 'be able' followed by the passive of the root, e. g., manyaydri-ng gaw'in - magagawa 'feasible.' 3, 4) For the construction of descriptive adjectives cf. S 36I and SS I92-I98. 5) For the construction of adjectives of equality SS I99, 200, 277, 280, 296. 7) Certain of the nouns of companionship may be followed by an infinitive (cf. S 179) or oblique case to denote that with respect to which the companionship exists, e. g., kasalo-ng kumain kasalo- sa ag in 'companion in eating.' kasalo sa pagkain kasal6 sa dulang 'companion at table.' kasaima sa manga kahirapan 'companion in hardship.' Some of these nouns may be used practically as prepositions, being followed by the nominative case; these phrases may be joined to what precedes by the ligature. These nouns may also be followed by the genitive.-e. g., kasabay ang manga luha 'together with tears.' ang lahat nang it6 ay nangagkakaisa sa pananatili sa pananalangin na kasaima ang manga babaiyi 'all of them continued in prayer together with the women.' ginawa nang anluwagi ang lamesa kasabay nang upoan 'the carpenter made the table and the chair too.' 8) For the construction of nouns of individuality with numerals, cf. S i68. Io) For the various constructions of abstract nouns of action cf. S 417. I) The stative abstracts may form a plural like simple nouns, e. g., manga kabutihan 'beauties.' 15 - 226 Followed bypa they constitute the predicate of a sentence in the sense of 'to be still characterized by what the root indicates,' e. g., kalaka.san pa 'he is still in his strength, still strong.' kabutihan pa 'she is still in her beauty.' When used as object of the quasi-verb may in connection with the adverb din, the construction denotes 'to have some measure of the quality which the abstract indicates.' When the abstract is modified by following munti or munti-ng munti, it denotes 'to have the quality in small or very small measure;' with wala in place of may, it denotes 'not to have it at all.' The root of the abstract may have partial or full reduplication when the subject of may or wala is plural.-e. g., may karunungan din 'he has some knowledge, knows something.' may karunungan ding munti 'he knows little.' may karunungan ding munti-ng munti 'he knows very little.' wala-ng karunuingan din 'he knows nothing at all.' may karurunungan ding munti 'they know little.' Those abstracts which denote 'material enough for' may be modified by the cardinals to denote 'material for so and so many,' and may be followed by a noun denoting material in the construction described in S I74, e. g., dalawa-ng kabar6an 'material for two shirts.' apat na katapisang kambaya 'enough cambayas (a sort of cotton stuff) for four tdpis (a sort of overskirt).' Abstract nouns with prefix pagka followed by the genitive may denote 'since that expressed by the genitive was that expressed by the primary noun,' e. g., pagkabata ko 'since I was a boy.' pagkatawo ko 'since I was a man.' The verbal abstracts corresponding to the nouns of superior limit with pagka, indicate the change in process, e. g., pagka-laki nang tubig 'height of the tide.' pag-laki nang tubig 'rising of the tide.' pagka-kasira nang kahoy 'destruction of the wood.' pag-kasira nang kahoy 'destroying of the wood.' - 227 13) The nouns of place denoting measures (cf. S 145, b) are used to indicate the capacity of vessels, e. g., ilanan } {it6-ng tapayan 'how much magkanohan does this jar hold?' sang'apatan 'four gantas (it is a measure of four gantas).' The nouns of place denoting a wager (cf. ~ I45, b) may constitute a complete sentence, e. g., salapian 'I wager half a peso.' patayan 'let us wager our life.' The nouns of place in S 145, f may be followed by an oblique of place where, e. g., ang sabihan sa bayan 'what is spoken of in the town.' ang osapan sa Maynila 'what is discussed in Manila.' The nouns of place in S 150, g, constitute the predicate of a sentence; they may be followed by a genitive of the agent, an oblique of place where, and by an infinitive.-e. g. kapurihan nang lahat si Pedro 'Pedro is the one whom all praise.' kasabihan si Juan sa bayan 'Juan is the one of whom all in the town are speaking.' karongsolaing tingnan si Maria 'Maria is the one upon whom all look.' 15) For the construction of nouns with may denoting possession cf. S 232. I6) The distributive nouns and adjectives have the same constructions as the distributive numerals with prefix tig (cf. S 358, 4-7). I7) Correlative nouns of relationship standing without modifier are practically plural, and may stand as apposition or predicate to a plural, e. g., sila-ng magpanginoon 'they, master and servant.' sila-ng magkakasama 'they, companions.' mag'asawa kay6 'are you husband and wife?' magpanginoon kaya ya6ng dalawa katawo 'are those two men master and servant?' For other constructions of these nouns cf. ~ 182. I8) The derivatives of origin from sadn 'where?' ano 'what?' necessarily constitute the predicate of a sentence; the nominal I5* I - 228 derivatives may stand as predicate, but not necessarily so.e.g., tagasaan } ka 'where are you from? tagaano J ako'y taga-Maynfla 'I am from Manila.' sinibat siya nang manga tagaro6n 'he was stabbed by the inhabitants of that place.' 20) The augmentatives in S 145, d, may also be expressed by the primary noun combined with the adjective malaki, in the construction in S 174, e. g., ang tawo-ng malaki-ng 61o for ang tawo-ng olohan With roots that have no augmentatives the augmentative idea can be expressed only by malaki, e. g., malaki-ng lalaki 'a big man.' malaki-ng hayop 'a large animal.' 21) The diminutive nouns in S I45, g, may also be expressed by the primary noun modified by munt2 'small,' e. g., bahay na munti bahaybahayan 'little house.' The diminutive force of the adjectives in S I 5, d, may be increased by using the adverb kaunt2 'a little' as a modifier, e. g., maasimasim na kaunti 'a little sour.' ~ 363. Certain of the derivative particles may be combined with whole phrases and clauses. The particles ka-an,pagka, and sangka-an may be combined with nouns preceded by the negatives di and wal. The negatives of the verbal abstracts are regularly formed thus with pagka, e. g., pagka-di-pagbibigay 'not giving'from di 'not'+ pagbibigay 'giving.' pagka-wala-ng-balt 'condition of not having any sense.' ka-di-banal-an 'absence of virtue.' ka-di-duniun-an 'ignorance.' sangka-di-binyag-an 'all heathendom' from di binyag 'not baptized.' Pagka may be prefixed to a whole sentence to indicate a cause, e. g., ang pagka ak6'y kristiano, siya-ng di ko iginagawa nang -229 - gay6n 'my being a Christian is why I do not act thus; because I am a Christian, I do not act thus. sa pagka siya'y mayaman di ako iginagalang niya 'because he is rich, he does not respect me.' Sa pagkd has practically become a causal conjunction (cf. SS 137, 328). Other particles which make derivatives from a complex of words are, e. g., an and taga, e. g., kabig-at-ay6-an' 'acceptor of persons, partial.' taga-iba-ng-bayan 'inhabitant of another town.' IX. USE OF THE CASES. S 364. The definite, personal and inclusive articles, and certain pronouns have special forms to indicate case (cf. SS 23, 25, 26, 28). The cases of nouns and other pronouns are indicated by the forms of the articles or the demonstrative pronominal adjectives before them (cf. S 24,46-48). When a noun or pronoun is accompanied by adjectival modifiers the case of the phrase is indicated in the same way. A demonstrative adjective after the word it modifies has always the nominative form (cf. S 165). S 365. The nominative case may be a proper nominative, an appositive, or, in indefinite nouns, it may represent one of the other cases. A nominative proper is useda) as the subject of a sentence (cf. S 216, 217, 224, 229, 242). b) as the predicate of a sentence with non-verbal predicate (cf. S 217, 218). c) after certain prepositions (cf. S 2Io). d) after ga (cf. S 123). e) after an adjective to indicate 'with respect to what' (cf. S 192). f) as certain adverbs of time (cf. ~ 18). g) absolutely (cf. S 273, 295). I Perhaps to be analyzed as kabiag't aydan, i. e., kabigdn at aydan, in which case it does not belong here. - 230 - In a), b), c), g), the articles are used according to rule; in e) the definite article is always employed. An appositive nominative is useda) after a noun or pronoun (cf. SS 175, I86). b) after a verb in apposition to the subject, or corresponding to what is in English a second object (cf. S 265). The definite article is not employed except occasionally in a). An indefinite dependent nominative is useda) after a noun (cf. ~ 174). b) after certain pronouns (cf. ~ I85). c) after may, mayroon, mariami, and wale (cf. ~ 229-233). d) after certain prepositions (cf. S 210). e) after verbs as the equivalent of a genitive (cf. ~~ 244, 246). The nominative of the demonstratives may be used after the quasi-verb na instead of the oblique (cf. ~ 224). ~ 366. The genitive case has in general the meaning 'of, with, by.' It is employed as follows, viz.: a) as a modifying adjunct to a noun or pronoun; the genitives of the personal pronouns and of the interrogative sino in this construction are best considered as pronominal adjectives (cf. S~ 176, 184; 172, i66). b) in combinations of coordinated nouns and pronouns (cf. ~~ I82, I9I). c) after adjectives of equality (cf. ~ I99). d) in the personal pronouns and the interrogative sino as a possessive pronoun (cf. SS 25, 28); for use as predicate of simple copulative sentences cf. S 217, 222. e) after the particle a 'said' (cf. S 234). f) in the case of demonstratives after may, wala to denote 'some of this, etc.' (cf. ~ 229). g) as the direct object of active verbs and the indirect object indicating 'with, on account of' of intransitive verbs of state (cf. ~ 243). h) as the agent, or indirect object, or logical direct object of passive forms (cf. S 245, 247, 248). i) after certain adverbs (cf. S 203). j) after certain prepositions (cf. S 21o). - 231 - I j i k) after the interjection abd (cf. S 294). 1) adverbially (cf. SS II7, In8, 133). S 367. The oblique case has in general the meaning of 'with regard to,' 'relating to,' 'in connection with,' but it must be translated in various ways 'to,' 'for,' 'from,' 'in,' etc., according to the context. It is employed as follows, viz.: a) as a modifier of a noun or pronoun (cf. S 177, 183). b) after adjectives in the positive, comparative and relative superlative degrees (cf. SS 193, I98). c) in comparisons of equality (sometimes) to indicate 'with respect to what' (cf. S I99). d) as the predicate of simple copulative sentences (cf. S 219). e) after na, may and walc (cf. S~ 224, 228, 229, 230). f) in the case of names of persons and personal pronouns, as the direct object of an active verb (cf. S 243). g) as the indirect object of an active verb or passive form (cf. SS 243, 245, 247, 248). h) after certain adverbs (cf. S 203). i) after certain prepositions (cf. S 210). j) after certain interjections (cf. S 294). k) in exclamations (cf. S 295). 1) as adverbs and prepositions (cf. S~ 118, 122, 133, 134). ~ 368. In general the indefinite dependent nominative with its governing word form a sort of compound; the genitive indicates possession or agency, the oblique, the ideas of 'in, for, from,' and partitive 'of;' but there is more or less confusion and interchangeability among these three forms, and the regular rules are sometimes violated.-e. g., ang pint6-ng simbahan 'the church door.' ang pinto nang simbahan 'the door of the church.' ang pint6 sa simbahan 'the door in the church.' tawo-ng Kastila 1, o * -a~ tawo-ng Kastil. } 'a Spaniard.' tawo sa Kastila j ang ikatlo-ng araw nang buwan 'the third day of the month.' ang sa aking am. 1 'that of my father.' ang nang aking ama j - 232 - magkan6 ang dosena niyang manga mansana 'how much are these apples a dozen?' sino ang tawo-ng lalo-ng mabant6g nang Estados Unidos 'who is the most famous man of the United States?' sa the soul.' panilat gint6 panilat nang ginto god-pen.' X. THE PLURAL AND THE USE OF MANGA. S 369. The plural of a noun is indicated in general by mangd placed before it, unless the noun is modified by a cardinal numeral or marimi 'many,' which themselves denote plurality, e. g., manga tawo 'men.' ang manga tawo 'the men.' dalawa-ng tawo 'two men.' ang tatlo-ng tawo 'the three men.' marami-ng tawo 'many men.' If manga is used in connection with a cardinal or ildn 'how many? some,' it imparts an indefinite meaning (cf. S~ 32, 34). Manga may also be omitted with lahat and sarisdri used adjectively, e. g., lahat na tawo all men. lahat na manga tawo sarisari-ng bigas 'various kinds of rice.' sarisari-ng manga bulaklak 'various kinds of flowers.' After the particles may and wala the indefinite nominative may be used without manga with the force of a collective or indefinite plural, e. g., mayro6n baga-ng bulaklak sa kaniya-ng halamanan 'are there flowers in his garden?' wala sila-ng asawa 'they are not married (have not wives).' Manga is usually not employed to form the plural of a pronoun, though it may stand with pronouns used adjectively; ibd, however, may be pluralized by mangd placed before it. The personal pronouns have special forms for the plural (cf. I i: II - 233 - S 25). The plural of the interrogatives and of indefinites denoting 'a little,' is indicated by reduplication (cf. SS 28, 32). The plural of demonstrative pronouns and such indefinites as are capable of denoting both singular and plural, is usually expressed by the singular.-e. g., it6'y manga anak ko 'these are my children.' ang (manga) iba'y maririkit 'the others are pretty.' The plural of a noun modified by a descriptive or pronominal adjective may be indicated by the plural form of the adjective or pronoun, by manga (used only once), or by both together, e. g., ang mabubuti-ng tawo ang manga mabuti-ng tawo 'the good men.' ang manga tawo-ng mabubuti j sinosino-ng taiwo sino-ng manga tawo 'whih The plural of attributive adjectives is expressed as in S 53. The plural of predicate adjectives made with prefix ma is usually the reduplicated form, e. g., ang manga dahon ay malalaki 'the leaves are large.' maririkit baga ang manga bulaklak 'are the flowers prettyj?' The plural of certain other derivative nouns and adjectives is also indicated by reduplication (cf. S~ 57; I49, e, g; 150, b; 156). The plural of participles may be indicated by mangd as in the case of the noun, e. g., ang manga isusuilat 'the things that are to be written.' It may also be expressed as in the case of the verb by using the particle magsi (cf. S 387), or the subsidiary particle nga (cf. ~ 103), or both, e. g., ang nagsisialis 'those who are departing.' ang nangagkakautang 'the debtors.' it6-ng nangagsisipagsalita 'these who speak.' XI. APPOSITION. ~ 370. A noun or pronoun standing in apposition to another noun or pronoun is placed after it, and is regularly joined to it by the ligature. The following are the principal varieties of apposition. -234 - a) A common noun may be modified by another common noun, including all nouns not names of persons, or by the name of a person (cf. S 175), e. g., tawo-ng bata 'a man, a boy' = 'a young man.' ang bata-ng kaniya-ng alipin 'the boy his slave.' ang bunga-ng saging 'the banana-fruit.' ang bayang Maynila 'the city of Manila.' ang buwafng Marzo 'the month of March.' an pinsan ko-ng si Ant6nio 'my cousin Antonio.' b) The name of a person may be modified by a common noun, an adjective used as a noun, or by an ordinal numeral, e. g., si Francisco-ng anak ni Pedro 'Francisco the son of Pedro.' si Juang katubig ni Toma's 'Juan the katubig of Thomas.' si Pedro-ng magbabaka 'Pedro the warrior.' si Pedro-ng matanda 'Pedro the aged.' si Juang ikalawa 'Juan the second.' For nouns of relationship with prefixed mag in this construction cf. S I82. c) A personal pronoun may be modified by a noun, an indefinite pronoun or a cardinal numeral; certain indefinite pronouns, by another pronoun (cf. S I86). d) The nouns in the construction in S 265 are also best considered appositives. The genitive is sometimes employed instead of an apposition to a common noun, e. g., ang bayan nang Maynila 'the city of Manila.' ang buwan nang Marzo 'the month of March.' In some cases there is little difference between an appositive and an adjective after a noun. So in a common noun without article modified by an ordinal numeral; indefinite pronouns meaning 'something, anything,' or the name of a person, followed by a descriptive adjective (cf. SS 357, 189, I73). XII. ADVERBS. IN GENERAL. S 37I. Adverbs in general usually modify a predicate, verbal or non-verbal (cf. SS 235-240; 257-264), but many, especially I I 235 those of degree, may modify single words (cf. SS 177, i87, 195, 198, 200, 202, 206, 211, 212). An adverbial idea which modifies a verb may be expressed as follows, viz.: a) by the various adverbs, an oblique case, or a prepositional phrase (cf. ~ 257-267). b) by a dependent verb in adverbial construction (cf. S 268). c) by a verb governing a dependent verb, e. g., ak6'y tumakb6-ng umalis 'I hastened to go, I went quickly.' kinusa-ng ginawa ni Pedro it6 'Pedro did this voluntarily.' d) sometimes by the verbal particles themselves, e. g., pakaisipin mo = isipin mo-ng mabuti 'consider it well.' nagpatiluh6d siya = bigla-ng lumuh6d siya 'he knelt down suddenly.' nagsasainchik siya = tila siya-ng Inchik 'he seems to be, is apparently, a Chinaman.' Adverbs of manner are closely related to descriptive adjectives; adverbs of place, to prepositions indicating place; adverbs of degree, to indefinite pronouns; and consecutive adverbs, to coordinate conjunctions. As a usual thing any ma adjective in any degree, or adjective of equality modified by an adverb with prefix ga, that denotes a quality, may be employed as an adverb of manner (cf. S~ I07, io8, 132). On the other hand any adverb that denotes manner may be used as an adjective; and many other adverbs may also be employed as adjectives (cf. S 178). USES OF SPECIAL ADVERBS. S 372. For postpositive adverbs cf. SS 205-209. The adverbs with prefixed ga are employed both as adverbs and pronouns; for their principal uses cf. SS 31, II, 123, 167, 200, 203, 275, 277, 298, 326. Adverbs of place have in general the constructions of oblique cases (cf. S 367). Adverbs denoting - 236 - manner are generally connected with the verb they modify by the ligature, or stand after it in the genitive; an adverb ending in a consonant immediately before the verb does not usually take the ligature (cf. SS 258, 259, 26I, 262). S 373. i. Adverbs of time that are not postpositive have usually one of the constructions in ~~ 260, 261; those which also indicate manner may have the construction in ~ 372. Nouns of time modified by adverbs of time used as adjectives may be used absolutely as adverbs of time; some may be preceded by sa.-e. g., alila ka baga no6ng una nina Maria 'were you ever a servant in Maria's house?' napasasimbahan (cf. ~ 409,3) kay6-ng lahat kangina-ng umaga 'did you all go to church this morning?' sa saka-ng araw 'on the day after.' The oblique cases in S 117 which are ordinarily used as adverbs with reference to the future, may be used of past time in connection with a verb in the preterite, e. g., sa isa-ng taon nagkompisal din ako 'I surely made my confession last year.' Muna is used to indicate the performance of one action before another, either expressed or understood, in the sense of 'first, beforehand;' it is therefore often employed in a principal clause modified by a subordinate clause introduced by bdgo 'before;' in connection with huwdg it indicates a mild supplication.-e. g., hintay ka muna 'wait a moment (first, before doing something else).' sapagka't siya'y linuluraan muna niya 'because he spit on him first.' binulakaan siya muina niya at ngay'o'y dinaraya 'he first frightened her by rushing at her, and now he is deceiving her.' bago ka sumulat ay isipin mo muna ang iy6-ng sasabihin 'before you write, think first what you are going to say.' huwag muna 'never mind, please don't trouble yourself.' I - 237 Na indicates in general that an action spoken of is 'now, already' finished (cf. especially SS 396, b; 398, c). In connection with a negative na has sometimes a meaning similar to that of pa, e.g., wala na baga? 6o, mayro6n pa 'is there no one else? yes, there is.' 'Now' without any idea of completed action is expressed by ngay'on. Pa is an adverb both of time and degree; as an adverb of time it means 'still, yet,' as an adverb of degree 'more, still more, in addition, else.' S 373. 2. Adverbs of degree modifying a verb have one of the regular constructions of adverbs; with adjectives and adverbs they are treated as in S 195; those which modify nouns, pronouns and prepositional phrases are postpositive (cf. SS 178, I87, 2II). For adverbs indicating a comparative or a superlative idea cf. SS 371 end; 54-56. Tumbds before nouns, indefinite pronouns and numeral adverbs has a distributive force similar to that of tig before cardinals. When used in connection with tig it emphasizes the distributive idea.-e. g., tumbas karakot 'a handful apiece.' tumbas munti 'a little for each.' tumbas tig'isa 'one each for each.' tumbas minsan 'once for each.' S 374. Affirmative adverbs usually emphasize a predicate, but may also sometimes modify single words (cf. S 206); all except tant1 and the absolute affirmatives are postpositive. Nga in a way takes the place in an affirmative sentence of the indefinite interrogative adverb in an interrogative sentence, and is used especially in answers to questions, e. g., maganda baga ang babayi 'is the woman beautiful?' maganda nga 'she is indeed.' Cf. also S 24I. Ngdni is practically a synonym of nga, but is more emphatic, e. g., bata ka ngani-ng mabaft 'you are certainly, without any doubt, a sensible boy.' -238 - Din has in affirmative sentences the idea of 'same, just;' after a negative it means 'just as little;' it is also employed to express the emphatic 'myself, etc. (cf. SS 3I; 355, 5; 291). Mandin means 'without doubt,' e. g., tawo mandin 'he is a man without doubt.' kinatitis6ran nang lungmalakad ang manga bat6 at kinatitis6ran mandin nang marami-ng kaluluwa ang manga kapanganiban 'one who walks stumbles on the stones, and danger is surely the stumbling block of many souls.' Paid indicates surprise on the part of the speaker that the thing spoken of is so, and signifies often that he believes or hopes that the contrary is true; paid stands after that which causes the surprise. Sentences containing paid are exclamatory. -e. g., ikaw pala 'what! it was you.' naparito pala siya 'he has really come!' ganit6 pala ang ganti mo sa akin 'and so it is thus you requite me!' ang iy6-ng maestro pala pinagkakanolo mo nang isa-ng halik 'what! you betray your master with a kiss!' halik pala ang ipinagkakanolo mo sa iy6-ng maestro 'for a mere kiss, you will betray your master!' The adverb and the conjunction man are of course the same word, and it is often difficult to distinguish between them, e. g., ako'y bigyan nang kakapat6ngan man lamang 'give me enough for just one crown.' pinangusapan mo siya nang katampalasanang wika sa l6ob mo man lamang 'have you assailed him with insolent words, even (if) only in your heart?' maralas wala kami-ng naaalaman anomang bago-ng kasalinang totoo, mumunti man 'frequently we do not know of any new real sin, even a very slight one (however slight it may be).' pag may salapi-ng titik, puisa ma'y tatalik 'when there is ready money, even the cat will dance.' at di man lamang maramdaman ang anoman sa hipo 'and he cannot even feel anything by touching.' -239 - For man as the final element of indefinite pronouns and adverbs cf. SS 29, 3, 127. Tanto expresses the idea of 'indeed, certainly' in a more independent way than the postpositive affirmatives; it is frequently modified by mandin.-e. g., tanto mandin 'it is certainly true.' tant6 manding nakita ko 'I most assuredly saw it.' ~ 375. Negative adverbs usually modify a predicate, but the categorical negatives may also modify single words (cf. S~~ 95,363). For the categorical negatives as modifiers of a predicate cf. ~ 223, 252, 290, 291. For the use of dili in double questions cf. ~ 304. For the use of huwdg cf. S 253, 317, 325, 377 under mazhdnga. Maka, either alone or in connection with bagd and sakdli is used in asking questions in a delicate way, rather hinting at the question than asking outright, e. g., maka ikinahiya mo at kaya di mo nasabi, 'you were not perchance ashamed, and therefore did not tell?' maka (baga) sakali ikinatakot mo 'you were perchance afraid?' Kapaldpa usually stands at the beginning of the sentence followed by ay; it may be preceded by the article. -e. g., kapalapa'y di paroro6n 'it is plain that he will come (it is surely not so that he will not come).' kapalapa'y paroro6n 'it is clear that he will not come.' ~ 376. Interrogative adverbs. For the indefinite interrogative adverbs cf. ~~ 208, 235, 254; bagd and kaya are used also as modal adverbs without any interrogative force (cf. ~ 377). The special interrogatives, when used in simple copulative sentences, constitute the predicate of the sentence (cf. ~ 239), with the exception of those meaning 'why?', e. g., ba'kit ganiyain ang tan6ng mo 'why is your question thus?' In other sentences they have usually one of the constructions in SS 261, 262. Sadn being also an adverb of place has in general the construction of an oblique case (cf. ~ 372). Paano means 'how, in what way?, maano, 'how, in what condition?', gaanb, gaalin, 'how, in what quantity?'; the last - 240 - two may stand alone, being then almost equivalent to magkano 'how much?', but they usually modify adjectives of equality.-e.g., paan6 ang pagkamataiy niya 'how did he die?' maan6 ka 'how are you, how do you do?' maan6 ang ama mo 'how is your father?' gaano-ng kalaki iyan 'how large is that?' gaan6 ang halaga nang utang ni Pedro 'how much is the amount of Pedro's debt?' gaan6 ang kala6nan mo sa Maynla 'how long were you in Manila?' gaan6-ng kalayo ang Maynila 'how far is Manila?' S 377. Modal adverbs denote ideas which are often expressed in English by auxiliary verbs, or by whole phrases or clauses. They take the various constructions of adverbs, and are frequently used in connection with the modal. M1ladno, nawa, kahimanwdri are used in desiderative sentences (cf. S 298). Sdna', sa, disin express the idea of the auxiliaries 'should, would,' and are used in sentences containing or implying a condition, e. g., an6-ng makagagambala sain sa kaniya 'what would hinder him?' Cf. also S 332. Andki, diwa, kasi, tila, ydta express the idea of 'it seems that, apparently, I think': kasi is usually postpositive, but may also stand absolutely; it has also sometimes the meaning of a causal conjunction 'in as much as.'-e. g., anaki di binyagan 'it seems that he is not a Christian.' tila tawo 'it seems to be some one.' tila ak6 nayag 'I think I consented.' darating yata 'I think he will come.' diwa'y di ko nakikilala 'it seems that I don't know him.' naparo6n kasi 'it seems that he came.' mayaman kasi si Pedro an6-ng di ikapalal6 niya 'in as much as Pedro is rich, why shouldn't he be proud?' kasi nga 'it seems so indeed.' Mardhil, updn, sakdh mean 'perhaps, perchance;' the last is used principally after kun and maka.-e. g., - 241 - marahil ay makaginhawa sa kaniya 'perhaps it (the medicine) may relieve him.' marahil darating siya 'perhaps he will come.' kun (baga) sakall parfto siya 'if perchance he should come.' maka sakali-ng may kasalanan ka-ng dakila 'I hope you haven't [committed] any mortal sin (may you not have).' Daw, kono indicate an indirect quotation, and are placed after the predicate of what is said; they are to be translated 'he says, they say, people say, it is said, as he says;' when the pronominal subject of the sentence is the same as the logical subject of the verbal idea expressed by the adverb, it stands after the adverb, otherwise it precedes: daw is much more used than kono.-e. g., mayamang mayaman ka daw 'it is said, people say, you are very rich.' namatay ka daw 'it was said that you were dead.' an6 raw ang sabi niya 'what (as he says) does he say?' lumabas siya daw 'he says let him go out.' nanayaw kon6 sila 'they say they are not willing.' mag'aaral daw siya 'he says he will study.' bayaran mo daw kapagdaka ang utang 'pay the debt immediately he says.' daratfng daw si Pedro 'they say that Pedro will come.' namatay kon6 si ali 'they say that aunty is dead.' 60 daw 'they say yes. Bagd and kaya as modal adverbs are usually employed in connection with conjunctions and adverbs (cf. SS 202, 212). Bagd may also stand as the equivalent of the consecutive adverbs alalaong, sa makatzwid (cf. S 378). Mahdnga 'it would be better that,' is usually followed by the particle ay; the negative of the following verb is huwdg. -e. g., mahanga'y nagsosolo 'it would be better to be alone.' mahanga'y huwag naginglalaki 'it would be better not to have been born a man.' Talagd means 'by nature, according to, as a result of nature, 16 - 242 - office, or position, as is fitting, proper, suitable;' it regularly precedes the predicate it modifies, and is joined to it by the ligature.- e. g., talaga-ng maasim ang dayap 'the lemon is sour by nature.' ang talaga.-ng mangungusap ay minulan niya ang salita nang ganit6 'the one whose duty it was to speak, began thus.' an6-ng talaga-ng hilig nang manga Amerikano 'what is the natural disposition of the Americans?' talaga hindi mo sila-ng pinarurusahan 'you do not punish them when they deserve it.' Tdbi is used, ordinarily by inferiors, in the sense of 'with your permission, if you will allow me?'; it is used especially as a polite request to a superior to get out of the way and allow an inferior to pass; it regularly stands absolutely at the beginning of the sentence.-e. g., tabi, p6, ak6'y daraan 'with your permission sir, I will go on (will you please allow me to pass?).' tabi, p6, ak6'y iihl 'pardon me sir if I urinate (a servant to his master).' S 378. Consecutive adverbs introduce a sentence which gives the result or explanation of some preceding statement, so that they are very similar to conjunctions. They are for the most part used absolutely or with following ay. Kaya is sometimes adverb, sometimes subordinate conjunction. When it introduces the consequence of a preceding statement it is adverbial, but when it means 'the reason why' of something in a following clause, it verges closely on the domain of the subordinate conjunction. The second clause in this latter use may be a clause introduced by a subordinate conjunction, an independent clause, or a verbal form made with the subsidiary particles ka-an (cf. S 329), e. g., dahil baga diyan kaya siya nagmamataais nang paganiyan 'was it on account of this that he puts on such a lordly air?' kaya ak6 naparito'y nang kaawaan kata at huwag ka-ng mapakasama 'the reason I came here was that I - 243 - might deal mercifully with you and that you might not be damned.' kaya hindi ko siya-ng inaakay, sapagka't matigas ang kaniya-ng ulo 'the reason I will not guide him is because he is stubborn.' For the use of a clause introduced by kaya in apposition to a noun meaning 'cause, reason' (cf. S 334). 'That is' may be expressed either by the consecutive adverbs alalaong, sa makatzwid, alone or followed directly by bagd 'as it were;' by baga alone after the explanatory word; or by the consecutive adverbs in conjunction with bagd as in the last case.-e. g., alala6ng (baga) sinuigo 'a spring b l na p- sa makatuwid (bagai) sinuigo bukal na pina- called 1.sm~go baga' ngangailang; Siloe sin b agn J Siloe, i., e., alala6ng siniug baga s ' sent.' sa makatuwid sinugo bagai Examples of other consecutive adverbs areibigay mo it6 sa anak ko, tol6y ako'y ikuha mo nang aiking libro 'give my son this and at the same time (on the way) bring me my book.' bakit nagsabi ka sa akin na hindi ikaw ang kungmuha nang salapi bago ikaw nga 'why did you tell me you didn't take any money when it was you all the time (yet you did)?' pinalo ak6 niya bago'y wala ak6-ng sinabi 'he beat me yet I said nothing.' kaya nga'y di bibigyan kata nang salapi 'therefore I will not give you any money.' hindi pa ak6-ng nakaahon at hindi ak6-ng makapagsabi sa iy6 kun ak6'y makapagdadalaw sa kaniya, di bakin ak6'y mahina pa at bago-ng galing sa sakit 'I have not been able to go yet, and I cannot tell you when I shall be able to visit her, for do you not see that I am still weak and just recovering from sickness (is it not because).' diyata'y ang wfka-ng latin kun kastila kaya ang tapat at dapat gamitin niny6 sa pagbinyag 'and so it is meet 16* - 244 and right that you should use Latin or Spanish when you baptize.' nakfta ko siya kahapon sa makatuiwid hindi siya sungmakay 'I saw him yesterday consequently (that is to say) he did not embark.' sungmisilang ang araw at lungmalakad, kun sanan sa lungmalakad, sa kalon6ran 'the sun rises and journeys (if we can use the word lungmaldkad in this case, with reference to the sun) to the west.' XIII. PREPOSITIONS. S 379. A preposition is generally used to make one word dependent on another in some case relation. The dependent word or object stands after the preposition, and may be a noun, pronoun or adverb (cf. S 2o0). The governing word may be a noun, pronoun, adjective, or verb (cf. ~~ 177, 189, 194, 266). A prepositional phrase may also stand without governing word as the predicate of a sentence (cf. ~ 220). Most of the simple English prepositions in connection with a verb are rendered simply by the oblique case, the verb itself indicating the special meaning of the case, e. g., ang tawo'y galing (cf. S 41I) sa Di6s 'man comes from God.' at sa Dios ang t6ngo niy/ 'and to God is his returning.' nakisakay ak6 sa kanila 'I embarked with them.' paroro6n ak6 sa ilog 'I shall go to the river.' Often what is a prepositional phrase in English is expressed by the i or an passives and their subject, e. g., iyang palak61 ang ip6tol mo nit6 'cut this with that hatchet.' ikaw ang ipagtitiis ko nang lahat 'for you I have suffered all.' ang aking halamana'y tatamnan ko nang sarisari-ng bulaklak 'I shall plant various kinds of flowers in my garden.' panhikan mo ak6 niya.ng manga saging 'take those bananas up for me.' - 245 - On the expression of English prepositional phrases containing an interrogative or relative pronoun cf. SS 352, 353. The prepositional idea 'without' is expressed by kidang (cf. S 2IO) or by a relative clause with wala 'not having' as its predicate, e. g., ang buhay na wala-ng hanggan 'the life without end.' pungmasok siya-ng wala-ng batibati 'he entered without a salute, without saluting.' 'Together with' is expressed by the prepositions sampon, pdti, toly (cf. ~ 210) or by nouns with prefixed ka (cf. S 362, 7). XIV. CONJUNCTIONS. S 380. Coordinate conjunctions simply connect, subordinate conjunctions connect and at the same time subordinate the sentence they introduce to another. At may be used at the beginning of an interrogative sentence (cf. S 293). At often introduces sentences which are equivalent to subordinate clauses (cf. S 303). Kun, kundt are sometimes coordinate, sometimes subordinate conjunctions. Certain words are used both as subordinate conjunctions and as adverbs, e. g., noon 'then, when,' kaya 'therefore, because.' The English conjunction 'and' is rendered by at, except in the constructions of certain coordinated nouns and pronouns (cf. SS 182, I91). The correlative 'now-now' may be expressed by the conjunction nayaonng-nayaong or by the construction in S 306. A subordinate clause introduced by a temporal conjunction (cf. S 327) may also be expressed - a) by a member of the compound sentences in SS 305-38, b) by the oblique case of a verbal abstract (cf. ~ 4I7). A subordinate clause introduced by a conjunction of purpose (cf. S 325) may also be expressed - a) by a dependent infinitive (cf. SS 269, 270), b) by the oblique case of a verbal abstract (cf. S 417), - 246 c) by a clause introduced by at (cf. S 303), d) by a clause introduced by ang (cf. S 317). A subordinate clause introduced by a causal conjunction (cf. S 328) may also be expressed - a) by the subsidiary verbal forms made with ka - an (cf. S 329), b) by means of the derivative particle pagka before a sentence (cf. S 363), c) by a clause introduced by at (cf. S 303), d) by a clause introduced by ang (cf. S 317). XV. VERBS AND QUASI-VERBS. USE OF VERBS AND QUASI-VERBS IN GENERAL. S 381. I. Verbs and quasi-verbs (except ay) are used principally as the predicate of a sentence (cf. SS 216, 224, 229, 242). Quasi-verbs (except ay) and all verbal forms except those made with certain subsidiary particles may take the article, and be used as compound relative clauses in the various constructions of the noun (cf. SS 225, 232, 251, 315-318). Verbs made with principal particles may depend on another verb, or upon a quasi-verb, adjective or noun (cf. S~ 179, 196, 268-272). For the use of the quasi-verb ay cf. ~ 424. USE OF THE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE. ~ 38I. 2. On the difference between active and passive in general cf. S~ 243, 245. On the use of the two voices, in sentences containing an interrogative pronoun or adjective, cf. S 255; in simple relative clauses, cf. S 312; in verbs with maka causative, cf. S 397; in dependent verbs, cf. SS 268-271. The different uses of the three kinds of passive have been discussed in general in S 245. A more detailed discussion follows. In general, whenever the subject indicates place or any person or thing regarded as place, including the person towards or from whom an action is directed, the an passive is employed, e.g., binabantayan ko ang bahay 'I am watching the house.' - 247 - bigyan mo ak6 nang saging 'give me some bananas (let me be your giving-place of some bananas).' si Juana'y binilhan niya nang isa-ng bulaklak 'he bought a flower from Juana.' Whenever the subject indicates cause, means, or instrument, or the person for whom or on account of whom anything is done, or is a relative pronoun referring to a noun indicating time when, the verb is put in the i passive, e. g., galit ang ikinamatay niya 'he died of rage.' iyang palakol ay ip6tol mo nit6 'cut this with that hatchet.' ang araw na idinating nang aking pinsan 'the day on which my cousin arrived.' ibili mo ang iy6-ng anak nang sapin 'buy some shoes for your son.' ihalik mo ak6 sa kamay ni ama't ni ina 'kiss for me the hands of my father and mother.' Whenever the subject is the object of the verbal action, sometimes the i and sometime the in passive is used, according to the character of the verb. In general verbs denoting an action away from the agent take the i passive, those denoting an action towards the agent, the in passive.-e. g., ibigay mo sa kaniya it6-ng libro 'give him this book.' kinuha ko iyang libro 'I took that book.' The following kinds of verbs take the i passive, viz., verbs of pulling, sowing, scattering, mixing, placing, giving, selling, speaking, teaching, comparing and imitating. The following take the in passive, viz., verbs whose subject is the material of which anything is made, and verbs of taking, asking for, appropriating, eating, drinking, calling, saying, seeking, hunting, fishing, receiving, cutting, weighing, measuring, destroying, seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, smelling, thinking, remembering, liking and loving. Whenever a verb which naturally requires the in passive has besides the direct object of the action an indirect object indicating some circumstance, either of time, instrument, cause, motive, or of place or any person or thing regarded as place, the verb may stand in the i or an passive respectively, - 248 - provided the accessory circumstances are more emphasized than the object of the action, e. g., hanapin mo ang iy6-ng libro nit6-ng ilaw 'look for your ihanap mo it6-ng ilaw nang iy6-ng libro book with this light.' hanapin mo ang iy6-ng libro sa silid 'look for your hanapan mo ang silid nang iy6-ng libro J book in the room.' Verbs which naturally require the i passive when the subject is the object of the action, do not make the in passive, but the an passive of such verbs is used, whenever the subject is a place, or any person or thing conceived of as place, e. g., isabog mo it6 sa iy6-ng bukid 1 'sow this in sabogan mo nit6 ang iy6-ng bukid your field.' itapon mo iyan sa daan 'tw in the road. tap6nan mo ang daan niyan The passives of all the verbal classes are used in conformity to the above rules. A number of the verbal classes from the nature of their signification exclude the in passive; maka causal has only the i passive; the ma class only the an passive. For the discussion of the passives of the various classes see the following section. MEANING AND USE OF VERBS MADE WITH THE VARIOUS VERBAL PARTICLES. VERBS WITH PRINCIPAL PARTICLES. Um and Mag Classes. S 382. The particles um and mag are the most important verbal particles, and are used in general to form active verbs, often without difference in meaning. Whether a certain root takes um or mag to form an active verb is in many cases simply a matter of usage, and must be learned from the dictionary. Some may take both particles. In this case, the following are the principal differences in meaning. a) Verbs expressing an action that affects only the subject, take mag, those expressing an action that affects some other person or thing, take um, e. g., -- 249 - maggam6t 'dose oneself;' gumam6t 'dose (another).' mag'aral 'learn;' umaral 'teach.' b) Verbs expressing movement that affects only the subject, take um, those expressing movement that affects another person or thing, take mag, e. g., lumaipit 'approach;' maglapit 'bring near.' tumaas 'elevate oneself;' magtaas 'elevate.' lumabas 'go out;' maglabas 'take out.' c) Verbs denoting action towards the agent of the action, take um, those denoting action away from the agent, mag, e. g., bumilf 'buy;' magbili 'sell.' umabut 'get (for oneself);' mag'abut 'get (for another).' Compare also kumuha 'take' with magbigdy 'give.' d) Verbs expressing reciprocal action take mag, or mag in conjunction with the subsidiary particle an. The persons or things concerned in the reciprocal action constitute one element of the sentence.-e. g., nag'aaway sila 'they are quarreling with one another.' magtapat ka nang manga larawan 'put the images one in front of the other.' pagtapatin mo ang manga siya 'put the chairs one in front of the other.' nagsoson6ran sila 'they obey one another.' If the action of these verbs is not mutual or reciprocal, but is performed by one of the parties concerned upon the other, i. e., when they stand in different cases, the roots are derived in the um class, e. g., si Pedro'y ungmaaway kay Juan 'Pedro is quarreling with Juan.' e) Some roots, which when combined with um express a simple action, become frequentative when combined with mag, e. g., sumulat 'write'-magsulat 'write much.' tumakb6 'run' —magtakb6 'run much.' The frequentatives of urm verbs like those in the preceding sections which have already a corresponding verb in the mag class that is not frequentative, are made according to S 83, or in the man class (cf. S 68), e. g., - 250 bumili 'buy' magbibilf 'buy much.' mamill umaral 'teach'- mangral 'teach much.' S 383. Other kinds of verbs that belong to the um class are the following. a) Active verbs of destroying, burning, breaking, and the like, the subject of which is an animate being. When the subject is inanimate, the verb must be derived in the maka causal class.-e. g., ak6'y bungmasag nang isa-ng pinggan 'I broke a plate.' sino ang sungmira nang manga halaman 'who destroyed the plants?' ang manga langam ang siya-ng lungmipol nang lahat 'the ants are those that destroyed everything.' But, ang lindol ay nakasira sa convento 'the earthquake destroyed the priest's house.' b) Verbs from nouns of instrument, signifying to make use of them, e. g., gumuntfng 'cut with scissors' from gunting 'scissors.' sumibat 'pierce with lance',, sibat 'lance.' c) Verbs from roots denoting position, signifying the act of putting oneself into such a position, e. g., tumindig 'get up, stand up' from tindig. lumoh6d 'kneel down',, loh6d. d) Verbs from roots denoting things which are expelled from the body, signifying to expel them voluntarily, e. g., tumangis 'weep.' lumura 'spit.' umihi 'urinate.' Some roots of this class, however, take mag, e. g., magpawis 'sweat.' e) Verbs indicating voluntary acts of the mind or senses, e. g., umibig 'love.' tumingin 'look.' umam6y 'smell.' tumikim 'taste.' I - 251 - Some verbs of this class, however, are derived with mag, e. g., mag'isip 'consider, think.' mag'alaala 'remember.' f) Verbs indicating 'to come forth, sprout forth, send forth,' e. g., sumilang 'rise (of sun, stars).' tumub6 'sprout (of plants).' umusb6ng 'send forth sprouts.' Some verbs of this class are derived with man, e. g., mamulaklak (bulaklak) 'blossom with flowers, flower.' mamunga (bunga) 'bear fruit.' g) Verbs from roots indicating stative abstract ideas, signifying 'to become,' e. g., gumaling 'become good.' pumuti 'become white.' yumaman 'become rich.' h) Verbs signifying to cause various passions or feelings in anyone; only the in passive is used, the person affected standing as subject.-e. g., hapisin mo siya 'make him sad.' tak6tin 'be frightened.' got6min 'be made hungry.' i) Names of various animals, etc., which cause damage to different articles are used in the in passive to indicate that the article in question (which stands as subject) is damaged by them: the active is not used.-e. g., dinaga (daga 'rat') ang kiso 'the rat ate the cheese.' binalang (balang 'locust') ang palay 'the locust destroyed the rice.' j) Verbs in the in passive from nouns of time, season, etc., meaning to 'to be overtaken by them' (cf. S 398, g), e. g., gagab'ihin ka sa gubat 'night will overtake you in the forest.' binagy6 sila sa dagat 'the hurricane caught them at sea.' k) In order to indicate absorption in an action or the preponderance of an action in such and such a place, a root is used at the same time in both the active and passive of the um class, the in or an passive being placed in immediate - 252 - sequence to the active. The verbal forms may stand unchanged in the modal, the tense being indicated by the context or by adverbs, or both forms may be fully conjugated.-e. g., umadya adyahin ang manga angeles 'the angels bend all their efforts toward freeing (those entrusted to their care).' umasawa asaw'in dito 'here everything is marrying and being married.' umaway awayan do6n 'there is nothing but quarreling there.' 1) For other verbs of the um class cf. SS 405-409. S 384. Other kinds of verbs that belong to the mag class are the following. a) Verbs meaning 'to make, sell, use, wear, eat, possess what the root indicates,' e. g., magbahay 'build a house.' magsab6n 'make soap.' magbigas 'sell rice.' mag'itl6g 'sell eggs.' magtapis 'use or wear the tapis.' magsaging 'eat bananas.' mag'arl 'have property.' Verbs of this class from nouns of relationship meaning 'to have such and such a relative' are often employed after mad/am, marzinung 'know how,' indicating to know how to perform the duties incumbent on such a relationship, e. g., si Juan ay maalam mag'ama 'Juan knows how to respect and obey his father.' si Juan ay marunung mag'ana.k 'Juan knows how to bring up sons or daughters.' b) Verbs made from names of nations and officials, meaning 'to act as, be like, be,' e. g., magkastila 'be like a Spaniard.' magpare 'act as priest.' c) Simple active verbs made from any foreign word which may be adopted into the language, e. g., magted6um 'sing the Tedeum.' - 253 magcumpisal (confesar) 'confess.' magtabako 'smoke.' d) For other verbs of the mag class cf. SS 405-409. ~ 385. Mag verbs combined with the subsidiary particle nga indicate plurality of agents (cf. S I03). Mag with subsidiary an (cf. ~ I04), besides making the reciprocal verbs in S 382, d, is used as follows, viz.: a) To denote competition with the idea also of plurality of agents or actions, e. g., magtakbohan 'run in contest (of many).' magpanaan 'shoot many arrows in contest.' b) With roots denoting motion, meaning 'to perform both the action of the root and its opposite,' e. g., maglabasan 'go in and out.' magpanhikan 'go up and down.' c) With roots denoting position, meaning 'to remain in such a position,' with an emphasis on the idea of remaining, e. g., magtahainan 'stand still like an idler.' magloklokan 'remain seated as if you have nothing to do.' d) With fully reduplicated roots, cf. S 403, d. S 386. The three passives of these two classes of verbs are used according to the rules in ~ 381. 2. The passive of verbs of the mag class is often made like that of the um class without special passive particle. The special particle pag is used in the following cases. a) It is employed whenever the sentence expresses plurality of agents or actions, reciprocal action, or the action of pretending to be something, e. g., banka-ng pinagsasakyain nang marami 'boat in which many embark.' it6-ng bahay na it6'y ang pinag'awayan nila 'this house is where they quarreled.' ang ipinag'aaway nang manga kapidbahay mo'y ang pagsusugal 'the reason your neighbors quarrel is on account of gambling.' pagtapatin mo ang manga kahoy 'put the trees one in front of the other.' - 254 - ang ipinagsakitsakftan niya'y ang hindi siya paloin 'the reason he pretends to be sick is that he may not be beaten.' b) It is employed in the an passive of those verbs where the an passive is used not only with a subject of place, but also with a subject of person or thing acted upon, whenever the subject is a real place; otherwise pag is not employed.e.g., alagaan mo it6-ng may-sakit dito sa silid 'nurse this sick man here in this room.' it6-ng silid ang pag'alagaan mo dito sa may-sakit 'this room is where you must nurse this sick man.' sidlan mo it6-ng tapayan nang langis 'put the oil in this jar.' c) It is used in the i passive when 'the person for whcm' is the subject of a verb which takes the i passive without pag with a subject of person or thing acted upon, e. g., isaing mo ang kanin 'prepare the boiled rice.' ipagsaing mo ak6 nang kanin 'prepare the boiled rice for me.' Magsi Class. S 387. Verbs compounded with magsi indicate plurality of agents, and are not used with a singular subject. The three passives, though little used are employed according to rule. -e. g., sila-ng lahat ay nagsialis 'they all went.' magsipasok kay6 'enter (pl.).' pinagsisigawa nang lahat 'it is made by all.' The idea of these verbs may be emphasized by the subsidiary particle nga (cf. S 103), e. g., ang marami sa manga nakaringig nang adal ay nangagsisampalataya 'many of those who heard the teaching, believed.' Magsa Class. S 388. The particle magsa is employed with names of nations in the sense of 'to imitate, conduct oneself after the - 255 - manner of the nation in question.' The in passive is used when the subject is that in which the resemblance consists; the i passive, when it is the cause of the action; the an passive, when it is the place.-e. g., nagsasasanglay ang manga paire 'the priests act like Chinese.' sinasasanglay nang manga pare ang pangungusap 'the priests are like Chinese in their way of speaking.' ang ipinagsasasanglay nang manga pare 'the reason the priests look like Chinese.' ang Cantong ay pinagsasasanglayan nang manga pare 'in Canton the priests act like Chinese.' Magka Class. S 389. Verbs compounded with magka signify in general 'to have something (the root) which one did not have before,' e. g., magkasakit 'have sickness, be sick.' magkalsip 'have sense.' magkautang 'have debt, owe.' With certain roots it indicates 'to have something, get into something, do something involuntarily,' e. g., magkaaway 'have a quarrel, fall out.' magkatipon 'have a meeting, meet.' magkamali 'make a mistake.' The passives are, the i when the subject is the cause, the an when it is the place of the action. Verbs of this class may take the subsidiary particle nga to denote plurality of agents (cf. S 103). Some verbs of this class take the subsidiary particle an to indicate reciprocity (cf. S I04), e. g., magkataniman 'hate one another.' di nagkakakitaan 'they cannot see one another.' Maki Class. S 390. The particle maki has the following meanings. a) It denotes 'to do something in company with,' e. g., makisama 'accompany. - 256 - makituiwa 'rejoice with.' makisakay 'embark with.' In this sense it takes the i passive when the subject is that which is added or put with, the an passive when the person or thing to or with which is the subject, e. g., ipinakikisulat ko it6 do6n 'I put this with that, so that they may be written together.' iyang manga sulat ay pakisulatan mo nit6 'let those papers have this written together with them.' b) From roots denoting 'a part, division' it forms verbs meaning 'to ask what the root indicates,' e. g., makimana 'ask for inheritance.' makipisang 'ask for a piece.' With roots denoting 'something capable of division,' it means 'to ask a little of what the root indicates,' e. g., makisuka 'ask for a little vinegar.' makiapuy 'ask for a little fire, a light.' In this sense the i passive is used when the cause or the person for whom anything is asked is the subject, the an passive when the subject is the person asked, e. g., ang may-sakit ay ipakisuka mo kay Pedro 'ask Pedro for a little vinegar si Pedro'y pakisukaan for the sick man.' mo sa may-sakit c) With words indicating state, condition or office, it forms verbs meaning 'to appear, act like,' e. g., makipare 'act like a priest.' makilalaki 'act like a man.' makiharl 'act like a king.' makitagalog 'act like a Tagalog.' Certain verbs under (a) may take the subsidiary particle an, the meaning being emphasized, e. g., makitaniman 'abhor.' makisag6tan 'ask many questions and receive answers, haggle.' The use of the an is more frequent with the secondary forms with makipag, e. g., makipagtaniman. - 257 - Magin(g) Class. S 391. Verbs compounded with magin(g) signify 'to become, pass into, be, what the root indicates,' e. g., magin(g)bat6 'become stone.' magin(g)tawo 'become man.' magin(g)kapitan 'become, be kapitan.' Verbs of this class are not used in the imperative, the imperative of the root derived in some other class being employed instead, e. g., magkapitan ka 'be, become thou kapitan.' The i passive is used when the subject is the cause, the an passive when it is the place of the action, e. g., ang pagsakop sa tawo ang siya-ng ipinagin(g)tawo nang Anak nang Dios 'the Son of God became man for the redemption of mankind.' ang pinagin(g)'alakan nang tubig ay ang bayan nang Cana sa Galilea 'the place where the water became wine was the town of Cana in Galilee.' Magkan Class. S 392. Verbs of the mnagkan class signify involuntary action, especially with reference to anything that comes out of the body; the i passive is used of cause, the an passive, of place.-e. g., magkanluluha 'weep uncontrollably.' magkan'ifhl 'urinate involuntarily.' Magkapa and Magpati Classes. S 393. The particle magkapa is used with roots indicating postures of the body or face, signifying 'to remain in them under the influence of terror or some strong emotion;' the i passive is used of cause, the an passive, of place.-e. g., magkapangisi 'remain with teeth showing.' magkapamulat 'remain with eyes wide open.' The particle magpati, used with similar roots, signifies 'to 17 -258 - get suddenly, tho voluntarily, in such a posture;' the i passive is used of cause, the an passive, of place.-e. g., magpatiluh6d 'throw oneself on the knees.' magpatirapa 'prostrate oneself.' Man Class. S 394. The general meaning of verbs of the man class is frequentative, 'to do often, to perform as regular occupation;' verbs of the um class which are inchoative, or which have initial b or p, regularly make their frequentatives in this class.e. g., manguha (k6ha) 'take much.' mamuti (puti) 'cut many flowers.' manulat (sulat) 'write much, have writing as occupation,' mamuti (p-um-uti) 'become very white.' mamilf (b-um-ili) 'buy much.' From the general meaning are developed the ideas of 'to use or carry (instruments), to wear (clothes), to dwell in (houses, etc.), to hunt or search for (animals, plants, etc.), to hunt with (dogs, etc.),' e. g., manundang (sundang) 'use, carry a knife.' mamar6 (baro) 'wear a shirt.' mamahay (bahay) 'live in a house.' mangisda (isda) 'fish.' mangahoy (kahoy) 'search for wood.' mangaso (aso) 'hunt with dogs.' manlambat (lambat) 'fish with nets.' The three passives are used according to rule (cf. S 38I. 2). Manhi Class. S 395. The general meaning of the particle manhi seems to be 'to seek, go seeking, seek to do what the root indicates.' It is used especially with words indicating filth or parasites of the body, in the sense of seeking out and cleaning the body therefrom. The i passive is used of cause, the an passive, of place.-e. g., - 259 - manhimalay (palay) 'glean rice.' manhiganti (ganti) 'seek vengeance.' manhinapang (tapang) 'exert oneself, make efforts.' manhininga (tinga) 'clean teeth of what gets between them.' manhingok6 (kok6) 'cut the nails (clean the hands of them).' manhingoto (k6to) 'clean lice from head.' Reciprocal action may be indicated by adding the subsidiary particle an, sometimes to the primary forms with manhi, but more frequently to the secondary forms with mag-hi (cf. S 75), e. g., manhingot6han } maghin ot6han 'clean one another's heads.' maghingotohan J maghimakasan (bakas) 'track one another.' Ma Class. ~ 396. Verbs of the ma class signify in general state or involuntary action. Only the an passive is made. They may be divided into the following sub-classes. a) Verbs indicating states of the mind or body, e. g., matakot 'fear.' matuwat 'rejoice.' magutum 'be hungry.' maginaw 'be cold.' The passive is used when the subject is that towards which the action of the mind is directed; the special particle is sometimes ka, sometimes maka.-e. g., ang kinatatak6tan ko'y ang Di6s 'God is whom I fear.' ang nakakalumbayan ko 'that on account of which I am sad.' makalim6tan mo ako 'forget me.' b) Intransitive verbs indicating partial or complete destruction, e. g., masira 'be destroyed.' mabasag 'break, smash.' - 260 - maball 'break, snap.' mamatay 'die.' mas6nog 'burn.' The present indicates that the destruction is taking place. To express the completion of the destruction in the present, the root, usually followed by na, is employed (cf. S 92).-e. g., namamatay 'he is dying.' nasoson6g 'it is burning.' patay na 'he is dead.' son6g na 'it is burnt up.' indi pa toy6 'it is not yet dry.' The passive is used, with special particle ka, when the place where the destruction takes place or from which it comes, is the subject; with special particle ma when the person affected stands as subject. Ka is also used of persons to express intention on the part of the agent.-e. g., ito-ng bahay ang kinamatayan nang ina mo 'this house is where my mother died.' namatayan ak6 nang anak 'I have lost a child.' ak6'y kinasiraan ni kuan 'so and so was destroyed by me.' When the time, day, hour, etc., in which the destruction took place is the subject, the passive of the maka causative class is employed, e. g., araw na ikinamatay in Pedro 'day on which Pedro died.' c) Verbs of involuntary action; the passives with ka and ma are used as in (b), e. g., matawa 'laugh involuntarily.' malihfs 'lose one's way.' matisod 'stumble.' maholog 'fall.' d) Verbs indicating to be in such and such a position, e. g., mahiga 'be lying down.' maloh6d 'be on the knees.' maop6 'be seated.' e) Verbs of becoming; the passive with ka is used of place.-e. g., - 261 - maalipin 'become a slave, servant.' maol'61 'become mad.' Ma is used in connection with the subsidiary particle nga to denote plurality of subjects, e. g., marami ang nangamamatay 'many are dying.' Ma is used in connection with the subsidiary particle an with names of nations in the signification of 'being very much like such and such a nation in conduct, customs and speech,' e. g., si kuan ay nakakastilaan 'so and so is very Spanish in his manners.' Maka Class. ~ 397. Causative verbs are made from roots indicating qualities or conditions, e. g., makatuwa 'make happy.' makatakot 'inspire fear.' makabuti 'beautify.' makahiya 'make ashamed.' The only passive is the i passive. The subject of active and passive is always the same, regarded respectively as agent and cause, hence active and passive may be used at will, e. g., f inakabubuti sa kaluluwa 'Grace beautiang gracia'y ikinabubuti nang kaluluwa tfies the soul.' ~ 398. Potential verbs are made from roots denoting action. The three passives are used in general according to rule (cf. S 381. 2). The following are the chief sub-classes. a) Verbs signifying 'to be able to do what the root indicates,' e. g., makalakad 'be able to walk, go.' makasulat 'be able to write.' makasabi 'be able to say.' b) Verbs indicating involuntary actions of the mind or senses, e. g., makaisip 'think.' makatalastas 'understand.' makaibig 'love.' - 262 makakita 'see.' makadingig 'hear.' c) Verbs indicating the point of completion of an action; the future has the meaning of an imperfect (cf. S 413, c).-e. g., ak6'y nakababasa na nit6-ng libro 1 'I am just finishing the nababasa ko na it6-ng libro reading of this book.' nakab.sa na ) 'have just finished reading.' nabasa na makababasa na.. mababa na was just finishing reading. mababasa na The preterite and modal are used to indicate the pluperfect and future perfect; in primary derivation, of the um class, in secondary derivation, of the other classes; the adverb na is regularly employed with these perfect forms.-e. g., nakasulat na 'had written.' nasuilat na 'had been written.' makasulat na 'shall have written.' masuilat na 'shall have been written.' nakapagaral na 'had studied.' napagaral na 'had been studied.' etc., etc. The preterite is used in the second of two members with verbs from the same root, connected by ay or at, in the sense of 'when, while or as soon as a certain action was performed, it reached its accomplishment,' e. g., ak6'y humingi nang manga bunga'y('t) nakahingi ak6 'I asked for fruit and obtained it.' hinanap ko ang aking ina'y nahanap ko 'I sought for my mother and found her.' hinabol ko siya'y hindi nahabol 'I ran after him but did not overtake him.' Cf. also S 307. d) Verbs of being or doing by chance or without intention. The final a of the verbal particles active and passive has a separate accent (cf. S I2), e. g., ak6'y naka-pasok do6n 'by chance I entered there.' naka-tolog si Juan 'Juan happened to be asleep.' na-kuha ko 'I took it by chance.' I - 263 - na-panhikan ko iya.ng bahay 'by chance I went up into that house.' The imperative of verbs of this class has a negative force, e. g., maki-alis si Pedro 'may it not happen that Pedro should go.' ma-kuha mo iyan 'may it not happen that you should take that.' The modal is employed after a future either twice, first after at, then after kun 'if,' or once after kun, in the sense of 'perchance the action of the first verb will be successful': in the second case the two verbs are from the same root.-e. g., ak6'y hahasik at maka-ani ak6 kun maka-ani 'I shall sow and perchance I shall gather if there is a gathering.' bubuhatin ko kun ma-buihat 'I shall lift it if perchance I may.' e) Verbs meaning 'to appear to be what the root indicates': the verbal particles are pronounced as in (d); these verbs may be varied for tense, or the modal may be used for all tenses; that with respect to which the subject of the active is similar to that expressed by the root stands in the genitive. —e. g., maka-tagalog ang pare nang pangungusap 'the priest is like a Tagalog in his speech.' naka-ror6sas it6-ng bulaklak nang am6y 'this flower is like a rose in odor.' f) Verbs used in making more or less indefinite statements about something which the speaker is ashamed or unwilling to vouch for by using the simple verb; such verbs are employed especially in confessing a fault or error.-e. g., ungmumit ka baga nang anoman 'did you steal any thing?' marahil nakaumit ak6 'perhaps I stole (something).' nakita mo ak6-ng pumatay sa kaniya 'did you see me kill him?' nakakita ako 1,,,, nakakit. ak6} 'I may have seen.' nakita ko g) The an passive derived from nouns of time, season, and -264 - weather, is used with the meaning of 'to be overtaken, caught by such times, etc.' (cf. S 383, j), e. g., ak6'y najuliohan sa Maynil 'July found me in Manila.' nagab'fhan sila sa daan 'night overtook them on the road.' naglalakad kami'y naulanan 'while we were walking we were caught in the rain.' Pa Class. S 399. Verbs of the pa class are of three kinds. a) Verbs signifying 'to allow or command something to be done to or for oneself,' e. g., pat6long 'ask for help.' pahalik 'allow to kiss.' pahipo 'allow to touch.' When the person to whom the entreaty or command is addressed is the subject, most verbs stand in the in passive, some, however, in the an passive, e. g., patol6ngin mo si Pedro 'ask, command Pedro to help you.' ang Ating Pankin6ong Di6s ay ang paawaan mo 'our Lord God is the one whom you must ask for mercy.' The i passive is used when the subject is the thing asked for or commanded, e. g., ipinaaalam ko sa pare ang anak ko 'I am asking the priest to give permission to my son.' It is also used of cause, though here the secondary form with ika (cf. S 75) is more common, e. g., ang ipinasasanguni (ikinapapasanguni, cf. S 76) ko sa iy6 ay it6-ng maliwag na usap 'this difficult case is the cause of my consulting you.' b) Verbs signifying 'to say what the root indicates,' e. g., paoo 'say yes.' pahindi 'say no.' padiablo 'say the word diablo.' The i passive is used of cause, the an of the person to whom it is said, e. g., I - 265 - an6-ng ipina-Jesus mo 'why do you say Jesus?' pa-Jesusan niny6 ang may-sakit 'say Jesus to the sick man.' c) Verbs of motion from adverbs of place and oblique cases, e. g., parito 'come here.' pado6n 'go there.' pasabukid 'go into the country.' pasa-Maynila 'go to Manila.' Sometimes the sa of the oblique case is omitted, e. g., pabukid 'go into the country.' The i passive is used when anything brought or carried to the place indicated by the root is the subject; the an passive when the subject is the terminus of the motion. When the subject is the cause of the motion the secondary form with ika (cf. S 75, i) is employed.-e. g., ipailaya mo it6 'bring this up' paro6nan mo si Pedro 'go to Pedro.' ang Maynfla ang paroro6nan ko 'I shall go to Manila.' an6-ng ikinapaparo6n mo sa Maynila 'why are you going to Manila?' Magpa Class. S 400. Verbs of the magpa class indicate in general 'to order, ask, cause, or permit some one or something to do what the root indicates.' They may be divided into the following sub-classes. a) Verbs of ordering asking, and entreating; the difference in meaning depends on the relation of the agent to the person who is to perform the action, a master orders, a son requests, a prisoner entreats, etc.-e. g., magpagawa 'order, ask to do.' magpasulat 'order, ask to write.' The in passive is used of the person ordered or asked to do something; the i or an passive, of the thing (or person) ordered or asked to be done, according as the root in its simple meaning is used respectively in the i or in or in the an passive.-e. g., 266 - pasulatin m6 si P6dro 'order Pedro to write.' ipasulat mo it6 sa bata 'order the boy to write this' (sulat-in). ipatawag mo sa iy6-ng ama ya6ng magin6o 'tell your father to call that prominent citizen' (tawag-in). paingatan mo sa kaniya it6 'tell him to guard this' (ingat-an). b) Verbs of permitting something to be done or of waiting until something happens, e. g., magpabulok 'let rot.' magpatoy6 'let dry.' magpasilang 'wait for the sun to rise.' magpatila 'wait until it clears off.' The in passive is used of the thing permitted or awaited, e. g., patilain mo ang ulan 'wait until it stops raining.' patoyoin mo iyan 'let that dry.' c) Verbs of causing intentionally what the root indicates, either absolutely or to some object, e. g., magpakulog 'cause thunder (of God).' magpaulan 'make it rain (of God).' magpaalon 'make the waves rise (of God).' magpalaki 'cause to grow, bring up (of a parent).' d) Verbs of placing oneself in or causing oneself to be in the condition indicated by the root, e. g., magpabuiti 'beautify, adorn oneself.' magpapuri 'cause oneself to be praised.' magpaaraw 'sun oneself, expose oneself to the sun.' e) Verbs of putting something in the condition or position indicated by the root, e. g., magpatindig 'make upright, set up.' magpaaraw 'put in the sun.' magpalamig 'expose to cold.' The i passive is used of the thing put, the an passive, of place, e. g., ipalamig mo ang tubig 'put the water out to freeze.' yari-ng batalan ang pinagpalamigan nang tubig 'this terrace is where water is put to freeze.' / - 267 - ipatindig mo iyang larawan 'set up that image.' patindigan mo it6-ng altar niyang larawan 'set up that image on this altar.' f) Verbs of asking for or demanding what the root indicates, e. g., magpabuwis 'ask for tribute.' magpalim6s 'ask for alms.' magpatbo6 'demand as interest.' magpasanla 'demand a pledge.' The in passive is used of the person asked; the i passive, of what is demanded, the an passive, of the place where the demand is made, or of that from which the demand arises.-e. g., pinabuwis ko si Pedro nang piso 'I demanded tribute of a peso from Pedro.' isa-ng piso ang ipinabuwis ko kay PNdro 'one peso was the tribute I demanded of Pedro.' it6-ng bayan ay ang pinagpabuwfsan ko 'this town is where I demanded tribute.' ang lima-ng piso na inutang ko kay Juan ay pinatutub6an niya sa akin nang isa-ng salapi 'for the five pesos which Juan loaned me, he demanded four reals interest.' g) Verbs of giving what the root indicates, e. g., magpabuhay 'give life.' magpatingin 'give, restore sight (as in a miracle).' magpakain 'give to eat.' magparamit 'give clothing.' magpakumpisal 'hear confession.' magparusa 'impose penance, punish.' magpasalamat 'give thanks, thank.' The i passive is used of that which is given; the in or an passive, of the person to whom it is given, e. g., ipinauitang ko sa iy6 ang salapi ko 'I lent you my money.' pakanin ang nagugutom 'give food to the hungry man.' parusahan ang may kasalanan 'punish the sinner. The nouns derived from the passive stems of verbs of this class (cf. ~ 95) take a genitive of the one who orders or gives, - 268 - and an oblique of the one ordered or given to. The adverbs so derived take the constructions in SS 258, 259.-e. g., ito'y parala sa akin ni ina 'this was sent (is a thing sent) to me by my mother.' it6'y gaw'in mo-ng paupo 'do this seated.' putlin mo it6 nang pahaba 'cut this lengthwise.' Magpaka Class. S 401. Verbs of the magpaka class may be divided into the following sub-classes. a) Verbs of voluntarily making or allowing oneself or some other person or thing to become what the root indicates, e. g., magpakabuti 'beautify oneself, beautify.' magpakayaman 'enrich oneself, enrich.' magpakamatay 'commit suicide, allow oneself to be killed.' The i passive is used of cause; the an passive of place, pagpaka being used as special particle. b) Verbs in which the meaning of the root is emphasized, e. g., magpakalsip 'think profoundly.' magpakaingat 'take great care.' magpakatanda 'note well.' The three passives are used according to rule (cf. S 381. 2), the special particle being usually paka, tho sometimes pagpaka. c) Verbs from nouns of time signifying 'to do, remain, or wait up to that time;' that which is done or persevered in may stand as dependent infinitive.-e. g., magpakaaraw ka-ng magaral 'study until day.' The in passive is used of the person made to remain or detained; the i passive of cause; the an passive of place. The special particle is sometimes paka, sometimes pagpaka.-e. g., huwag mo ak6-ng pakapag'umagahin 'don't detain me until morning.' ang ipinagpapakapuiyat ko ay yari-ng gawa 'I sit up all night with this work.' it6-ng silid ay ang pinagpakapuyatan ko 'I sat up all night in this room.' - 269 SECONDARY VERBAL DERIVATION. S 402. In secondary verbal derivation the primary particles ordinarily preserve the meaning they had in primary derivation. The secondary particles (cf. S 75) have the following meanings, viz.: Maka with all permissible classes 'to be able to do what the primary verb denotes;' maka has this meaning when combined with active stem of a maka causative verb. Makd- with all permissible classes 'to do by chance what the primary verb denotes.' Maka with all permissible classes except II d, e (magka, maki) expresses the pluperfect and future-perfect of the primary verb. Magsi indicates plurality of agents. Pa 'to order, ask for oneself, permit to be done to oneself what the primary verb denotes': pa is used with the magpa class only in verbs which denote giving, e. g., pa-pa-kain 'ask to give to eat;' papagpa-kdin 'ask many times to give to eat.' Magpa 'to order, ask, entreat to do what the primary verb denotes.' In verbs of the mag class, while the special passive particle pag may be retained, it is usually omitted, the difference between the mag and um classes being shown by the construction of the verb, e. g., magpalabds ka kay Pedro 'order Pedro to go out;' magpalabds ka kay Pedro nang damit 'order Pedro to take out the clothes.' Magpa is used secondarily with its own class with all those verbs which do not denote 'to order etc.,' and even sometimes with those meaning 'to order, etc.,' e. g., magpa-pa-sulat 'order some one to order somebody else to write.' Maki 'to join in doing what the primary verb denotes.' Double maki indicates 'to join in doing something without being invited,' e. g., maki-paki-zsap 'join in conversation without being asked.' -270 Ma imparts an involuntary meaning to the primary verb. When it is combined with stems beginning with pag, the pag is dropped, and ma is prefixed to the rest of the particle; in other words the involuntary verbs are apparently formed from the voluntary by changing mag to ma (cf. ~ 75, f): cf. magpauldn 'put in rain' with ma-pa-uldn 'leave in rain,' magpati-hodog 'fling' with ma-pati-holog 'fall.' The preterite an passive of ma combined with various classes signifies 'to get or gain by an action,' that which is gotten or gained standing as subject, e. g., itb-ng gintby napagkantahdn ko 'I earned this gold by singing.' Um with verbs of motion of the pa class makes secondary verbs which do not differ in meaning from the primary verbs, e. g., pairito, p-um-a-rito 'come here;' pasabdhay, p-um-asabd/.ay 'go to the house.' Mag with verbs of the man class, and pa verbs of saying (cf. ~ 399, b) imparts a frequentative idea to the primary verb, e. g., mag-panzuat (sidat) 'be occupied with writing;' mag-pa-oo 'say yes many times.' With pa verbs of motion (cf. ~ 399, c) it denotes voluntary action, e. g., mag-pa-sadmin 'come to us (vol.);' mag-pa-ibaba 'go down (vol.).' Ka, the passive particle of the maka causative class, simply emphasizes the causal meaning of the i passive. Secondary verbs made with um and mag from verbs of the manhi class, and those made with mag and magka from the active stem of the um class, hardly admit of classification. VERBS FROM FULLY REDUPLICATED ROOTS. S 403. In general verbs made in the various classes on the basis of fully reduplicated roots may have either an emphatic or frequentative, or a diminutive meaning, according as they are pronounced with more or less emphasis. The most important varieties of this kind of verbs are the following. - 27I - a) Verbs of the um class are usually diminutive, the corresponding emphatic verb being made with mag, e. g., si Juan ay bumabasabasa 'Juan reads a little.' si Juan ay magbabasa 'Juan reads a great deal.' dinaralarala ko it6-ng sangol 'carry this baby in your arms a little.' b) The future active of the um class of certain roots is used in the sense of a present to express certain kinds of motion, usually motion from side to side, e. g., susuraysuray 'stagger.' babalibaligtad 'toss about (intr.).' uukod'ukod 'walk bent over.' c) Verbs of the mag class are usually emphatic or frequentative. When the mag verb from the simple root is already frequentative, the idea is still further heightened by this formation.-e. g., mag'isip'isip 'think long.' magsunodsun6d 'follow one after another (of many).' magsumpa 'curse much.' magsumpasumpa 'curse very much.' d) Verbs made with mag-an are in some cases emphatic or frequentative, e. g., magyakapyakapan 'embrace one another closely.' mag'abut'abutan 'pass many things from hand to hand.' But they are also frequently diminutive, meaning to 'pretend to be or do what the root indicates,' e. g., magbanalbanalan 'pretend to be righteous.' magsakitsakitan 'pretend to be sick.' magbahaybahayan 'play at building houses (of children).' magkagatkagatan 'bite playfully (of dogs).' e) Verbs of magka and magpaka classes are regularly emphatic or frequentative; some of the magka verbs have reduplication of the first syllable of the root in addition to the full reduplication (cf. S 83).-e. g., nagkakapalaypalay 'has much rice.' nagkakasisirasfra 'be destroyed completely.' magpakaisip'isip 'think about a thing very much.' - 272 - f) Verbs of the man class are made without assimilation. They are diminutive denoting 'to be like.' The modal may be used for any tense.-e. g., manbagyobagy6 it6-ng hangin 'this wind is like a hurricane.' mangalitgalit ya6ng pangungusap 'that way of speaking approaches anger.' g) Verbs of the ma class are sometimes emphatic and sometimes diminutive. Ma may be employed with the same meaning as man in (f), e. g., mabagyobagyo, magalitgalit. In verbs of destruction the diminutive is distinguished from the emphatic by the adverb na, e. g., natotoyotoy6 'is very dry.' natotoyotoy6 na 'is somewhat dry.' A present of this formation may be made from various nouns and roots in the sense of 'to be certainly, without doubt what the noun or root indicates,' e. g., natatawotawo 'he is a man without doubt.' nabubuhaybuhay 'he is surely alive.' h) Verbs made with ma-an are diminutive, e. g., natatagatagalogan 'is something like a Tagalog.' THE SUBSIDIARY VERBAL FORMS. S 404. The meaning of the verbal forms made with the various subsidiary particles has already been sufficiently discussed. For those made with primary subsidiary particles cf. ~~ 98 -102, 247, 306-308, 329. For those made with secondary subsidiary particles, cf. SS 103 -105; 385; 387; 389; 390; 395; 396; 403, d, h. VERBS FROM OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH. In General. S 405. Verbs may be made not only from roots, and secondarily from verbal stems, but also from many derivative nouns and adjectives, from pronouns, numerals, and adverbs, and even from case forms and whole phrases. I - 273 - From Nouns and Adjectives. S 406. —I) Nouns with prefixed pala, taga, and abstracts derived with ka -an, may be verbalized by mag in the sense of 'to be or do what the word to be verbalized indicates,' e. g., magpalainuim 'be a drunkard.' magtagapagsaing 'cook.' magkabanalan 'do virtuous acts.' 2) Nouns with prefixed pala may also be verbalized as irregular polysyllabic roots of the first class (cf. S 89), e. g., from palasumpa, malasumpba cu malalasumpa (fut.) a curser. 3) Adjectives and frequentatives are verbalized by mag in the sense of 'to pretend to have the quality indicated by the adjective or frequentative,' e. g., magmarinung 'pretend to be learned.' magmabuti 'pretend to be beautiful.' mag-magkakanta 'act like a cantor.' magmalimutin 'pretend to be forgetful.' 4) Adjectives like makakiyahiya (cf. S I5I, g) take mag in the sense of causing the feeling indicated, e. g., magmakalumbaylumbay 'move to sadness.' magmakagalitgalit 'move to anger.' 5) Sing and kasing adjectives are verbalized by mag 'in the sense of 'to make what the adjective indicates.' In these verbs si is reduplicated in present and future.-e. g., magsinghaba 'make equally long' magkasinghabab. 6) Adjectives of equality with prefixed ka may take mag of reciprocity, e. g., kay6 ni Juan ay magkat6to 'you and Juan be friends to one another.' 7) For mag verbs from nouns with prefixed man cf. 408, 5. 8) Nouns with prefixed taga, ka (of equality) those derived with ka-an indicating material sufficient for, and ma adjectives, take the in passive in the sense of 'to make or consider what the word to be verbalized indicates;' root adjectives must take x8 -274 - ma before they can have this formation; sing and kasing adjectives may take the in passive of the mag class, the i and an of the um class, in the same meaning.-e. g., ak6'y tagatan6rin mo nang manga anuang mo 'make me herdsman of your carabaos.' katolongin mo si Pedro 'take Pedro for your helper.' it6'y kinakabar6an ko 'I consider this enough for a shirt.' minamarapat ko-ng sumulat sa iy6 'I think it is suitable to write to you.' minamabanal (adj. banal) ko yari do6n sa isa 'I think this one is more righteous than the other.' pagsing -laparin mo it6-ng dalawa-ng banig 'make pagkasing these two mats the same width.' isinghaba mo ito doon isinghaban mo iya6n nit 'make this as long as that. singhabaan mo yaon nito 9) Nouns -of instrument with prefixed pan make the in passive. When the material of which the instrument is to be made stands as subject it means 'to be made into the instrument;' when a pronoun representing the instrument is subject it indicates 'to use the instrument.'-e. g., pamaloin mo it6-ng baikal 'make this iron into a hammer.' pamaloin mo muina it6 'use this hammer first.' In the first case it is better to use gawa 'make,' with the instrument in the construction in S 265, e. g., gaw'in mo-ng pamalo it6-ng bakal. io) The nouns with prefixed ka are verbalized with maki in the sense of 'to ask some one to be what the root indicates,' e. g., si Pedro'y nakikatuibig sa akin 'Pedro asked me to be his companion in drinking water.' i ) Magin(g) is used to make verbs of various nouns of agency and adjectives in the sense of 'becoming,' e. g., magin(g)palausap 'become a pleader.' magin(g)piy6hin 'become gouty.' 12) Nouns with prefixed ka may be combined with makdt indicating 'by chance,' e. g., na-kasama ko it6 'by chance this one joined himself with me.' - 275 - From Pronouns. S 407.- I) The prepositive genitives of the personal pronouns are verbalized in the active with mag, in the passive with in, in the sense of 'to consider as belonging to the person or persons indicated by the root;' with magin(g) they indicate 'becoming.'-e. g., mag'akin 'consider as mine.' mag'iy6 'consider as yours.' aakinin ko 'I shall consider it mine.' kinaniya ko 'I considered it his.' iniiy6 ko it6-ng libro 'I consider this book yours.' magin'iy6 'become yours.' The nominative of pronouns of the second person takes um meaning 'to use the pronoun in address,' e. g., umikaw 'use ikdw, say thou to.' 2) From the pronoun ano are derived numerous verbal forms. It may take-mag and the in passive in the sense of making, doing; maka potential 'to be able;' ma of condition; mapa of involuntary motion.-e. g., nag'aan6 ka 'what are you doing?' inaan6 baga ya6ng bata 'what are you doing to that boy?' aanhin mo ak6 'what are you going to do to me?' anhin mo it6 'what do you want with this?' anhin kata 'what do I want with you?' di mo ako maan6 'you can't do me any harm (anything to me).' maan6 ka 'how are you' mapapaan6 kaya sa infirno ang manga napapakasama 'what will be the condition (to what will they come) of the lost in hell?' tingnan mo kun napaan6 'see what has happened to him.' In certain idioms it takes um, and magpa combined with um and the in of the passive, e. g., mangyari-ng umano 'what can be done (expecting a negative answer)?' 18* - 276 - di uman6 'they say, it is said.' aan6 ka dito 'what do you want here?' magpaumanhin ka 'have patience.' Other interrogative pronouns are also sometimes verbalized, e. g., pinagsisino niny6 si gat Juain 'what (who) do you think Mr. Juan is?' nagmamagkan6 it6-ng singsing 'what is the value of this ring?' For ildn cf. S 408. 3) Many of the indefinite pronouns may be verbalized, e. g., umibai,. magib. 'become changed.' mag iba J maglahat 'do together.' magkasiyai 'have enough.' For verbal forms from kudn cf. S 355, 8. From Numerals. S 408. A number of important verbal forms are derived from the numerals, and the related interrogative ildn. In the compound numerals the passive suffixes in and an may be added after the first, or at the end of the whole numeral, the agent always following the passive suffix directly. When the two parts of a compound numeral connected by the ligature are separated by the passive suffix, the ligature stands immediately before the second part of the numeral. I) The cardinal numerals and ildn make the following forms, viz.: a) with um, except isa, pit, walo, meaning 'to reach such and such a number;' the modal is used for all tenses.-e. g., dumalawa 'there will be as many as two, the number will reach two.' lumabi-ng isa 'there will be as many as eleven.' di dumalawa-ng p6wo 'there will not be as many as twenty.' b) with magin(g), the meaning being the same as above; these verbs may be varied to express tense.-e. g., - 277 - magin'isa, maginpit6, maginwalo, 'let there be one, seven, eight.' magigin'apat 'there will be four.' nagindalawa lamang 'there were only two.' c) with the in passive of the um class meaning 'to makes take, or consider so many,' e. g., iilanin ko 'how many have I to make or take?' limahin mo kun animin 'make or take five or six.' labl-ng isahin mo, labihn mo-ng i. 'make, take eleven.' labihin mo-ng isa ak6'y iniilan mo 'how many (people) do you think I am?' ak6 yata'y sinasanglibo mo nang marami-ng uitos 'it seems that you think I am a thousand to judge from your many commands (I am madea thousand by you with [your] many commands).' d) with mag meaning 'to divide into so many parts' or 'to be so many,' e. g., magtatl6 ka niyan 'make three of that, divide it into three parts.' mag'isa 'to be alone.' nagdaralawa sila 'they are two, there are two of them.' e) with the in passive of mag with same meaning as (d), e. g., it6-ng kawayan ay paglimahin mo 'divide this cane into five parts.' f) with the an passive of mag, indicating that 'so many come to or against the subject,' e. g., ak6'y pinagdalawahan, pinaglimahan 'two or five came against me.' 2) The ordinals may take the in passive of the um class meaning 'to be made first, second, etc.;' ikaildn takes the same formation.-e. g., ak6'y ikailanin mo-ng sug6in 'the how-many-eth are you going to make me when you send me?' kita'y ikalilimahin 'I will make you the fifth.' They may be combined with maki, the i of the ordinal being - 278 - dropped, or better contracted with i of maki, signifying 'to ask for the part indicated by the ordinal,' e. g., makikalima 'ask for a fifth.' 3) The fractions may be verbalized by um meaning 'to be such and such a part of,' e. g., ang lakas nang tawo ay dili sungmasaikasanglibo nang lakas nang angel 'the strength of man is not the thousandth part of the strength of angels.' 4) The distributives formed by reduplication from the cardinals, take the in passive, and are used with a following dependent verb, which expresses the real action of the sentence; ilanildn takes the same formation.-e. g., iilan'ilanin ko-ng bilangin 'how many shall I count at a time?' isaisahin mo-ng bilangin 'count one at a time.' dinalaralawa-ng sinugo6 ni J6su Cristo ang manga ap6stoles 'Jesus Christ sent out the Apostles two by two.' tatlotatlohin mo-ng kunin 'take three at a time.' labilabihin mo-ng isa-ng itapon 'throw them eleven labilabf-ng isahin mo-ng itaipon at a time.' 5) The distributives with prefixed tig, and the related distributive nouns with prefixed man (cf. S 153), are verbalized with mag to indicate 'to give, take, make, cut, etc., for each one so many of-,' and are followed by the genitive of what is given, taken etc.; tig'ildn takes the same formation. Both active and an passive are used.-e. g., magtig'isa kay6 nang saging 'give each one one banana.' pagtitig'isahan mo sila nang tabako 'give each one a cigar.' magmanaan kay6 nang piso 'give each one a hundred pesos.' These mag verbs may be further combined with the in passive of the magpa class meaning 'to have or cause each one to take so much,' e. g., papagtig'isahin mo sila nang saging 'let each one take a banana.' * pinapagmangaba.n (kaban) ko sila 'I made each one take a kaban (of rice).' - 279 - 6) The numeral adverbs and makaildn may be verbalized by mnag; in the active the meaning is 'to do so many times.' -e. g., nagmakailan ka na nang gay6n 'how often did you do this?' ak6'y nagmakalima 'I did it five times.' These verbs are also used to indicate the period of intermittent fevers, e. g., nagmamakailang-araw ang lagnait 'what is the period of the fever?' nagmamakalawa 'every two days.' The in passive signifies 'to do in so many times,' e. g., pagminsanin mo-ng itapon iyan 'throw that away all at once.' pagmakalawahin mo-ng kunin 'take it in two times.' The an passive corresponds in meaning to the active, or is used to indicate a comparison in which one term of the comparison exceeds the other a certain number of times in some respect. The superior term is made the agent, the inferior, the subject; that with respect to which the comparison is made stands as indirect object in the genitive.-e. g., pinagmakalawahan ko-ng hinampas siya 'I beat him twice.' si Pedro'y pinagmakalawahan ni Juan nang pagkain at nang paglakad 'Juan ate and walked twice as much as Pedro.' From Adverbs and Phrases. S 409. In some cases it is the root, which is often identical with the adverb, that is verbalized, rather than the adverb itself. The most important of these verbalized adverbs and phrases are the following. I) The oblique case of certain nouns and pronouns, and the interrogative adverb sadn may be verbalized in the um class, signifying 'be continuously in, live in a place,' e. g., sumalangit 'be, reside in heaven' (sa langit 'in heaven'). sungmasaan si Juan 'where does Juan live?' - 280 - sungmasaang-bahay si Juan 'in which house does Juan live?' (saang bahay 'in which house?', cf. S 226). si Luis ay sungmakana-Pedro 'Luis lives with Pedro and his family' (kana Pedro 'at the house of Pedro and his family'). 2) Adverbs of place and oblique cases may be verbalized in the mag class in the sense of 'to put in a place,' e. g., magdini ka niyang libro 'put that book here.' magsaaraw ka nang damit 'put the clothes in the sun' (sa araw). The corresponding passive is the i passive of the um class, e. g., isadraw mo ang damit. 3) Adverbs of place and the oblique case of nouns and pronouns may be verbalized in the pa class, in the sense of motion towards the place indicated by the adverb or oblique. Some of these verbs are secondarily compounded with mag and ma (cf. S 75).-e. g., parito 'come here.' paro6n 'go there.' pasabahay 'go to, into the house.' magpasaamin 'come to us (voluntarily).' mapasaamin 'come to us (invol.).' Some of these verbs may be further derived in the um class without difference of meaning, e. g., pumarito 'come here, come.' 4) The indefinite adverbs of place may be also combined with magka and um (cf. S 75) in the sense of 'to be in a place,' e. g., magkadumito 'be there.' 5) Doon forms a number of other verbs, e. g., magkaro6n 'have, possess.' mando6n 'be in a heap.' 6) The indefinite adverbs of manner may be verbalized in the um class and may take the in passive of this class, and the passive of maka causative, e. g., gumayari 'do, make like this.' gumaya6n 'do, make like that.' gait6hin mo 'make it like this.' -28 - an6-ng ikinagait6 mo kay Pedro 'why are you doing this to Pedro (what is the cause of your doing this)?' 7) From huwdg are made the following passive forms, e. g., huwagin mo iya.n 1}, huwagan mo iyan ' 'don't do that.' huwagl (iyan) J pahuwagin mo iyang bata niyan ' tell that boy not to pahuwagan mo iyan diyan sa bata do that.' 8) Many other adverbs may be verbalized in various ways, e.g., it6'y minamayamaya ko 'I did this a moment after.' pagbabagohin ko ang aking bahay 'I shall renovate my house.' tinakis }. inaks, niyia 'he did it on purpose. pinaksa J tambingin mo-ng kunin 'take it immediately.' magtumbas kay6 nang munti 'each of you take a little.' 9) Magin(g) may be used to verbalize many words and phrases in the sense of 'to be, become,' e. g., magin(g)magkan6 'be how much?' magin(g)paan6 'be how?' magin(g)-manga-ilaing-raw 'be or become some days, be some days after.' In some cases magin(g) has become practically a conjunction (cf. S I36). o1) Magka may be used to verbalize words and phrases in the sense of 'to have,' e. g.' magka-isa-ng-loob 'have (be of) one mind.' magka-ganit6 'be like this (have such a fate as this).' It also forms verbs from the in and an passives, um class, of the verbs denoting action of the senses, meaning to be deceived by the sense in question. The passive may be varied for tense, and the reduplication may be omitted in the particle in present and future.-e. g., nagka-kinitaan ak6 'my eyes deceived me.' magka-riringgan ka 'your ears will deceive you.' nagka-kinikita 1 raw si Ana nang 'Anna says she sees nagkaka-kinikita J kaniya-ng asawa visions of her (dead) husband.' nagkaka-kinikitaan ak6 'my eyes deceive me.' 282 -- CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING. S 410. Verbs made with tense particles may be approximately divided with regard to their meaning, into the following categories, viz.: I) Stative verbs, denoting a state or condition; ma, magka, magkapa classes (cf. SS 396, 389, 393). 2) Verbs of habitual position or condition; unm class (cf. S 409, I). 3) Verbs indicating a change of state; magin(g), ma, um classes (cf. SS 39; 396, e; 383, g). 4) Verbs of involuntary action; ma, maka, magkan, and in secondary derivation ma-pa, ma-paki, ma-paka, mapati classes (cf. SS 396, c; 398, d; 392, 402). 5) Verbs of simple voluntary action; urn, mag classes (cf. SS 382-384). 6) Verbs of motion towards; pa class (cf..S 399, c). 7) Plural verbs; magsi class, and the combinations of certain classes with the subsidiary particle nga (cf. SS 387, I03). 8) Frequentative verbs; man, mag (sometimes), and reduplicated forms (cf. SS 394; 382, e; 83). 9) Augmentative verbs; magpaka class and reduplicated forms (cf. SS 40I, 78, 403). IO) Diminutive verbs; reduplicated forms (cf. SS 78, 403). i ) Reflexive verbs; urn, mag, magpati, magpa, magpaka classes (cf. SS 382, a, b; 393; 400, d; 401, a; also 355, 5). 12) Reciprocal verbs; mag class and combinations of subsidiary particle an with various classes (cf. S 382, d; 104). 13) Causative verbs; maka, magpa, magpaka classes (cf. SS 397; 400, c; 401, a). I4) Mandative and permissive verbs; pa, magpa, magpaka classes (cf. SS 399, a; 400, a, b, g; 401, a). 15) Demandative verbs; maki, magpa classes (cf. SS 390, b; 400, f). 16) Potential verbs; maka class (cf. S 398). 17) Verbs indicating completion; maka class (cf. S 398, c). - 283 18) Associative verbs; maki class (cf. S 390). 19) Verbs of similarity, of being or acting like; magsa (but little used), maki, maka, mag, ma, man classes (cf. SS 388; 390, c; 398, e; 384, b; 396 end; 403, f, g, h). 20) Verbs of saying so and so; pa class (cf. S 399, b). 2I) Verbs of putting or placing; mag, magpa classes (cf. ~~409,2; 400, d,e). 22) Verbs of seeking out and cleansing from; manhi class (cf. S 395). USE OF ROOT FORMS. ~ 4II. The use of the simple root as a verb is comparatively rare except in familiar conversation. The auxiliaries aydw, ddpat, ibig and szkat, however, are regularly employed in the root form. Gdling 'come from' is also commonly employed in the root form, e. g., saan ka-ng galing 'where do you come from?' ang tawo'y galing sa Di6s 'man comes from God.' Verbs of the ma class are used in the root form as in SS 92; 396, b. In the imperative, the root form is often used instead of forms with verbal particle (cf. ~~ 79, 80, 250). The root is also employed, especially in familiar conversation, as the equivalent of a passive verb, e. g., at sa Di6s din ang t6ngo niya 'and to God also he returns (is his return).' magkan6 ang halagai niyang bairo-ng dald mo 'how much is that shirt you have brought?' ya6ng salawal na bigdy ko sa iy6 'those trowsers I gave you.' mabuiti, Juan, ang sdbi ko sa kaniya 'good, Juan, said I to him.' ang wika nang isa-ng bata sa kaniya-ng panginoon ay may tawo dito sa labas 'said a servant to his master, there is some one without.' papasok baga siya ang tanong nang bata 'shall he enter? —asked the servant.' - 284 - pumasok na ang sagot nang panginoon 'let him enter answered the master.' kun wala ka-ng dald-ng salapi ay huwag ka-ng pumasok dito 'if you haven't brought any money, don't come in here.' USE OF THE TENSE AND MODE FORMS. S 412. The modal is employed as follows. a) As a verbal noun constituting the subject or predicate of a sentence, e. g., mahailay ang magmatapang 'boasting of bravery is disgusting.' ang magalam ay parati-ng pakana 'to know is always useful.' ang ugall nit6-ng hayop ay humanap nang pagkabuhay sa araw'araw lamang 'the custom of this creature is to seek its livelihood from day to day only.' b) As an infinitive after nouns, adjectives and verbs (cf. SS 179, I96, 269, 270), and as an adverb after a verb (cf. ~ 268). c) As an imperative (cf. ~ 249). d) For the present: when the action is contemporaneous with the speech, e. g., ak6'y malls na 'I go.' kainin ko 'I eat.' In the principal clause of a complex sentence, when the action of the principal and subordinate clauses are contemporaneous, e. g., kun nagagalit ang maestro parusahan niy6 ang lahat na manga bata 'when the teacher is angry, he punishes all the boys.' After a negative, especially in the case of verbs of the maka potential class, e. g., hindi ak6 makapagaral 'I cannot study.' hindi ko masabi 'I cannot say.' e) For the preterite in certain dependent clauses, e. g., sila'y nangagulat nang makita nila ang ahas 'they were frightened when they saw the snake.' f) As a sort of subjunctive to express modal ideas, especially in dependent clauses, e. g., - 285 - sino-ng di tumawa 'who would not laugh?' Cf. also SS 30o-334, 377. S 413. The future is employed as follows. a) Principally as a future. b) As an emphatic imperative, with the same construction, both in affirmative and negative sentences as the modal used imperatively, e. g., tatandaan mo it6 'note this well.' huwag mo ak6-ng kalilimutan 'don't forget me.' c) In sentences containing a temporal clause in the sense,of 'was just about to,' e. g., nang ak6'y aalis na ay dungmating ang ina ko 'when I was about to go, my mother arrived.' d) To indicate a customary action which is conceived of as going on into the future, e. g., susuka si kuan 'so and so has spells of vomiting.' bakit ikaiw ay di kakain 'why don't you eat (why are you abstaining from food)?' hahampasin kata bago wala ka-ng bait 'I beat you (continually) and yet you have no sense.' e) As the equivalent of the modal in its subjunctive use, e. g., sino-ng di tatawa 'who would not laugh?' S 414. The preterite is used only of past time, except in maledictions, where it refers to the future (cf. S 297). S 4I5. The present is employed as follows. a) For the most part as a present. b) In connection with adverbs indicating past time, as an imperfect to express continuous action in the past, e. g., ak6'y bungmabaisa kahapon 'I was reading yesterday.' c) Instead of the preterite, when the verb has the meaning of the English present perfect, e. g., kinuha mo baga ang baro ko 'have you taken my shirt?' hindi ko kinukuha (or kinuha) 'I have not taken it.' S 416. Participles when used absolutely take the same construction as a, noun, and may be used with the article and the plural particle mangad When used adjectively they are connected by the ligature with the word modified. Participles - 286 - are practically identical with verbs of relative clauses, it being immaterial whether the article or ligature before the verbal form be considered as simple article or ligature, or as relative pronouns. The verbal form approaches more nearly to our idea of a participle when it stands without verbal modifiers, or with only the agent in the passive. The participle with the negative has the same construction as the affirmative form. -e. g., ang nagbibili ay hindi dapat magdayh sa bumibili 'the seller should not deceive the buyer.' wala ak6-ng damit na isimba 'I have no clothes to go to mass in (mass-hearing clothes).' ang tawo-ng iniibig nang Di6s 'the man beloved by God.' ang manga isusuilat 'the things to be written.' ang minamahal k6-ng kaibigan 'my estemed friend.' ang manga hindi marunung bumasa 'those who do not know how to read.' USE OF THE VERBAL NOUN OF ACTION. S 417. The verbal nouns, besides being employed as ordinary nouns, have the following special uses. a) As the subject or predicate of a sentence with a meaning similar to that of the modal (cf. S 412, a), e. g., ang pagpasok ko dito ay kahapon 'I entered here yesterday (my entering here was yesterday).' matuiwid na nga ang pagkalumbay mo 'your lamenting is then quite proper.' ang ipinagbababag nila'y ang pagparoong wala-ng tigil sa sugal nang asawa-ng lalaki 'the reason they are quarreling is that the husband won't stop gambling (the going of the husband without ceasing to the game).' ang pagpapasok ko dito nang sambalelo'y nakith ni gat Luis 'Don Luis saw me bring a hat in here (my bringing a hat here was seen by Don Luis).' huwag mo-ng ipahintolot sa iyo-ng manga anak ang paglabas kun gab'i 'don't permit your children to go out at night.' - 287 - b) In the oblique case with sa as the equivalent of a temporal or purpose clause, e. g., sa pagpasok nang isa-ng harl sa isa-ng bayang malaki... 'on the entrance of a certain king into a certain large city...' sa pagtakb6 niya ay natfsod sa isa-ng bat6 'while he was running he stumbled against a stone.' an6-ng mabuti-ng gaw'in sa pagkakamit nang kaharian nang langit 'what should be done (is good to do) to attain the kingdom of Heaven?' c) In various constructions as the equivalent of a finite verb, e. g., paan6-ng pangyayari niyan 'how is that possible?' para nang pagpatawad namin sa nangagkakauitang sa amin 'as we forgive those who are indebted to us'(cf. S 326). pagalis ni Juan ay pagdating ko 'as soon as Juan left, I arrived.' pagalis dito nang aking kapatid ay siya-ng pagdating mo 'as soon as my brother left here, you arrived.' nang pagdating nang sulat mo ay sinusulat ko it6 'after your letter arrived, I wrote this.' EXPRESSION OF VARIOUS TENSE AND MODAL IDEAS. S 418. 'To be about to' is expressed by primary subsidiary forms with ka-an (cf. SS 100, 247), and by the future (cf. S 413, c). 'To have just' is expressed by maka (cf. S 398, c) or by primary subsidiary forms with ka upon partially reduplicated roots (cf. SS 98, 247). The absolute participial forms 'having, having been' are expressed by the primary subsidiary forms with kapag, etc. (cf. S 99, 247, 308). The pluperfect and future perfect are expressed by the preterite and modal respectively of maka potential prefixed to the passive stem (in I, the root); except in II d, e (magka, maki), IV (ma, maka), where the preterite and modal of the primary verb are used for these tenses. The adverb na is regularly employed with these perfect forms (cf. S 398, c). - 288 - These perfect tenses are usually employed in complex sentences; the future perfect may be used for the pluperfect under the same conditions as those under which the modal may be used for the preterite (cf. S 412, e).-e. g., naibigay ko na ang ipinabigay mo nang ikaw ay dungmating 'I had already given what you told me to give when you arrived.' kun ikaw'y makasulat na ay susulat ak6 'when you shall have written, I shall write.' tinanggap ko ang sulat mo nang makasulat na ak6 'I received your letter after I had already written.' Modal ideas, in so far as they are not expressed by the modal, are indicated by the modal adverbs (cf. SS 128, 377), the modal auxiliaries (cf. S 270), or by the verbal particles themselves. The idea of 'ability to do' is expressed either by maka potential or by the auxiliaries mangydri, szkat 'be able,' except in the case of a verb of the ma or maka causal classes, when only the latter should be used; maka refers more to physical, the auxiliaries more to moral ability, though they are often used interchangeably.-e. g., mangyari kaya-ng matuwai ang may kasalanang dakila 'can anyone in mortal sin be happy?' ito-ng dam6'y suikat makaginhawa sa iy6 'this herb is able to, will relieve you.' The idea of 'ordering, asking to do' is usually eypressed by magpa. It may also be rendered, however, by the auxiliaries mag'otos, magbilin 'order,' followed by an infinitive of the action to be performed.-e. g., hindi ak6 nag'otos (nagbilin) sa iy6-ng gumawa nit6 'I did not order you hindi ko ipinag'6tos (ipinagbilin) to do this.' sa iyo na gaw'in mo it6 Verbs of 'ordering to order' are best rendered by the auxiliaries, instead of with double magpa, e. g., mag'6tos (magbilin) ka kay Juan na magpasulat siya kay Pedro 'order Juan to order Pedro to write.' The idea of 'asking for oneself' is regularly expressed by the verbal particle pa. The secondary verbs with pa upon - 289 magpa (e. g., papakdin 'ask to give to eat), however, are best paraphrased by the verb humingz 'ask, demand,' e. g., humingi ka kay Pedro nang kanin 'ask Pedro for food.' The causatives of roots denoting qualities or conditions are formed with maka (cf. S 397). The causatives of roots denoting action are formed with magpa (cf. S 400, especially c). GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. S 419. Verbs with active form indicating state or becoming, or an action which affects only the agent, or in which the person or thing affected is included in the verb, may be followed by a genitive of cause or of respect to what, and an oblique denoting place, or in the sense of a dative. Such verbs are those of the magsa, magka (except magkaroon 'have'), magin(g), magkan, magkapa, magpati, manhi, ma, and some of those of the um, mag, maki, man, maka (potential), pa, magpa, and magpaka classes.-e. g., ak6'y nanginginig nang tak6t 'I am trembling with fear.' nagkakanhoh6bo si Pedro nang pagtawa 'Pedro bursts out (denudes himself) with laughter.' magkastila nang damit 'be like a Spaniard in costume.' ang tuwa'y nagkakanlalabis sa aking piso6 'my heart overflowed with joy (joy overflowed in my heart).' at nang ikaw ay magpakagaling sa langit 'that you may be saved in heaven.' siya'y nagpatiholog sa tubig 'he threw himself in the water.' ang pisos sa araw'araw ay hindi magkakasiya sa akin 'a peso a day will not be enough for me.' ~ 420. Verbs of active form in which the action affects more or less directly some person or thing other than the agent, take their objects according to the general rule in SS 243, 244. Such verbs are found in the um, mag, maki, man, maka (causative and potential), pa, magpa and magpaka classes: add also magkaroon 'have.' Note the following additional points. I) A verb sometimes takes an oblique of the person and a genitive of the part affected, e. g., humalik sa akin nang kamay 'he kissed my hand.' I9 - 290 - 2) Verbs of the maki class in its first two meanings, viz., 'to do something with,' and 'to ask a little,' are followed by the oblique of the person with whom it is done, or of the person asked, e. g., nakisakay ak6 sa kanila 'I embarked with them.' makikibigas ak6 sa kapidbahay 'I am going to ask a little rice from (my) neighbor.' Verbs which do not include the idea of the thing asked for, take it in the genitive, e. g., makikuiha ka nang alak doon sa convento 'ask for a little wine at the priest's house.' makiraan ka nang suka 'ask for a little vinegar in passing by.' 3) Magkaroon takes a genitive of the thing possessed, e. g., kun magkaro6n sana ak6 nang pilak ay hindi ak6 nagkakaganit6 'if I had any money, I should not be in this condition.' 4) Verbs of the magpa class with the meaning 'to order, ask, entreat to do,' are followed by the oblique of the person or thing ordered, etc., by the genitive of the thing ordered, etc., to be done, and by the oblique of the person, etc., to whom it is ordered to be done, e. g., ang maestro'y nagpapasulat sa iy6 'the teacher tells you to write.' magpalabas ka kay Pedro nang damit 'order Pedro to take out the clothes.' di nagpagawa ak6 sa iy6 nit6 'I did not order you to do this.' magpasuilat ka sa pare sa hok6m 'beg the priest to write to the judge.' 5) Verbs of the pa class meaning 'ask for oneself, allow to be done to oneself' take the oblique case of the person asked, and the genitive of the thing asked for or allowed, when it is not included in the verb, e. g., pakuha ka sa iy6-ng anak nang isa-ng lukban 'ask your son to bring you an orange.' paawh ka sa Di6s 'ask mercy of God.' - 291 - ang ating Pangin6ong Jesucristo'y napap6tong nang tinik 'our Lord Jesus Christ allowed himself to be crowned with thorns.' huwag ka-ng patalo sa diablo 'don't let yourself be overcome by the devil.' S 421. The passive governs the genitive and oblique cases in general according to S 245. The three kinds of passives take the cases as follows: the in and an passives may be followed by a genitive of instrument or means; the i and an passives, by a genitive of the object of the verbal action; the in and i passives, by an oblique of place; the in and i passives, and sometimes the an passive may be followed by an oblique meaning 'to, for, from.' Note the following additional points. I) The i passive of the maki class is followed by the oblique of the person or thing accompanied or asked; the an passive takes the genitive of the thing which is joined with another, or the oblique of the person or thing for whom something is asked (cf. S 390, a, b).-e. g., ipinakikisulat ko it6 do6n 'I write this together with that.' ang may-sakit ay ipakisuika mo kay Pedro 'ask Pedro for a little si Pedro'y pakisukaan mo i vinegar for the sick man.' sa may-sakit iyang manga suilat ay pakisulatan mo nit6 'write this along with these papers.' 2) The passive of certain verbs of the ma class may be followed by a genitive of respect, e. g., ak6'y nalalakasan niya nang pagkain 'he surpasses me in eating.' naliksihan ko siya nang pagtakbo 'I am swifter than he in running.' 3) The passive of maka causative verbs takes, as grammatical agent, a genitive of the person or thing acted upon, e. g., ang kahinhinan ay siya-ng ikinagaganda nang manga dalaga 'modesty is what makes maidens beautiful.' bakit ikinalulumbay mo ang balita 'why does the news make you sad?' 19* -292 - 4) The i passive of verbs of the pa class takes an oblique of the person asked, e. g., ang ipinasasanguni ko sa iy6 ay it6-ng maliwag na isap 'the cause of my consulting you is this difficult case.' 5) Verbs of the magpa class meaning 'to order, ask, entreat,' take in the in passive a genitive of the thing to be done, and an oblique of the indirect object of the action ordered; the i and an passives govern an oblique of the person ordered.-e. g., pasulatin mo siya nit6-ng panalangin 'ask him to write this prayer.' pasulatin mo ang pade' sa hok6m 'beg the priest to write to the judge.' ipasulat mo it6 sa bata 'order the boy to write this.' Verbs of the magpa class meaning 'to ask for, demand,' take in the in and an passives a genitive of the amount demanded; in the i and an passives an oblique of the person asked.-e. g., pinabuwis ko si Pedro nang piso demanded a peso isa-ng piso ang ipinabuwis ko kay of tribute from Pedro.' Pedro ang pinatutub6an niya sa akin nang isa-ng piso 'that upon which he demands of me a peso interest.' S 422. Primary verbs of the magsi and maka potential classes follow the construction both in active and passive of the simple um or mag verb derived from the same root. Secondary or tertiary verbs in general follow, both in active and passive, the construction required by the secondary or tertiary particle. XVI. CONNECTIVE PARTICLES. THE LIGA TURE. S 423. The ligature is used in general to connect words which stand to one another in the relation of modifier and modified. When one or more words are inserted between two words which are joined by the ligature, the ligature stands after the - 293 - last of the inserted words, instead of after the first of the original pair (cf. S 22). Ldmang 'only' is an exception to this rule; when it is the last of the inserted words the ligature is not used, probably because the final ng of Idmang is regarded as the ligature, e. g., isd Idmang lugdr 'only one place.' For the use of the ligature with inserted parenthetical expressions cf. ~ 338. The form -ng is regularly used after a vowel or n; na, after other consonants; but na may also sometimes be used after a vowel or n, especially when the ligature introduces a clause, e. g., ang iny6-ng pinsan na si Asay 'your cousin Tomasa.' kun wala ak6 sana-ng ama, iibfgin ko disin ang asawa ko na lalo sa lahat 'if I had no father, I should love my husband best.' kun ibig mo na patawarin ka nang Dios 'if you wish to be pardoned by God.' Cf. also S 311. I-314, 319 —322. For the form -n cf. ~ 21. Certain nominal modifiers are never joined by the ligature to a following modified word, viz.: the articles (not including the indefinite article), the plural particle mangd, and the indefinite pronominal adjectives bdlang, bdwa't 'each, every' (cf. S~ 164, 167). A numeral does not take the ligature before a noun with prefix ka denoting an individual (cf. ~ 168). The ligature is regularly omitted in certain constructions after a consonant (cf. ~~ I74, 196, 229, 244, 258, 269, 270). When one of more words are inserted between words of this character and the following modified or modifying word, the ligature is regularly used after the last of the inserted words. Postpositive words are never joined by the ligature to the word preceding (cf. ~ 340). Adverbs are often employed without being joined to what they modify by the ligature (cf. ~~ 195, 261). Conjunctions and prepositional phrases are usually, though not always, so employed (cf. SS 138, 21 ). The ligature may often be omitted, where, according to the regular rule, it would stand, viz.: -294 a) after words ending in n (cf. S 21). b) when there is a pause between the two words connected, e. g., mag'ingat kay6(-ng) manga duwag 'take care, cowards.' kay6(-ng) manga kakasalin ngay'on 'you, who are to be married today.' c) in familiar conversation, in almost any construction, e. g., isa-ng tawo(-ng) hubad 'a naked man.' alin baga(-ng) dalampasig 'which bank?' an6 kaya ang araw(na) na sa katapusan nang buwan 'what is the day (which) is at the end of the month?' wala ak6(-ng) alinman 'I have neither one.' huwag ka(-ng) m6tol nang manga kahoy 'do not cut any trees.' ang manga sili(-ng) itinanim nang iy6-ng alila sa halamanan 'the peppers (which were) planted by your servant in the garden.' pakaingatan mo(-ng) huwag ka-ng kagatin 'take good care (that) you are not bitten.' magbabanta tay6(-ng) magkamit nang kayamanan 'we shall try to get rich (obtain riches).' ang aking pamangkin ang siya(-ng) nagsabi 'my nephew was the one that said it.' The principal uses of the ligature are, viz.: a) to connect a noun or pronoun and adjectival modifier (cf. SS 164-173, 178, i8o, I87-I89). b) to connect a noun or pronoun and dependent nominative (cf. SS 174, i85). c) to connect a noun, pronoun, or verb and an appositive (cf. SS 175, 86, 265). d) to connect an adjective or adverb and an adverbial modifier (cf. S I95, 202, 132). e) in comparisons of equality to connect the pronoun of similarity with what precedes (cf. S 277). f) after an interrogative pronoun, adjective or adverb, instead of the definite article (cf.SS222,225,231,239,255). - 295 g) to connect adverbs with verbs (cf. SS 257, 262). h) to connect prepositions and their objects (cf. S 210). i) to connect prepositional phrases with what precedes (cf. S 211). j) to connect conjunctions with the sentence they introduce (cf. SS I38, 335, 336). k) in the constructions of may and its negative wala (cf. SS 229-233, 271). 1) instead of the genitive of the definite article after verbs (cf. SS 244, 246). m) to connect nouns, adjectives, and verbs with a following dependent verb (cf. SS I79, I96, 269, 270). n) to introduce a subordinate clause in the sense of a relative pronoun or conjunction (cf. SS 3II. 1-314, 319-325). THE PARTICLE A Y. S 424. The particle ay, after a vowel ay or y, is used as follows, viz.: a) to connect a subject with a following predicate (cf. S 216, and SS 217-272 passim). b) to connect any element not the grammatical subject, which stands first in the sentence, with what follows (cf. SS 260, 266, 267, 273). c) to connect two coordinate sentences (cf. ~~ 305-308). d) after the subordinate clause of a complex sentence, when it precedes the whole or part of the principal (cf. S 3o0 and S~ 315-318, 325-334 passim), and sometimes also before it when it stands between the subject and predicate of the principal (cf. S 338). e) at the beginning of a simple copulative sentence whose subject is not expressed (cf. S 241). f) at the beginning of a sentence before an interrogative pronoun or adverb (cf. S 293). The use of ay is not obligatory, except as a usual thing between subject and following predicate; even here it may be omitted in certain cases, viz.: -296 a) when it has been used already in the same sentence (cf. S 343). b) in familiar conversation, especially if there is a pause between subject and predicate, e. g., ang manga kam6te (ay) nakabubus6g 'sweet-potatoes, they are satisfying.' ang isda (ay) hindi pa inaasnan 'the fish, it is not yet salted.' ang isa-ng ta6n (ay) may ilang buwan kaya 'one year has how many months?' XVII. GENERAL RELATIONS OF THE GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES. IN GENERAL. S 425. The arranging of words and constructions under various categories is more or less arbitrary, and a matter of convenience. The different categories are not separated by any hard and fast lines, but pass gradually one into the other, so that at times it is difficult to say to which of two a word or construction belongs. In this section those categories which resemble each other will be grouped and compared. INTERRELA TIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. S 426. A root may stand as any part of speech, and often the same root may be employed as two or more parts of speech; practically any root may serve as a noun, and also be verbalized by the various verbal particles. Many classes of derivative nouns have practically the same formation as certain verbal forms, though the accent is often different (cf. SS 141-I43, I45-153). Any descriptive adjective, root or derivative, may also be used as a noun (cf. S 20I), and almost any noun is capable of being used as an adjective (cf. S 36I). Any adjective or noun used as an adjective which denotes manner may also be used as an adverb, e. g., bigla 'suddenly.' - 297 - magaling 'well.' karaniwan 'usually.' katapustapusan 'finally.' Cf. also ~ 130, c. Many adverbs on the other hand may be used as adjectives (cf. S 178). Adverbs of place are simply oblique cases of nouns and pronouns (cf. S 122). Adverbs of degree and indefinite pronouns of quantity are very similar in character, and often identical in form (cf. SS 30, 31, 123, 124). Auxiliary root verbs (cf. ~ 270), and verbs with adverbial construction (cf. 268), are very similar to adverbs and some adverbs are identical with verbal forms (cf. S 130, d). Adverbs and conjunctions are of a similar character and often identical in form (cf. ~~ I07-I29, 136-138). Prepositions are largely roots and nouns followed by a noun or pronoun in the same construction as if they depended on a noun. Practically any derivative word, whatever its character, is capable of being verbalized by some verbal particle (cf. SS 405 -409). INTERRELATIONS OF CONSTRUCTIONS. S 427. The same word, used as two parts of speech has often the same construction and combinations in both cases, e. g., kaya 'therefore, because,' man 'even, although' (cf. SS 202, 212, 374). The verbal nouns of action are often used as the equivalent of a verb (cf. ~ 417, c), and on the other hand almost any verbal form may take the article and certain other nominal modifiers like a noun (cf. ~~ 251, 4I6). The cases depending on a verb are similar to those depending on a noun, pronoun, or preposition (cf. SS 174, 176, 177; I83-I85; 2Io; 243-247). Oblique cases, prepositional phrases, and certain adverbs are very similar in their constructions (cf. SS 177, I89, 193, I94 219, 220, 239, 260, 266, 267). - 298 A relative or noun clause introduced by the ligature has a construction similar to that of the adjective or noun it represents (cf. SS 3II. 1-314, 319-325). A dependent infinitive is practically the same thing as a dependent clause introduced by the ligature (cf. SS 269, 319, 325). Almost any word, phrase or clause may take the article before it and become in a sense a noun (cf. SS I89, 201, 204, 211, 225, 232, 251, 315-318). Sentences are often subordinated to others by means of some form of the article prefixed to them. These forms of the articl ear ein many cases practically conjunctions (cf. SS 31 6-3 8). A subordinate clause preceding its principal has the same construction as certain adverbial elements (cf. SS 266, 310 and SS 315-334 passim). Two sentences connected by ay practically constitute a simple copulative sentence (cf. SS 305-308). The line between coordinate and subordinate clauses cannot always be sharply drawn; sentences which are compound in form are often complex in meaning (cf. SS 303, 305-309). TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION. S 428. The combinations of words follow in general certain types of construction, without regard to the parts of speech to which they belong. These types are the following, viz.: a) modifier + modified, joined by the ligature (cf. SS I64 -I73, I77, I78, I87-189, I95, 200, 202, 240, 258). b) modified + modifier, joined by the ligature; the modifier may be an adjective or appositive (cf. SS I65, 167, 169, I73, I75, I8o, 86, I89, 265, 273), or a dependent element (cf. SS 174, I79, I85, I96, I97, 210, 229, 244, 246, 268 -271). c) modified + genitive (cf. SS 176, 184, I99, 203, 210, 234, 243, 245, 259). d) modified + oblique, or equivalent prepositional phrase or adverb (cf. SS I77, I83,224, 229, 230, 243, 245, 26I, 266). e) modified + postpositive word (cf. SS 90, 205-209, 340). f) subject + predicate, joined by ay (cf. S 216, 217, 224, 229, 242, 305-308). - 299 - g) predicate + subject (cf. as in f). h) some word, phrase, or clause + ay + one of the types in (f) or (g) (cf. SS 260, 266, 267, 273, 3IO). i) adverb or subordinate conjunction + sentence of one of types in (f) (g) or (h), or with various adjuncts of the verb between adverb or conjunction and predicate; the last of these adjuncts may be followed by the ligature. Cf. S 236, 237, 26i, 262, 335, 336. j) conjunctional type, two words, phrases or sentences joined by a coordinate conjunction, or two sentences joined by subordinate conjunctions or relative pronouns (cf. SS 299-334). k) parenthetical type (cf. ~ 338). 1) repeated type, two identical words or forms joined by the ligature or na-ng (cf. S~ 56, 58, 132, 134, 209). In types (a) and (b) the ligature is very frequently omitted when the first of the two words or the last word inserted between them ends in a consonant. In some instances type (a) without ligature is equivalent to (i) [cf. ~ 26i]; type (b) without ligature, when the modifier is a dependent element, is similar to (c) or (d). Types (h) and (i) in many cases differ only in the use of the particle ay after the first element. APPENDICES. A. List of roots whose derivatives with the suffixes IN, AN are syncopated or otherwise irregular. This list is based on that in NOCEDA's Lexicon, but a number of roots have been added from other sources, chiefly TOTANES. These sources will be indicated as follows: T. =ToTANES, M. = MINGUELLA, C. = CAMPOMANES (cf. Bibliography). The most important roots are starred (*), those that have some irregularity other than or in addition to syncope are preceded by t. An alphabetical list of derivatives belonging to this latter group with the roots from which they are formed in parentheses is added at the end of the list of roots to facilitate the finding of the root when the derivative is given. The accents are marked in every case, but as some of the lists used as sources omit the accents of the derivatives, and as the sources do not always agree among themselves, the accents given to some of the derivatives are not certain.' For the prevailing ultimate accent of the syncopated forms cf. S 13, c. In this and the following appendices the vowels u and o are treated as one vowel in the alphabetical arrangement, following n, ng. Derivative particles other than -in, -an are indicated by italics. Some of the roots here given have also regular forms made with -in, -an. Root Meaning Derivative * aba salute ab'in, ab'an agad eat, T. hurry to agdin, agdan akip T. equalize akpan t-ala'ala C. remember alalahin, alalahanin alagad disciple, pupil alagdin, alagdan I So in the case of alalahin, bisia, bisan, bosan, dinin, dfnan, dfmin, dihan, giran, ginikan, gin6han, iwan, lisan, pusan. - 30I Root alipin aliponga *alisaga T. *an6 5(apa apid *t asawa asin as6d *tatip 1 ayaw baba baba baga tbala bala T. balaga * —balisa tbanig *basa tbasahan *bata *bay6 *bigay * —bihasa, bihasa tbihis bika *bili tbilin bobo buga *tb6hos boka bukas bok6 T. bok6d bon6 Meaning slave chilblains, pain lazy what? grope for fornicate spouse salt pound rice roof be unwilling below, humble carry on shoulders swelling say threaten be astonished uneasiness mat wet cloth, rag suffer grind rice give be accustomed change clothes split buy commission, charge pour sprinkle with mouth pour open open joint, knuckle single struggle Derivative alipnin, alipnan aliponghin, aliponghan alisagan (= alisag'an?) anhin, anhan aptin, ap'an apdin, apdan asaw'in asnfn, asnan asdin, asdan aptin, aptan aywan, iwan bab'an babhin bag'in, bag'an babal'in, babal'an balin (= bal'in?) balaghan balisanhin, balisanhan banggin, banggan bas'in, bas'an basanhfn bathin, bathan bay'in, bay'an bigyan bisanhin, bisanhan bisin, bisan bik'in bilhin, bilhan binlan bob'an bughan bosan bok'in buksan himokhan bokdin, bokdan bon'in - 302 Root *tdaan *dakip *dala dala dali * dama *damit dapa, dapa * dating diim T. dikin T. *dikit tdini *dingig dipa dugo tgab'i T. t ganap gata T. *gawa *+gawad *giba tgibik -giik gin6o gising giwa T. (-a?) haba T. +-habilin *halata *thalilk *thalili hapin *thasik *hatid thibas T. Meaning road hold, stop carry punish severely make haste touch clothe throw self headlong arrive eat roller stick to here hear open the arms blood night fulfil, do duty cocoanut milk do, make give demolish come with help thresh noble awake be turned upside down broaden deposit conjecture kiss substitute ribbon, band sow (seed) escort lower Derivative danin, danan dakpin dalhin, dalhan dal'in, dal'an dal'an damhin, damhan damtin, damtan dap'an, daphan datnin, datnan dimin diknan diktln, diktan dinhan, dihan dinggin, dinggan diphin, diphan dug'in, dug'an gabhian? (sic) gampan, kagampan gatin (- gat'in?) gaw'in, gaw'an guran gib'in, gib'an gikban ginikan gin6han gisngan, gisnan giwin (= giw'in?) haban (= hab'an?) habinlan halat'in, halat'an hagkin, hagkan halinhin, halinhan, halinlan hapnan haskan, haksan hatdan hisban - 303 Root *higa higit *thihip, hiyip hikit *hinanakit *- hintay *hingi hino6to hipa T. hiram hiya hubad T. hokas *iba ibis iga *igib *ihi ipa kabila *kagat kaila *tkain kalag *kaliwa *kamit kana kapa kapit kata T. tkati +kibit *+killal tkinyig T., kinig *kitil Meaning lie down haul, pull blow weave complain wait for ask for delouse sink borrow shame disrobe loosen, untie other unload, alight dry, thin go for water urinate bran other side bite deny, cloak eat untie, loosen left hand obtain put in place grope for grasp, embrace thou and I, we two itch nibble be acquainted with hear cut off Derivative hig'an higtin, higtan hipan hiktin hinanaktan hintin hing'in, hing'an hingot'in, hingot'an hipin (== hip'in?) hirmin, hirman hiyin, hiyan (= -'in, -'an?) hubdin hoksin, hoksan ibhin, ibhan ibsin, ibs.an ighin igbin, igban ihin iphin, iphin kabil'in, kabil'an kagtin, kagtan kail'an kanin, kanan kalgin, kalgan kaliw'in, kaliw'an kamtan kapakan'an kap'in, kap'an kaptin, kaptan kathan kathan, kakathan kibtin, -tan; kitbin, -ban kilanlin pakinggin kitlin, kitlan - 304 Root *-i kuha tkok6 T. tkor6t tlabi *lagay lakas *laki laman lata *lay6 +-lihis lima tlinib lingid t-lirip lisa log6d — lon6 lupi T. lupit T. *lora lowa mall mama mamaya manga *masfd *mula *nipis tnganga nguya *oga, uga T.,M. oli, uli opo, upo opos palagay Meaning take finger-nail, claw pinch overplus leave, place strength be large, grow the inside, flesh soften be distant turn aside, deviate five close up cover up, hide put, place nit joy shed skin double abhor spit expel from mouth err chew betel a little while after foolish observe beginning attenuate open mouth chew stir about, wriggle return, repeat sit down finish, stop settle, appease Derivative kunin, kunan hinukhan kotdin, kotdan lab'an, labhan (given by M. as from labis) lagyin, lagyan laksan lakhin, lakhan lamnan lat'in, lat'an lay'an lisan limhin, limhan limban lingdan ligdin, ligdan lis'in, lis'an logdin, logdan longhan lupan (- lup'an?) kaluptan lod'an low'an mal'in, mal'an mam'in mamay'in manghan masdan mul'an nipsan nganhin, nganhan nguy'in ogin (- og'fn?) ol'in, ol'an op'in, op'an opsin palagyan - 305 - Root palaman palit t pakinyig, *-panaginip *tpangalan pangati Tpangilin *patid -patn6got patoyo t pawis piga pill T. pinid pingi pisa *pisil pugl pukol *puli polo pono pos6d puti *putol puyo T. *sakay *sakit *tsala tsalakab T. *salita *sama samaya sanga *sa6ll sapa Meaning contain exchange, barter -nig listen dream name leprosy keep a feast day break, part (of rope) preceding dry sweat squeeze twist close up handkerchief smash, crush wring begin to weave throw be like parents ask for trifles fill tuft whiten cut saddle-bag, knapsack embark be ill err, sin fish tell evil encourage to be accomplice branch come back, give back chewed betel Derivative palamnan paltin, paltan pakinggan panagimpan panganlan pangathin panginlan patdin, patdan panontan patoyin (= patoy'in?) pawsan, pusan pig'in, pig'an pilhin pindan pinghin, pinghan pis'in, pis'an pislin pug'in, pug'an puklin, puklan pamulhan pulhin, pulhin pun'in, pun'an pusdin, pusdan put'in, put'an putlin, putlan poyhfn sakyan saktin, saktan sanlan sakbin salit'in, salit'an sam'in, sam'an samay'in, samay'an sanghin, sanghan saolin, saol'an saphan 20 - 306 - Root sapin *siga sigid sikip *sila sili *tsilid sima singa sipa siya sobo -t sulid *son6d taba *taga ttahip *taka takid T. *takip *ttalab *talik6d talingid *ttanim *tangan tayo tiba tibi tigib tikim tikis tingala tinki ttingid *tingin tipa T. tipid Meaning to line (clothes, etc.) burn rubbish bite (of insects) constrict, tighten devour, eat flesh throw put into fish blow nose abstain, fast enough put out fire with water spin follow, obey grease, fat chop clean rice wonder at stumble cover penetrate turn the back to hide, be hidden sow, plant grasp be erect cut foot of banana tree be restrained, costive load with cargo taste, try on purpose look up buy or sell resolve look measure save, economize Derivative sapnan sig'an sigdin, sigdan sikpan sil'in, sil'an silhin, silhan sidlan sim'in, sim'an singhan sip an siyhin subhan sudlan sundin tab'an tag'in taphin takhan takdan takpan tablan talikdan talingdan tamnan tangnan tay'in tib'in, tib'an tibhin tigbin tikman tiksin tingal'n ting'in tigdin tingnan tipin (= tip'ci) tipdin, tipdan I -- 307 - Root Meaning Derivative ttira be more than enough tid'an tiris kill a louse with the nail tisdan tuba juice of cocoanut-palm tub'in, tub'an *tub6s redeem tubsin, tubsan *tuka sting, bite tuk'in, tuk'an t6ngo look down tunghan t-turing say turan * —tot6o true totohanan tuy6 dry tuy'in, tuy'an wala not to be, have wal'in, wal'an wani beg for wanhan will T. (-i?) love wilin (= wil'in?) Listofspecially irregularderivatives: -- alalahin, -hanin (ala'ala), aptin (atip), asaw'in (asawa), babal'in (bala), balisanhin (balisa), banggin (banig), basanhin (basahan), binlan (bilin), bisanhin (bihasa), bisin (bihis), bosan (b6hos), danin (daan), datnin (dating), dihan (dini), dimin (diim), gabhian? (gab'i), gampan (ganap), gikan, ginikan (giik), gikban (gibik), guran (gawad), habinlan (habilin), hagkan (halik), haksan (hasik), halinhin, halinlan (halili), hintin (hintay), kzinukhan (kok6), hipan (hihip), hisban (hibas), iwan (ayaw), kakathan (kata), kanin (kain), kilanlin (kilala), kitbin (kibit), kunin (kuha), kotdin (korot), lab'an (labi), ligdln (lirlp), limban (linib), lisa.n (lihis), longhan (lono), nganhin (nganga), pakinggan (pakinyig, kinyig), panagimpan (panaginip), panontan (patn6got), panganlan (pangalan), panginlan (pangilin), pusan (pawis), sakbin (salakab), sanlan (sala), sidlan (silid), sudlan (sulid), tablan (talab), tamnan (tanim), taphan (tahip), tid'an (tira), tigdin (tingid), tisdan (tiris), tuiran (turing), totohanan (totoo). B. List of roots ending in simple vowels that take H before the suffixes IN, AN. This list is based on TOTANES (I865) pp. 126, 127, corrected by comparison with NOCEDA and other sources. TOTANES differs from NOCEDA in the accentuation of the following roots, viz.[: abatay6, agolo, all, arya, barya, b6ngso, duimi, dusa, ganti. 20* - 308 g6lo, hambo, kabihasa, pasol6, samyo, sangpa, sasa, suwi, tamasa, tangf, tapa, waksi. The penultimate accent in forms with two consonants before the final vowel is almost certainly a mistake (cf. S I3, c), hence TOTANES' pdtda which does not occur in NOCEDA has been corrected to patdd. abala - occupation bary - copy abaka - well now bat6 - stone abata - well now bawo - widowed abatayo - well now bayo - stake aga -- breakfast bikti - be angry agip6 - smudge, stain bilawo - sieve agolo - fornication bini - deafen ak - I bit6ka intestines aksaya - destroy bongs6 - younger son ali - compete bili polish ama - father buiti beautiful ani - seize daiti - to seat ani'ani - courtesy dalaga - girl anito - idol dami - increase angka - appropriate dam6 - sweepings, filth angi - smoked dati - custom apaya - be withered, mildewed dayami - straw ara6 (sic)? - expand? dito - here arya - protect dolo - point asa - hope dumi - dirt, filth asawa - (cf Appe. A ) dusa - penitence aso -dog gbi - sweet potato ayr6 - ascend gab'i - night (not in T.) baga - live coal gaga - be restless, misbago- new chievous bagy6 - tempest ganda - beauty baka - war ganti - reward bald - take off skin gaya - imitate balahibo - skin, pelt gay6ma - spell, sorcery balayi - agreement gikla - terror balla - tablet ginhawa - get better balisa - restlessness giwa - (cf. giwa Append. A) bapa - father golo - entangle - 309 - g6mi - beard hamb6 - bathe halaga - price hay6ma - copy hila - hurl hilapo - rub hilo - stunned hinga - breathe hull- to steer huli - chase, catch huni - sing husi - clothes igaya - covet igi - adorn kabalayi - relative kabihas - friend kakana- advise kalaba - honeycomb kalamayo - swelling kalawini -- take care of kali - go away kamana -co-heir kam6ti - sweet potato kampi - partiality kandado - shutting, lock katalo - disputant kati - pound (weight) kaya be able kil6 twist lana - anoint, oil lanta - wither, fade lilo - be ungrateful, cruel ling6 (sic) - turn? liso - be ratified? mantala - enchantment 61a - chance 6na - first, before 6pa - pay, wages pagba - burn pottery pagi - clean, smooth pasolo - cross-bow pasubali - except patda - garter (Sp. liga)? piro - shake out grain from ears pita - long for puri - praise sabi - say sagila - to pass by sakbfbi - carry infants saks - witness salisi - not to meet, flee salo -eat sama- accompany samantala - meanwhile sampaga - jasmine samyo - fragrance, odor sangpa - put above sapula- raise sarili - one's own sary - prepare sasa - split, crack sigla - incite simboy6 - pour water for one another sinta- affection sugba - throw, rush upon suka - vomit suwi - shoot, sprout tainga - ear talaga - intention, will tamasa - enjoy food and drink tam6 - use, advantage tangi - divide tapa - associated tawo -man tibanf-affirm what is not certain -- 3o1 - till - astonishment, dread toks6 - temptation tindi - load t6ta - puppy tfwa - worms in body, hook waksi - throw tub6 -- sugar cane yavi (Sp. Have) -- key tugpa - embark The following roots, which syncopate the final vowel of the root after adding h, and which are given in the proper order in Appendix A, also belong here. They are, viz.: aliponga, an6, baba, balaga, bata, bill, buga, bok6, dala, dama, dapa, dini, dipa, gin6o, iba, iga, ipa, kata, kati, koko, labf, laki, lima, lon6, manga, nganga, pangati, pili, pingi, pull, polo6, pyo, sanga, sapa, sill, singa, siya, sob6, taka, tibi, t6ngo, totoo, wani. A number of these also make regular forms without syncope. The following roots given in Appendix A have this h preceded by n, viz.: balisa, bihasa, halili: in the root gab'i the derivative gabhian T., if correct, is transposed for gab'ihan. C. List of Polysyllabic Roots with initial P which are conjugated like PAKINABANG S 89. This list is based on the list given by MINGUELLA, p. 293 f., with some additions from LENDOYRO. For an extensive treatment of these roots cf. SEIPLE'S Polysyllabic Roots. paaga - rise early pakinabang - profit pakinig, pakinyig - listen paligo - bathe pamaga -- swell pamahay - live in a house pamanhid -- swell pamanhik- supplicate pamayp6y - wag tail pamongkahi - incite panagano - offer panaghil - envy panaghoy sigh, groan panaginip - dream panagisuyo -- be subject to another panalig - trust panalo - conquer panambitan - lament panaog - descend from house panasil -- sit crosslegged panata -promise panatili -- continue, persist panayimtim panaimtim } - penetrate panaimtim J paniin - lean on staff panikloh6d - kneel panimdim - think paningkayad - squat on haunches paniwala - trust panubig- make water - 311 pan6got - guide panolos - fulfil another's wil. panoluyan -live in an inn pano6d - see from afar, sight panuyo - serve pangahs - dare, venture pangako - promise pangalay - become tired from standing pangalirang - be weak, lean pangalo -- become tired pangalokipkip - fold arms pangalumbaba - lean chin on hand, bury face in hands pangalos - become tired pangamba - fear, suspect pangank - bear a child panganay have first child panignib - fear, suspect panganin - look in mirror panganyaya - damage pangarap - dream (aloud) pangayupapa -- be humbled pangayumpapa pangibig - court pangibogho - be jealous pangiki - tremble pangilabot - shudder pangilag - be on guard, sneak away pangilap - be scornful pangilin - keep holiday panilo - have toothache pangimbolo - envy pangimi - be asleep, drowsy panginig - tremble panguluGgi- lose by trade pangona - precede pangusap- speak pangyari- be able The -following roots are accented differently in NOCEDA (N), LENDOYRO (L), and CAMPOMANES (C), viz., pamaypoy (N), panalig (L), panasila (L), pan6od (N,L,C), panuyo (N,L,C), pangamba (N,L), panganino (C), pangayupapa (N,C; pangaYumnpdpap is taken from L), pangilap (N), pangilo (C), pangona (L). INDEXES. I. Subjects. The references in all the Indexes are to pages. Note that (ref.) after a number in this and following indexes calls special attention to additional references on the page in question. Accent: general rules 9, 10; as an indication of meaning Ii; secondary I; shift of II, 55, 82, Addenda pp. II, 239; accented prefixes Io. Active: cf. Verbs. Address, forms of: 17, I8, 210, 2II. Adjectives: descriptive 35, 103, 104; two adjectives with one noun o04; comparative of 36, II8, I60, 161; relative superlative of 36, Ii8, I63, 164; absolute superlative of 36, 37, 163-165; of equality 37, 89, ii8, II9, i6o, i61, 164, 17I; derivative 83-95; with dependent case or prep. phrase 116; with nominal modifiers II9; special syntax of 223-228; verbs derived from 273-274; pronominal, cf. Pronouns; numeral, cf. Numerals. Adverbs: classes with regard to meaning 63; classes with regard to form 74; of manner 63, 64, 235, 236; with prefixed ga 21, 22, 64, 69, 74, 78, IoI, 102, II3, II9, 120, I21, 152, I59, i6o, 171, 172, 187, I97, 239, 240, 280, 281, Addenda p. I8; indicating a gradual development 64; of time 64-68, 236; of place 68, 69, I31, I32, I33; of degree 69, 70, 237; affirmative 70, 237-239; negative 71, I65 —66 (ref.); interrogative 7I, 72, 132, 151, I67-I69 (ref.), 239, 240; modal 72, 73, 240-242; consecutive 73, 242-244; numeral cf. Numerals; comparison of 75; as nominal and pronominal modifiers 107, II3; as adjectival and adverbial modifiers 116, 117, 119, 120; with following case 120, 12I; in nonverbal sentences I37-139; as verbal modifier 150-153; special syntax of 234-244; equivalents of 235; verbs derived from 279-28I; uses of special adverbs cf. Index II. Alphabet: 3, 4. American loan words: 2. Antecedent of relative: 178-180. Apposition: 105, Io6, 113, 152, 153, 233-234 (ref.). Articles: in general 16; with nouns 32-34, 98, 99; special syntax of 205-209 (ref.); def. art. with adverbial expressions 75, 76, 12I; def. art. with pronouns II4; def. art. with verbs 146, 147; def. art. with adverbial construction 194. Auxiliary verbs: I54-I57, 225, 252, 288. Be, idea of to: 37, 128-133, 134 (there is), I36-139, 157, I57-I72 passim, 279, 280. Cardinals: cf. Numerals. Cases: forms in general 229; of articles 16; of pronouns 17-20; of numerals I6,17; of nouns 32-34; nominative 229-230 (ref); indef. depend. nominative 230(ref.);nom i i - 313 - inative absolute 157; genitive 230-231 (ref); genitive equivalent to appositive 234; oblique 231 (ref.); vocative 34, 170; relation of indef. nom., gen., obl. 231, 232. Categories: cf. Grammatical. Chinese: 2. Clauses: principal or independent 173; subordinate or dependent 173, I78-197; kinds of subordinate 178; equivalents of subordinate clauses 245, 246; as nominal modifier o08; introduced by ligature 178-181, 183-186; causal 189, 190; comparative 187, I88; concessive I90, I91; conditional 191-I93; noun 181-185, 228, 229; subject 146, 147, i82, 184; object 183-185; purpose 186; relative 178-183; result 185; temporal I88, 189; of indirect question 193. Combination of nominal modifiers: o08, o09 (cf. also Addenda). Combinatory syntax: cf. Syntax of combinations. Comparison: 158-165, 20o. Complex sentence: cf. Sentence. Compound sentence: cf. Sentence. Conjunctions: list 77-80; with adverbs 125, 126; with other conjunctions 126; with adverbial construction 194; special syntax of 245-246. Connective particles: 292-296(ref.). Constructions: interrelations of 297, 298; types of 298, 299. Coordinated expressions: I09, nro, 115, I26, 127, I73-177. Definite article: cf. Articles. Demonstratives: cf. Pronouns. Denominative verbs: cf. Verbs. Dependent clauses: cf. Clauses. Derivation: 13, 38-40, 74, 82-96; cf. also man 239 (cf. also Addenda) and Addenda p. i8. Descriptive adjectives: cf. Adjectives. Diacritical marks: 4, 5. Dialect: of Manila 9; of mountains 28; forms of 'ten' 22, 27 note; maka verbs 47. Distributives: cf. Numerals, also 58 (~ 90). Elision: 8. Ellipsis: 204-205. Forms of Address: cf. Address. Fractions: cf. Numerals. Gender: 17, 34. Genitive: cf. Cases. Glottal catch: 4, 5, 6, 7. Grammatical categories, general relations of: 296-299 (ref.). Guttural nasal: 6, 7. Guttural vowels: 5, 6. Have, idea of to: 37, 130-136, 137-139, 155-156, 158-168 passim, 255, 280, 289, 290. Imperative: cf. Verbs. Inclusive article: cf. Articles. Indefinite article: cf. Articles. Indefinite dependent nominative: ct. Cases. Indefinite pronominal ideas, expression of: cf. Pronouns, indefinite, also 58 (~ 90). Independent clauses: cf. Clauses. Infinitive: cf. Verbs. Inflection: general character of 13; of pronouns 16-20; of verbal particles 38-41; of verbal roots 56-58. Interjections: 80, 8I, I69-171. Interrogative words: cf. Adverbs, Pronouns, also 192. Involved sentence: cf. Sentence. Ligature: 15, i6, 292-295 (ref.); with adverbial construction 194. Literature, Tagalog: cf. Tagalog. - 314 - Loan words in Tagalog: cf. Tagalog. Maledictions: cf. Oaths. Measures: cf. Weights. Members of compound sentence: I73-I77, 245, 246. Modal auxiliaries: cf. Auxiliary verbs. Mode: cf. Verbs. Negatives: cf. Adverbs, Sentence. Nominative: cf. Cases. Nouns: kinds of, with regard to form 32; derivative 82-96, Addenda p. 86; proper 33, 34; of relationship, cf. mag. Index III and 105, 208; classes of deriv. nouns with regard to meaning 224; verbal 82-84, 138, 139, 144, I45, 286, 287; syntax of derivative nouns 224-229; special syntax of nouns in general 223, 224; verbs derived from 273, 274. Numerals: cardinals 22-24, 219,(ref.); ordinals 24, 25, 220 (ref.); fractions 25, 26, 219 (ref.); distributives 26, 27, 220-222 (ref.), 237; adverbs 27, 28, 121, 223; restrictives 29, 222; ancient system 29-32, I I; verbs derived from 276-279. Oaths and Maledictions: I71, 172. Oblique: cf. Cases. Oratio obliqua: 184, 193. Oratio recta: I85. Ordinals: cf. Numerals. Orthography: Spanish 3; improved 3, 4. Parenthetical expressions- 196, 197. Participles: 82, 146, I47, 233, 285, 286; equivalents of English absolute 177, i88, I89, 287. Particles: in general 12, 13; derivative verbal 38-40; der. nominal 82-96; der. adverbial 74. Parts of speech: enumeration of I3; combinations of 97, 98; interrelations of 296, 297. Passive: cf Verbs. Phon,-tic changes: vowels 6, 8; consonants 7, 8, 54, 55; sporadic 8, 54, 55; cf. also Addenda p. 8. Phrases: definition 97; nouns derived from 228, 229: verbs derived from 279-281; prepositional phrase, cf. Prepositions. Plural: in general 32, 33, 35, 37, 232-233 (ref.); of proper nouns 208, 209; mag and pag indicating abundance, plurality 88, 253 (bis). Postpositives: 199-200 (ref.). Prepositions: list 76, 77; preposition and object 123-125; prepositional phrase as modifier 106, 107, I16, 125, 153; prep. phrase with modifiers 125; special syntax of 244 245 (ref.); equivalents of prepositional phrases 14I, 142, 244, 245. Principal clauses: cf. Clauses. Pronouns: in general I6, I7; personal 17, I8, 209-2II (ref); possessive 18, 2ii; demonstrative I8, 211-212 (ref.); relative 19, 212 -213 (ref.); interrogative 19, 20, 213-i15 (ref.); indefinite 20-22, 115, 156, 158, 215-219; of similarity 219 (ref), nominal modifiers of 114, 115; verbs derived from 275, 276. Pronunciation: vowels 5; diphthongs 6; consonants 6, 7. Proper article: cf. Articles. Proper nouns: cf. Nouns. Quasi-verbs: 37, 38, 127-I39, 155 -I57, 246. Reduplication: 201-204 (ref.). Reflexive verbs: cf. Verbs. Relationship, nouns of: cf. Nouns. Relatives: cf. Pronouns. Repetition: 204 (ref.), Addenda p. 204. - 35 - Retrospective words: I80, I8I. Roots: in general 12; derivation of 13; as nouns 32; root form of verb 283, 284; syncopated 300 -307; taking h before passive suffixes 307-310; polysyllabic roots like pakindbang (~ 89) 273, 3I0, 31I; reduplicated, cf. Reduplication. Sanskrit: I. Sentence: simple sentence in general 127, 128,173; with non-verbal predicate 128-139; with verbal predicate I40-155; negative 136, 147, 148, 165, 166; interrogative, 136-137 (ref.) 148, 149, 150, 151, 167- 69 (ref.); exclamatory 169 -172; with indefinite element 157, 158; comparative I58-I65; desiderative 172: compound sentences 173-177, I94; juxtaposed sentences 177: complex sentences 178-195: involved sentences 195 -196. Simple sentence: cf. Sentence. Simple vowels: 5. Spanish: loan words I, 28; influence on syntax I-2(ref.); orthography 3; numerals 24. Stems, active and passive: 40 (cf. Addenda). Subordinate clauses: cf. Clauses. Superlative: 36, 37, 38, 77, II8, 163-I65. Syllable division: 8, 9. Syncope: 8, 54, 55, 300-307. Syntax: of combinations 97, 98; special 201. Tagalog: where spoken I; speech family I; literature of 3; loan words in i, 2; Spanish constructions in I, 2; characteristic features of 2. Tense: cf. Verbs. Themes, passive: 40. Verbs: classes with respect to form 38-40; classes with respect to meaning 282; 283; causatives 282 (ref.), 289; reflexive verbs 211, 282 ( I); verbs of destruction 250, 259, 260, 272; verbs of ordering to order 269, 288; verbs of pretending 253, 271; mode and tense forms 40, 41, 51, 284-286, 287 -289; imperative 40, 53, 54, 145, 146, 257, 263, 284, 285, Addenda p. 255; infinitive, dependent o18, 117, 153-157, 225; finite modal 178, 179; i8i, 182, 183, i86, 19I, 192, 193; perfect tenses 262, 285 (present), 287, 288; conjugation of verbal groups 41-49; meaning and use of verbal classes 248-268; secondary and tertiary derivation 50-52, 269, 270, 292; from fully reduplicated roots 53, 270-272; with subsidiary particles 59-63, 272 (ref.), Addenda p. 143; irregularities and peculiarities 53-59, 300-311; root forms 283, 284; combinations of the verbal forms 140-157; special syntax in general 246; use of active and passive 246-248 (ref.), 248-268 passim, 270; difference between um and mag 248-253; use of iag in passive of mag 253 254; use of mag or pag to denote reciprocity 249, 253 (bis), 256, 259, 271; from other parts of speech 272-281; denominative verbs 273, 274; depronominal verbs 275, 276; from numerals 276-279; from adverbs and phrases 279-281; from quasiverb na 58, 59, 132; from foreign words 252, 253; government of verbs I40-144,149, I50,289-292; verbs with both direct and indirect objects 149, I50; syntax of verbal nouns, cf. Nouns. - 3I6 - Vocative: cf. Cases. Voice: cf. Verbs. Wagers: 85, 227. Weights and Measures: 29, 93, IIo, 221, 222, 278. Word Order: 197-200 (ref.). II. Symbolic Words., For the various articles, pronouns, numerals, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions that are not given here cf. the proper heading in Index I. a-: 'say' 37, 136. a: interj. 8I, 170, 171. a: 'father of' 16, 99, 208. abA: 'alas!' 80, 169. alala6ng: 'i. e.' 73, i20, 241, 243. alangan: 'wanting' 21, 162. anaki: cf. tila. ano: 'what?' 19, 20, IO0, 101, 112, 131, 132, 134, 149, 167 (ref.), 168, I70, 171, I9I, 192, 214, 215, 227, 228, 275, 276. anoan6: 20, 215. a-ng: 'father of' cf. a. at: 'and' 23, 77, 80, 104, 109, 11O, 115, 126, 127, 164, 167, I68, 173, I74, 186, 190, I95, 196, 204, 205, 214, 215, 219, 245, 246, 262, 263, 298, 299; cf. also bdwa't. ay: connective 80, 295-296 (ref.). ay: vocative part. 34, 170. ayal: interj. 81, 170, 171, I99, 200. ayAw: 'be unwilling' 155, 283. babfyi: 'feminine, female' 34, 104. bags: interr. and consec. adv. 71, 73, 120, 12I, I22, 125, 137, 148, 149, 167-169, 174, 175, 199, 200, 239, 241, 243. bago: adv. and conj. 67, 73, 78, I88, 189, 236, 243. bahagi: 'part' 25, 26, 102, 219. baka: cf. makd. bakit: 'why?' 71, 73, 151, i68, 189, 190, 243. b6lang: 'each, every' 20, o10, I09, 114, 2I8, 221, 293. bapa: cf. ayd. bawa't: 'each, every' 20, IOi, 221, 293. beses: 'times' 28. b6o: cf. dildn. dami: 'much' 16I, 162. dangian: cf. kunddngan. dapat: 'ought' 155, 283. daw: adv. 72, I21, 199, 200, 241. di: 'not' 71, ii6, 130, 147, I48, 165, 166, 228, 239. dl bikin, d. bfkit: 73, 243. di hfmak: cf. di sapdla. dila(n): 'all' 21, 216, 217. dili: 'not' cf. di; 'or not' 175. din: 'same, self' 22, 70, 113, 121, 122, 143, i66, 199, 200, 21I, 218, 226, 238. di palak: cf. di sapadla. di sapala: 'very' 36, 69, 121. disin: cf. sdna. diwa: cf. tila. diyfta: 'and so' 73, 243. ga: 'like' 76, 59; cf. alsoga-Index III. gaalin: cf. gaano. gaan6: 'how?' 64, 118, 119, 129, 171, 239, 240. ganin: 'concerning' 2I, 77, III, I24, 218. gAya: cf. pdra. hian: 'where?' 71 (Addenda), 132. 1 Symbolic words are those which do not present a definite idea to the mind like nouns, verbs, and adjectives, but are simply symbols of some presentive idea or of some relation between ideas. - 317 - hania: 'understand?' 72, 169. hindi: cf. di. hindi gano6n, h.gay'6n:'isn't it so?' 72, 169. humingi: 'to request' 288, 289. huwsg: 'don't' 71, 73, 79, 148, 172, 182, i86, 192, 236, 239, 241, 281. i: 'mother of' I6, 99, 208. iba: 'other' 20, 22, 76, IoI, IO9, I I, 113, 114, 215, 216, 276. ibig: 'will, want' 154, 155, 283. ikailan: 'the how-many-eth?' 25, 214, 220, 277. ikalawa: 'second' 25, II2, 164, 165, 220. ilan: 'how many?' 'some' 19, 20, 22, 24-29, I00, IOI, 134, 135, I39, 215, 227, 276-279; cf. also ikailn. indi: cf. di. isa: 'a, one, other' 16, 20, 22 (bis), 23-32 passim, 33, 65, 66, 102, 109, 113, 158, 209, 215, 219 (3, 4), 236, 276-278. isam.n, isa man: 'any' 20, 22, 158. ka: 'brother of' 16, 99, 208. kahimanwrari: cf. nawd. kailan: 'when?' 71, I5I. kailng~an: 'must' 155. kipag, kapagk`: 'as soon as' 79, I88, 189. kapalipa: neg. adv. 71, 73, 239. kapuwa: 'neighbor' 20, 113, 216. kasi: cf. tila, also 121, 199, 200. kaunti: 'a little' 21, 22, 228. kay,: cf. bagd, also 73, 108, 120, 125, 126, I90, 193, 242, 243. kay sa: 207. kuin: 'so and so' 20, 218, 219, 276. k6lang: 'less' 21, 77, 11, 112 (bis) 123, 124, i6i, 162, 217, 245. kun: 'if, when, or' 66, 77, 79, 126 (bis) 174, 175, I88, 189, 191, 192, 193, 204, 221, 245, 263. kundngan: 'if it were not that' 79, 123, I9I, 192. kundi: 'if not, but' 78, 79, 123, 174, 191, 192, 193, 245. kundi bagkus: 'but' 78, 194. kun sinh, kun sina(n) sa: 73, 244. kon6: cf. daw. labf: numeral elem. 23. labis: 'more' 21, 112, 217. labi sa: 'more than' 24, 30, 31, III. lahit: 'all' 21, IoI, 112, 113, 216, 217, 232, 276. lalaki: 'masculine, male' 34, 104. l1lo6: 'more' 21, 36, 69, 75, I 8, 119, I60-165. 161o pa: cf. ldal. lamang: 'only' 70, 79, 107, I13, 119, 121, 143, 192, 199, 200, 222, 238, 293. lubha: 'very' 36, 69, 117, 164, 165. madlam: 'know how' 155, 252. maan6: 'how?' 72, 74, 239, 240, 275. maino: cf. nawd. magbilin: 'to order' 288. magkano: 'how much?' 19, 20, 85, i68, 215, 232, 276. magkapa'ra, magkaparis: 'equally' 70, 119, i6i. magkaro6n: 'to have' 280, 289, 290. mag'6tos: 'to order' 288. magsukat: 'just as much' 223. mahng~a: 'would be better' 73, 241. mahigit: 'more' 21,III, 11,2, 162, 217. maka: 'lest' 71, 73, 78, 119, 125, 151, i66, 172, i86, 239. malakf: 'large' 228. man: 'even, altho' 20, 22, 64, 70, 72, 78, 79, 121 (Addenda), 126 (bis), 127, 158, i66, 173, 190, 191, 199, 200, 238, 239 (cf. Addenda). manaa: 'beholdl' 8i, 170. mandin: 'indeed' 70, 75, 121, 199, 200, 238, 239. manga: pl. sign 15, 20, 32, 33, 35, 98, 00oo, 103 (bis), 119, 208, 209, 232, 233 293; cf. also mangaIndex III. - I8 - i. mangyari: 'be able' 45, 84, 155, 225, 288. marahil: 'perhaps' 72, 240, 241. marami: 'much, many' 21, lOI, 135, 136, 230, 232. martinung: 'know how' 155, 252. may: 'to have' 37, 93, 133-139, 155, 156, 158, 162, 164, 165, 179, 198, 226, 230 (bis), 231, 232. maydini, maydito, maydiyan: 'have here,' 'have there' 133, I34. mayro6n: cf. may. mina: adv. 'first' 67, 121, 188, 189, 199, 200, 236. munti: 'a little' 21, 22, 36, I14, 226, 228. -n: ligature I5. na: ligature 292-295 (ref.), especially 293 (ref.). na: 'to be in, have' 37, 38, 58, 59, I30-I33, I37, 138, 139, 157, 179, 198 (bis). na: 'now, already' 66, 8o, 121, 122, 123, I75, I76, 199, 200, 207, 2II, 237, 260, 262, 287, 288; cf. also na-ng. naito, naiyan: cf. narinz. naman: 'also' 70, 107, 114, 121, 122, 125, 134, 153, 199, 200. nandini, nandito, nandiyan, nandoon: 'be here,' 'be there' 38, I3I. na-ng: adv. 78, 122, 123, 169, 204. nang an6: 'of what? 214, cf. nino. nauna: 'first' 25, 1II. narini, narito, nariyAn, naro6n: 'be here,' 'be there' I31. narfto: 'behold!' 8i, 170, 184. nawa: 'would that' 72, 121, 172, 199, 200, 240. naya6n, nayari: cf. narini. nfno: 'whose?' 19, 136, 214, cf. nang ano. ninsan: = minsan 'once' 28. -ng: ligature 292-295 (ref.). nga: adv. 70, I2I, I22, 199,200, 237. ngani: cf. nga. ngay'6n: 'today, now' 65, 75, 237. o: 'or' 126, 174, Addenda, p. 77. opan: cf. uhpn. oy: cf. ay. pa: 'more, yet' cf. Idlb, also 70, 113, 121, 125, 138, 139, 143, 175, 192, 193, 199, 200, 226, 237. paano: 'how?' 72, 138, 13, 92, 239, 240. pag, pagka: cf. kda5ag. pala: adv. and interj. 70, 80, 121, I99, 2o0, 238. pan: 'father of' 16, 99, 208. pangalawa: 'second' 25. pangatl6: 'third' 25. para: 'like' 21, II2, 113, 117, I52, I53, 158, i59, i6o, 187, 219. parapara: 'equally' 70, i6o. paris: cf. para. pasubali: 'less' 36, 69, I18, 161. pasubali sa: 'except that' 79, 192. pAwh: cf. dildn. pisan: cf. dildn. p6: 'sir, ma'am' I21, 147, I99, 2oo0 210, 211, 242. p616: 'ten' 22, 27 note. sa: obl. of art. ang,, cf. Articles, Index I. sa: adv. cf. sand. saan: 'where?' 71, 72, 132, 138, 151, 152, 18I, 193, 227, 228, 239, 279, 280. sakall: 'perhaps' 72, I19, 121, 122, 125, 199, 200, 239, 240, 241. sa kana, sa kay: 132. sakdal: 'essence' 165. salamat: 'thanks, welcome' 8o, 81, 169. sa makatuwid: 'i. e.' 73, 120, 122, 241, 243, 244. samp6n: 'together with' 8, 77, 124, 245. sani\: adv. 72, 121, 122, 192, 199, 200, 240. i i - 319 - sarili: 'own' 21, 211, 217, 218. sarisarl: 'various' 21, 232. si: art. I6, 33, 207-208 (ref.). si: interj. 81, 170, I7I. sina: art. 16, 33, 34, 209 (ref.) sino: 'who?' 19, 20, III, 129, I3I, 132, 149, I50, 167 (ref.) 193, 213, 214, 276. siy.: 'he, she, it' 17, 19, 21, 80, 122, 180, i8i, 182, 194, 211, 276. siya nawa: 'amen' 8o, 211. siya nga: 'surely' 80, 211. suikat: 'should, deserve' 155, 283, 288. tabi: 'with permission' 72, 242. talaga: 'by nature' 73, 241, 242. tana(n): cf. dildn. tant6: 'indeed' 70, 139, 237, 239. tayo: 'we' 17, 210, 220. tila: 'it seems' 72, 240. toloy: 'together with' 73, 124, 243, 245. tumbas: 'apiece' 70, I07, 113, 119, 237, 281. tuwi-ng: 'every, whenever' 21, 66, 78, I88, 189, 218. upan: adv. and conj. 72, 78, i86, 240. walI: 'is not, has not' cf. na 'to be in, have' and may, also 38, 71 132, 135, 228, 245. wala-ng di wali: I32. wala-ng wali: 38, 135. wari: interr. part. 71, 121, I68, 199, 200. yatiL: 'it seems' 72, I20, 121, 122, 199, 200, 240. III. Derivative Particles. The hyphen (- or -) indicates the position ot the word which is derived with the particle. Note n. = nominal, including adjectival; pr. = pronominal, including numeral; v. = verbal; av. = adverbial. -an: n. 84, 85, 227, 229; cf. also inan, an, ka- laan, -an, finag-an, sang-an, sangka-an: v. passive 40, 41-58 passim, 274, 281; v. subsidiary 62, 253, 255, 256, 259, 26I, 271, 272. ga-: v. 63; av. 63, 64, 69, 74, cf. also kasingga-, and Adverbs with prefixed ga Index I. gaga-: av. 74. gangga-; av. 74. hi-: v. passive of manhi 46. i-: v. 40, 41-58 passim, 254, 274, 280. -i: v. 40, 54, 62, 281. ika-: pr. 24, 25; v. 51, 55, 270. im-, -im-: v. 56. -in: n. 86, cf. also ma-in; v. 40, 41-58 passim, 251, 252, 273, 274, 275, 277, 278, 280, 281. in-, -in-: n. 87; v. 40, 41, 42-58 passim, 58 (~ 90). in-an, -in-an: n. 87, cf. alsopinagan. ina-, ini-: v. 42, 56. ka-: n. 88, 89, 225, 245, 273, 274 (8, io, 12), cf. also maka-(n.); v. passive of ma- and maka- 39, 47, 270, 280, 281, 291; v. subsidiary 59, 60, 143, 144, 175, 176; av. 65, 74. ka-an: n. 88 (ter), 89-91, I71 225, 226, 228, 273, 274, cf. alsosangkaan; v. 59, 6i, 143, 144, 190, 242. kamaka-: av. 28, 65, 74. kapag-: v. 59, 60, 6i, 143, 144, 176, 177, cf. also kapag Index II. kapagka-: v. cf. kapag-, and kapagka Index II. kasing-: n. cf sing-, also 64. kasingga-: av. 64, 74. - 320 - -la-, -li-, -lo-: n. 82 note. ma-: n. 35, 91, 92, 273, 274; v. active 47, 51, 259-261, 270, 272, 275, 282, 283, 289; passive of ma- and maka- 47, 48, 51, 83, 176, 260, 262-264, 270, 275, 288, 291; av. 63, 74. ma-: passive of maka-. ma-an: cf. -an subsidiary. ma-in: n. 92, 94. mag-: n. 92, 93, I09, IIo, 227; v. 38, 41, 43, 44, 50, 51, 248-250, 252 -254, 269, 270 (bis), 271, 273, 275-281, 282, 283, 289. mag-an: cf. -an subsidiary. maghi-an: cf. manhi-an. magin(g)-: v. 38, 44, 257, 274-277, 281, 282, 289. magka-: n. 37, 93, 119, I6o, I61; v. 38, 44, 50, 255, 270, 271, 276, 280, 281, 282, 289, 290. magka-an: cf. -an subsidiary. magkan-: v. 38, 44, 45, 257, 282, 289. magkapa-: v. 38, 45, 257, 282, 289. magkasing-: n. 37, 93, I6o. magpa-: v. 38, 48, 49, 50, 265-268, 269, 275, 276, 282, 283, 288, 289, 290; cf. also pa- passive. magpaka-: v. 38, 49, 268, 271, 282, 289. magpati-: v. 38, 45, 257, 258, 282, 289. magsa-: v. 38, 44, 254, 255, 283, 289. magsi-: v. 38, 41, 44, 50, 52, 254, 269, 282, 292. maka-: n. 92, 273; v. active 38, 47, 50 (bis), 51, 52, 83, 176, 261-263, 269,282,283,287,288,289 (ter),292; passive of ma- 47, 48; av. 27, 28, 74. maka-: v. Io, 47, 48, 262, 263, 274. maki-: v. 38, 44, 5I, 58, 255, 256, 269, 274,277, 278,282,283,289,290,291; av. 28. maki-an: cf. -an subsidiary. makipag —an: cf. maki-an. man-: n. 93, 221, 222, 278; pr. 27; v. 38, 45, 46, 258, 272, 280, 282, 283, 289. manhi-: v. 38, 46, 258, 259, 283, 289. manhi-an: cf. -an subsidiary. manga-, mangag-, mangagka-, mangagsi-: cf. -nga-. mapa-: v. 51, 270, 275, 282. mapag-; n. 92. mapagpala-: n. 94. mapaka-, mapaki-, rnapati-: v. 51, 270, 282. may-: n. 93, I35. mayka-: pr. 30-32, I0o. na-: v. present of um class 56: preterite and present of pa class 48. na-, nag-, nagin(g)-, nagka-, nagkan-, nagkapa-, nagpa-, nagpaka-, nagpati-, nagsa-, nagsi-, naka-, naki-, nan-, nanhi-: used in preterite and present (with reduplication) instead of corresponding m particles; cf. also 40, 28 (pr.). ni-: v. 56. -nga-: v. 62, 253, 254, 255, 261. um-: cf. after t. pa-: n. 59; v. active 38, 48, 50, 264, 265,269, 280,282,283,288,289,290, 291; also passive of pa- and magpa39, 49, 264, 265, 266-268, 275, 278, 281, 289, 292; av. 59, 74. pa-: v. 10, 59, 6I, 62, 143, 146. pag-, pagin(g)-, pagka-, pagkan-, pagkapa-, pagpa-, pagpaka-, pagpati-, pagsa-, pagsi-, paki-, pan-, panhi-: passive forms of corresponding m particles; cf. also 39. pag-: n. 83, 88, 93; v. subsidiary, cf. kapag- and ipag Index II; v. passive, cf. pag- above. pagka-: n. 93, 94, 226, 228, 229; v. subsidiary, cf. kapag- and pagka Index I I; v. passive, cf.pag- above. pagka-: n. 10, 94, 170, 171. i i i 0 - 321 - paka-: v. subsidiary 59. 6I, 143, 144; also passive of magpaka- 39, 49, 268. pala-: n. 94, 273, cf. also qmaagfala-. pala-an: n. 94. pan-: n. 94, 95, 274; v. passive, cf. pag- above. pinag-an: n. 88. sa-: pr. 25; v. passive of magsa- 39, 44, 255. sang-: n. 95. I04, 105; pr. 23. sang-an: n. 95. sangka-an: n. 95, 228. sing-: n. 37, 89, 95, I6o, 273, 274, cf. also kasing-, magkasing-. tag-: n. 96. taga-: n. 96, 227, 228, 229, 273. tig-: pr. 26, 27, I03, 221, 222, 278. urn-, -ur-: v. 38, 41, 42, 50, 248-252, 269, 270, 271, 275, 276, 278, 279, 280, 289. -y: n. 34, cf. also Addenda p. 86. 21 Addenda and Corrigenda. Page Line Present text Correction 7 8 bet. II ( 6 inverted reversed. 2 and 3 - add - The nasals n and ng may become m before the labials b and 5, e. g., limbdn 'closed up' (<linibdn), samnpotiw 'ten' (<sangpowb). end - add - The accent is also frequently shifted in other cases (cf. ~~ 83, I40).:5 end - add - From the nominative of the personal pronouns adverbs meaning 'like' may be formed by prefixing ga, e. g., gaako 'like me' (cf. ~ I23). 10 isamdn isamdn or isd man. 2 lab labi. 8 s 2 22 23 23 7, 8 p6dw...follow-ed row...... followed. 27 note pdlo...Totanes pdlo... TOTANES. 29 i6 titig'flan titig'ilan 40 5 - add - The combinations formed by prefixing the active and special passive particles to the root will be called active and passive stems respectively. 54 ~ 8i, a end - add - For a list of these roots cf. Appendix B, p. 307 if. 55 ~ 8i end - add - For a complete list of syncopated passives cf. Appendix A, p. 300 ff. 55 2 (S 82) (cf. ~ 75) (cf. S 75, i). 58 9 - add - For a list of these roots cf. Appendix C, p. 3Iof. 59 S 94 end - add - The root ala'da 'remember' makes the contracted in passives alalahin, alalahdnin, cf. Appendix A. 62 3 (S 104) and manhi classes manhi and ma classes. 7 4 (from bot.) saan 'wh where?' sa 'where han j 77 last kun 'or' kun } 'or' 0 J - 33 - Page Line 78 9 (S I37) 79 9 86 4,5 (S 146, e) 86 end 89 2 (5 I49, g) 101 14 (~ 167) o19 ~ 181 end 121 II (~ 205) I2 9(from bot.) 143 8 (~ 247) 163 ~ 284 end I66 14 (from bot.; 204 ~ 342 end 233 S 369 end 239 2 255 bot. Present text Correction konowari konowirl. sa pagka sapagka. kanin 'food, kinin 'food, boiled rice' boiled I kakanfn rice' kakanfn 'sweetmeat' I - add - THE SUFFIX Y. ~ 146. 2. This is a hypocoristic suffix added to abbreviated personal names, cf. 5 47. - add- cf. ~ 295. add (as additional example) -- lahat na tawo 'all men.' - add (as additional example) - ang iking manga kamay 'my hands': (with following note) - Mangd may also sometimes precede a prepositive possessive, e.g., angsamangd dkingiinsdn (p. I6o). - add (after din) - man. - add (before din) - man precedes din. add (after oblique) - They may, however, also take their logical object in the nominative, just like passive verbs, e. g., pagkaringig ko siyd, umupo ako 'when I heard him I sat down' (cf. S 308). - add- Cf. also ~ 377 mahdnga; S 421, 2. )magasaiwa... magaway mag'asawa... maga'way. - add - The juxtaposition of active and passive of the same root is a form of repetition (cf. ~~ 383, k; 88 end). - add - For the expression of abundance, plurality by mag,fagcf. ~~ 148, 385,386. - add - This particle is apparently sometimes used as a suffix bearing the accent (e. g., sinomdn, isamdn), sometimes as an enclitic, without changing the accent of the modified word (e. g., sadn man, isd man). add (as note to S 389) - The imperatives of involuntary verbs of this class are said by TOTANES to be "de ingat" or "de recelo", which apparently means that they have a negative force. 21I - 324 - Page Line Present text Correction 283 S 410 end - add - 23) Verbs of destruction: active, um, maka causal classes (cf. ~ 383, a); intransitive, ma class (cf. ~~ 396, b;403, g). 24) Verbs of pretending; mag class (cf. SS 386; 403, d); cf. also No. I9. N.B. As a result of the difference between the English and the German practice in dividing words at the end of a line, a number of word divisions different from those customary in English have gotten into the text, and some of these have eluded the vigilance of those who read the proof until too late for correction. Note the following corrections in cases of this kind, viz.: Bibliog-raphy (p., 1. 6 fr. bot.), syl-lable (Io, I2), distrib-utive (26,9 fr. bot.; 93, 1), reduplicating (47,7 fr. bot.), gener-ally (75, o), auxil-iary (84,1), meas-ures (93,10), prepositional (108,3 fr. bot.; 197,10 fr. bot.), pred-icate (120, 0o; 136, II fr. bot.; 137, 14 fr. bot.; I66, I; I79, i), nomi-native (128,2 of S 217; 294, Io fr. bot.), ordi-narily (136,6 fr. bot.), appos-itive (179,8), accord-ing (187,4 fr. bot), equiv.alent (I98,5 fr. bot.), signif-icant (201,4 fr. bot; 203,2 fr. bot.), individ-uality (202, last), phenom-enon (204,3). Note also the German form of the italic capital j, viz. 7, which occurs in a few cases (viz., pp. 4,35, 778o,80, I6, 125, 194; also Title Page and VIII, note), and which could not be replaced by the common English form because of the lack of that form in some of the fonts of italic type. FINIS I THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN DATE DUE!I APR ~1991 APR 5 1991w Qr w )015 00566 3995 DO NOT REMOVE OR MUTILATE CARDS