THE
TURKISH EMPIRE.




THE
TURKISH EMPIRE;
EMBRACING THE
RELIGION, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS OF THE PEOPLE.
WITH
A MEMOIR OF THE REIGNING SULTAN
AND OMER PACHA.
BY
EDWARD JOY MORRIS,
AUTHOR OF'.TRAVELS IN THE EAST," ETC. ETC.
In one Volume, 12mo., Cloth. Price 75 cents.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS,
"This volume is full of valuable information. It is calculated to give a more general
idea of the religious, political, and social condition, as well as the physical extent and re.
sources of Turkey, than any publication of the popular order that has yet appeared from
the press. It, of course, presents only leading facts and events, but all are so grouped and
arranged as to afford an excellent idea of the rise, progress, and decline of the Mussulman
power and faith."-Inquirer.
"No book that we are acquainted with presents in the same space so much information
about the Ottoman empire, and those who now administer its affairs, civil and military.
It has, too, the advantage of being strictly impartial, and while it shows no inclination
towards the power that is now menacing the Porte with destruction, it does not conceal
the signs of Turkish decay, nor attempt to cover up the evils of the Turkish civil and
religious system."-Bulletin.' We have here, in small space, a vast amount of information in relation to a country
to which the eyes of the whole civilized world are turned at the present time. It contains
all that is worth knowing of the past and present of the Ottoman empire-that empire
which was once the terror of Christian Europe."-Evenints Post.
"In a light, neat, and exceedingly well-written volume, it presents the reader with a
sketch of the biography of the leading actors in the present quarrel on the Turkish side,
a condensed outline of the past history of Turkey, a similar view of the political and
religious condition, the manners and customs of the people; a glance at the geography
and military localities; and an Appendix containing a few of the most important docu
ments immediately connected with the commencement of hostilities between Russia and
Turkey and the West. To those who would acquire a general understanding of passing
events in the East, without much mental labor, this work will be peculiarly acceptable,
and we predict for it a successful career."-Am. Banner.
"Among the numerous books which the Oriental crisis has called forth, we have met
with none, which, in a single volume, comprises so large a variety of interesting matters
as this, small though it be."-Bizarre.
LINDSAY  &  BLAKISTON, PUBLISHERS, PHILADELPHIA,








it'
32l elo                                                        _'=G~~~~~~~~v&.NM~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~   Sil  ai's a~h.
ABDEL MEDJID,
~~....~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'::
~iI~~~~~~~~~~~~ R?~~~~~j
Gi~4~~Y~e.P~,XD    S 1 ~  TAN.'T
ABELMDJD




THE
TURKISH EMPIRE,
EMBRACING TIHE
RELIGION, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS
OF THE PEOPLE.
WITH A
MEMOIR OF THE
REIGNING SULTAN AND OMER PACHA.
BY
EDWARD JOY MORRIS,
AUTHOR OF " TRAVELS IN THE EAST," ETC.
#e nt    f  bittinR
PHILADELPHIA:
LINDSAY AND BLAKISTON.
1855.




Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1854, by
LINDSAY & BLAKISTON,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the
Eastern District of Pennsylvania.
STEREOTYPED BY J. FAG AN.




PRE FACE.
THE affairs of the East, especially if the result of the
present struggle should be adverse to Turkey, may have
such an important bearing, that any account, however
brief, of the history, political and religious condition,
manners and customs, and physical resources of a people
who, but a few centuries since, shook the world with the
terror of their arms, must be interesting; and the more
so from the fact that the Turkish empire seems to be in
the last stage of existence, and to be rapidly approaching
dissolution.
On the 29th of May, 1453, the Ottoman nation, under
the command of Mahomet the Second, surnamed the
Conqueror, took Constantinople by storm, and supplanted
the cross of Christ by the crescent of the Prophet, on the
walls of that capital.  The capture of Constantinople
was the death-blow of the Greek empire, for a long time
previous struck with decay; and the Emperor Constantine, in falling in the streets of that city, closed up the
(vii)




vii1                 PR EFAC E.
tomb of this empire of the world.  Strange and remarkable event!  Four hundred years later, the Turks are
menaced with the same fate that the Greeks experienced
at the hands of their ancestors.  Their empire, after
being sapped in its foundations by internal anarchy, and
by a vicious adherence to antiquated abuses, is, like that of
Constantine, in danger of falling by its own weakness. An
empire which, in the zenith of its power, possessed forty
regencies and four great tributary countries; which had
extended its conquests over Moldavia and Wallachia, and
which in Europe possessed all Greece, Illyria, Macedonia,
Thrace and Dacia, and which had also subdued the greatest part of the habitable regions of Asia and Africa.
Certainly the history of a people, once so great, cannot
but be one of profound interest, whatever may be the
point of view from which it is regarded. The Turkish
empire is, in truth, so remarkable for its religious and
political constitution, and it has, in its latter days, given
so many occasional proofs of fitful energy and strength,
that it merits an attentive consideration. We propose to
cast a glance at the history and actual condition of this
people, for it is only possible, by studying the foundations
of the interior of the structure, to comprehend its deep
decay and present precarious state. In this investigation, with no other object in view than a proper elucidation of our subject, we shall be guided by the spirit of
impartial history, and the unprejudiced feelings of a
disinterested observer.




PREFACE.                     ix
BY THE TRANSLATOR.
The translation of this work was undertaken, with a
view of presenting in a concise form, a general yet satisfactory idea of the past and present condition of the
Ottoman people and empire. Although the original work
has been preserved, the translator, in order to render it
more complete, has incorporated with it portions of the
celebrated French writings on Turkey and Constantinople,
by Messrs. Jouannin, Van Gaver, and Lacroix, intermingled with a considerable amount of original matter, suggested by his own travels in Turkey and the East. The
memoirs are in part derived from the last edition of the
Leipsic Conversation's Lexicon, 1854.
E. J. M.








CONTENTS.
A BRIEF MEMOIR OF SULTAN ABDUL M[EDJID.. Page  15
"6  "         OMAR PASHA..................... 24
CIURSCIIID  PASHA  (COUNT
RICHARD GUYON).............. 27
IEHEMED ALI PASHA, GRAND
VIZIR, AND BROTHER-IN-LAW
OF THE SULTAN................ 29
CMUSTAPHA PASHA, PRESIDENT
OF THE COUNCIL OF MIINISTERS............................  30
M /IEHEMED PASHA, SERASKIER..  30
IRESCHID PASHA, MINISTER OF
FOREIGN AFFAIRS............ 31
M UCHTER BEY, MINISTER OF
FINANCE........................ 32
FETHI AHMED PASHA, VIINISTER OF COMMERCE...........  32




xii               CONTENTS.
A BRIEF MEMOIR OF RAMIK PASIIA, MASTER  OF
ORDNANCE......................   33
C  AAHMIOUD, CAPTAIN PASHA,
MAINISTER OF THE MARINE,
AND LORD IGIIGH-ADMIRAL... 33
ABBAS PASHA, VICEROY  OF
EGYPT........................... 33
INTRODUCTION- RISE AND PROGRESS OF ISLAMISM.. 37
FIRST PART.
HISTORY OF THE TURKISH EMPIRE TO THE CONQUEST
OF CONSTANTINOPLE, IN 1453...................... 45
SECOND PART.
HISTORY OF THE TURKISH EMPIRE FROM THE CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE TO TIIE PEACE OF
CARLOWITZ, 1699.................................... 78
THIRD PART.
HISTORY OF THE TURKISH EMPIRE FROM THE PEACE
OF CARLOWITZ TO THE PRESENT TIME........... 102




CONTENTS.                   xiii
FOURTH PART.
POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION -   ANNERS
AND CUSTOMS............................ 138
FIFTH PART.
GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF TURKEY-OF ITS PRINCIPAL TOWNS, FORTRESSES, AND OTHER PLACES
CONNECTED WITH ITS MILITARY IIISTORY......  184
APPENDIX.
I. OFFICIAL NOTE ADDRESSED BY THE SUBLIME PORTE
TO THE AMBASSADORS OF FRANCE, ENGLAND,
PRUSSIA, AND AUSTRIA............................. 207
II. -MANIFESTO OF THE EMPEROR OF RUSSIA......... 209
III. DECLARATION OF WAR BY ENGLAND..............  210
IV. ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE...................... 213
2








SULTAN ABDUL MEDJID.
THE reigning Sultan succeeded his distinguished father,
Mahmoud II., as sovereign of the Ottoman empire, July
1, 1839. Taking the reins of government at the age of
16, and reared up to that period within the walls of the
Harem, without the advantages of an enlightened education, he entered upon a task, to the requisitions of which
he was deplorably inadequate. His immaturity of mind
and character were, in some degree, supplied by the large
experience, administrative abilities, and liberal views of
his Minister of Foreign Affairs, Reschid-Pasha -one of
the most able statesmen that has ever figured in the
annals of Turkish history.
At the period of his accession, the empire was in imminent danger of dismemberment. His rebellious Satrap,
Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, had just achieved a victory over the Turkish forces at Nezib, which consummated the absolute independence of Syria, Palestine,
Egypt, and menaced the loss of Arabia and the Pachalicks
on the African coast of the Mediterranean.  Exhausted
by the prolonged war of Greek independence, and the
subsequent hostilities with Russia, which terminated in
(15)




16          SULTAN ABDUL MEDJID.
the disastrous treaty of Adrianople, the Porte was deprived
of sufficient resources to meet the emergencies of the
crisis. To add to the public calamities, the CaptainPasha, a fortnight after the investiture of the new
sovereign with the imperial insignia, sailed into the harbor
of Alexandria with the entire Ottoman fleet, and delivered
it into the hands of Mehemet Ali.
A party was now formed at the capital who advocated
the dethronement of the young Sultan, a change in the
reigning dynasty, and the elevation of Mehemet All, with
the right of succession in his heirs, to the throne.  This
faction was composed of the religious orders, the law
officers, and the more fanatical sectaries of the Prophet,
who had resisted the reforms of Mahmoud II., as destructive to the religion and anti-Christian policy of the
empire.  Imbued with a contempt for European usages,
improvements, and principles, they regarded their introduction as an attempt to subvert the religious and civil
polity of Mahomet, and to establish the Christian system
on the ruins of the ancient faith of the country. The
selection of his ministers by the young Sultan clearly
indicated his resolution to pursue the policy of his father.
To arrest such a course, fatal, as they believed, to the
prosperity and duration of the empire, they induced the
Captain-Pasha to surrender the fleet to the Pasha of
Egypt, and organised a. vast conspiracy against the
government throughout the whole Ottoman dominions.
The only hope of the salvation of the kingdom lay in
the interposition of the European powers.  Their favor
could not be gained but by politic concessions to the
progressive spirit of the age, an increased tolerance of
the religious faith of the Christian subjects of the Porte,




SULT A N ABDUL   EDJI D.               17
and the mitigation of the social and political abuses to
which they were exposed. Reaction would isolate the
government from the sympathy of the Christian states,
and leave it to contend single-handed against domestic
treason and external aggression by Russia. In pursuance
of the wise counsels of his cabinet, the Sultan resolved
on a decisive step, which at once raised him to the front
rank of the enlightened rulers of the age.
On the 3d of November, 1839, numerous tents had
been erected in the gardens of the imperial palace of
Top-Kapou, called Gul-Khanes. A vast crowd began to
assemble in this locality as early as eight in the morning,
to witness a solemnity which keenly excited the public
curiosity. All the ambassadors and ministers of foreign
powers, with the Prince de Joinville, repaired thither by
invitation, in the state carriages.  Strong detachments
of troops surrounded the enclosure.  The arrival of the
Sultan, who ascended the imperial pavilion, was followed
by that of the patriarchs of the Greek, Armenian-catholic, and Armenian-schismatic religions, the grand rabbi
of the Jews, a deputation of the sarrafs, or Christian
and Hebrew bankers, and by all the principal members
of the corps of ulemas, the kazi-askers, kadis, mollas, &c.
Near the Sultan, and on a separate line, were arranged
the mufti, and seven generals of the highest rank. When
all were seated, Riza Pasha delivered to Reschid Pasha,
the minister of Foreign Affairs, a hatti-scheriff of his
imperial Highness. The minister then ascended an elevated tribune, and read aloud this important state paper,
which announced the opening of a new epoch in Turkish
history.
" Every one knows that in the beginning of the Ottoman empire,
the glorious precepts of the Koran and the laws of the empire were
2co




18            SULTAN ABDUL MEDJID.
held as rules always revered, in consequence of which the empire
increased in strength and greatness; and all its subjects, without
exception, attained the highest degree of welfare and prosperity.
Within the last 150 years, a series of events and variety of causes
have, from not abiding by the holy code of laws, and the regulations that arose from it, changed the welfare and strength into
weakness and poverty. Thus it is that a nation loses all its stability by ceasing to observe its laws. These considerations have
constantly presented themselves to our notice, and since the day
of our accession to the throne, the public weal, the amelioration
of the state of the provinces, and th5 relief of the people, have
never ceased to occupy our thoughts. Bearing in mind the geographical position of the Ottoman empire, the fertility of its soil,
the aptitude and intelligence of its population, it is evident that by
bringing into operation efficacious means, we may obtain, by the
assistance of God, the object we hope to insure, perhaps in the
space of a few years. Thus, full of confidence in the Almighty,
and relying on the intercession of our Prophet, we deem it necessary to seek, by new institutions, to procure to the states which
compose the Ottoman empire, the happiness of a good administration.
"These institutions should have three objects in view: First, to
guarantee to our subjects perfect secur y of life, honor, and property; secondly, the regular levying and assessing of taxes; and
thirdly, a regular system for the raising of troops, and fixing the
time of their service.
" For, in truth, are not life and honor the most precious of all
blessings? What man, however averse his disposition to violent
means, can withhold having recourse to them, and thereby injure
both the government and his country, when both his life and honor
are in jeopardy? If, on the contrary, he enjoys in this respect full
security, he will not stray from the paths of loyalty, and all his
actions will tend to increase the prosperity of the government and
his countrymen. If there be absence of security of property, every
one remains callous to the voice of his prince and country. No
one cares about the progress of the public good, absorbed as one
remains with the insecurity of his own position. If, on the other
hand, the citizen looks upon his property as secure, of whatever
nature it be, then, full of ardor for his interests, of which for his




SULTAN ABDUL MEDJID.                          19
own contentment he endeavors to enlarge the sphere, thereby to
extend that of his enjoyments, he feels every day in his heart the
attachment for his prince and for his country grow stronger, as
well as his devotedness to their cause. These sentiments in him,
become the source of the most praiseworthy actions.
" The assessment of regular and fixed taxes is a consideration
of vital importance, since the state, having to provide for the
defence of its territory, can only raise the means necessary for the
maintenance of the army by contributions on the people. Although,
thanks be to God, the inhabitants of this country have lately been
freed from the curse of monopolies, formerly improperly looked
upon as a source of revenue, a fatal practice still remains in force,
although it cannot fail to give rise to the most disastrous consequences-it is that of venal corruption, known under the name of
Htizam. According to this system of civil and financial practice,
a district is abandoned to the arbitrary rule of one individual, but
too often notorious for his rapacity, and the most cruel and most
insatiable disposition; for, should this farmer of the revenue not
be a virtuous man, he will have no other care but that tending to
his own advantage.
" It becomes, then, necessary for every member of the Ottoman
society to be taxed according to a fixed rate, in proportion to his
means and circumstances, and that nothing further should be
exacted from him, and that special laws should also fix and limit
the expenses of our army and navy.
" Although we have already observed the defence of the country
is a most important consideration, it becomes the duty of the inhabitants to supply soldiers to that object: it becomes essential to
establish laws to regulate contingents which each district is to
supply, according to the urgency of the moment, and to reduce the
time of the military service to four or five years, for it is at the
same time doing an injustice, and inflicting a mortal blow on agriculture and industry, to take, without regard to the respective
populations of each district, from one more, from other fewer men,
than they can afford to provide, and it is also reducing the soldiers
to despair, and contributing to the depopulation of the country, to
retain them all their lives in the service. In short, without the
different laws of which the necessity has been shown, there is




20           SULTAN  ABDUL MEDJID.
neither strength, riches, happiness, nor tranquillity for the empire,
and it has to expect these blessings as soon as these laws come into
operation.
" It is therefore that in future the cause of every individual shall
be tried publicly, according to our divine laws, after mature inquiry and examination; and till a regular sentence has been
pronounced, no one shall have it in his power, either secretly or
publicly, to put an individual to death, either by poison or by any
other means.
" It is not permitted to attack the honor of any individual, unless
before a court of justice.
" Every individual shall be allowed to be master of his own property, of whatsoever kind, and shall be allowed to dispose of it
with full liberty, without any obstacle being offered by any one.
For instance, the innocent heirs of a criminal shall not forfeit
their right to his property, nor shall the property of a criminal be
any longer confiscated.
" These imperial concessions extend to all our subjects, of whatever religion or sect they may be, and these advantages, they shall
without exception, enjoy.
" Thus we grant full security to the inhabitants of our empire,
of life, honor, and property, as we are bound to do, according to
the text of our holy law.
" As to the other subjects, they are subsequently to be regulated
after the decision of the enlightened members of our Council of
Justice, the members of which will be increased according to
necessity, which is to meet on certain days, which we shall appoint.
Our ministers and dignitaries of the empire will assemble to establish laws for the security of life and property, and the assessment
of taxes, and every member of these assemblies shall be free to
express his opinion and to give his advice.
" Laws concerning the regulation of the military service will be
debated at the military council, which will hold its meetings at the
palace of the seraskier.
" As soon as one law is settled, in order that it may be for ever
valid, it shall be presented to us, and we shall honor it with our
sanction, and to the head thereof we shall affix our imperial
seal."




SULTAN  ABDUL MEDJID.                21
After the reading of the hatti-scheriff, Reschid Pasha
delivered it to the Grand Vizir, who applied it to his lips
with religious respect.  The Sheik-el-Islam  then pronounced a prayer, to which the crowd responded Amen!
and the thunder of all the cannon of the fortification
announced the close of the ceremony.  The Sultan
repaired to his palace, where he immediately received the
pashas of the first rank, and formally enjoined upon them
the strictest observation of the organic laws which his
government was about to promulgate in pursuance of the
imperial decree. These high functionaries then proceeded
to the hall in which the mantle of the prophet is kept,
and were siworn to an oath of fidelity by the mufti. A
translation of the document was forthwith communicated
to the ambassadors of the courts of Christendom represented at Constantinople.
The effect of this nobly-inspired document was to propitiate the public feeling of Europe in favor of Abdul
Medjid.  In consequence of this and other influences,
after an armed demonstration of England and Russia
against Mehemet Ali at Acre, on the coast of Syria, a
treaty was signed with the great powers, July, 1841, by
which the fleet was restored to the Sultan, Syria reincorporated with the dominions of the Porte, and Egypt
retained as a tributary country, with the right of inheritance to the Pashalic in the family of Mehemet All. The
system of reform was energetically prosecuted from this
date; the navy and army were enlarged and improved in
organization, discipline, and equipment.  The condition
of the Christian populations of Tarkey has been greatly
ameliorated since 1839; and the governmental toleration
conceded to them presents a highly honorable contrast
with that adopted by some of the nominally Christian




22         SULTAN  ABDUL MIEDJID.
kingdoms of Europe towards professors of other than the
established religion.
The schedule of reform traced out in the Khattischeriff, would have regenerated the empire, if vigorously
enforced.  The corruption and ignorance of the public
functionaries, and the comparative absolute despotism of
the Pashas, in the provinces, have frustrated the generous
aims of the Sultan; and his dominions remain in the
same condition in which he received them. The sites of
most of the ancient Greek cities, once the seats of large
populations, are overgrown wastes; no carriage-roads
have been laid out, and the internal trade is carried on as
in the primitive ages-by caravans.  The streets of the
capital are insecure after night; and travelling is exceedingly dangerous, in consequence of the laxity in the administration of justice, and the organised bands of assassins and plunderers by which the country is infested.
Whatever may be the issue of the pending struggle, no
Christian man can look with indifference upon the wild,
desolate, and demi-barbarous condition of the fairest
countries of the Eastern world, embraced within the
Turkish dominions.
Constantinople has, of late years, become a theatre of
incessant intrigue between the leading states of Europe,
through their envoys at that capital.  The Ottoman
cabinet is always constructed in a French, Russian, or
English sense; and is swayed by the outside influences
of the representatives of those powers.  Distracted by
these selfish and conflicting counsels, the attention of the
Divan is almost exclusively directed to external policy, to
the neglect of the domestic interests of the empire.  To
prevent the absorption of Turkey by Russia, the sovereigns of Europe are always ready to assist the Porte by




SULTAN  ABDUL MEDJID.                  23
force of arms; but it may be doubted, if any of them
are seriously disposed to aid in restoring the decayed
vigor of the Ottoman empire, and of raising it to the
position of a self-sustaining power. Whatever, also,
Russia may lose in war, she is amply compensated for by
the superior address of her diplomatists in treaty negotiations, who rarely fail to achieve at the council-board,
territorial conquests which her armies could not acquire
in the field. Of this, the most striking example is the
acquiescence of the allies in the cession of the mouths of
the Danube by the Porte to Russia, in the Adrianople
treaty, and the limitation of the newly-formed kingdom
of Greece to its present narrow bounds.  The latter was
an equally fatal mistake with the former, as it prevented
the consolidation into a powerful nationality of the only
people of the east whose natural intelligence, enterprising
spirit, and intellectual superiority, capacitate them to
succeed the Turks in their European possessions, and to
oppose a barrier against aggrandisement.
Abdul Medjid, personally, is possessed of but few
striking natural endowments. His character is timid and
irresolute; and although humane and liberal in disposition, he is wanting in that energy of will and force of
talent necessary to the crisis in which he finds himself
placed. By many he has been compared to the mild and
vacillating Constantine, under whom the Greek empire
was extinguished by its Mussulman assailants.  He is
now in the 32d year of his age, and the 15th of his reign.
His eldest son, Mohammed-Murad, was born September
22, 1840.  His protection of the Hungarian refugees,
although it alienated from him the good-will of Austria,
commanded the admiration and homage of all the free
Christian states of the world.




S24               OMAR PASHA.
OMAR PASHA.
OMAR PASHA, the commanding general of the Turkish
forces on the Danube, is a Croat, and was born in 1801,
in Vlaski, a village in the district of Ogulin, thirteen
miles from Fiume. His father was lieutenant-governor
in this district. His family name is Lattas. In his
youth, he frequented the normal military school in his
native village, where he was distinguished for his elegant
penmanship. He next studied in the mathematical school
at Thurm, near Carlstadt; and after he had gone through
the course of instruction, he entered the regiment of his
district as a cadet. He was subsequently employed as
secretary of Major Kneczig, the director of the roads; in
which capacity, however, he did not distinguish himself.
Hence he went to Zara; but as he found nothing to
satisfy his ambition in that place, he proceeded to Turkish
Bosnia. There he entered into the service of a merchant
as accountant; and subsequently, on his conversion to
Mohammedanism, he was employed by the same patron
as a private instructor of his sons, and with them was
sent to Constantinople.  Here he had arrived at the goal
of his ambition, and he immediately cultivated the acquaintance of all who could assist him in the realisation
of his aims. He associated with all the distinguished
military men of the capital, and soon attracted the notice
of Khosrew Pasha, who made him his adjutant. By his
interference, he was appointed professor of writing in a
military school. Subsequently presented with high encomiums to the Sultan, by the Pasha, he was appointed
instructor of the heir to the throne, the present Sultan
Abdul Medjid, with the rank of Juz-Baschi (captain), in
the Turkish army.




Frey,                                     ( De- I A
O _ALAL  J/A/  J
L~~~~~~~~~~~1~~1J
O;iIARACLV








0 Al A   P P A S11 A.           25
Kosrew Pasha, his original patron, was the guardian
of one of the richest ladies of Constantinople, the
daughter of a Janissary Aga, who had perished in the
slaughter of the troops to which he belonged. This lady
he gave to Ornar Pasha for wife. He was then promoted
to Major, and took an active part in the reorganization
of the army. At first he served under the Polish general, Chrzanowski, who directed the changes that were
being introduced into the military department.  In 1840
he made a campaign in Syria, and was promoted to the
rank of Brigadier-General. In 1842 he was appointed
to the military government of the Lebanon, in place of
Emir Kassan, removed for incapacity, from which command he was, however, not long after recalled, in consequence of his excessive cruelty to the Christian population of that region. In 1843, under the command of
Redschid Pasha, he took the field in Albania against the
rebel Dschukela, whose defeat was, in a great degree,
owing to his skilful manceuvres.
He was next sent, in 1846, to Adschara, upon the
borders of the Russian Caucasus, to suppress a revolt
headed by Hussein Bey. This was, however, effected
before his arrival, and he immediately returned to Constantinople. At this period, the Kurd chief, Bedr-HanBei, attacked the Nestorian Christians, and rose against
the Porte. He was dispatched with a division of the
army of Arabistan to extinguish this rebellion, which he
accomplished in 1847, by storming and taking the Kurdish strongholds.  The remainder of the year he passed
as military governor of Aleppo. In 1848, the insurrection on the Danubian principalities occasioned the joint
occupation of those countries by Russian and Turkish
troops. IHe was sent thither as commander-in-chief of the
3




26                OMAR  PASHIA.
latter.  Here an opportunity was afforded him of becoming acquainted with the Russian troops and tactics, and
also of the country along the borders of the Danube, and
with its means of defence.  He thoroughly studied the
features of this region, which explains the admirable prescience with which he has conducted the late operations
on that frontier of the Turkish empire.  He also gained
the good will of the people; for while the Russians
plundered and maltreated them, he maintained perfect
order and discipline in his camp, and enforced a rigid
respect for the persons and property of the inhabitants.
On one occasion, a band of gipsies was severely
punished by the Russian general Luders, for playing the
liarseillaise and other revolutionary tunes. Omar Pasha,
itpon hearing of this, ordered his own music bands to learn
the same airs, which he took a particular pleasure in
having performed whenever the Russians were within
hearing.  In 1850 he put down the insurrection excited
by the Bosnian nobility against the conscription and the
Tanzimat. Upon his return from this expedition, he was
appointed to the command of 30,000 regular troops sent
against Montenegro.  The intervention of the Austrians
in behalf of the mountaineers, closed the war before any
decisive movement on his part, other than a remarkably
skilful arrangement of the invading force, so as to
envelope the country with an impassable cordon of troops.
Upon the commencement of hostilities with Russia, he
was placed at the head of the Turkish forces on the
Danube, where he has highly distinguished himself by his
successes against the Russians. He is remarkable for his
talents as a strategist, and for his consummate knowledge
of the geographical features of the European seat of war.
He is admirably adapted to the command of a Turkish




OMAR PASHA.                     27
army, and can hold it in check, or inspire it with the
wildest enthusiasm at will.  He enjoys the confidence of
his soldiers, by whom he is beloved for his frankness of
disposition, and minute attention to their comforts. When
he received the formal declaration of war by the Porte
against Russia, he assembled his troops, and, after swearing them on the Koran, thus addressed them:
"The blood of your ancestors has more than once
reddened the earth which a powerful enemy would wrest
from  us.  From  your fathers you have inherited a
patriotic and spotless courage.  Remember that you cannot make a step without hearing a voice crying to you
from the earth:'This earth which you tread is our ashes,
the ashes of your ancestors; defend them!' Soldiers!
let us swear to shed the last drop of our blood to preserve
unimpaired the throne and empire of our well-beloved
Sultan, Abdul Medjid."
Omar Pasha is a man of superior mind and education;
he speaks several languages besides the Turkish, Servian,
German, and Italian.  He lives in the European style,
with but one wife, a German lady.
CHURSCHID PASIA (COUNT RICHARD GUYON), TURKIISI
COIKMMANDER-IN-CIIIEF OF ASIA MINOR.
The present commander-in-chief of the Turkish forces
in Asia Minor, is descended from a French family, which
emigrated to England in the 17th century.  His father
was a vice-admiral in the English service.  He was born
in Bath, England, in 1812; and very early in life
engaged in the war against Don Miguel.  In 1S32, on a
pleasure tour to Trieste, he formed the acquaintance of
some Austrian officers, and entered the regiment of the




28             CHIURSCIIID  PASIIA.
Grand Duke Joseph as a cadet; after a seven years' service, he was created first-lieutenant, and adjutant of
General. Splenyi.  In 1839, he married the general's
daughter, retired from service, and cultivated an estate
in the neilghborhood of Comorn.
The political events of 1848 dlrew him from retirement,
and he united with the struggle for independence in his
adopted country.  In the first battle which the Hungarians fought before Schewchat, October 28, 1848, Major
Guyon distinguished himself greatly in the storming of
the entrenchments.  With equal valor he defended, for
an entire day, the open town of Tyrnau, with but 1800
men, against an Austrian force of 10,000 men, under
General Simunich. For his gallantry in these actions, he
was promoted to a colonelcy; and on the 5th of February
he took Branyisko by storm, one of the most brilliant
victories of the Hungarian war.
He was recalled by Georgey, the traitor, from motives
of jealousy, fromt the main army, and ordered to the
command of the fortress of Comorn, into which he found
his way by penetrating, with 20 hussars, through the
close lines of a besieging Austrian army. VWhen Georgey
became Secretary of War, he recalled him from this post,
which he had successfully maintained against overwhelming odds, and sent him to the south, where he fought with
great success against Jellachich, and drove him back to
Titel.  On the 29th of July, lie joined the main corps
of Dembinski, and participated in the battles of Szovey
and Temesvar.  After the disastrous result of the latter,
and the base treachery of Georgey, he, with General
Bem, was almost the only commanding officer who insisted
on a continuation of the war.  He fled to Turkey with
Kossutb, where his military reputation secured him  a




TILLE CABINE'T.                 29
welcome reception.  Ile was one of the officers NThom
Austria, supported by Russia, insisted upon being delivered up to them.  Abdul Medjid would not consent to
surrender him to the vengeance of his enemies; and he
was soon after appointed to a command in the Turkish
army, and honored with the title of Churschid Pasha.
He was not required to change his religion, and yet
remains a Christian.  In 1850, he was the commanding
general in Damascus and Aleppo, in the latter of which
cities he suppressed a rebellion, excited by the fanatical
portion of the Turks in Syria.  lIe has recently been
sent to the field of war in Asia, to arrest the tide of
defeat, and restore the order and discipline of the army
in that quarter. I-e is a man of high probity of character, as well as great military talent, and possesses the
warmest regards of his troops.
TIIE CABINET.
I.  MEHEMED ALI PASHIA, GRAND VIZIR, AND BROTHERIN-LAW OF TIIE SULTAN.
M'iEHEaED ALL first served as sea-cadet on the flag-ship
of the Captain Pasha.  In 1829, he was introduced into
the Seraglio as page of Sultan Mahmoud, and by degrees
was promoted to the rank of chamberlain; and after the
death of his patron, entered the army as a Pasha.  He
subsequently occupied several prominent posts, among
others, that of Captain Pasha Seraskier.  Upon the fall
of Ali Pasha, he was made Grand Vizir.
The right-hand man of Mehemed Ali, is Ripik Bey,
who unites an unshaken integrity with great talents.
Ripik Bey is a warm friend of the English; and they
3 sic




30                TIIE CABINET.
extol him as a radical reformer, philanthropist, and friend
of religious toleration, in the broadest acceptation of the
term. Mehemed Ali is a discreet friend of reform, and
is of energetic business habits.
II.  MUSTAPIIA PASHA, PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL OF
MINISTERS.
Mustapha Pasha led an adventurous life in his youth.
Born in a small town near Monastir, when eight years
old he was carried to Egypt, to see his uncle, Tan Pasha.
After the destruction of the iMamelukes, he entered the
army of Mehemet Ali, the viceroy of Egypt, and fought
in the bloody campaign against the Wahhabites.  He
acted for some time as governor of 5Mecca, and in the
same capacity was sent to the island of Candia, where he
distinguished himself by his humanity, his respect for the
rights of all his subjects, Christian and Ottoman, and his
efforts to promote the prosperity of the country.  iHe
gained the affections of the whole population, who heard
with regret of his recall. IHe is a man of capacity, and
decided administrative talent.  He is the father of Veli
Pasha, the present Turkish ambassador in Paris.
III.  MEHEMED PASIA, SERIASKER.
Mehemed is an example of the fact that eminent
services are sufficient of themselves, without patronage,
to elevate a man to high posts. After the destruction of
the Janissaries, he entered the army, in which he became
an instructor. In 1827, the plague broke out among the
troops at Therapia; but by his wise precautions in
encamping the troops on elevated ground, not allowing




TIIE CABINET.                   i1
more than three to sleep in the same tent, and the
complete isolation of the sick, he succeeded in extinguishing it in forty days. For this service he was promoted,
and finally attained his present post.
IV. RESCHID PASHA, MINISTER OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS,
Was born in 1802, in Constantinople.  His father was
administrator of the rich possessions of the mosque of
Sultan I3ajazet.  One of his sisters married Ali Pasha,
by whom the young Reschid was made his private
secretary.  In this capacity he accompanied his patron
to the Morea, who was there appointed governor. He
also acted in the same employment under the Pasha, when
he subsequently commanded against the Greeks in the
MIorea. Upon the death of his friend he was appointed
private secretary by the Grand Vizir, Selim Pasha, and
served with him in the campaign against the Russians,
in 1829.  IIe also acted as secretary of the Turkish
plenipotentiary, Izet Pasha, at the treaty of Adrianople.
In reward for his services, he was raised to the dignity of
Amedzi, or Great Referendary.
lie also participated in the conferences with Mehemet
Ali at Konieh, and finally succeeded in negotiating the
treaty of Kutahea. He was next sent minister to France,
for which he was peculiarly qualified by his knowledge
of the language and literature of that country, and afterwards ambassador to London. After two years' diplomatic service in Europe, he was recalled. Driven by
civil convulsions and the plots of enemies from  his
country, he travelled through the principal countries of
Europe.  At Paris he heard of the death of Mahmoud,
and his own appointment as minister of Foreign Affairs




32                THIE CABINET.
under Abclul Medjid.   In this  sphere he earnestly
engaged in the reforms suggested by his travelling
experience and observation, and is generally supposed to
be the author and originator of the celebrated Hattischeriff which opened the new reign. Fearing the influence of such an enlightened reformer in the councils of
the Sultan, Russian intrigues finally procured his honorable exile to the embassy to Paris, in which he passed
seven years.  Since that period he has frequently been
in and out of office.  He is, unquestionably, the first
statesman of the Ottoman empire, thoroughly conversant
with European politics, languages, and learning, and
ambitious to restore the decayed power of his native
country. One of his sons has married a daughter of the
Sultan.  He is fond of the society of Europeans, by
whom he is much esteemed for his mild and genial
disposition, and liberal views.
V. MUCHTER BEY, MINISTER OF FINANCE.
In this person we have a kiboar, or Turkish gentleman,
in conversation and manners.  He served for a long time
as paymaster of the army, and was once ambassador to
Yienna.  He has founded a national bank, and done
much to repair the shattered credit of the government.
Ile is extremely industrious in his habits, of incorruptible
purity of character, and an excellent officer in every
respect.
VI.  FETHI ACHMED PASHA, MINISTER OF COMMERCE.
This minister has run the career of a courtier. Reared
in the Seraglio, he was a long time page, and afterwards
second chamberlain of Sultan Mahmoud.  Educated to




THE  CABINET.                   33
military science by Khosrew Pasha, he figured for a long
time in the army, in which he was appointed master of
ordnance.  Ie was ambarssador to Vienna; and upon his
return was created minister of commerce, and subsequently was placed at the  head of the quarantine
administration.
Fethi Achmed married a sister of the reigning Sultan;
this circumstance, and the fact of his being raised in the
Seraglio, sufficiently account for the extraordinary influence he enjoys at the Turkish court.
VII.  RAM3IK PASIIA, MASTER OF THE ORDNANCE.
Ramik Pasha travelled much when a young man, and
visited all the principal capitals of Europe, upon a tour
of observation and instruction.  Iie speaks French and
Italian with great facility.  For many years he was
governor of the Pashalic of Bagdad, one of the most
difficult posts in the kingdom, owing to the lawless and
rebellious disposition of the Arabs, and the irritable
character of the neighboring Persians.  iRamik Pasha is
an excellent soldier, and a highly honorable man.
VIII.   AIIHMOUD, CAPTAIN PASHA, MINISTER OF THE
MARINE, AND LORD HIGII ADMIRAL.
Of this minister we have but little knowledge.  For a
long time he filled high posts in the army, and succeeded
the Grand Vizir, Mehemed Ali, in the Admiralty.
ABBAS PASHA, VICEROY OF EGYPT.
The persevering efforts of Mehemed Ali to become the
renovator of Islamism, the founder of a great Oriental




034           V1:C VICEROY OF E'IyYPT.
kingdom, and to extend the supremacy of the Arabic race
fronm the Persian Gulf to the Black Sea, were arrested by
the intervention of the Great Powers in 1840. The frustration of his ambitious views weighed heavily on the heart
of the Pasha, and he finally became so disordered in intellect, that he was obliged to retire from the government,
and entrust it to his son, Ibrahim Pasha. The latter died
in 1848, and the Pasha himself in the following year, at
the age of 70. Of fifty-one children, but four sons and
two daughters survived him, the eldest of the former of
whom succeeded to the viceroyalty.
Abbas Pasha was in the expedition against the schismatic Wahhabites, and for some time commanded in
Djedda, the sea-port of Mecca. He early evinced a strong
antipathy to Europeans, and was distinguished for his
Mussulman piety, having, on several occasions, made the
pilgrimage to Mecca. Upon one of these sacred journeys,
hearing of the death of Ibrahim Pasha, he immediately
repaired to Constantinople, where he was invested by the
Sultan himself with the insignia of the viceroyalty.  He
has since frequently manifested aspirations after complete
independence of the Porte, and for three years he obstinately refused to acknowledge the hatti-scheriff of GhalKhane as the basis of his legislation.  He has, however,
contributed his contingent of troops and vessels to the
Sultan, in the war with Russia.
The Pasha has pursued a similar policy to that of his
father, whose regenerating reforms, improved systems of
agriculture, manufacturing establishments, and efficient
changes in the army and navy, rendered Egypt so formidable to the Sultan, and so prosperous in its domestic relations. Since the loss of Candia and Svyria, a large navy
has become of less importance, and it has, consequently,




VICEROY OF EGYPT. 
been greatly reduced.  The disproportionate numbel of
public officers has also been diminished, and the system
of monopoly which rendered the Pasha the buyer and
seller of the entire production of the country, has been
abolished. The burdens of taxation have been considerably lessened, and large amounts of surplus income are
now appropriated to the support of military hospitals and
institutions of beneficence.  The erection of the dam,
commenced across the lower Nile under Mehemed Ali, for
the purpose of regulating the quantity and flow of water
in the river, he has ordered to be discontinued, on account
of its interruption of the navigation. The humane interposition of the Christian representatives has also induced him
to put an end to the inhuman annual slave-hunts on the frontiers of Abyssinia. He has permitted the construction of a
railroad from Alexandria to Grand Cairo, which his father
constantly refused; and to a considerable extent has lost
the aversion to Europeans which he so strongly manifested
in his youth.  His chief vice is his avarice, to satisfy
which he has caused to be worked all the productive mines
in the mountains, so long neglected by his predecessors.
By penurious parsimony, he is enabled annually to amass
large sums for his own private purposes. Through this
passion, he is accessible to all kinds of concessions, and
even to many in conflict with the faith and interests of
Islamism.








INTRODUCTION.
RISE AND PROGRESS OF ISLAMISM.
WHEN, in the first years of the seventh century, A. D.,
Mahomet conceived his projects of religious reform, there
is every reason to believe that his views did not extend
beyond the limits of the ancient Arabia. He desired that
the land of the patriarch and prophets should cease to be
distracted by the religious animosities of a hundred tribes,
Christian, Hebrew, and Pagan; and that his native city
should be purged of the impious worship of idols, whose
statues polluted the first temple consecrated to the adoration of the true God, by Abraham, the common father of
the children of Ishmael, of the Israelites, and of the wellbeloved of Allah.
All people have had, and always will have, the patriotic
weakness of believing themselves more civilized and enlightened than their neighbors. Everywhere, the injurious
epithet of barbarian has been applied to strangers.  The
most exclusive of all mankind, the Jews, who proclaimed
themselves the. chosen peol])e, have left monuments of this
national pride, which, even in their extreme exaggeration,
possess something that is noble and grand; if, in addition,
the Greeks and Romans indulged in this good opinion of
themselves, we ought not to be surprised that the Arabs,
in the belief that they also were the people of Gold, should
4k()




38               INTR1ODUCTION.
always have been inspired with the same pride and disdain
against strangers.  They early exhibited a remarkable
similitude of manners, customs, and social organization,
with the IIebrews; they, therefore, felt but little repugnance in adopting the severe and controlling legislation
of NMahonmet, who had framed it, after the ancient law;
this conformity with the holy books of MIoses enabled the
son of Abdullah the more effectually to impress upon the
Arabs a firm belief in the mission which he pretended to
have received from God.
But few legislators have so sagaciously taken advantage
of the natural inclinations of men in masses, or as individuals, as Mahomaet.  If, like Moses, he did not live to
see his plans completed, they were perfectly comprehended
by the men who inherited them, and who, from the dawn
of Islamism, gave them an immense development. Havin g
nothing more to subjugate in the peninsula, they burst
from its limits, already become too restricted for their
ardent and fanatical coreligionists; the audacity of the
Mussulmans did not recoil before two great enemies whom
they unhesitatingly dared to brave, for we see them assailing, at one and the same time, the successor of Constantine, and the last of the Sassanides.
During several centuries of almost unbroken hostility,
the Roman empire, and that of the Persians, vainly disputed the possession of some frontier provinces upon the
Euphrates and Tigris; the hour approached when this
ancient enmity was to be buried in one common abyss,
and those provinces were to recognize other rulers, and to
submit to another religion.
Twelve years had hardly elapsed since Mahomet, forced
to abandon MIecca, had fled to MIedina, with a small body
of devoted followers, to esc:ape the vengeance of the




IN T   ODUCTION.                  39
Koreikites, when Islamism became so powerful, that it
precipitated itself upon Chaldea and Syria.  The first
yielded to Abou-Beker, and in the year 635 A. D., that
caliph received the keys of Damascus. Jerusalem capitulated to Omar in 638.  The act which consecrated the
submission of the holy city, has since served as a model
in all transactions of Mussulman powers with people, who,
in becoming their subjects, stipulate for the preservation
of their religion by means of a payment of tribute. The
heroism  and enthusiasm  of the first Mussulman armies
undoubtedly account for the rapidity of their conquests;
but the conduct of Omar to the Patriarch of Jerusalem,
faithfully pursued by his successors, appears to us to be
one of the most powerful causes of the submission of the
Christian populations, among whom schisms and heresies
had given birth to so many discords and misfortunes.
Mahomet had, indeed, prescribed the propagation of
Islamism by the sword; the Koran incessantly proclaims
it; but the Arabs alone were obliged to embrace it, or
forfeit their lives. The tribes, which the new prophet thus
violently called to salvation, and to the worship of the
only true God, proud of their origin and the primogeniture
of their father Ishmael, would not suffer a single Arab to
remain a stranger to the national faith, so thoroughly had
the son of Abdullah penetrated his sectaries with the conviction that Islamism was the religion which God himself
had prescribed to Adam, when he delivered to him the
seal of prophecy, and created him first pontiff of the true
faith (Imam).
The caliphs, successors of Omar, were enabled, by the
example of his generous and politic conduct, to grant
similar capitulations to the people who sought them.
Fear, ambition, and other passions of the human heart,




40               INT R ODUCTION.
undoubtedly attracted a great number of proselytes to
Islamism.  They were not repulsed, as by the Hebrews;
they were, on the contrary, cordially and eagerly received.
If we may justly reproach the victorious Mussulmans for
having constrained the vanquished, by menace and violence, to renounce the faith of their fathers, it was only,
for the most part, in the first intoxication of triumph, in
the sack of cities, or when a protracted resistance had
exasperated the victor and inflamed his fanaticism.  The
scrupulous fidelity of the caliphs in the observance of
their engagements, presented a strong contrast with the
perfidious policy of the Greeks of the Western empire, and
could not fail of exercising an incalculable influence upon
the shepherd races, under the dominion of the Byzantine
sovereigns.
It was especially in the two first centuries of the hegira,
that the work of propagation obtained unparalleled success.  This period, so prolific of grand events, in consolidating Islamism as a religion, and as a temporal power,
presents a series of facts and results to which it would be
difficult to find a parallel in the annals of the world. Onethird of the first century had not yet expired, when the
empire of the Persians ceased to exist; the last of the
twenty-five Sassanides, the unfortunate Yezdedjvid, had
perished, 651 A. D., in the river, which formed the ancient
boundary between Iran and Touran. But the Oxus did
not, at this time, arrest the conquerors.  In 664, they
had penetrated to Cabool, and the bloody discussions of
the Ommiades and their rivals could not prevent the
progress of the Mussulman arms into Transaxane and
beyond the Indus.
They had been no less successful in Syria, Egypt, the
north of Africa, and even on the shores of Byzantium.




INTRODUCTION.                   41
The Arabic historians mention two expeditions in 6512 and
659, which were carried to the very walls of Constantinople.  That capital was besieged in 668, 672, 717, and
the last siege had been preceded by great ravages in
Thrace. Since 679, the shores of the Atlantic ocean,
facing the Canaries, had received Islamism, which has ever
since reigned supreme there, preserving to this day its
primitive physiognomy.  But, before it penetrated into
Spain, thirty years later, Cyprus, Crete, Rhodes, Sicily,
Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic islands, had been subjected by the lieutenants of the Caliphs of Damascus, who
became the omnipotent masters of the Mediterranean.
The rapid conquest of Spain, which the Moors could
never entirely consummate, opened a new career to the
insatiable avidity and burning zeal of the Mussulmans.
They soon penetrated beyond the Pyrenees; the glorious
efforts of Charles Martel arrested them in the heart of
Gaul, but did not prevent them from desolating, for a
considerable period of time, the provinces of Languedoc
and Provence, and in maintaining themselves at Narbonne,
Carcasonne, and Perpignan, and in the country lying
between the Cevennes and the sea.
The Ommiade Caliphs at Damascus and in Spain, the
Abbasides at Bagdad and Cairo, and the Fathimites in
Mauritania and Africa, frequently beheld the Islamism,
which they had introduced into the vast regions that
obeyed their spiritual power, compromised and impaired
by the rival pretensions to the rights and title of Emirilmoumenin (commander or prince of the true believers).
Moreover, after the great Haroun-Rechid, and his two
successors, Emin and Mamoun, generals and governors
of provinces, metamorphosed themselves into dynastic
chiefs, and obtained by voluntary or forced concession,
4'




42               I NT   OD U C T I O N.
the investiture of provinces Nwhich had become almost
independent of the authority of the caliphs; in the fourth
and fifth centuries of the hegira, their temporal power was
seriously damaged. Conquerors of the Turkish and Mongolian races soon arose, whose appearance was accompanied by fearful calamities, during which the remnant of
their authority was wrested from the feeble vicars of Mahomet. When, at the end of the eleventh century, iRome,
frequently menaced in its own walls by the Saracens,
conceived the idea of carrying the war among them, and
summoned the Crusaders to the deliverance of the tomb
of Christ, the Christian invaders did not find their infidel
enemies under the command of genuine Arab chiefs. The
generals were Turkish or Kurd princes, such as KilidljArslan, Seldjouleide, and, later, the Sultans Eibonites of
Egypt, among whom  shone conspicuously the ftamous
Saladin (Silah-uddin); for the whole East was alike agitated at the perils with which Islamism was threatened.
The single standard, displayed by the Crusaders, issuing
from all parts of Christendom, gave occasion to the Alussulmans for the application of their axiom of religious and
political law, which designates the mass of infidels or nonbelievers as one nation.
The adversaries of the Crusaders engaged in this sacred
war with an ardor and courage fully equal to that of the
paladins of the west.  WVe may here admit an incontestable fact, that some benefits were derived from the violent
collisions of these great masses, animated by all that can
exalt the human mind, and impel it to the most hazardous
enterprises. In compensation for the shedding of so much
blood, for private misery, and public disasters, the Crusaders brought back with them to the west the elements of
a softer and more advanced civilization than that of their




I NTODU C T I O N.                 43
ancestors, and some taste for the arts and literature, which
were then cultivated in the Mussulman world by numerous
celebrated writers and men of genius.  The captivity of
St. Louis and his illustrious companions in misfortune,
fully indemnified France for the sacrifices she imposed
upon herself for the deliverance of her king. He returned
firom Egypt with new ideas; his institutions proved that
he had thoroughly studied those of his conquerors. Independently of the literary productions of that period, all
of which were imbued with the spirit of the Orientals,
whose elegant calligraphy served as a model for the finest
manuscripts of the middle ages, the order of architecture,
improperly styled Gothic, and adopted in the monuments
of the 12th, 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, was nothing
else than the Saracenic architecture, somewhat more
ornate, lighter, and elaborated with greater elegance.
Meanwhile, the anarchy which followed the massacre
of the last of the Ommiades of Spain, and the parcelling
of the Moorish empire into twenty rival principalities,
always in collision with each other, and the old Christians,
favored the enterprises of the descendants of Pelagus:
and when the zeal for crusades to the Holy Land was
appeased among the people of France, England, and Germany, exhausted by these transmarine expeditions, the
combats between the two religions yet continued in Spain
with unabated fury and obstinacy.
This introduction has conducted us to the middle of the
thirteenth century of our era; here we pause, for the star
of the race of Osman was already breaking upon the
horizon.
Thus, by a sort of recompense, when the destinies of
the Moors of Andalusia and Granada were accomplished,
and they were cast back again across the Straits of Gib



44               INTRODUCTION.
raltar into Africa, their primitive country, the founder of
the dynasty, called to replace and overturn the RomanGreek empire, was preparing a terrible vindication of his
Spanish coreligionists; Islamism, endowed with new vigor,
takes its revenge in crossing, under the victorious sign of
the crescent, the strait which separates Asia from Europe;
we shall soon see it invade the richest countries of Europe,
and for two centuries, menace the rest of Christendom
with the yoke, from which Charles Martel vainly imagined
he had delivered it.




TIlE  TU RKISIH   E  IPI   E.
FIRST PART.
HISTORY OF TIlE TURKISIT EMPIRE TO TIHE CONQUEST OF
CONSTAN\TINOPLE, IN 1453.
I. ORIGIN OF THE TURKS.
ALTIIOUGI the Turkish people —of which the present
reigning branch is Ottoman- constitutes one of the most
ancient races of the world, it is customary to carry the
origin of the Turkish empire, in its more modern signification, only as far back as the conquest of Constantinople.
The capture of this European capital, in truth, completed
the conquest of the Turks, and founded the Ottoman
empire in Europe.  Tradition assigns a contemporary of
Abraham as the head of the great Turkish family; there
is no mention, however, made of the Turks, in history,
until after the coming of Christ.  Turkestan, a fertile
region of Asia, denominated also Tartary, appears to
have been the original country of the Turks; hence, they
commenced gradually to spread over the rest of the
world.  They were originally idolaters; and it was only
some centuries after Mahomet, and in 960, A. D., that




46          TIIE TURKISHII  EMPIRE.
Salur, then chief of the Turks, adopted Islamism, with
several thousand families, and called his people Turcoman,
to distinguish them from those who had not yet embraced
the faith.  Some time afterwards, when the Turcomans
emigrated, part to Armenia, and part to the western shore
of the Caspian Sea, the first were entitled eastern Turcomans, and the latter western Turcomans; and their new
country took the name which it bears at the present day.
The Turcornans very early displayed an excessively warlike spirit, and a great passion for territorial conquests.
They soon extended the limits of their empire to Sina,
and dispossessed the feeble government of Persia of
several provinces; in the fourteenth century, their power
had already been considerably extended. By degrees,
the Byzantine or Greek states along the coasts of Asia
llinor, and upon the confines of Europe, were subverted
by the invading hosts of Islamism, and converted into
Turkish provinces.
II. FOUNDATION OF TIHE TURKISH EMPIRE — OSMAN.
The Ottoman empire, properly so called, was founded
at the commencement of the XIIIth century by Osman,
whose history is connected with that of his grandfather,
and the emigration of his race from the east to the west.
This scha, or Prince Soliman, at the head of his tribe,
numbering about 50,000 souls, emigrated to Armenia
about the year 1224. After his death, the hordes which
had followed him divided; but the greater part remained
under the authority of Ertoghrul, the youngest son of
Soliman, and whose son Osman was to appear in history
as the real founder of the empire that bears his name.




THE TURKISII  EMPIRE.                  47
It was Osman, in effect, who laid the first foundations of
a political and religious state in Turkey; and who, by his
conquests, extended the bounds of his hardly nascent,
and yet limited empire, to the shores of the Black Sea.
Such were the beginnings of the Ottoman empire, in
1299. One hundred and fifty years elapsed before it was
securely established by the taking of Constantinople, and
a century more before it attained the meridian of its glory
and power by the conquest of Cyprus, at which it rested
for a century and a half. The peace of Carlowitz, in
1698, that is to say, four hundred years after its foundation, was the first sign of its decline; and since that
period, it has continued rapidly to decay.
Osman himself already commenced the dismemberment
of the Greek empire, in possessing himself of several of the
cities and fortified places of Asia Minor; he created also a
sort of maritime power, by means of which he committed
numerous acts of piracy. In 1307, he made an attempt
upon the rich and flourishing island of Chios, with thirty
ships, whose crews overspread the country, and massacred
the greater part of the inhabitants. A similar fate was
inflicted by turns on Rhodes, Samos, Lemnos, Malta, and
other islands of the Archipelago.  Upon the continent,
the same acts were committed; the towns were pillaged
and burned, and the inhabitants put to death. While
Osman pushed the limits of his empire far into the north,
his frontiers to the south were menaced with an invasion
of Tartars. Orkhan, the son of Osman, victoriously
repulsed the invaders, and obtained possession of the
ancient capital of Bithynia, the celebrated Brusa. After
this achievement, which served as a resting-place, and
which gave a throne to his descendants, Osman died in
4326.




48           THE TURKISH EMPIRE.
III.  ORKIIAN - INTERIOR ORGANIZATION — THE JANISSARIES.
Orkhan, the son and successor of Osman, fixed his
residence at Brusa, admirably situated at the extremity
of one of the most extensive and fertile plains of Asia,
on the lower slopes of Mount Olympus, and but sixty
miles to the south of Constantinople. In the accession
of Orkhan, the younger son, the hereditary right of
primogeniture to the throne — one of the fundamental
laws of the empire-was set aside by the exclusion of
Aladdin, the elder son.  The devotion of the former to
the speculative sciences, and to retirement, was deemed a
disqualification for the sovereign of a warlike and ambitious people.  The preference for Orkhan was, however,
justified by his magnanimity.  Ile generously offered to
divide his authority with his brother Aladdin, in whom
the love of study had stifled the passion of ambition; but
the latter only desired permission to retire to a village on
the borders of the Niloufer; and he even refused the
half of the herds which Osman had bequeathed to him.
"Since you will not accept," said Orkhan to him, " the
horses, cattle, and sheep which I offer you, be at least
the pastor of my people- be vizir."  Touched with the
confidence which his brother manifested in hilm, he agreed
to share the burden of public affairs with him.  He was
created vizir, which, in its Turkish signification, means a
bearer of burdens.  While Orkhan, inheritor of the martial genius of his father, was incessantly engaged in wars
of territorial aggrandisement, the wise Aladdin, who first
bore the since famous title of Pasha, energetically devoted
himself to the organization of the government.
Before following the Sultan in his rapid triumphs, we
will e,-.e a 4c-`etch of the administration of his brother.




TEE TURKISH EMPIRE.                     49
This study of the first attempts to consolidate a young
empire is much more curious and instructive than the
brilliant victories which have given it a place among the
community of nations. For if the conqueror who opens
himself a way across opposing people by his sword, has
not near him the firm and moderating hand which renders
the yoke less oppressive to the vanquished, and attaches
them to their new master by bonds of interest and affection, the conquests of war will be extinguished at his
death, if not before; and nothing will remain of them
but an empty record. Military force may found empires,
but wisdom alone can maintain them.
The Mussulman legislation is derived from four sources:
the Koran (word of God); the Sunna (word of the
prophet); the sentences of the four grand Imams, the
fathers of Islamism; and the laws emanating from the
sovereign.   These last, originating from  the temporal
power, or right of the sword, and comprised under the
general name of Ourfi, that is, accessory legislation, are
only the complement or explanation of the three other
parts of the political law; the lianounae (book, or canon
law), is the collection of these laws.
Aladdin first devoted his attention to the coinage; he
caused to be struck off, for the first time, gold and silver
pieces stamped with the cipher of the Sultan, and a verse
of the Koran.*
* The Ottoman money do not contain the effigy of the prince,
but only his name, or cipher, engraved in beautiful characters,
with the year of his accession, and a number indicating the year
of the reign in which they are coined. After the taking of Constantinople, Mohammed-el-Fatyh (the Conqueror), added the emphatic titles of Sulttan of the two lazds, sovereign of the two seas,
and Sultal, son of Sultan.
5




50          THE TURKISH  EMPIRE.
The national costume next engaged his consideration.
His first thought was of the turban, that distinctive sign
of the people of the East.  Mahomet attached the greatest importance to the arrangement of his own. It was
formed, he said, upon the model of that of the angels,
and was distinguished by two ends of muslin, one falling
upon his forehead, the other upon his shoulders. A part
of the Arabic nation yet preserves this custom.
Simple caps of yellow, red, or black felt were the
primitive head-dress of the Ottomans.  Caps of white
felt (beurek), of the shape of a cabbage plant, were confined to the soldiers and functionaries attached to the
person of the prince.  On fete days they surrounded
these caps with muslin, folded with the greatest care and
taste.  White, symbol of felicity, according to the words
of the prophet, tVhiite is the happiest of all colors, was
adopted as a presage of the future prosperity of the
monarchy.  This head-dress has undergone constant
changes.  Sultan ilahmoud, the father of the reigning
sovereign, laid aside this ancient badge of his predecessors,
for the high-crowned brimless hat of red fez cloth, with a
pendent tassel, and he has been followed in this radical
change by Sultan Abdul Medjid. The primitive turban
is now chiefly worn by the Turks of the old school, who
resist all change, as inimical to the duration and prosperity
of the empire, and as in conflict with the example and
injunctions of the prophet.
But one of the most important institutions of Aladdin
was the formation of a regular military establishment.
Ertoghrul and Osman had no permanent army.  They
were obliged, for every new expedition, to convoke some
time in advance, Turcoman horsemen, named ekindji
(runners), the only troops then in use.  To obviate the




THE TURItISII EBIPIlRE.                  51
serious inconvenience of such a vicious organization,
Orkhan created at first a body of piade (footmen), who
received a regular pay of an alctche (small piece of silver,)
per diem-a very high compensation, when considered
with respect to the relative value of the precious metals
at that epoch, and to the price of articles of subsistence.
His infantry force, divided into corps of ten, a hundred,
and a thousand men, was always ready for service. But
the pretensions and intolerable pride of these undisciplined
troops obliged Orkhan to break them up.
By the advice of Aladdin, the Sultan formed a new
force, composed entirely of young Christians taken captive
in war, and converted by force to Islamism.  This body,
which afterwards became so formidable to its masters,
%oon surpassed the hopes of Orkhan.  The Jani-Tscheri
(new troop), a name which has been transformed into
Janissaries by Europeans, under inflexible chiefs, learned
to conquer and obey. After the policy generally pursued
by the founders of empires, Orkhan sought to give a
religious stamp  to  this military  institution.   HadjiBcktach, a venerable cheikh, founder of the order of
dervishes Becktachis, blessed the troop, by placing the
sleeve of his robe upon the heads of the principal officers.
"The soldiery which you have just created," said he to
Orkhan, in an inspired tone, "'shall be called JaniTscheri; it shall be victorious in every combat; its face
shall be white,* its arm formidable, its sabre sharp edged,
and its arrow piercing."
* This singular expression is employed by Mussulmans as a term
of flattery and encouragement; on the other hand, black face is an
expression of hatred and contempt. Thus a master satisfied with
his servant, will say: A/ferin! ilzun a a alsun. (may your face be
white); if dissatisfied, he will say: Iuzun kIara alsun (may your
face be black).




52          TIIE  TURKISII EMPIRE.
In remembrance of this benediction, the Janissaries
always wore a piece of felt behind their caps, representing
the sleeve of the holy dervish. A higher pay and more
abundant rations were allotted to the new troop than to
the other corps. The grades of the chiefs and subaltern
officers of the Janissaries, were designated by names
derived from the kitchen.  This circumstance, ridiculous
as it seems, nevertheless had a respectable origin.  The
Sultan, being regarded as the father of the family, and
the purveyor of this -troop of faithful followers, those
who were appointed to provide for their wants, were decorated with culinary titles.  Thus the highest officer in
rank was called tchorbadjibachii (first distributor of the
soup); after him came the achtcehi-baczi (first cook); and
the sakka bachi (first water-bearer); and of a natural
consequence, the pot (kazan,) which was employed for
the distribution of the food furnished by the sovereign,
was an object of much greater veneration for the Janissaries than national standards to Christian armies.
Around the kazan the corps assembled when in council.
The loss of this precious vessel was the greatest humiliation that could happen to the corps to which it belonged.
A sense of honor caused them to esteem such an event
as a great misfortune and an indelible disgrace.
The number of Janissaries was limited at first to a
thousand. Every year a thousand Christian children
were chosen from the prisoners of war, who were forced
to embrace the faith of the prophet, and learn the art
of war. When the number of prisoners was insufficient,
which naturally occurred in time of peace, the deficiency
was supplied by a recruitment among the children of the
Christians; a method employed even down to the reign
of Mahomet IV., from which period the children of the




TIHE TURKISH  EMIPIRE.                53
Janissaries themselves were enlisted; an epoch firom which
dates the decline of this celebrated force.
After the Janissaries, the elite of the Ottoman army,
the other corps were organized in the following manner.
The regularly paid and permanent troops, of which we
have spoken, received lands, afterwards converted into
fiefs, with the obligation on the part of the possessors of
opening roads for the army during expeditions.  The
irregular infantry served as scouts and pioneers, and,
later, as rowers in the galleys. The cavalry received the
same organization.  The permanent and paid portion
formed four squadrons, composed at first of 2400 men,
but the number was soon increased; its position was
always in the centre of the army, to the right and left
of the Sultan, and of the standard of the prophet.
Independently of this paid cavalry, known in the West
under the name of Spahis, another cavalry force was
created, upon the plan of the infantry troops to which
lands had been allotted. Its members were denominated
flossellimans, that is, " exempt from  taxes;" it was
commanded by officers, of whom  those commanding a
hundred men were called Bimbaschi, and those with a
thousand men under their orders, bore the title of Sandschakbege, or, "Prince of the colors."  The irregular
and unpaid cavalry, not possessing lands, were known as
Akmidscti.  This last, as well as the Spahis, soon
became the terror of Europe.  The Akmidschi, with
others, at the first siege of Vienna, pushed their incursions by Linz to Ratisbon, covering Germany with fire
and blood.
These different organizations were terminated when the
Greek emperor Andronicus took the field against the
Turkish conquerors. Orkhan defeated him, in 1330, at




54          TTHE TURKISIt EMPIRE.
Pebekanon and Philocrene. The fall of Nice (Iznik), the
second city of the Greek empire, destroyed the last remaining barrier against the Ottoman power in Asia.
Exhausted by the fatigues of a two years' siege, and by
the horrors of famine and the plague, the inhabitants of
this important place surrendered at mercy. Far from
abusing his victory, the generous Orkhan not only spared
their lives, but also permitted them to carry away their
riches. Touched by this unexpected clemency, the people
presented themselves in a body before the conqueror, and
followed him in triumphal procession on his entrance into
the city. Upon reaching the gate of Jeni-Chehir, the
Sultan was arrested by a sad spectacle; a large body of
weeping women prostrated themselves at his feet; they
were the unfortunate widows of the Greeks who had
fallen in defence of their country. Orkhan kindly raised
them from the ground, selected husbands for them among
the grandees who surrounded him, and resumed his march
amid the universal acclamations of the multitude.  This
generosity and humanity, dictated by a wise policy, gained
him all hearts. A great number of the inhabitants of the
neighboring towns, attracted by the magnanimity of
Orkhan, ranged themselves under his government; and
Nice became more populous and flourishing than ever.
Aided by the counsels of the grand vizir Aladdin,
Orkhan gave the greatest care to all parts of the administration. The edifice where were held the oecumenical
councils of Nice, was converted into a mosque; and the
walls were covered with sentences from the Koran, engraved in letters of gold upon an azure ground. Among
others, was to be seen the famous symbol of Islamism,
"There is no other god but God, and Mahomrnet is his
prophet."  The custom of placing inscrliptions on the




TIHE TUI'KISII EM PI R E.              55
public edifices, began with this reign.  Near the imperial
mosque, a nmedrece, a species of university for the study
of law and theology, was established exclusively for the
utlemas, or doctors of letters and law.  Besides the
mosques and schools, Orkhan founded at Nice the first
imzaret (hospital for the poor), an establishment consecrated to the alleviation of human ills. Bread, two plates
of meat and warm vegetables, and a small sum of money,
were daily distributed there.  The inauguration of this
imaret was celebrated with the greatest pomp.  The
Sultan himself lighted the lamps, and distributed food to
the poor. This edifying example was imitated by his
successors, whose humanity and benevolence towards the
indigent classes, cannot be sufficiently commended.  Charity is one of the distinctive virtues of Mussulmans; but
the princes of the Ottoman house appear to have always
desired to serve as a model to their subjects in the. exercise of this touching virtue.  Osman never ceased to
scatter benefits around him.  He never encountered a
poor person, without relieving him; more than once he
deprived himself of his own cloak, to clothe the wretched
beggar.  Every day, a great number of the miserable
were seated at tables prepared for them in his palace.
Muhaummed I. fed, every Friday, all who presented
themselves; Bajazet II. sent considerable sums to the
governors of his provinces to be distributed among the
-poor, and especially to the distinguished families, prevented by shame from begging. The sovereigns, the
grandees, the opulent, besides the immense sums which
they daily disburse in the midst of misery, make it a duty
to consecrate a portion of their revenues (one tenth) to
benevolent institutions.  This inexhaustible charity and
generous hospitality, which distinguish the Mussulman,




56          TlHE TURKISHI E2 P I    E.
and elevate him, in this respect, so far above other people,
is based upon the following precepts of the Koran: "Oh,
believers, pray and give alms; the good that you do will
be recompensed by God, for he sees all your actions.
The faithful, who loves God, must also love his neighbor.
It is his duty to succor his relatives, the orphan, the
widow, the poor, the traveller, the stranger, the captive,
and all who apply for charity.  Distribute alms by day
and night, in secret and in public; you will be rewarded
by the Eternal Father," etc.
The benevolence of the Mussulman extends even to the
animal creation, which he is prohibited from maltreating;
if the owner of a horse or a camel abuse the animal, the
police officers resist their cruelty.  The dogs, which a
precept of corporal purity excludes fiom the houses, are
fed in the open air by the inhabitants of the quarter, of
which they are the vigilant and often very annoying guardians, particularly towards strangers.  To kill animals, or
to keep them even shut up in cages, are inhuman acts in
the eyes of this people.  They manifest much repugnance
for the chase, and they are often seen buying captive
birds, to set them at liberty.  These sentiments of universal charity reflect the highest honor upon the nation,
which daily puts them in practice. If we have gone somewhat into detail on this subject, it is because we desire to
correct the false idea which attributes a character of ferocity to the Turkls, judging them only by their excesses of
cruelty in time of war; but these atrocities are explained
by their fanaticism, which then causes them to look upon
their enemies as assailants of their religious faith.  With
this exception, the AIussulman is good by nature and
principle.
The Sultan, possessor of the principal cities of Bithynia,




TIIE TURKISH  EMPIRE.                  57
Nicodemia, Nice, and Brusa, as well as of the capital of
Mysia (Pergamos), occupied himself, during the twenty
years of peace, which followed this last conquest, in consoli(dating in his states, the order and discipline established
by the institutions of Aladdin Pasha. Immense works
signalized this pacific period of the reign of Orkhan.
1Mosques, imarets, medreces, caravanseras, soon rivalled
the establishments of Nice.  Numerous cells covered the
heights of Olympus and the environs of Brusa. Venerated dervishes, whose prayers and co-operation had aided
Orkhan in the conquest of that city, established themselves in these retreats; the pious Gueikli-Baba, celebrated by his mystic contemplations, and his passion for
forest life; Abdhal-Murad, who, according to tradition,
performed prodigies of valor with a wooden sword;
Doughli-Baba, who introduced the use of honey and
yagourt, or clotted milk; such were the principal dervishes whose names have been preserved by the national
writers.
In imitation of the sovereign, many persons embellished
Brusa and the environs of Olympus with mosques, convents, schools, and mausolea.  The umbrageous slopes of
this beautiful mountain, and its delicious valleys, were
peopled with saints, learned men, and Turkish poets, who
repaired thither in quest of sweet inspiration, or for the
purpose of pious meditation.  Among the most famous
we may mention AMolla-Cheiky, the first romantic poet of
the Ottomans; Waci-Ali, the translator of the fables of
Bidpai; Khygali (the visionary), and Beli-Burader (the
mad brother); the one, known for his lyric poetry, the
other, for his charming and voluptuous verses; the sheik
Albestami, and the grand judge Alfenari, authors of theological and juridical treatises.  All these distinguished




58          THE TURKISII EMPIRE.
men repose at the foot of-the mountain, and not far from
Brusa. This famous city, now the residence of Abd-elkader, contains the tombs of an incredible number of
princes, nobles, sacred characters, learned men, poets,
musicians, and physicians.  It was the capital of the
Ottoman empire down to the capture of Constantinople,
and is renowned for its hot springs, its delicious fruits, and
its production of silk, large quantities of which are supplied for exportation.
IV. INVASION OF EUROPE BY THE TURKS.
As far back as 1263, a colony of ten or twelve thousand
Turcomans, under the command of Saltukdedos, made a
lodgment on the Black Sea, whence they were soon after
expelled. To this first attempt succeeded a second, effected
in 1321, by the Turks, who infested the coasts of Macedonia and Thrace with their vessels, burned the harvests,
besieged the cities, and for ten months interrupted all
intercourse between them. To put an end to these devastations, the emperor was obliged to sacrifice the crown
diamonds. The first pacific relations between the Ottomans and Byzantines date from the reign of Orkhan, intermingled with peace and war, hostilities and alliances.
The Greek emperors frequently were imprudent enough
to invoke the aid of the Turks, for the adjustment of their
domestic dissensions, a circumstance which constantly
increased the desire of the latter to possess themselves of
the Greek empire. The invasions of Europe by the Turks
multiplied in a more decisive and dangerous manner from
the incessant development of their naval forces. In 1333,
the emperor of the Greeks concluded an alliance with
Orkhan, upon the express condition that the latter should




TIIE TURKISII EMPIRE.                  59
respect the towns which yet belonged to the empire. The
following year, however, in contempt of treaty obligations,
a Turkish fleet of sixty sail landed in Europe, and the
fields and towns were again laid waste.  Already, in the
year 1337, a report was circulated that Orkhan was to
arrive before Constantinople with a fleet, to seize that
capital. The emperor fortunately baffled this undertaking, which was actually attempted, and the Turks were
obliged to retire; but, with a blind infatuation, he contintinued to employ them as auxiliary troops in his army.
They finally, in 1357, obtained a solid point of occupation in Europe. Orkhan ordered his son Soliman to make
a new attempt at invasion, which succeeded, and put him
in possession of Gallipoli, the key of Constantinople, on
the Hellespont. Afterwards, profiting by anl earthquake,
which overwhelmed a great number of places in Thrace,
Soliman established Turkish colonies there, and rebuilt
the ruined towns. From this epoch, new hordes passed
over to Europe from Asia, until the Turkish empire had
extended its dominions from  the borders of the Black
Sea to the shores of the Danube. The capture of Gallipoli, which was the signal of the aggrandisement of the
Ottoman power in Europe, was announced by proclamation to the other Asiatic princes, rivals of Orkhan, whose
ancestors had shared the empire of the Sheldschukes with
Osman. Henceforward, all communications giving notice
of similar conquests, were ordinary acts, emanating from
the Turkish department of state.
Oppressed by extreme grief at the loss of his beloved
son Soliman, by a fall from his horse, Orkhan died of a
broken heart in the 75th year of his age, and the 35th of
his reign. He was one of the most distinguished princes
of the house of Osman, and well deserves the eulogiums




60          TIIE TURKISII  EMPIRE.
which the Mussulman writers have so prodigally bestowed
upon him, for his clemency, benevolence to the poor,
wisdom  as a statesman, and ability and success as a
soldier.
V.  AMURAT I., TIE CONQUEROR.
ORIKHAN was succeeded by his youngest son Amurat I.,
who turned his regards to the west, with the intention of
extending the circle of European conquests, commenced
by his father.  Before putting his projects in execution,
he was also obliged to direct his attention to Asia.  The
prince of Caramania took advantage of the death of
Orkhan to attack the Ottomans, whose power gave him
umbrage, but he was defeated by Amurat. ReassurEd by
this fortunate result, the son of Orkhan commenced hostilities in Europe by the capture of the fortress of Nebetos,
in the vicinity of Gallipoli. In 1361, the largest fortified
city of the Byzantine empire, Adrianople, was taken by
storm; it soon merited, in a political, commercial, and
military point of view, the high rank which was assigned
to it, as the second residence of the Sultans. Amurat
formally communicated by writing, to his Asiatic neighbors, his brilliant victories, and concluded peace with the
Greek emperor, after the taking of Philipolis.  Subsequently, in consequence of an appeal made by the Pope,
the Hungarians, Servians, Bosnians, and Wallachians,
united in a crusade against the Turks, who menaced their
frontiers.  IHadschi-Ilbeki, without waiting for the arrival
of the Sultan, assailed the enemy's camp by night (1363),
and put them to rout with great loss of life.  The field of
battle is to this day called Ssirf-Ssindughi, that is to say,
defeat of the Servians.  Amurat, after this, took up his
residence, for some time, in Europe, at Demidoka, whence




THE TURKISH EMPIRE.                   61
he directed the construction of his palace at Adrianople;
immediately upon its completion, he established himself
at Adrianople, which remained the first capital of the
empire down to the conquest of Constantinople. After an
expedition of five years in Europe, Amnurat returned to
Asia in 1371, and concluded a new treaty of peace with
Byzantium.
A second war against the prince of Caramania, produced by his jealousy of the growing power of Amurat,
interrupted the peace which the empire had enjoyed for
some years. A battle between the two rivals took place
in the plains of Iconium, in which Amurat gained a complete victory.  This expedition was hardly terminated,
when the princes of Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria, united
to throw off the Ottoman yoke. Amurat again took the
field; he marched towards Bulgaria, obtained possession
of the frontier fortresses, and forced the prince to surrender with his capital.  Lazare, prince of Servia, prepared to defend himself.  A bloody battle was fought in
the plain of Kassova, and the left wing of the Ottoman
army was already giving way, when Bajazet, son of Amurat, suddenly arrived upon the field with an unexpected
and decisive reinforcement.  "Already floods of purple
blood had changed the diamond-hilted blades into hyacinths, and the steel of the lances glittered like rubies;
already the number of dissevered heads and turbans rolling
in the dust," says an Oriental poet, " had given to the field
of battle the aspect of tulips of a thousand colours," when
a noble Servian, of the name of Milosch, penetrated to the
Sultan, under the pretext of a confidential communication,
and stabbed him with a dagger.  The victory, nevertheless, remained to Amurat, but he died from the effects of
the wound, in 1389.
6




62          THIE TURKISH  EMPIRE.
WI.  SULTAN BAJAZET.
UPON  the death of Amurat, ]Ejazet ascended the
throne.  Jealous of the affection which the army manifested to his heroic younger brother Yakoub, the new
Sultan, justifying himself by the preference of Orkhaln
over his elder brother Aladdin, caused him to be seized
and strangled with the bow-string.  This kind of death
is regarded among Mussulmans as the most honorable,
and is especially reserved as a mark of distinction for the
noble, decapitation being considered infamous.  Hanging
or impaling, the most ignominious form of punishment, is
only employed upon robbers and common criminals.  In
order to lessen the horror of this friatricide, Bajazet hypocritically invoked the maxim of the Koran -"' revolt is
worse than executions," and added that the sovereign, the
shadow of God, ought, as the Omnipotent, to sit alone
upon the throne.  This cruel policy has been unscrupulously adopted by the successors of Bajazet; and the
murder, or at least the captivity of the brothers of the
reigning sovereign, has become the fundamental law of
the state. The Ottoman monarchs founded their excuse
for these odious measures in the necessity of assuring to
their eldest son the succession of the empire, and of delivering it fiom those sanguinary contests which marked the
early years of its existence; and also of preventing the
oppressive expense which the maintenance of so many
descendants of Osman entailed, in a country where polygamy is tolerated by law. The force of this latter reason
can be better illustrated by an example.  The Caliph
Abdullah III. having ordered, in 1316, the census of the
house of the Abassides, found that it numbered tidrtgyt7iree thIousand pr'inces, or princesses!




TIIE TIURR1ISiI E  PI R E.            63
Bajazet filled Servia with Turkish colonies, and then
made peace, but upon severe conditions for the vanquished.
In 1390, he directed all his forces against Europe, after
having  strongly fortified Gallipoli, and provided it with a
secure harbor.  The Byzantine emperor was obliged to
furnish auxiliary troops to the Turkish army, and to send
his son and successor with them.  The Turks first turned
their arms against the Archipelago, and took Lemnos,
Rhodes, Chios, Eubea, and Attica.  The Greek prince
having abandoned the Turkish army, Bajazet, in his fury,
marched against the Greek empire, laying waste the whole
country with fire and sword, up to the walls of Constantinople, where he made the first siege of that city, which
lasted for seven years.  Wallachia surrendered, and became tributary to the Porte.  Another part of the
Turkish army invaded Bosnia, and penetrated to the
frontiers of Hungary.  Availing himself of this distant
march, the Prince of Caramania made another effort at
insurrection; but he was again beaten, and the Turks
improved this victory by pushing their conquests yet
farther in Asia.
Intoxicated by his successes, Bajazet surrendered himself to the most unbridled debauchery, and contributed
not a little to the development of the already extensive
demoralisation.  About this epoch [1394], Sigismund,
king of Hungary, formed an alliance with several of his
allies, to check the incursions of the Turks. France sent
a thousand cavaliers, and six thousand mercenaries. This
troop was joined, in its passage thlough Germany, by
Frederic, Count of Hohenzollern, at the head of the
German nobles; by the Grand Master of the order of St.
John, with a considerable number of the knights; and by
many Bavarian and other nobles.  The allied army con



64          TIIE TURKISII EMPIRE.
centrated at Nicopolis.  The battle commenced the 20th
of September, 1396, and terminated in a splendid victory
to Bajazet, and the complete defeat of the allies.  The
banner of Sigismund was overthrown, and all the Bavarian nobles who rallied around it, perished to the last
man.  King Sigismund and the chiefs of the army took
to flight, and with difficulty gained their fleet, aboard of
which they took refuge. After the victory, Bajazet established his camp under the walls of Nicopolis.  Upon
learning that his loss amounted to 50,000 men, he shed
tears of rage, and swore to avenge the death of his followers; all the prisoners, to the number of 10,000, were
massacred, with few exceptions, by his orders.  The carnage lasted from sunrise to four o'clock in the afternoon.
At this moment, the nobles of the empire threw themselves at the feet of the Sultan to implore his clemency,
and pardon was granted.  The principal persons among
the prisoners could only be redeemed with immense ransoms.  Ten thousand ducats were paid for some.  The
liberty of the French prisoners cost 200,000 ducats. The
Sultan dismissed the Count of Nevers with these words:
"I release you from your oath never more to bear arms
against me; I advise you, on the contrary, if you have
any ambition, to resume them as soon as possible, and to
rally around you all the forces of Christendom. You
could not do me a greater pleasure than to furnish me an
opportunity of acquiring new glory."
From Brusa, whither he had repaired, Bajazet filled all
Asia with the fame bf his brilliant victory.  Ambassadors
were charged to communicate it, in form, to the different
people of Asia; to give a more impressive character to
their mission, the Sultan caused them to be accompanied
by sixty nobles, and a Hungarian magnate, selected from




THE TURKIISIt EiTPIRE.                  65
among the prisoners, whom he offered as presents to the
Oriental monarchs. One of the first consequences of this
victory of the Turks, was the taking of Mitrowiz, upon
the Save, in 1396; and their invasion of Styria, into
which they penetrated as far as Pettau, and reduced it to
ashes.
The Sultan now applied all his energies to the reduction of Constantinople, which he had besieged for five
years.  The inhabitants began to murmur, and to manifest a desire to surrender to the Turks, rather than to
suffer any longer the torments of famine.  The emperor,
at a loss what part to take, resolved to grant to the Sultan
at Constantinople, the capital of the Christian world, the
privilege of erecting a mosque, and the nomination of a
Cadi. This was the fourth mosque which this too complaisant Christian sovereign had allowed the Turks to
erect upon his territory.  Sultan Bajazet also obtained
permission to people one of the faubourgs of the city with
Turkish colonists, and to establish a special tribunal for
the latter. After having thus humiliated the chief of the
Byzantine empire, in his own capital, Bajazet, rapid as
the lightning, crossed into Asia, where his general, Timurtatseh, was engaged in extending his frontiers to the north
and east, while he himself pushed them to the south and
west. Timurtatsch carried his victorious standards to the
banks of the Euphrates; and Bajazet invaded Greece,
where he occupied the principal towns of Thessaly, almost
without resistance, and afterwards conquered the whole
of that country, with the peninsula of the Morea.
After so many triumphs, he returned to Brusa, where,
surrounded by slaves of both sexes, of a rare beauty, he
abandoned himself without fear to the most culpable pleasures. The annunciation of the approach of Timour, the
6 *




66          THIIE  TURKISH  EMPIRE.
celebrated chief of the Tartars, aroused him  from his
voluptuous repose.  Thre conqueror of the world, and
head of the Tartar tribes, Tirnour, that is to say, iron,
had subjugated Persia, and the greater part of Central
Asia, when he declared war against Bajazet for insults to
his ambassadors.  Before Aleppo, Timour met the Egyptian army, which he entirely defeated; he then marched
upon Damascus, and carried it by assault; and followed
up his successes by the sacking of I1agdad.  Bajazet,
confident in his hitherto uninterrupted good fortune, proceeded to meet Timour, and attacked him in the plains
of Angora.  Four sons of the Tartar sovereign, and five
sons of the Ottoman monarch, commanded in the armies
of their fathers.  The combat between the two greatest
conquerors of the age began at six o'clock in the morning,
and lasted till night. [Bajazet performed prodigies of
valor.  Abandoned by the troops of Aidin, who recognised their prince in the ranks of Timour, and by the
auxiliary Tartars, the heroic Sultan, at the head of his
ten thousand Janissaries, resisted the attacks of the enemy
throughout the entire day. It was only when those brave
warriors were crushed by fatigue, or nearly annihilated,
that Bajazet resolved to fly.  But a fall from his horse
having arrested him in his flight, he was taken prisoner,
with one of his sons.  The unfortunate Bajazet, obliged
to follow the Tartar chief in his conquests, was attacked
by a profound melancholy, and died in his rigid captivity,
March 9th, 1403.  This Sultan was one of the most
brilliant soldiers in the annals of the Ottoman empire.
From the rapidity of his movements, and his promptitude
of decision, he was surnamed the lightning by the Turks.
Reserved  and  taciturn, he rarely communicated  his
designs to any one; sagacious in seizing upon the pro



THIIE TURKISHI  EMPIRE.                67
pitious moment, he suddenly appeared in Europe, when
he was supposed to be engaged in the heart of Asia; for
fourteen years he kept both continents in a state of
anxious suspense. Although prone to anger, he was by
nature just, and his sudden gusts of passion soon gave
way to a calm serenity of mind, and to clemency of conduct.  His history is one of the striking illustrations of
the caprices of fortune, which from time to time seems to
take pleasure in elevating men to the summit of human
greatness, that their fall may be more startling and impressive.
THE SULTANS IMAIlOMET I. AND AMURAT II.
MIahomet the First succeeded his father:Bajazet, and
ascended the throne, after having previously got rid of
his brothers by virtue of the law, to which we have already
alluded.  One of the first cares of his government, in
1413, was the renewal of the treaties of peace with the
monarchs of Christendom, with the exception of the
prince of Caramania, upon whomr  he inflicted a signal
chastisement.  The following year, he was unsuccessful
in a naval action with the Venitian fleet before Gallipoli,
and was forced into a disadvantageous peace; an expedition to Hungary also failed, and the tranquillity of the
empire was disturbed by domestic insurrections.  Mahomet died suddenly in 1421. His death was concealed for
forty days, in order to give time to his son and successor,
Amurat II., to arrive from Brusa and ascend the throne
of his father. Amnurat II. continued the siege of Constantinople by Mahomnet I.  In 1422, ten thousand cavaliers appeared before that city, after having laid waste
the country through which they marched.  Amurat, himself, soon after presented himself at the head of a large




68           TIHE TURKISII  E MPIRE.
body of infantry, to storm the city, but the ramparts
resisted the artillery of the besiegers. A general assault
was then undertaken; happily for Constantinople, its
whole population flew to arms, and by courageous perseverance, saved it from the furious onset of the Turks, who
were repulsed with great loss.  In 1428, Amurat made a
new treaty of peace with Hungary and Servia, by which
the latter country imposed upon itself an annual tribute
of 50,000 ducats.  This point settled, he marched upon
the fortress of Bressatonika, which had been sold to the
Venitians, and which was to be returned to the Turks in
1430. The latter took it, after a hard contest, and rushed
upon the inhabitants like a pack of carnivorous animals,
massacring them without distinction of age, sex, or condition, and devoting the place to a general sack. Amurat
subsequently repeopled it with Turkish colonists, and
transformed the churches into mosques.  In the following
years, new expeditions were made into Wallachia and
Transylvania.  Hermanstadt was besieged, in vain, for
eight days; the suburbs of Cronstadt were burned, the
whole country ravaged during forty-five days, and 70,000
inhabitants were carried off into slavery.
It was before the celebrated fortress of Belgrade, that
Amurat, in 1440, met, in the person of the Hungarian,
John Hunyady, a rival of equal prowess and ability. The
latter raised the siege of Hermanstadt, and attacked the
Turkish army with such success as to slay twenty thousand of
its number. At the battle of Vatag, the Hungarians likewise gained a victory, and took two hundred Ottoman
standards.  The next year, 1443, a new crusade of Hungarians, Poles, Servians, Wallachians, and Germans, took
place against the Porte.  John IIunyady invaded Servia,
advancing as far as Nissa, where he beat the Turks.  In




TILE TUIRKISH  EMPIRE.                 69
a second battle, no less decisive, in the plains of Jalovaz,
the Tuirks were again defeated.  Amiurat beinog fo-'redo at
the same time to maintain a serinous struggle w\ith the
prince of Caramania, evinced a disposition to accept propositions of peace, which was finally concluded in July,
1444, at Szegedin; Servia was to be restored to its legitimate prince, and Wallachia remained under the IIungarian
protection.
After a stormy reign of twenty-three years, Amurat,
feeling the necessity of repose from his fatigues, yielded
the reins of government to his son; but when, some time
afterwards, Wladislas, king of Poland, broke the armistice,
he re-assumed power, to march against the enemy, and
chastise the perjurers.  The two belligerent armies, on
the 10th of November, 1444, met before Varna, and a
brilliant victory recompensed Amiurat for his valor and
military skill. The booty was immense. Amurat a second
time laid aside power, and remitted the government again
to his son. But he did not fail to perceive that the latter,
but sixteen years of age, was not yet able to support the
burdens of state.  He re-ascended the throne, for the
third time, and directed his attention to the south of the
Byzantine empire, to the Peloponnesus and Albania.  In
the spring of the succeeding year, the Sultan marched
against Albania, but an invasion of John IIunyady, in
Servia, soon recalled him to a conflict with the latter, whom
he defeated near Kassova, the 18th of October, 1448.
The elite of the Hungarian nobility heroically fell fighting
on the field of battle, and the contest lasted three days.
John Hunyady a second time saved himself by flight, and
was replaced by Skanderberg, equally famous as himself.
For twenty-five years, this redoubtable chief, whose real
name was George Castriota, and his title, Iskander-Bey,




70          TIIE TURKISH EMPIRE.
that is, Prince Alexander, maintained a bloody struggle
against the MIussulmans.  His daring exploits, characterised as well by great military talent as by desperate
couragCe, enabled him, on several occasions, to defeat the
Turks, anJd to prevent the subjection of his native Albania.
His extraordinary actions partake of the fabulous, and
have furnished exhaustless themes of poetic connernmoration to Greek eulogists. The Sultan retired to Adrianople,
where he was solicited to lend his aid in raising Constantine to the Greek throne, which he did. Not long after,
in 1450, he died, and Mahomet II, his son and successor,
definitively took possession of the government.
During the thirty years of his reign, Amurat contributed greatly to the power and glory of the empire.  His
character was just and firm; if, as a true philosopher, he
preferred the happiness of private life to the splendor of
the throne, he knew when to tear himself from  it at the
call of his country, and to assume the cares of state.
Pious and charitable, as almost all the princes of the
dynasty of Osman were, his first care, on obtaining possession of an enemy's town, was to erect a cathedral, a
mosque, an imaret, a medrece, and a khan.  The mosque
of Adrianople, one of the most beautiful structures of the
empire, was his work, as well as the vast bridge thrown
over the marsh between Salonica and Yeni-Chehir, and
that of seventy-one arches at Erkene, and another at
Angora.  The toll of the latter was dedicated to the
relief of the poor of AMecca and Medina, to whom the
Sultan annually sent a donation of 3500 ducats at the
departure of the pilgrim  caravan.  The organization of
the army was much improved, and particularly the Janissary corps.




TIIE TURKISII EMPIRE.                  71
VIII. MIAtIOMIET II. SIEGE AND FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE.
Mahomet II. received congratulatory deputations at
Adrianople from all the Christian powers with whom he
entertained  amicable relations.  He renewed all the
treaties of peace, and also that with the prince of Caramania,
although he then cherished the intention of declaring war
against Byzantium.  Some months after, he determined
upon the construction of a fort upon the European shore
of the Bosphorus, directly facing that raised by Bajazet
on the opposite shore.  He thus proposed to render himself master of the communication between Constantinople
and the Black Sea.  On hearing of this, Constantine, in
great alarm, immediately despatched ambassadors to the
Sultan, offering him tribute, and implored him to renounce
his project. The Ottoman monarch replied, that no one
had the right to object to works which it pleased him to
erect on his own territory; that both shores belonged to
him; that of Asia, because it was in the possession of the
Mussulmans, and that of Europe, because the Christians
could not defend it.  He terminated with an order to
the Greek envoys to retire; at the same time threatening
to flay alive whoever should again bring him a similar
message.  He then set about the construction of the fort.
The Sultan himself directed a part of the works, and
entrusted the supervision of the remainder to his vizirs.
Six thousand masons and mechanics were employed in
the building of this formidable fortress.  Besides the
materials transported from Asia, the ruins of many houses
and churches on the Bosphorus were made use of. The
fort was finished in three months, and garrisoned by four
hundred Janissaries.  The commander was ordered to




72          TIIE TURKISII EMPIRE.
allow the passage of vessels of all nations on the payment of a fixed tribute.
To breach the walls of Constantinople, which promised
a long and troublesome resistance, the Sultan caused
cannon of fabulous calibre to be founded, one of which is
without an equal in the history of artillery. This cannon
fired stone balls, nine feet in diameter; the distance of a
mile. The report of the discharge could be heard for
several leagues; and it required fifty pair of oxen to drag
it along, and one hundred men for its transportation and
service.
Situated in the most magnificent position at the
extremity of the European shore of the Bosphorus, the
ancient Byzantium is built, like Rome, upon seven hills.
When Constantine, in 830, selected it for the imperial
residence, he changed its first name into that of Constantinopolis (city of Constantine).  By the Turks, from
the perversion of the Greek words sl-.,:'orv (to the
city), it is called Istambol, or Stamboul.  Its form  is
triangular; the base of the triangle rests upon the continent of Europe on the west; it is defended by a double
ditch, and a double line of fortifications.  The two other
sides are bounded to the south by the sea of Marmora,
and to the north-east by a harbor, about three and a half
miles long, and half a mile broad, which was called the
Golden Hiorn by the Greeks; it is one of the best and
most secure ports in the world. A single wall defends
this double shore. At the time of the siege of Constantinople by Sultan Mahomet II., a heavy fortress was
erected at each point of the triangle.
Alarmed by the immense preparations of the Sultan,
and having a presentiment of the fall of their capital, the
Greeks at this moment recalled all the sinister predictions




THE TURKISH  EMPIRE.                  73
which had so long been current among them. Two gates
of the city, the Golden Gate, and that called Cercoporta,
had been walled up on account of a prophecy that the
conquerors would enter the city by them.  This tradition
is likewise preserved among the AMussulmans; they in
their turn are persuaded that the Christians will some
day get possession of Stamboul through the Golden
Gate, which gives access to the circuit of the seven towers.
As to the Turks, their confidence was fortified by the
words of the prophet, assuring them of the acquisition
of a new capital for the Mohammedan faith, under the
war-cry of'"God is great, and Mohammed is his
prophet."
On the first Friday after Easter, 6th of April, 1453,
Mahomet appeared before Constantinople with an army
of 250,000 men, and a fleet of 420 vessels, of all sizes.
The number of armed Greeks did not exceed 5000 men,
to which may be added 3000 strangers, who had repaired
to the defence of the capital. Fourteen vessels, furnished
by the allies, formed the entire fleet. Upon the land side
fourteen batteries were erected, in one of which was
placed the colossal cannon founded at Adrianople. It
had required two months to transport it a distance of 108
miles; when it was in motion, it was preceded by 250
pioneers and carts, drawn by an hundred oxen, and sustained in equilibrium by 400 men. Placed before one of
the gates of the city, it burst, killing the Hungarian who
had founded it. Two hours were necessary to load it,
and it could be fired but eight times in the course of a
day. A naval action occurred the 15th of April, before
Constantinople, which the Turks lost, notwithstanding
their numerical superiority.  Not finding any means of
penetrating with his fleet into the harbor, the entrance of
7




74          THE TURKISH  EMPIRE.
which was closed by a chain, the Sultan conceived the
bold idea of transporting his vessels by land.  This toilsome but not impossible operation, of which there were
several examples in antiquity, was executed with great
skill and success.  A space of six miles was laid with
planks, coated with grease.  Mlore than seventy vessels
were pushed over this road in a single night; and on the
morrow they were seen at anchor in the midst of the
harbor of Constantinople, to the infinite surprise and
consternation of the Greeks.  The Genoese allies of the
Turks attempted in vain to burn the fleet. Master of the
port, Mahomet established a bridge across it, by means
of casks secured to each other by iron cramps, and surmounted by planks firmly fastened together.  The besieged in vain endeavored to destroy it by means of the Greek
fire; but the vigilance of the Mlussulmans foiled these
efforts. After fifty days of siege, during which the Ottoman artillery had prostrated four towers, and opened a
large breach at the St. Roman gate, the Sultan, through
his son-in-law, summoned Constantine to surrender. The
emperor nobly replied that he would defend to the last
breath the empire which God had intrusted to his care.
Upon the receipt of this answer, the Sultan made every
preparation for a general attack by land and sea.  He
promised to his soldiers all the city as booty, with the
exception of the land and the edifices, which he reserved
to himself. Loud shouts of joy hailed this promise.
Premiums were offered to those who should first mount
the ramparts, while the cowardly were menaced with instant death, if they should attempt to fly. The dervishes
ran about the camp, promising the protection of the prophet to the soldiers, and constantly repeating the words,
"There is no other god but God, and Mahomet is his




TIIE TIRIKISII EMPIRE.                75
prophet." At night, a general illumination lighted up
the shores of the Bosphorus, and the heights of Galata.
Dances and joyous songs celebrated, in advance, the fall
of Constantinople; whilst the besieged, terror-struck, and
seized with a sombre presentiment, prostrated themselves
in tears before the image of the Virgin, whose miraculous
interposition had so often delivered them from the assaults
of the Ottomans. In this critical hour, the emperor himself visited all the posts, haranguing the troops, and
resorting to every means that could stimulate their drooping valor.
On the 29th of May, at daybreak, the besiegers commenced operations. Two hours of desperate and obstinate
fighting elapsed before the victory was decided.  To the
efforts of the Turks, the Greeks opposed the courage of
despair; the terrible Greek fire set the vessels in flames;
a storm of arrows and stones poured, like hail, upon the
assailants. At this decisive moment, the Ottoman troops,
on the point of giving way, were rallied by the exhortations of the Sheiks Ahmed Kourani, and Ak-ChemsUddin, who repeated aloud the extracts from the Koran
relative to the taking of Constantinople. Finally, fifty
Turks penetrated into the city by the gate of Cercoporta,
which, by an inconceivable negligence, had been left
open; the Greeks, struck with consternation, precipitated
themselves towards the northern shore; the soldiers who
guarded it closed the gates, and threw the keys into the
sea.  The fugitives then fled to the church of St. Sophia,
awaiting in vain the coming of the angel, who, according
to a prediction circulated among the people, was to repulse
the enemy. But the gates of the temple were hewn down
by the axe of the victors, and no miracle came to the
rescue of the Christians.




76          THE TURKISH  EMPIRE.
Constantine, who was fighting in the breach, seeing the
rout of his troops, threw himself among the Turks, and
gloriously perished in the midst of his enemies. From
this instant, pillage, conflagration, and profanations of all
kinds, signalised the triumph of the Turks.  When the
city was entirely subdued, the Sultan made his triumphal
entry by the St. Roman gate; he halted before the church
of St. Sophia, alighted from his horse, and inspected it in
detail, with expressions of the liveliest admiration for this
superb temple.  He was the first to ascend the altar,
which he immediately dedicated to Islamism.
The body of Constantine, recognisable by purple boots,
bespangled with golden eagles, was found among the dead;
his head was at first placed upon a column of porphyry in
one of the public squares, and was afterwards carried
around for exhibition among the towns of Asia.
When Mahomet arrived at the imperial palace, he was
forcibly impressed by the gloomy solitude and emptiness
of the apartments, once so brilliant and animated; he
recited aloud, at this sad spectacle, a Persian distich,
"The spider has woven his web in the palace of the
Caesars; the owl causes the dome of Efrasiab to resound
with its nocturnal wail." This philosophic reflection did
not prevent the Sultan from abandoning himself to the
most extravagant intoxication at his triumph, and to acts
of cruelty.  The grand duke, Nataras, and his sons,
excepting the youngest, reserved for the service of the
Sultan, as a page; Spanish and Venitian nobles, and
Greek lords, all perished, victims of the ferocity of the
conquerors. At last, after the three days of pillage, which
he had promised to the army before the assault, the Sultan
felt it necessary to put an end to these scenes of devastation. He recalled the Greeks to the city, caused new




TILE TURKISH  EMPIRE.                77
buildings to be erected, and the mutilated monuments to
be repaired.  He even conceded to the vanquished the
friee exercise of their religion, and allowed them all the
churches, from that of the Armenians to the gate of
Adrianople. Such was the memorable siege of Constantinople, which delivered that city to the Mussulmans the
29th of May, 1453, eleven hundred and twenty-five years
after its rebuilding by Constantine the Great, and eight
hundred and fifty-seven years after the hegira, or flight
of the prophet.




SECOND PART.
HISTORY OF THE TURKISH EMPIRE FROM THE CONQUEST
OF CONSTANTINOPLE TO THE PEACE OF CARLOWITZ,
1699.
I. MAIIOMET II., THE CONQUEROR.
As Soon as Mahomet saw himself absolute master of
Constantinople, as a true statesman, he devoted himself
to the securing of his conquest by political institutions in
harmony with the manners and customs and wants of his
new subjects. To gain the affections of the Christians, he
respected their faith and their usages, and desired that,
in place of the patriarch, who had just died, a new spiritual chief should be chosen, according to the forms that
had always been observed.  As soon as George Scholarius had been invested with the new dignity, the Sultan
gave him a magnificent banquet, during which he conversed in the most friendly and familiar manner with him.
IHe then presented him with a precious sceptre, emblem
of the religious and civil authority which he had just'confided to him, and thus addressed him: " Be patriarch, and
may heaven protect you! In every event, count upon my
friendship, and enjoy all the privileges which your ancestors possessed."  After these noble words, the Sultan
himself reconducted the prelate to the court of the palace,
and ordered the viziers and pashas who surrounded him to
escort him to his residence.
(78)




THE TURKIISHI EMPIRE.                79
The following year, Mahomet wrote to the Servian
prince, in a few  simple terms, that that principality
belonged to him, and that he was going to take possession
of it.  George repaired to Hungary in quest of succor,
and MIahomet invaded his states. The people threw themselves into the fortresses, to which the Sultan laid siege,
while his cavalry overran the country, and took about
50,000 prisoners, a part of whom were sent to Constantinople, to repeople it.  The principal Servian fortress,
Ostrowitz, was taken by storm, and its garrison made
prisoners.  Upon these successes, John Hunyady, who
had reassembled an army in Hungary, concluded a new
treaty of peace with the Sultan, upon the condition of an
annual tribute.
Impatient of new conquests, the Sultan at the same
time gave orders to his fleet to go to sea, and secure possession of several of the islands of the Archipelago, the
result of which expedition was the incorporation of Lesbos,
Lemnos, Chios, and others, with the Turkish empire. In
1456, Mahomet again took the field, and marched against
Hungary. He appeared before Belgrade with 800 pieces
of artillery, and cannonaded the fortress night and day.
The grand lieutenant and governor of the empire, John
Hunyady, who had reunited the army of the crusaders,
upon the appeal of the Pope, commenced his movements
by defeating the Turkish fleet upon the Danube. Mahomet had already obtained possession of the suburbs of
Belgrade, when the crusaders fell upon his army with
great fury, and obliged him to retire, after suffering severe
losses.  The next year, the Sultan caused Servia to be
ravaged by one of his generals, while he himself undertook the campaign of Greece.  The important point of
that kingdom, at that time, was the Morea, where two




80          THIE TURKISH  EMIPIRE.
princes, constantly embroiled with each other, yet maintained a show of poner.  Mahomet availed himself of
these domestic dissensions, which distracted the country,
to invade it. Athens and the principal towns, one after
another, fell into his hands, and in a short time, with the
exception of a few fortified sea-coast towns belonging to
the Venitians, he had subjugated the whole of Greece.
Mahomet then proceeded to Asia with his army, to
continue his conquests.  After subduing Sinope, he
marched on Trebisond; and that shadow of the ancient
Greek empire vanished at his approach. As the Byzantine
power had been extinguished in blood and ignominy in the
east and the west, so was the Greek empire destroyed in
Europe and Asia, by the "master of two seas and of two
continents," as Mahomet styled himself after the capture of
Constantinople. The Sultan had hardly returned from Trebisond, when he was obliged to resume his arms, in order to
chastise the Waiwode of Wallachia, a cruel tyrant, whom he
himself had elevated to that dignity. All Wallachia was
conquered and laid waste. iMahomet appointed a new
prince, who engaged to pay him a yearly tribute of ten
thousand ducats. The same year the Sultan conquered
the island of Lesbos, and the following year he reduced
Bosnia to a Turkish province.  Mahomet, after having
successfully fought against the prince of Caramania,
returned to his own dominions, and availed himself of the
period of peace which succeeded his last expeditions to
increase his naval forces, and to complete the construction
of the new palace at Constantinople. It bore this inscription: "May God eternise the glory of the Mlaster! God
consolidate its construction! God strengthen its foundations!"
Mahomet had no more uncompromising enemies than




THE TURKISII EMPIRE.                  81
Venetians; he resolved to reduce their power, and sent a
fleet to achieve the conquest of Negropont.  After a
sanguinary and protracted resistance, this luxurious, rich,
and fertile island fell into the power of the Turks.  The
year 1470 was employed in continuing the course of his
conquests in Asia. While the Ottoman empire was extending its limits to the west and south, as far as Armenia and Caramania, every where gaining battles and
capturing fortresses, it was no less successful to the north
and east. Its arms prevailed in Hungary and Croatia,
and its victorious legions returned loaded with booty.
The Turkish cavalry overran Croatia, Styria, Carniola,
and Carinthia; and these incursions were renewed every
year, to the terror of the inhabitants, and the ruin and
desolation of the country. In 1471, this branch of the
Ottoman troops covered all Croatia with fire and blood,
carried off the cattle, and conducted into slavery more
than 20,000 persons; Carinthia and Carniola underwent
the same fate.  The new prince of Moldavia having
refused, in 1475, to pay the annual tribute to the Sultan,
Soliman Pacha invaded the principality at the head of
100,000 men; but his army suffered a terrible discomfiture at the hands of prince Etienne. Only a small
number of Turks succeeded in making their escape; and
the new forts on the Danube, which had fallen into the
power of Mahomet, were again retaken by their legitimate
master.   While this unfortunate  campaign  was in
progress, a fleet sailed from Constantinople to the sea of
Azof, where the Sultan had projected the conquest of the
strong forts which the Genoese possessed upon the coast
and in the Crimea. Caffa was the emporium of Genoese
commerce in the Black Sea.  The Turkish fleet cast
anchor under its walls, and immediately commenced a




82          TIIE TURKISHI   EMPIIRE.
bombardment, which lasted until the place was reduced to
ruins. Forty thousand of its inhabitants were transported
to Constantinople, as colonists, and fourteen thousand
young Genoese were incorporated in the corps of Janissaries.  A general sack followed, and the booty wyas
immense.
After the affair of Caffa, Azof and several other strong
fortresses surrendered without a struggle.  The whole of
the Crimea itself soon after submitted to the Ottoman
yoke. Mahomet was now the more eager to repair to
Moldavia, in order to avenge the check which his army
had there met with. A decisive battle took place the
26th of July, 1476, in which the Sultan commanded in
person, and which resulted in a glorious victory to the
Turks.  Since the capture of Constantinople, an alternating series of hostilities and truces had taken place
between the Sultan and the knights of the order of
St. John of Jerusalem, the confederated defenders of the
outposts of Christendom  in the Mediterranean.  The
successive wars which Mahomet had to sustain, for a long
time protected Rhodes against the ambitious projects of
that monarch. But as soon as peace was concluded
between the Porte and Venice, the Grand Master took
every precaution against an attack, which he foresaw
could not be very remote. He summoned all the members
of the order to the defence of Rhodes; peace was made
with the Bey of Tunis and the Sultan of Egypt; immense
stores of provisions were accumulated; and when the
Turkish admiral, with a fleet of 160 vessels, appeared
before the place on the 23d of May, he found it fully
prepared for defence.
Notwithstanding the assistance of a Christian renegade,
who, introducing himself within the town under a pre



THE TURKISH  EMPIRE.                  83
tended contrition for his apostacy, traitorously assisted
the besiegers, they were unable to intimidate the garrison.
The ditches, which by day were filled with stones by the
Turkish soldiers, were emptied at night by the knights.
An enormous machine, called the tribute, sent back to the
Ottomans the immense stone balls which they fired from
their heavy pieces of ordnance. The besiegers having
refused to capitulate to force, or to mild treaty propositions, the Pasha resolved upon a general attack.  As a
firmer assurance of success, he reluctantly promised the
pillage of the city to his troops; but on the 28th of July,
1480, in the midst of the storming, this seductive promise
was withdrawn. As soon as the announcement was made,
the ardor of the besiegers was extinguished; the knights
retook the positions which they had lost, and the Turks,
abandoning their standards, fled on all sides, and Rhodes
was saved.
This ambitious sovereign was contemplating a new
expedition into Asia, when he was suddenly struck with
death on the 3rd of May, 1481. The conquest of the
eastern empire, and of that of Trebizond, of more than
two hundred towns, and seven kingdoms, have given to
Sultan Mahomet the Second, an incontestable right to the
surname of Eatyh, or Conqueror, decreed to him by his
contemporaries, and confirmed by posterity.  It is the
duty of impartial history to judge alike his vices and his
virtues, his unbridled voluptuousness, his magnanimity,
his crimes, and the wise institutions which he founded.
The fratricide which marked his accession to the throne,
the heads which he severed, and the members that he
sawed asunder, the emperors and kings he perfidiously
assassinated, such as the Greek imperial family of Trebizond,'the king of Bosnia, and the princes of Lesbos and




84          TIIE TURKIISII  EMPIRE.
Athens, sufficiently attest his thirst of blood. The flower
of the nobility of the conquered towns, and the male
children of the patricians of Venice, Greece, Servia,
W\X7allachia, and Genoa, were condemned to the service of
his antechamber, which sometimes conducted to elevated
military rank, and the dignity of prince; but more frequently to misfortune and death.  It was thus that the
favorites Mahmoud Pasha, and Soliman Pasha, became
vizirs. Resistance to the licentious passions of the Sultan
was punished with death; the noble daughter of Erizzo,
upon the conquest of Negropont, and the sons of the
Grand Duke Wotaras, at the taking of Constantinople,
died victims of their faith and virtue.
The efforts of Sultan Mahomet to consolidate, by permanent institutions, the empire which he had enlarged by
his conquests, his solicitude for the organization of schools,
the enlightened protection which he granted to men of
letters, and the creation of establishments of beneficence,
justify his claims to consideration as an enlightened
statesman. A finished education had given him a taste
for literature; and his own productions have procured
him an honorable position among the Ottoman poets. IHe
granted numerous pensions to native and foreign poets;
and his court was surrounded by a distinguished array of
profound legists. Under his reign, the office of preceptor
of the Sultan became a fixed post.  Twelve celebrated
savants succeeded each other in this.employment, from
the youth to the death of Mahomet.  He constructed
vast ranges of bazaars, raised the magnificent palace upon
the Seraglio point, which to this day forms one of the
most imposing features in the external view of Constantinople; and secured the approaches to the city, from the
Archipelago, by the erection of the famous castles of




TIHE TURKISH  EMPIRE.                  85
Europe and Asia on the Dardanelles, where the strait is
only 1500 yards wide. Eight of the principal churches
were converted into mosques, and four new ones were
built.  The most elegant of the latter is that of the
Fetlyie, or the Conqueror, upon the gateway of which
are engraved the words of Malhomet the prophet: "They
will take Constantinople; and happy the prince, happy
the army, which shall achieve its conquest!"
Let us now pass to the institutions of Mahomet, which
subsequently formed the basis of the Turkish government.
With the Orientals, the state is a house, or a perfect tent;
and the idea which they have formed of it, has produced
names for the different branches of administration, of
corresponding harmony.  The social and political edifice
rests upon religious laws (Scheri), precedents and traditions (Audet), and the ordinances of absolute power.
The door (la porte), first strikes the eye in a house. It
is used to designate the government, an expression which
is derived from the practice pursued by the ancient kings,
of administering justice before the gates of their palaces.
The body-guard were formerly stationed before the gate
of the palace; and access to the imperial residence of
Constantine could only be gained by passing through this
body, generally about seven in number. The porte signifies not only the government-SublZime Porte-but also,
in particular, the army.  The third figurative meaning
of Porte refers especially to the court. and harem, which
is called the house or gate of felicity (Dari); while the
porte of the government is named the Sublime Porte of
the empire.  The latter conducts to the edifice assigned
to the different branches of administration, where the
Grand Vizir presides. In the interior of the royal palace
is the treasury chamber; and in the great hall the sofa,




86          THIIE TURKISH EMPIRE.
or div'in, upon which the high functionaries of the empire
take their seats when councils of state are summoned.
The Canun, or fundamental law of the empire, controls
the political organization, and divides the functions of
the court and state into four, because four columns or
props support a tent, and of the fact of the four caliphs
of the prophet, and the four companions in arms of
Osman, the founder of the dynasty. The number four
is sacred among Orientals; four angels, according to the
Koran, sustain the throne of God, and four winds blow
from the four cardinal points.  The vizirs form  the first
column of the empire; whence their name, bearer of
burdens, because the burden of state rests upon their
shoulders.  The first of the vizirs, the grand vizir, is the
living image of the Sultan; his depository of unlimited
power; his omnipotent representative, and the centre and
pivot of the government.  Since Mahomet II., the affairs
of the Divan have been almost exclusively conducted by
the grand vizir.  The (canun regulates the rank of the
different orders, secular and ecclesiastical, the periodical
ceremonies and fetes, and the succession to the throne.
It expressly authorises fratricide in the imperial family
for state reasons, and even fixes the degree of compensation for certain crimes committed by superior order.
II.  BAJAZET II.  SELIM-SOLIMAN, THE GREAT.
The death of Sultan Mlahomet was, by order of the
grand vizir, concealed until the arrival of his successor
at Constantinople.  The eldest of the princes, Bajazet,
was governor of Amasia; but he immediately set out for
the capital when advised of the death of his father.  The
grand vizir had endeavored to transfer the crown from




THE TURKISII EMPIRE.                  87
its legitimate heir to the youngest son; but he was
defeated in his aims by a revolt of the Janissaries.  For
this successful interposition in his behalf, the Janissaries
demanded of the new Sultan, upon his entrance into the
capital, an increase of pay.  His assent gave rise to
similar demands on such occasions for three successive
centuries.
The war with Dalmatia and Hungary was renewed;
and in 1484, Moldavia was invaded with signal success.
In 1495, the Czar Iwan III. negotiated an advantageous
treaty of commerce with the Sultan.  Hostilities broke
out again between the Porte and Venice, which resulted
in the loss of Lepanto to the latter, and the defeat of
their fleet off the island of Sapienza.  Hungary, the
Pope, -France, and Spain, all united to defend the
Republic against its apprehended destruction by the Ottomans. Gonsalvo de Cordova ravaged the coasts of Asia
5Minor, and the vessels of the Pope the Turkish islands
of the archipelago; while the French made a descent upon
Mytilene. The war with Venice and Hungary, combined
with an invasion on the part of Persia, induced the
Sultan to conclude a peace with the Republic, and a truce
of seven years with Hungary. A violent earthquake on
the 14th of September, 1509, threw down 1700 houses,
109 mosques, and a great part of the walls of the Seraglio
and the city.  For forty-five successive days the shocks
continued with such force, that the Sultan was obliged to
abandon his palace for a tent in the open air.
On the 25th of April, 1512, the Janissaries, the
Spahis, and the people of Constantinople, revolted; and,
with the vizirs at their head, repaired in serried array to
the Seraglio, where the Sultan received them seated upon
his throne. In reply to his inquiry as to their wishes,




88          TIIE TURKISH  EMPIRE.
they cried out with one voice: " Our Padischa is old and
sick; we want Selim  for Sultan."   Twelve thousand
Janissaries sustained this demand with a cry of war, and
only ceased when Bajazet pronounced these wordls: "I
abdicate in favor of my son, Selim; may God bless
him!"  Shouts of Allah-Kerim (God is great,) resounded
through the halls of the palace.  After consigning the
imperial insignia to Selim with his own hand, Bajazet
died a few days subsequently, at a distance from the
capital. Bajazet was humane in character, fond of retirement, with a taste for philosophy and the arts.  He
followed with great zeal the example of his illustrious
father, in the construction of works of public utility, and
the patronage of men of science.
Selim was none the less esteemed by the Janissaries
because of his cruelty.  The first act of his administration was the murder of his brothers and nephews.  He
engaged in war with Persia, which he effectually humbled
by the decisive victory of Tauris.   A revolt of the
Janissaries recalled him to the capital; he repressed it
with firm severity by the execution of the rebellious
chiefs. IHe achieved the conquest of Egypt by a persevering expenditure of blood and money, and the exercise
of the most bloody cruelties upon the Mamelukes.  His
reign of eight years, which terminated in 1520, was one
of the most sanguinary that has ever deformed the page
of history.
His son, Soliman the Great, succeeded him. The commencement of his reign was happily marked by the restoration to liberty of 600 Egyptians, whom his father Selim
had torn from their native country, and reduced to slavery
at Constantinople. In 1521, he undertook a campaign
against Belgrade, and obtained possession of it. He then




TIIE TURKISII EAIPIRE.               89
returned to Constantinople, and assiduously devoted himself to the affairs of government. The island of Rhodes
was a constant source of annoyance to the Sultan, and
the more so, because it menaced the new conquest of
Egypt.  On the 28th of July, 1522, Soliman landed in
this hitherto impregnable island, under the fire of an
invincible artillery. The seven bastions of the city were
defended by the knights of eight Christian nations.  On
several occasions, the besiegers were repulsed, and in a
desperate assault on the 24th of September, they lost
15,000 men. On the 21st of December, the place being
no longer tenable, was surrendered by the grand master
on honorable terms of capitulation. This memorable
siege lasted five months, with a loss to the Turks of
100,000 men, and was marked by the most brilliant feats
of courage on the part of its chivalric defenders. Upon
the fall of Rhodes, the neighboring islands also submitted
to the Turkish yoke. The next achievement of the Sultan
was the ultimate conquest of the Crimea. Since the capture of Belgrade, Hungary and Croatia were constantly
exposed to the invasions of the Turks. In 1524, Soliman
again entered Hungary, and after a decisive victory near
Mohacs, appeared before the capital of the kingdom, the
keys of which were delivered to him by the magnates.
The country was desolated by fire and sword to the walls
of Raab, and upwards of 200,000 of the inhabitants
perished.
In 1529, the Sultan put himself at the head of his
army, and took possession of Bude; the advance squadrons of his light cavalry arrived before the walls of
Vienna the following autumn, and were soon followed by
the Sultan, who established his camp before the capital
of the Austrian empire. After a fruitless series of attacks,
8*




90          TIHE TUIRKISIH EMPI E.
and fearing that his retreat would be impeded by the
autumnal rains, the Sultan raised the siege, and retired,
with no other satisfaction than that of having pillaged the
country. For the first time the Turkish arms had received
a severe check, in a contest with Christian powers. In
1530, while the Austrian envoys were negotiating the
terms of peace at Constantinople, hostilities were renewed
with Hungary. In the spring of 1532, Soliman marched
against Charles Vth and Germany, with an army of
200,000 men. After failing to take the fortified town
of Guens, the devastating army traversed Styria and
entrenched itself on the Danube, where the Sultan received and accepted propositions of peace from Charles
the Fifth.
Upon his return to his kingdom, Soliman turned his
arms against Persia, and after several preceding victories,
Bagdad, with all its treasures, fell into his hands.  This
expedition was followed by another against Venice, in
which, although baffled in a siege of Corfu, he fully succeeded against other of the Venetian islands.  Prince
Peter Raresch of Moldavia was next attacked, and, notwithstanding the support which the Khan of Crimea lent
him, the Sultan took Jassy, and the capital of the principality, Suczava, with all the secret hoards of gold belonging to the Waiwode.
The incorporation of the greatest part of Hungary with
the Ottoman empire, and the abandonment of Upper
Hungary to Austria for an annual tribute, was the cause
of the perpetual struggle between the civilizing spirit of
that kingdom and the barbarism of the Potte. In 1541,
Soliman again invaded Hungary, took Bude, and returned
to Constantinople.  After various intervening conflicts,
a treaty of peace between the Sultan and Charles the




TILE TURKISH EMPIRE.                   91
Fifth, for a time put an end to the evils of war.  The
truce was not of long duration, however, for Persia was
again invaded, as well as Transylvania. Both countries,
after a protracted resistance, were thoroughly subdued by
the victorious arms of the Sultan.  The remaining years
of this martial reign were occupied in an unsuccessful
expedition against the Knights of St. John, at Malta, and
in a war with Hungary, in which the Sultan was engaged
at the time of his death, September 6, 1566. Soliman
lived in an age fruitful in great sovereigns, and he was
not an unworthy rival of his contemporaries, Henry VIII.,
of England, Francis I., Charles Vth, and Leo Xth.  IIe
was not only one of the most distinguished warriors of
the Osmanic dynasty, but also an enlightened legislator.
The superb mosque of the Suleimane was his work, as well
as a large number of aqueducts, fountains, bridges, and
fortifications.  The important changes which he introduced into the laws, fully entitle him to his appellation
of the glreat legislator.
Selim II., who succeeded Soliman, upon his accession
to the throne, after settling a treaty of peace with the
Emperor Maximilian, marched to Arabia, and secured the
subjection of that country by the conquest of the Yemen.
In 1571, during a war against Venice, he took the important
island of Cyprus; but on the 7th of October of that year,
the maritime power of the empire was shaken to its base
by the naval combat of Lepanto.  On that day, the combined Christian fleet, under the command of Don John
of Austria, consisting of more than two hundred Spanish,
Venetian, and Roman vessels, encountered the Ottoman
force of three hundred sail in the Gulf of Lepanto. After
a fierce conflict of two hours, the victory declared for the
allies, with a loss of fifteen galleys and 8000 men, and




92          THE  TURKISI  EMPIRE.
twenty-nine nobles of the first Venetian families.  Cervantes, the author of Don Quixote, who had greatly distinguished himself by his valor, lost an arm in this battle.
The Turkish loss was immense; 30,000 Ottomans perished, and two hundred and twenty-four vessels were
destroyed; four hundred cannon, and three thousand
prisoners, with a great number of standards, were taken;
and fifteen thousand Christians were delivered front
captivity.  But forty Turkish galleys were saved of all
this great fleet.  This celebrated sea fight produced a
profound sensation throughout Christendom. An annual
festival was instituted for its perpetual commemoration in
Venice, and thanksgivings were offered in all the churches
of Rome.
The shores of the Mediterranean were, for a time,
relieved from the piratical incursions which in the preceding reign, under the celebrated Turkish admiral Barbarossa, had spread terror and rapine from the Dardanelles
to the straits of Gibraltar.  Great as was the humiliation
of the Sultan, he, nevertheless, in sixteen months more
was enabled to set afloat a naval force of 250 sail, which
successfully engaged the Venetians on several occasions.
In consequence of divisions with her allies, Venice, in
1.573, again signed articles of peace with the Porte.
Sultan Selim was the least distinguished of the descendants
of Osman, and was the first among them who surrendered
himself to all the excesses of the effeminate life of the
Seraglio.  In consequence of his voluptuous tastes, he
ceased to command his armies in person; an example
which was imitated by his successors, and has, no doubt,
been the main cause of the decay of the hitherto warlike
spirit of the nation. HIis inordinate passion for wine, his
licentiousness, and debility of mind and character, cor



THE  TURKISII  EMIPIRE.                93
rupted the sentiment of the whole empire. In this
degenerate reign, the Ottoman power reached its culminating point, and henceforward its decline is steady autd
irresistible.
Amurat III., who next ascended the throne, was a
weak and effeminate prince, entirely controlled by his
wives and the grand vizir.  During his reign the demoralization of the empire constantly increased.  The corruption and venality of all the public officers, the disorder
in the army, and the scarcity of a circulating medium,
were all fruits of this epoch, and produced dissension in
the divan itself.  The Spahis rose in open revolt against
the Sultan, who, to pacify the army, declared war against
Poland, as well as Bosnia and Hungary; the invasions of
all which were repelled —victory seemed to have deserted
the Ottoman banner.  Amurat died in 1595.  Under his
reign the Turkish empire yet possessed forty pachalics,
and four great tributary countries.  Of these pachalics,
eight were in Europe and IHungary: Bosnia, Semendria,
Roumelia, Caffa, Temeswar, Candia, and the Archipelago,
to the latter of which also belonged the Morca, Lepanto,
and Nicodemia.  In Africa were the four pachalics of
Egypt, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli; in Asia there were
eight.  The four tributary countries were Moldavia, Wallachia, Transylvania, and Ragusa.
The death of Amurat was also concealed at Constantinople; but this was the last occasion on which resort was
had to this stratagem; for he was the last prince who was
residing at a distance from the capital on the death of the
Sultan. From this period all the heirs of the crown were
kept in close confinement until their accession - an unnatural custom, which has precipitated the ruin of the
empire. Of the 102 children of Amurat, 27 daughters




94          TIIE TURKISHI EMPIRE.
and 20 sons survived him; nineteen of the latter of whom
rwere murdered in conformity to the law of succession.
-Mahomet III., yet reeking with the blood of his
brothers, took the throne.  To suppress an insurrection
of the Janissaries, they were dispatched to the banks of
the Danube.  Disaster seemed to throng upon disaster to
the Turks; they lost Gran, and the only conquest they
made was that of Erlau; which, however, was soon
after followed by a complete defeat at the hands of the
Austrians.  The reign of Mahomet III. was a continued
succession of hostilities down to his death in 1603.  One
of the most calamitous epochs in Ottoman history, it was,
nevertheless, distinguished by the flourishing state of
literature and legal science, and the rigid enforcement of
the laws of Islamism. Ahmed I., his eldest son, followed
him.  In 1606 he terminated the war which was desola-.
ting Europe, by a treaty of peace, the necessity of which
was another conclusive sign that the once formidable
Ottoman power was broken.
Under this reign the use of tobacco was first introduced
into Turkey. The Hollanders, who for some time had
divided the trade of the Levant with the Venetians, made
the Ottomans acquainted with this new source of enjoyment in 1605.  They surrendered themselves with such
passionate delight to its use, that the mufti, believing
they saw in its effects some resemblance to the intoxication produced by wine, issued a severe edict against the
innovation. This proceeding aroused the whole population. It was insisted that as tobacco was not prohibited by
Mahomet, the mufti had no right to be more severe than
the prophet himself. These murmurs were followed by
an insurrection of the people, the troops, and the officers




THE TURKISHI  EMPIRE.                 95
of the Seraglio; and the mufti was obliged to revoke his
ordinance, to preserve the public peace.
About the same tine, a singular event happened at
Constantinople, which illustrates, in a rem:trkable manner,
the charity of'Mussulmans to animals. The plague having
broken out in the capital, the physicians declared that it
was necessary to destroy the dogs, which propagated the
scourge.  The mufti took up the defence of the proscribed, and pleaded their cause with such zeal, that the
fatal decree was commuted to simple banishment. The
proteges of the high priest of Islamism were then embarked in boats, and transported to a neighboring island.
III. TIHE SULTANS MUSTAPHA I., OSMAN II., MUSTAPIIA
II., ETC.
Mustapha, who in 1617, by the death of his father,
inherited the throne, was no sooner invested with the
imperial insignia, than the report of his imbecility produced his deposition and imprisonment.  Osman II., yet
a child, took his place. Upon arriving at manhood, he
undertook the conquest of Poland, but without obtaining
any important results.  These repeated failures of the
Turkish arms increased the already wide-spread discontent
of the nation.  The soldiers detested the Sultan on account of his avarice, and rose and murdered him in 1622.
This was the first instance in which the Ottoman throne
had been stained with blood.  Mustapha II. succeeded,
but his weak and irresolute character gave rise to new
military disorders. Upon his death, Amurat, then but
12 years of age, became Sultan in 1623, under the tutelage of his mother, a woman of masculine energy of character.  His government began under discouraging aus



96          TIHE TUItKISIH EMPIRE.
pices; rebellions of the army were general, civil war
universal, and the treasury empty.  Asia was in flames,
Persia in revolt, and Bagdad, the strongest rampart of
the empire in the East, had delivered itself from the
Porte. It was difficult to arrest these evils, and extinguish the conflagration.  The Ottomans also sustained
important losses in the Crimea, and hordes of Cossacks
harassed the European frontier. When Amurat had
attained his twentieth year, he assumed the government
himself, which he conducted in a most tyrannical and
sanguinary manner. In 1635, he advanced against Persia, took Erzeroum, Erivan, and Tebris, marking his
*progress by the most infamous acts of vengeance and
cruelty. Amurat returned victorious to the capital; but
some years subsequently, being again called to Persia, he
took Bagdad by storm, and massacred the principal part
of its inhabitants. In the year 1640, death delivered the
world from this scourge of humanity.
The reign of the dissolute and profligate Ibrahim was
insignificant in it results, with the exception of some
advantages in a war with Venice. In 1648, a conspiracy
of Janissaries and Ulemas dethroned and murdered
him.  Mahomet IV. succeeded him, at the age of seven
years.  Intrigues in the palace, and rebellions in the
army, were of constant occurrence.  The government
was in the hands of women and eunuchs, who ruled as
they pleased. Never was the Ottoman court so corrupt,
or in such a state of anarchy and depravity. Almost
every month there-was a new vizir, who was deprived of
his office, and often of his life, after a few days of admiinistration; the sea coasts were pillaged by the Cossacks,
and the islands of Lesbos and Tenedos threw off the
Tlurkishl yoke.




TIlE TURKISH  EMPIRE.                  97
Such was the condition of affairs, when a man appeared
as Grand Vizir, whose profound sagacity; and rare force
of character, for a time arrested the menaced ruin of the
empire. This was the celebrated'Mahonlet Koprili. His
investiture with power restored vigor to the government,
and revived the drooping confidence of the people. Victory again returned to the Ottoman standards. Lesbos
and Tenedos were reconquered, and a successful campaign
was waged in Transylvania. The two fortresses on the
Dardanelles were rebuilt, and all the important fortifications were placed in an efficient condition.  This great
minister exercised absolute control over the Sultan; and
when he terminated his career of vizir, after a service of
five years, the treasury, exhausted by the prodigality of
preceding reigns, was again replenished. His cruelty caused
the death of more than 30,000 persons. As a dying
counsel to the Sultan, he warned him to distrust the influence of women; never to choose too rich a minister; to
augment, by every means, the revenues of the state; not
to suffer the troops to grow effeminate by too long repose,
and to lead, himself, an active life. The Sultan, upon his
advice, entrusted the seals of state to his son, AhmetKoprili.
The first act of the new vizir, was the resumption of
hostilities with Hungary and Austria. Upon the banks
of the Raab, the Austrians drove back the Turks; and at
St. Gothard, the rout of the latter was so complete, that
the Grand Vizir was obliged to sign a very onerous treaty
of peace, which was not broken until the expedition to
Candia, in 1667. The siege of this island by the Turks,
is the most remarkable in history.  It lasted twenty-five
years; the Ottoman empire employed, in its prosecution,
all its power; and 30,000 Venitians, and more than
9




98          THE TURKISH  EMPIRE.
100,000 Turks, lost their lives in it. Public rejoicings,
in celebration of its fall, were ordered for three days and
three nights, throughout the empire; and to manifest his
gratitude to Allah for so great an event, the Grand
Signor renewed the prohibition of the use of wine, so
strongly condemned by the founder of Islamism. Sultan
Mahomet had resided for ten years at Adrianople; but
he returned to Constantinople on the death of the vizir,
in 1676.
Difficulties arose which produced a rupture with Russia.
The Turkish army ascended the Dniester to meet the
Russians, by whom they were defeated in the first battle,
which, however, they soon repaired in subsequent successes, and a peace was again concluded in 1681. In
Hungary, Tekeli placed himself at the head of the rebels
against Austria, and proclaimed himself king of the
former country.  The Porte declared in his favor, and
Vienna was doomed to witness another siege by the Turks.
They commenced their march in 1683, traversed HIungary victoriously, burned and pillared Raab, and all the
country on their route, and under command of Kara
Mustapha, pitched their tents, 200,000 strong, before the
walls of Vienna on the 14th of July of that year.  The
governor of Vienna, caused the suburbs of the city to be
burned.  As soon as the besiegers had stretched their
camp in a semi-circle over a space of twenty miles, they
commenced operations. For sixty days there was little
else than a succession of assaults and sorties, mines and
countermines.  The greater part of the works had been
carried by the besiegers; considerable breaches offered
them  chances of victory, if the Grand Vizir had commanded a general attack; but avarice deprived him of
victory, for, being desirous of obtaining for himself the




TILE TURKISII  EMIPIRE.                99
treasures of the city, he refused to promise its pillage,
and to allow a combined assault.  During this fatal hesitation, Sobieski suddenly appeared on the Calemberg,
~With a large reinforcement of Austrians and Poles. On
the following morning, after joining in simultaneous
prayer, the Christians rushed down from the mountain
upon their enemies, and threw them into such disorder,
that they broke and fled in all directions.  300 pieces of
cannon, 5000 tents, and a vast quantity of arms fell into
the hands of the victors.  Upon their return march, the
Turks experienced a series of such calamitous disasters,
that the Sultan ordered the unfortunate Vizir to be
executed.
In 1686, the new Vizir, Suliman Pacha, took the field
against Hungary. The most important event of this
campaign was the capture of Ofen, that formidable ranmpart of the Turks against Christendom. Almost all the
Christian nations of Europe took part in this siege, by
means of the chevaliers, whom they sent to join the army
of the emperor of Austria.  The latter numbered about
90,000 men, while the Turkish garrison of the town hardly
reached 16,000. The siege began on the 18th of June,
1686; a general assault was repeatedly attempted in vain,
for the Turks, knowing that the Grand Yizir was advancing to their relief, obstinately and heroically defended
themselves to gain time. The Vizir finally arrived, but
he only partially succeeded in his efforts to throw reinforcements into the town. On the 2d of September, the
imperial army stormed the place, and after a bloody and
prolonged struggle, this advanced bastion of Islamism fell
before the power of Christendom. The fall of Ofen was
followed by the surrender of many other forts, and in the
following year, the Turks sustained another disastrous




100         TIIE TURKISII  EiMIPIRE.
defeat on the Drave. These results, combined with the
loss of important places in Servia and Croatia, produced
such discontent in the Ottoman army, that the Pasha,
was beheaded to satisfy their complaints.  On the 8th of
MIay, 1687, the Ulemas decided upon the deposition and
imprisonment of the Sultan, as inadequate to the exigencies of the empire.
Soliman II. was called to the throne in the midst of
tumults among the troops, which he appeased for a time
by large gifts. The anarchy became so great that Belgrade again fell into the hands of the enemy, and defeat
followed upon defeat. An embassy was sent to Vienna
to treat for peace, but without success, and a campaign
in Hungary failed.  The Grand Vizir was suspended, and
Mustapha Koprili substituted in his place.  On the 18th
of May, 1690, he invaded Hungary, and swept on with
his victorious legions to Belgrade, which he forced to
return to the Turkish yoke. In the next year, Soliman
died, and his brother Ahmet took the throne.  The
Grand Vizir, in another campaign against Hungary, was
ingloriously defeated at Peterwarden by the margrave
Louis de Bade, and he himself perished in the combat.
The following campaigns were equally unsuccessful, and
civil war reigned throughout all the provinces of the
empire.
Mustapha II. succeeded Ahmet in 1695. Immediately
upon his accession, the Sultan commenced hostilities, and
took Lippa and advanced as far as Temesvar, while the
Ottoman fleet obtained advantages over the Venitians,
and forced the Russians to raise the siege of Azof.  In
1697, Prince Eugene obtained a brilliant victory over the
Turks at Zenta on the Theiss, with the loss of their entire
camp, 6000 camels, 900 chariots, and a large number of




TIHE TURKISII  EMPIRE.               101
cannon. Two Vizirs perished on the field of battle. This
signal defeat obliged the Sultan to think of peace.  In
1698, a congress assembled on the part of Austria, Russia, Venice, Poland and the Porte, to regulate terms of
peace. By the terms of the treaty, Transylvania and
Hungary, with the exception of the banat of Temesvar,
were restored to Austria; Russia received the city of
Azof and a territory of ten leagues; the Ukraine and
Podolia fell to Poland, and Venice took for her share the
entire peninsula of the Morea, to the isthmus of Corinth,
and also Dalmatia.  Such was the peace of Carlowitz, as
concluded in January, 1699. The deliverance of Hungary
and Transylvania, by the treaty of Carlowitz, from a subjection of 170 years to the Ottoman rule, was a most
striking sign of the deep decay of the Turkish empire.
This treaty is one of the most remarkable political events
of the 17th century. Besides the material advantages
which the Christian powers derived from it, it may be said
that it delivered them from the moral terror which the
name alone of the redoubtable sectaries of the conquering
prophet had inspired, in exposing to the gaze of the world
the domestic weakness and general decline of this mighty
empire, whose incessant attacks upon neighboring Christian states had filled all Europe with alarm for several
centuries.
9*




THIRD PART.
HISTORY OF THE TURKISH EMPIRE FRO.M THE PEACE OF
CARLOWAITZ TO THE PRESENT TIME.
I. FRO.M THE PEACE OF CARLOWITZ TO MAHIMOUD I.
THE close of the 17th century, rendered memorable by
the treaty of Carlowitz, constitutes an epoch in the Ottoman annals. Its history commences to grow humane,
and no longer breathes that spirit of cruelty which had
hitherto animated it. It is true the throne was, on two
occasions, subverted by insurrections; but its occupants
were neither deposed nor put to death.  Several bloody
wars crimsoned the annals of this epoch; but the sombre
night of barbarism gradually broke, and such acts
of unnatural cruelty as those of the tyrant Amurat IV.,
the military anarchy under Mahomet IV., and the political assassinations of Koprili the elder, were not again
renewed.  The rude severity of the Turkish character
was mitigated by contact with Europeans, and more civilised principles of action were adopted; the art of
printing opened also, to the Ottomans, a new era. The
fundamental columns of the edifice of Ottoman law, the
military organization of Orkhan, and the canuname of
MIahomet, yet existed; but from this epoch, important
innovations and changes in the domestic and foreign
policy of the empire were introduced, which the exigen( i2)




TI11E TURKISHI EAtMPIRE. I103
cies of its condition, and the spirit of the age required,
novel and radical as they were.  At the head of affairs,
as Grand Vizir, was the fourth Koprili, who had grown
up under the administration of his uncle, had fought with
I(ara Mlustapha before Vienna, had commanded the fortresses of the Dardanelles, had been at Belgrade, and
had earnestly remonstrated against the disastrous expedition to Temesvar.  He was a liberal man, of great courage, a friend of the arts and sciences, and a poet of no
ordinary stamp.  Second to Koprili in the government,
and equally remarkable for talent and cultivated mind,
was the Reis-Effendi Rami, who in that quality had been
sent to Carlowitz, with plenipotentiary powers, to discuss
and sign the treaty of peace.
The ambassadors of Austria, Poland, Venice, and
Russia, were received at Constantinople with great pomp
when they visited that capital, six months after the negotiation of the treaty, for its formal signature and ratification.  Before sunrise, on the day of their entrance into
the city, the emirs, vizirs, and other high functionaries,
with the Sultan on horseback, assembled at the gate of
the Seraglio. The mufti, the. two supreme judges of the
nation, the chief of the relatives of the prophet, and the
ulemas, also united to do honor to the representatives of
the foreign powers. The Spahis and Janissaries met
them on their landing, and conducted them to the august
presence of the sovereign of the empire, with an imposing
military parade.  In order to cement the peace, and to
impress Europe with an idea of his riches and magnificence as a prince, the Sultan dispatched Ibrahim Pasha
to Vienna, with a numerous suite.  He was charged with
the honor of presenting the emperor with a number of
costly gifts; among others, a rich tent, the exterior of




104         TIIE TURKISH EMPIRE.
which was decorated with golden apples, and lined withl
party-colored satin, embroidered with flowers of the liveliest hues; an aigrette garnished with fifty-two diamonds;
a complete set of horse trappings, enriched with five
hundred and twenty-one diamonds, and thirty-eight
rubies, the bridle being composed of a double chain of
gold; a pair of gold stirrups, ornamented with one
hundred and twenty-eight brilliants, and two hundred
and four rubies; a saddle-cloth worked with gold and
pearls; together with a glittering mace of rubies and
emeralds, and a large number of other precious objects.
The imperial ambassador was soon after sent to Constantinople, to convey the thanks of his sovereign to the
Sultan, and to proffer to him, in return, some magnificent
presents.
In order to eradicate the evil which was consuming his
country, Koprili addressed himself to the correction of the
abuses that had brought about the decadence of the empirethe relaxation of morals, and of the bonds of order and discipline. The first act of his administration, after the treaty of
peace, was the exemption of the Christians of Servia and
the Banat from the payment of personal taxes for the
ensuing year. A severe inspection of the Janissaries
was ordered.  The fleet received a new organization,
and the frontier fortresses of Belgrade, Temesvar, and
Nissa were put in an efficient state of defence. Despite of
this intelligent activity, however, and its beneficial results,
Koprili was soon removed from office. His successor,
Rami, inspired by the same spirit of reform, vigorously
applied himself to the removal of the evils of the country;
but his measures encountering the resentment and rebellious opposition of the Janissaries, the Sultan was obliged




TIIE TURKISH EMPIRiE.                105
to yield to their factious clamor, and deprive him of his
office. Partial troubles, followed by open revolts, resulted
in the dethronement of Mustapha II., and the accession
of Ahmet III., in 1703.
In the first half of the reign of Ahrbet III., the Grand
Yizirs succeeded each other so rapidly, that history has
little else to do than to register their names; for the
administration of but few of them was marked by any
memorable act. In 1709, Charles XII., King of Sweden, after his defeat at Pultawa by the Czar Peter the
Great, sought an asylum in Turkey. The favorable
manner in which he had been received, encouraged him
in his efforts to persuade the Sultan to form an alliance
with him against their common enemy, Peter the Great.
Yielding to his arguments and entreaties, the Sultan
declared war against Poland and the Czar. Upon hearing of the advance of the Ottoman army, under the
command of the Grand Vizir Bultadji-MIuhammed, the
Czar crossed the Pruth, and entrenched himself between
that river and a marshy plain, dominated by heights
occupied by the Turks. In this disadvantageous position,
the Russians, surrounded on all sides, valiantly resisted
the attacks of the enemy; but they were soon reduced to
a close blockade. Peter I. would have inevitably been
lost, but for the admirable devotion and sagacity of his
wife, the celebrated Catharine.  While the Czar, oppressed with grief, had retired to his tent, Catharine, far
from abandoning herself to despair, took counsel with
the general officers, and the chancellor Schaffiroff.  It
was decided to ask peace of the Sultan; the Czarina
collected all her diamonds and precious jewels, and sent
them as a present to Osman Aga, kiahia of the Vizir, by
means of Schaffiroff, who was charged with the delivery




10          THE TURKISII  EMPIRE.
of a letter to the first minister.  The Vizir took into
consideration the propositions of peace, and notwithstanding the protestations of Poniatowski and the khan of
Criimea, peace was concluded with Russia upon most
advantageous  terms for the Porte.  The Czar was,
among other clauses, obliged to restore Azof, to demolish
the fortresses of the sea of that name, and to deliver to
the Ottomans all the artillery they contained. A special
article secured permission for Charles XII. to return to his
kingdom.  The Sultan, at the instigation of Charles,
declared the treaty null and void, exiled the Vizir, and
executed the instigators of the peace, who were convicted
of having received the bribe of the Czarina. In 1712,
peace, however, was again renewed with Russia, for
twenty-five years.  This, in its turn, was violated by the
Sultan; and the ambassadors of the Czar were imprisoned
in the seven towers.
The Sultan, annoyed at the intrigues of his troublesome
guest, sent King Charles a large amount of money, and
ordered him to leave the country. This monarch, upon
the receipt of this command, adopted the strangest proceeding known in history.  With 300 Swedes, some
officers, and his domestics, he sustained the attack of
20,000 Tartars and 6000 Ottomans: when he saw his
brave countrymen enveloped by the enemy, he barricaded
himself in his house at Varnitza, with sixty persons in all,
defended himself with an insane, desperate fury, and killed
200 of his assailants: he was finally taken, on making a
sortie to escape from his burning house.  Some months
subsequently, on account of a letter from his sister,
pressing his return to Sweden, he left Turkey under an
escort of honor, after a residence of two years within its
hospitable limits. Peace was then definitively signed with




THE  TURKISH  EMPIRE.                 107
Russia, at Adrianople, for twenty-five years. The Sultan
determined upon the re-conquest of the Morea, entrusted
the invasion of that peninsula to his son-in-law, the
Grand Vizir, who, in a few months, wrested it, as swell as
all their possessions in the Archipelago, from the Venitians.
This striking sign of a reviving martial spirit alarmed
the emperor Charles VI. into a declaration of war against
Turkey. Prince Eugene, at the head of the imperial
forces, met the vizir at Peterwarden, and cut his army
to pieces.  Temesvar and the whole Banat fell into his
hands.  I-e then advanced on the fortress of Belgrade;
but the Grand Vizir, with 150,000 men, hastened to the
succor of the town.  After a battle of extraordinary
ferocity, the Turks were obliged to retire, and Belgrade
surrendered. An immense booty fell into the hands of
the Imperials, including, among other articles, 131 bronze
cannon, 600 barrels of powder, 35 mortars, and 50,000
projectiles.
The Porte, recognizing its weakness, accepted the offers
of mediation which were made to it some weeks subsequently, and concluded a peace at Passarowitz, by which
it ceded to the emperor Belgrade, Temesvar, Wallachia
to the Aluta, and a portion of Servia; the AMorea was
restored to the Sultan.  This treaty established more
intimate relations between the Sublime Porte and the
Christian states of Europe.  A Turkish ambassador was
sent to Paris, and a Prussian charge d'affaires to Constantinople.  The passion for war was not extinguished;
for, taking advantage of civil war in Persia, the Sultan
marched into that country, a portion of which he dismembered, and divided with the Czar, his colleague in
this spoliating invasion.  In 1730 the Persian conquests




108         THIE TURKISHII  EMPIRE.
were in a great part recovered by the valor of Nadir
Efehar, who replaced the legitimate sovereign on the
throne.  These disasters provoked a rebellion of the
Janissaries, who obliged Sultan Ahmet III. to descend
friom  the throne.  The reign of this monarch was one
of the happiest in the Ottoman annals.  Hie added the
Morea, a part of Persia, and the fortress of Azof to the
empire; and by the aid of his illustrious vizir, Ibrahim
Pasha, endowed the country with many useful institutions. He repressed, by sumptuary laws, the immoderate
luxury in female dress and ornaments, introduced the art
of printing, and established four libraries.  There are
now about fifty public libraries at Constantinople, in separate edifices, or in the mosques.  These collections each
contain from a thousand to five thousand volumes, carefully enclosed in morocco cases, and arranged in open
closets. They are open every day, except Tuesday and
Friday, and permission is granted to copy entire works
and to make extracts, but not to take the volumes out of
the buildings.
Sultan Miahmoud I., upon taking the throne, vigorously
repressed the civil disorders which distracted the country;
and after a brief struggle, formed a favorable treaty with
Persia.  Russia and Austria formed a secret alliance
against the Sultan, and for a time prosecuted the war
with great success; but the Turks, rallying from repeated
defeats, finally overcame both their enemies, and forced
them into a highly honorable peace to the Porte. By the
terms of this treaty, the Austrians were obliged to restore
Belgrade, Servia, Wallachia, and Orsova, and accept the
Danube and the Save as the boundary between the two
empires.  Russia consented to demolish the fortress of
Azof, to employ foreign vessels to the exclusion of her




THE  TURKIISH  EMPIRE.                    109
own in the Black Sea and the sea of Azof, and to restore
all the conquests made of Turkish territory which she
had recently made. In compensation for such concessions,
equal commercial advantages with other nations was
granted to the Russians; the free exercise of their religion in the Ottoman empire; and the privilege of maintaining an embassy at Constantinople. The peace of
Belgrade had hardly restored the tranquillity of Europe,
when the sudden death of Charles VI., October 20th,
1740, rekindled the flames of war. All the Christian
powers took up arms to deprive his daughter, Maria
Theresa, of her imperial inheritance.  Sultan Mahmoud
was the only sovereign who, on this occasion, gave an example of disinterestedness, and respect for sworn obligations. Far from taking part in a contest in which he had
every prospect of recovering lost possessions and acquiring
others, he addressed the monarchs of Europe a letter,
urging them  to peace, with a proffer of his mediation.*
* The following extracts will give some idea of this remarkable
letter, in which the Grand Vizir, speaking in the name of his
master, a 2lohzamrmedan sovereign, endeavors to recall Christian
princes to just and humane feelings, by depicting to them the evils
of war.
" What sensitive soul, what human being, does not shudder at
the miseries which accompany war! Rivers of blood bathe the
fields; the conquerors are no more spared than the vanquished by
the angel of death; hideous, contagious, maladies, following the
steps of the combatants, attack them, beat them down, devour
them in the arms of victory itself, and finally. cast them
in the ignoble ditch, where death confounds them  with the
animals. It is thus that it punishes debased men for having imitated the ferocity of the beasts in their insensible fury.  The
]lorrid genius of evil, in uttering the cry of war, severs with his
flamning sword the bonds of nations; no more intercourse between
Irethren; the law of the strongest becomes the co(le of the chil10




110          THE  TURKISH  EMPIRE.
It was not accepted; and the Sultan, not having been
able to cause his glorious counsels to prevail, remained a
neutral spectator of this long war, which was terminated
only in 1748, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. This reign
was also signaliized( by the rise in Arabia of the reforming sect of the Wahhabees, under a celebrated sheik, who
aimed to restore Miohammedanism to its original purity.
Despised for his weakness at first, this new envoy of the
prophet ultimately succeeded in fomenting  a wide-spread
defection in the south of the empire.  Mlahmoud died in
1754, leaving the empire in a flourishing and reinvigorated
condition, and with the reputation of a humane, wise,
and enlightened prince.  The reign  of his successor,
Othman III., which  expired in. 1756, was a continued
period of peace, but was not marked by any important
public event.
In 1768, the Porte, then under the government of
AMustapha III., declared war against Russia, on account
of its aggressions upon Poland.  To stimulate the AMussulman fanaticism, the sandjakccherif, (standard of the prophet,) was brought out of the Seraglio, and displayed to
the public gaze.  The empress Catharine sent two powerful armies against the Turks, and dispatched a fleet
from  the Baltic to dispossess them  of the Morea.  To
augment the calamities of the empire, an insurrection of
the Mamelukes broke out in Egypt, Georgia rebelled,
dren of Adam; the blood or tears of victims attest, upon its
tables of brass, that every virtue has been outraged, feebleness
butchered, innocence oppressed, and chastity violated. In order
to prevent the recurrence of so many crimes and calamities, and
to accomplish the views of God, my sublime emperor, who is
nothing less than the shadow of God upon earth, invites the Christian princes to reconciliation, and proffers them his powerful
mediation."




TIIE TUIRKIS I EMPIRE.                111
Azof surrendered, a Russian flotilla intercepted in the
Black Sea the supplies of the capital, while a Muscovite
squadron scoured the coasts of Palestine and the seas of
Greece, to the interruption of commerce.  The Sultan
died in the midst of the war, leaving its prosecution to his
son Abdul Hamid, who, on the 22d of July, 1774, signed
the humiliating treaty of peace of Kainarclji, by which the
independence of the Tartars of the Crimea, Bessarabia,
and the steppes of I(uban was acknowledged. The free
navigation of all the seas of the empire was conceded to
the Russians, as well as Azof and other fortresses, and
the partition of Poland was formally recognised.  In
return for these important concessions, facilitating the
aims of Russia for an establishment at Azof, and the
means of ready maritime access by its southern frontiers
to Constantinople, its conquests in Moldavia, Wallachia,
and Bessarabia, with the occupied islands in the Archipelago were all surrendered.  This peace, no less than
the disastrous war which preceded it, shook the Ottoman
power to its foundations.  It was, moreover, distinguished from that of Carlowitz, by the fact that it was
not arranged by the intervention of other European
powers; Russia treated for herself alone, and obstinately
adhered to the preliminary propositions, laid down by her
negotiators.
This dishonorable peace could not continue long, for
the Turks were as anxious to recover their lost ground as
Catharine was to push her frontiers to the south, and
obtain command of the Black Sea. After throwing the
Crimea into confusion by her intrigues, she put herself at
the head of an army of 200,000, and invaded it.  Upon
a triumphal arch, thrown over the road leading to the
west, she inscribed the prophetic words-Route to Con



112         THIE TUR KISIH E MPIRE.
stantinople.  Austria, with her characteristic policy, took
advantage of the embarrassments of the Porte, and conqueredl the Bukovina. In her sanguine ambition, Catharine already believed in the destruction of the Turkish
empire.  When, in the spring of 1787, she concluded a
secret alliance with the emperor Joseph, in his visit to her
camp on the shores of the Black Sea, she seriously proposed to him the partition of the Ottoman dominions, or
the restoration of the Greek empire.  The emperor, in
his astonishment, exclaimed: " But what shall we do with
Constantinople?" a question which has since been repeated
by more than one crowned head.
In 1787, the Sultan deemed himself sufficiently strong
to take the field. He declared war against Russia, and
sent an army of 80,000 men to the Danube.  The fleet
entered the Black Sea.  Austria allied  herself with
Russia, and sent an army to Moldavia, which, after having
victoriously traversed Transylvania, took Chatshim, and
repulsed a part of the Turkish forces.  The'Ottoman
expedition in the Black Sea was unsuccessful. The campaign closed in 1788 by the capture of the fortress of
Oczakow, where the Turks valiantly perished to a man,
rather than surrender. Abdul Hamid died in 1789.
Under his reign, Russia succeeded in opening her way to
the Bosphorus.  This triumph was due, not only to the
address and intrigues of Catharine II., but also to the
great progress of the Muscovite nation in the art of war,
while the Ottomans remained stationary in the midst of
the general movement. For notwithstanding the efforts
of Sultan Abdul Hamid, and the assistance afforded to
him by the French officers called to Constantinople, the
Mussulman soldiers could not adapt themselves to European discipline and tactics.  The repugnance of the




T H E T U It Rt I S i E M' P I Il.   113
Janissaries to these innovations was so strong, that they
enforced their abandonment by an armed rebellion. To
this blind adherence of the followers of Mahomet to the
customs and maxims of their ancestors, must be attributed the numerous and grave disasters under the last
Sultans, and the loss of that superiority which they had
obtained over the Christian nations by their religious
fanaticism, brilliant courage, and surpassing skill and
prowess in arms.
Selim III. succeeded to the throne, and immediately
raised a new army for the resumption of hostilities. The
Austrians were already on the point of occupying Belgrade, when the Turks arrived before that place; the two
imperial armies, Austrian and Russian, effecting a junction, after a protracted conflict, defeated the Ottoman
forces. In 1791, a general peace was agreed upon, rather
from the force of circumstances than from any disposition
to yield, pn the part of the Turks.  Admiral Duckworth
was dispatched, in 1807, to Constantinople, to compel the
Porte into union with the allied powers against France.
Upon the appearance of the squadron, under this officer,
off the Dardanelles, the Kapoudan-pasla sent the fleet
out of port, and endeavored to put the fortresses of the
Strait in a proper state of defence. On the 20th of February, the English admiral, with his vessels, passed the
castles without receiving any material damage, and prosecuted his voyage, until he met the Ottoman flotillca off
Gallipoli, all of which he destroyed, with the exception
of one frigate. The British vessels, for want of favorable
wind, were obliged to come to anchor off the Prince's
Islands in the sea of Marmara.  The Sultan refused to
listen to the overtures of the Admiral, and the latter fearing for the safety of his fleet, from the new batteries and
10'




114           TIIE TURKISHI EMPIRE.
constructions on the Dardanelles, finally weighed anchor
and bore down the Hellespont.  Upon their descent, the
English were severely handled by the fire of the batteries
and castles; two corvettes were sunk, and all the vessels
suffered serious injury.*  This naval expedition, and that
directed against Egypt by England, determined the Sultan
to declare war against Great Britain, and to contract an
alliance with France.
In the meanwhile, the attempt of Selim to counterbalance the power of the Janissaries by the organization of
a new military force, disciplined, armed, and equipped
like European troops, led to the rising of the former body
of troops.  For two days, blood flowed in torrents in the
streets of the capital; all the ministers and partizans of
the new reforms were massacred, and the Sultan was
obliged to suppress the corps of Nizam-Djedid (new order),
the cause of the tumults. The triumph of the Janissaries
was complete.  Emboldened by success, the chiefs of the
conspiracy resolved to depose a sovereign whose intelligence and civilized tastes were so unacceptable to the
barbarous enemies of every useful innovation. The mufti
united with them  in their plans.  He pitied, he said, the
unhappy monarch, led astray by perfidious counsel, and
whom the prophet abandoned, because, instead of putting
confidence in God, he wished to assimilate the Ottomans
* The demands upon the Porte, by the English government, as
presented by the Admiral and Ambassador, were the following:
Alliance of the Porte with England and Russia against France;
the immediate delivery of the castles and batteries of the Dardanelles, as well as the Ottoman fleet, to the former power, and the
cession of Moldavia and Wallachia to the second. Lastly, a declaration of war against France, and the expulsion of Gen. Sebastiani, the ambassador of that nation.




THIIE TURKISII   EMPIRE.             115
to the infidels.  Upon announcing his deposition to the
Sultan, that personage complacently laid aside the insignia
of authority, in favor of MIustapha IV., whose reign lasted
but a year, when another insurrection deposed him and
placed MIahmoud II. upon the throne.
II. FROM. TIlE REIGN OF SULTAN MAHMIOUD II. TO THE
PRESENT TIME.
Mahmoud II. mounted the throne 28th of July, 1808,
with the determination of prosecuting the system of reform
commenced by Sultan Selim.  He was arrested in the
outset of his plans by an insurrection of the Janissaries,
who fired the city in several places, and murdered his
prime minister, Moustapha Pasha, the zealous advocate
of these schemes of regeneration. A war of continual
reverses ensued with Russia, which was terminated by a
treaty of peace at Bucharest, May 28th, 1812, fixing the
Pruth as the boundary between the two empires, and
making the fatal concession to Russia of both mouths of
the Danube, with a part of Moldavia and Bessarabia.
Mohammed Ali, Pasha of Egypt, rescued the sacred cities
of AMecca and Medina from the Wahhabites, and sent the
keys of the holy city to Constantinople, with the captive
chief of the fanatical and troublesome sect.  In 1819, the
Porte recognised the independence of the Ionian islands.
Ali-Pasha of Janina, in Albania, raised the standard of
insurrection in that country, and kept it displayed amid
varying scenes of reverses and triumphs for twenty years.
After centuries of submission, Greece began to manifest
aspirations for national independence.  In March, 1821,
Ypsilanti published, in conjunction with Prince Sutzo,
proclamations from Moldavia, inviting the Greeks to rise,
under promise of Russian aid. At the end of May, the




116           Ti HE TURtKISHI  EMPIRE.
Alorea was in a general state of insurrection; the islands
of Hydra, Spezzia, and Ipsara, equipped a fleet of one
hundred and eighty sail; a rich Greek lady, Bobelina,
whose husband had been killed by the Turks, armed three
brigs, and commanded them in person. Patriotic and
secret associations of Greeks were formed in Vienna, and
all the chief capitals, to stimulate and support the war
of independence by men and money. Irritated at these
measures, the Sultan caused the Greek patriarch Gregory,
whom he accused of probably having participated in the
plot, to be hung.  This murder was followed by like
atrocities in other cities of the empire, upon the bishops
and priesthood of the Greek church. In December, 1821,
a congress, convoked by Ypsilanti and Mavrocordato,
assembled at Epidaurus, and promulgated a provisionary
constitution.  In 1822, in revenge for the slaughter of
the Turkish garrison, an immense Ottoman force landed
upon the island of Scio, murdered in cold blood over
20,000 persons of both sexes, and carried as many into
captivity. This beautiful island, the garden of the Archipelago, in a few hours, from a blooming paradise in the
midst of the waters, was converted into a howling waste.
The Christian ear of Europe was pained at these inhuman
atrocities, and a general sympathy was awakened for the
struggling Greeks.  Lord Byron, after causino the European heart to vibrate with his lofty verse, in favor of the
descendants of Leonidas, repaired in person to their aid,
and also a large body of Philhellenists from America and
Europe.  First among the former, Dr. G. W. Howe, of
Boston, ilass., deserves honorable mention for his devoted
philanthropy, courage, and wisely-directed zeal.
The limited space assigned to this historical abstract,
does not permit an indulgence in the details of this pro



TIHE TURKISH  E  PIRIRE              I17
tracted struggle for liberty. Neither ancient nor modern
annals exhibit more splendid examples of valor and
patriotism  than the Greek war of independence, nor
more patient endurance of the woes that man can inflict
upon his fellow-man.  The uncalculating intrepidity of
MIarco Bozzaris, with his chosen few, storming at midnight the multitudinous camp of the Turkish pasha at
Carpenitza, can be paralleled only by the immortal
action of Leonidas at Thermopylae.  Themistocles at
Salamis did not fight against greater odds, or with more
glory, than Canaris and AMiaulis in their fleets of feluccas,
with overwhelming Turkish squadrons in the AEgean sea.
This sanguinary contest, one of " the bloodiest pictures
in the book of time," was definitively closed by the destruction of the Turkish navy in the harbor of Navarino, by
the combined Russian, French, and English fleet. In
1829, the independence of Greece was formally recognized by the Porte.
Sultan Mahmoud, convinced by the inability of his
troops to repress the Greek insurrection, and the continual disasters of his army, that a radical military
reform was necessary to the salvation of the empire,
determined upon the destruction of the obstacle to all
improvement -the Janissaries. In an audience of the
chief dignitaries of the government, May 22, 1826, he
solemnly announced this intention, and on the 28th of
that month issued an imperial ordinance, terminating
with the following words: " Vengeance, people of Mahomet, vengeance!:Faithful servants of an empire which
is to endure as long as the world, vengeance! Officers
of all ranks, defenders of the faith, come to us! We
must, by a common effort, repair our breaches, and in
the face of the world raise up around our country the




118         TItE TURKISHI EIM PIRE.
ramparts of an invincible army.  We must counteract
the military tactics of Christendom."
]By the terms of this decree, all the younog men were
oridered to leave the Janissary corps, and to be enrolled
in regiments, for the purpose of instruction in the art of
war as practised by the Christians.  In the night of
June 15, 1826, a formidable insurrection of the Janissaries broke out; more than 30,000 of them rose against
the government; but the Sultan, advancing among his
people with the standard of the prophet in his hands,
called them  to support the throne.  A force of 50,000
men proceeded against the rebels, surrounded their
barracks, which they set on fire, and consumed the
greater part in the flames, pitilessly massacring all who
attempted to escape.  The survivors were exiled to Asia.
Upwards of 20,000 perished by fire and sword.  Thus
was accomplished the destruction of these insolent prmetorians, who, for several centuries, had held the Sultans in
terror, and deposed or elevated them at will.  The suppression of the fanatical sect of Bektachi dervishes next
took place, as well as other branches of the military
force that had previously taken part in the tumultuous
disorders which had shaken the stability of the kingdom.
The Sultan now prosecuted his projects of reform with
great firmness and energy.  To save the capital fiom the
frequent and desolating ravages of the plague, he established, in defiance of the Mahommedan doctrine of
fatality, the preventive precautions of Quarantine police.
He dismissed his ignorant Turkish quacks, and appointed
four Germans as physicians of the imperial household,
and founded a college of medicine.  He sent young men
to Paris and London, to be educated in science and the
modern.languages, for the diplomatic and administrative




TIlE TURKIISH  EMIPIRE.               119
service of the government.  I-le permitted the erection
of a theatre and opera-house in the Christian quarter of
Pera': he gave' balls, concerts, and fJtes, to break down
the Alussulmlan antipathy to Christians, and completely
re-orglanized the army, so as to combine the Ottonan
insignia with the more convenient, but certainly less
becoming tight-fitting vestments of the French and English
troops, and adopting also their fire-arms, discipline, and
organization.  He prevailed upon the Mufti to sanction,
by a distorted interpretation of the Koran, the establishment of lazarettos; and he even ventured, in defiance of
a denunciatory proclamation of the ulemas, to offend the
M[ussulman prejudices against representations of the
human face, by placing his portrait in all the barracks.
In 1830, in  imitation  of the  custom  of Christian
monarchs, he made a royal progress through the provinces of his kingdom. Previous to setting out, however,
upon this journey, to flatter the popular notions, he consulted the State astrologer, who pronounced the day
favorable, and the object propitious to the public welfare.
He gravely shocked and offended his people, by returning
from this expedition in an Austrian steamboat, who felt
that it was both an impiety and sacrilege for " the shadow
of God upon earth" thus to expose his sacred person
among the Ghiaours.  The fanaticism  of the true believers was roused to an intense pitch of excitement
by these  Christian  innovations and practices.   The
popular discontent, as is usual in such cases, manifested
itself in incendiary conflagrations, one of which consumed
10,000 houses. To the complaining victims of this calamity, the Mussulman zealots replied: " God is great.
Behold what the prophet does to teach the renegade
Sultan to obey his precepts, and not to sully the throne




120         TIHE  TURKISII  EMPIRE.
of his ancestors by alliance with infidels." Neither the
menaces of ignorant bigots, nor fears of assassination
and dethronement could swerve this iron-nerved sovereign from the sublime task he had assumed, of renovating the decayed energies of his country, and of
restoring it to a footing of equality with the great
powers of Europe.
May 6th and 7th, 1828, the Russians passed the
Pruth, under the command of Field Marshal Prince.Wittgenstein. The Sultan could not think of defending
the Principalities, or the line of the Danube; as he had
no second army to present to the enemy, if the first were
defeated in an attempt to drive the Russians across the
Danube. Ile was consequently obliged to abandon the
Danubian fortresses to themselves, and to unite all his
forces in the mountains of the Balkan, to dispute their
passage by the Russians. The head-quarters of the Ottoman army was established at Shumla, where fortifications
were thrown up.  The imperial army promptly invaded
Moldavia and Wallachia, in which it met no resistance,
and soon assailed Braila, on the left bank of the Danube,
which Soliman Pasha surrendered only when the walls
were dismantled, and the greater part of the cannon was
rendered unserviceable.  While the centre of the army
was operating at Blraila, under Wittgenstein, the left
wing, under Rudsewitsch, with great difficulty crossed the
right bank of the river at Basardschick.  General Benkendorf, with six battalions, covered the march of the
army under the fortress of Silistria.  The plan of the
Russians was to reach the Turks before Shumla, to force
them into action, and to defeat them completely, in order
that, by the destruction of the only army the Sultan




TIRE  TURKISH  EMPIRE.                121
could oppose to them, the route to Constantinople might
be laid open.
The seraskier, HIussein Pasha, refused to fight; and
suffered the Russians, unopposed, to arrive before Shumla,
whicl took place July 20.  Thile imperial commander,
being well satisfied that his forces were not sufficiently
strong to carry the fortified camp, resolved, after a sharp
skirmish, to fortify himself at Eski-Stamboul, and thus
cut off the Turks from  the road to Adrianople.  Four
weeks passed without any movement.  At last, Hussein
Pasha believed the time had come for something more
decisive than the'trifling skirmishes which daily occurred,
without any decisive results. In the night of the 25-26th
August, three strong Turkish columns advanced in profound silence, and fell upon the Russian line with the
most determined fury.  It would not be just to say that
the Pasha gained a victory, in the usual acceptation of
the word; but he accomplished, at least, his project of
dislodging General Rudiger from Eski-Stamboul, and of
regaining the grand route to Adrianople.
The Russians maintained themselves before Shumla,
especially for the purpose of covering the siege of Varna,
situated upon the shores of the Black Sea, to the south
of which extends Lake Dwena, rendering that place inaccessible from any other side than the west and north.
General Suchtelen directed the first operations of the
siege, which made but slow progress.  The Turks made
continual sallies, and fought from the rising to the setting
of the sun, with a lion-like courage.  In one of these
encounters, Admiral Prince AMenshikoff, who commanded in
chief before Varna, was wounded, and was replaced by
Count Woronzkoff, Governor-General of New PRussia.
September 7th, and the following days, the imperial
11




122         TIIE TURKISII  EMIJPIRE.
guards, 18,000 strong, infantry and cavalry, arrived at
the camip, under the command  of the Grand Diuke
[Michael himself. The Emperor Nicholas had also arrived
at Odessa, and established his head-quarters on board the
line-of-battle ship Paris.  Thenceforward, hostilities were
pushed with more vigor.  Tile Turks, after a bloody and
tenacious resistance, were driven from the fortified points
they occupied before the citadel; and the investment of
Varna took place, by means of the corps of Gen. Golovin,
which had been detached from the right bank of Lake
Dwena.  Tile Sultan, on his side, had sent 12,000 fresh
troops from Constantinople to the theatre of war, which,
if they had arrived a few days before, might have been
able to enter Varna without difficulty.  But when this
corps presented itself, 15th of September, upon the borders of the river Kamtschik, which empties into the
Black Sea to the north of the Balkan, and seven miles
from Varna, General Golovin already occupied the south
bank of Lake Dwena, so that it was impossible to succor
the fortress, except by a victorious engagement.  Omar
Vrione, chief of the Arnouts, known for the part he had
taken in the Greek war of independence, sallied out of
Shumla at the head of 8000 men, to effect a junction with
this auxiliary corps, despatched too late from Constantinople.  A Russian detachment, sent to reconnoitre, unexpectedly met the enemy, and was destroyed.
September 27th, Omar Vrione advanced to the vicinity
of Lake Dwena, and on the morrow attacked the position
of the Russians, reinforced by detachments from Shumla
and Varna.  The Turks fought like heroes; and the
Russians, to escape defeat, were obliged to retire to their
entrenched camp, from which they did not again issue,
until they had received reinforcements.  Meanwhile, the




THIIE TURKISII  EMIPIRE..             123
siege operations of Varna had slowly but continuously
advanced.  Yussuf Pasha commanded the fortress; but
the captain pasha (grand admiral), who was also in the
citadel, exercised the supreme authority.  Two great
breaches having been made, the elite of the Russian troops
precipitated themselves into them, on the night of the
6-7th of October, and penetrated to the centre of the
city; but they were massacred.  The besieged, however,
were soon convinced that they could no longer maintain
themselves in a dismantled place.  The captain pasha
sought, as he had once before done, to gain time by negotiations upon a project of capitulation. The season being
much advanced, and the Grand Vizir approaching with
new reinforcements, every day of delay was so much
gained. It is thought that the Russian general obtained his
aims by corruption. On the evening of the 10th of October, Yussuf Pasha, commander of Varna, repaired to the
camp of the Russian general, and declared to him that
the fortress was no lon er tenable; that the captain
pasha did not think of surrendering; but that he, Yussuf,
placed himself under the protection of the Czar.
On the following morning the Turkish garrison passed
out of the town in platoons into the Russian camp.  The
captain pasha, with 300 men who had remained faithful
to him, threw himself into the citadel, and declared that
he would defend it to the last man, and that rather than
surrender, he would blow  himself up.  The emperor
Nicholas finally permitted the captain pasha to retire with
the honors of war.  The Russians restored, as well and
as quickly as possible, the destroyed works of Varna;
and the fortress being rendered secure from any sudden
surprise, their whole army, facing about to the Turks,
received orders to recross the Danube. But one single




124         TIIE TU RKISH EM PIRE.
corps, that of General Roth, remained upon the right
bank of the Danube, at Varna and Bazarjik. The main
body of the army wintered in the principalities.   The
expedition entrusted to General Paskiewitch, the conqueror
of the Persians, was more fortunate in Asia. ]By the
baseness of the commander, Emir Pasha, the important
fortress of Kars was delivered to the Russians, July 5th,
1828.  After a bold march across the mountains of
Tschildin, the imperial army suddenly appeared before
Akhalkalaki, and took it by storm.  The 22d of August
Paskiewitch defeated  the Turkish  general, MAahmoud
Pasha, so completely, that he was forced to throw himself, with 5000 men, into the fortress of Akhalkalaki.
The residue of the Turkish troops disbanded, or were
massacred by the Russians.  Several strong places, and
particularly the reputedly invincible Toprakaleh (on the
route to Erzeroum), fell into the hands of the latter.
Hostilities continued until the winter upon the elevated
plains of Armenia brought it to a close.
General Paskiewitch established his winter quarters at
Tiflis. Ile recommenced the campaign in the spring; and
on the 1st and 2(1 of July, 1829, defeated Haki Pasha
and the seraskier Hadschi Suleh, in the valley of Mlilli
Duss; after which he took up his march for Erzerotm,
giving his soldiers but one day of repose. This large and
important city, in which was the seraskier himself, was
surrendered, by the treason of a former Janissary, Aga
MIanesch, to the Russians, without striking a blow, July
7, 1829. On the 9th of October, Paskiewitch defeated a
body of 10,000 Turks near Baibourt; in consequence of
which, the seraskier Oglou Pasha, who was advancing
with reinforcements, beat a retreat. During these transactions, the news of the peace of Adrianople arrived




THEt  TURKISH EMPIRE.                 125
at the camp of General Paskiewitch, and terminated the
hostilities in Asia.
As to the war in European Turkey, the most conspicuous fact was the substitution of General Diebitsch in the
place of field-marshal Wittgenstein. The former resolved
not to force the Balkan until after having obtained possession of Silistria.  On the morning of the 17th Mayav the
Russians appeared under the walls of that fortress; but
they deferred the siege in consequence of the high waters
of the Danube preventing the construction of a bridge of
boats for the passage of the heavy artillery.  In the
meantime, Reschid Pasha marched against the corps of
General Roth, which formed a long semi-circular cordon
around Varna.  The head-quarters of the Russian commander were established at Eski Arnautlar, not faor from
the fortified village of Paravadi, surrounded by entrenchments sufficientlystrong to frustrate any sudden attack.
The Grand Vizir attacked the Russians on the 15th of
May, who with difficulty maintained their positions, when
General Wachten, quitting the post which he occupied at
Dewna, came to their relief, and forced the Turks to
retire.  General Rynden, at the head of two regiments,
pursued the enemy with such impetuosity, that that of
Ochotsk was surrounded by the Turks in a defile, and cut
to pieces.  General Roth deemed it prudent to abandon
his camp of Eski Arnautler, and retired upon Kosludschi.  The Grand Vizir then invested Paravadi, which is
only five miles from  Shumla, and which, in case of an
attack upon the latter, could serve as a rallying point to
the Russians.  But the Turks were yet so inexperienced in
siege operations, that weeks elapsed without the least
progress on their part.
Advised of this fact, General Diebitsch left the third
1 1




126         TITE TURlKISHI EE1[PIItE.
corps of infantry before Silistria, under the commandl of
General Krasowski, and putting himself at the head of
21,000 men, with 94 cannon, took up his march for the
pur'pose of throwing himself on the line of junction of
the Grand Vizir with Shumla, and of forcing him  to
accept a battle.  It was on the 11th of June that the
rencounter took place, and that hostilities commenced at
IKoulewtscha; after an engagement of great spirit, in
which the Russians and Turks fought with their accustomed valor, the advantage of the day remained to the
former; but they had suffered so much, and were so exhausted by fatigue, that they were unable to pursue the
enemy.  The Grand Vizir, having his line of junction
with Shumla cut off, was obliged to adopt measures to
gain the only route that was left open to him - that of
Kamtschik.  HIe masked his retreat by leaving his right
wing fixed in its position, and by occupying the borders
of the neighboring forest with strong detachments.  The
Russians were deceived, and believed that the Grand
Vizir had decided to continue the contest.  In consequence of this opinion, General Diebitsch detached General Toll with twelve battalions, twelve squadrons, and
twenty-four guns, to attack the Turks; but he only then
perceived that they had effected their retreat by favor
of the forest and this stratagem.  The first discharges
of the Russian artillery blew up some powder-chests in
the midst of the Turkish detachments, whose order of
retreat not being of the best, now took the character of
an actual flight.  The obscurity of the night prevented
a pursuit.
The day after the battle, General Diebitsch ordered
General Roth to advance on Shumla. But the garrison
was too strong to give any hopes of success from an




TIIE T U R K IS II EIPIRE.            127
assault.  On the 13th of June, the Grand Vizir hlimself
returned to Shumla.  Diebitsch, desirous of opening
negotiations for the conclusion of peace, sent the counsellor of state, Fenton, to him.  The answer of the
Grand Vizir was: "' That he was only a soldier, and did
not understand matters of state; he, therefore, begged
the General to dispatch his negotiator to Constantinople,
or to designate a day for the meeting of duly-authorized
envoys of the interested parties." General Diebitsch did
not deem it his duty to assume the responsibility of such
a step; and he resolved to await the surrender of Silistria, before pushingr farther his operations.  This event
took place the 30th of June, by a capitulation, and left
the force of General IKrasouski disposable for other
operations; Diebitsch immediately availed himself of
this circumstance to dispatch it to Shumla, while he
himself traversed the principal chain of the Balkan with
the rest of the army, in order to advance to the southward.  All this time the Grand Vizir was tranquilly
reposing at Shumla, and only recognized the actual state
of affairs when Krasowski had returned to Jenibazar.
IIe immediately detached Ibrahim Pasha towards Aidos,
wvho, by means of a cross-road, was to get in advance of
the Russians; but lie was met by the corps of General
IRudiger, and put to flight.  General Scheremetiew could
unudertake nothing against the 10,000 men whom  Halil
Pasha had under his command on the route to Adrianoplie; but the Pasha, believing in the presence of the whole
Russian army, spontaneously fell back upon Adrianople.
The Grand Vizir, perceiving that his remaining  at
Shumla could be of no utility, retired, in the beginning
of August, with the 12,000 men he yet possessed, into
the rugged defiles of the mountains to the west of




128         THE TURKISH  EMPIRE.
Selumio, in order to harass the right wing and rear of
the  Russians, if they should  attempt anything  at
Adrianople.  General Diebitsch, however, marched with
20,000 men upon Selimno, took the town, and forced the
Turks to evacuate it, with the loss of their artillery; the
cavalry not being able to pursue the fugitives in the
mountains, they saved their lives in a hurried flight.
General Diebitsch then advanced upon Adrianople, the
second capital of the Ottoman emphie, and appeared
under its walls August 19, at the head, of 30,000 men.
Halil Pasha, who occupied it, not having had time to
complete his works of defence, was obli'ged to capitulate;
after stipulating for the free retreat of his troops, and
that his rear should not be disturbed.  The Russian
General insisted that the Turks should lay down their
arms, and retire to their homes, and not to Constantinople: he granted a delay of fifteen hours for the acceptiance
or rejection of his proposition.  On the 20th of August,
at 6 o'clock in the morning, the truce expired, and the
Russians prepared for the attack; but the Turks had
already evacuated Adrianople, in perfect order. From
this important position, Diebitsch directed advanced corps
upon Keurk Kilicia, upon Bourghas, and Enos, for the
purpose of putting himself in communication with ViceAdmiral Heyden, commanding the Russian squadron
charged with the blockade of the Dardanelles; Admiral
Greigh followed the coast, took possession of Midia, and
advanced as far as Kara Bournou.
When the rapid' progress of the Russians was known
at Constantinople, and it was evident that the masses
could not be roused up against them, terror spread
throughout the capital.  Despair seized the Sultan also,
who, earnestly pressed by his cabinet and the foreign




T IE TURKISII EMPIRE.                129
ministers, finally consented to send to the camp of the
victor, in the quality of plenipotentiaries, three of the
principal dignitaries of the empire.  tHardly had they
set out on their journey, when the governor of Constantinople discovered a new plot.  The object of the conspirators was the assassination of the Sultan, his son, and
the nobles of the empire, and all the partisans of the new
ideas; and the summoning of all good Mussulmans to the
defence of imperilled Islamism.  Hassan Aga, governor
of the castles of the Bosphorus, presumed chief of the
conspiracy, a great number of officers, and about 600
guilty persons were put to death, and the cafes, where
they assembled, were demolished.
IMeanwhile, the negotiations continued between the
Russian and Ottoman plenipotentiaries; but they were
protracted by the unwillingness of the latter to submit to
the hard conditions imposed upon them by the victors.
By the intervention of the Prussian General, Muffling,
peace was finally concluded and signed at Adrianople,
September 14, 1829.  In Asia, the Emperor Nicholas
restored to the Sultan the greater part of the territory he
bad conquered, with the exception  of Anapa, Poti,
Atchaltzike, Atzkour, and Akhalkalahi, which he reserved
as a partial indemnification for the expenses of the war.
In Europe, the Pruth and the Danube, from this epoch,
became the frontier on the side of Bessarabia; but Turkey
was obliged to abandon the mouths of the Danube to the
Russians, as well as the islands dependent on them. The
latter bound themselves not to erect any fortification or
construction whatever there, with the exception of Quarantine buildings; and the Porte, on its part, obliged
itself to leave the left Turkish bank of the river without
population, for a distance of two leagues from the point




1.30        TIIE TURKISH ElMPIlE..
where it divides into channels, to Sulina.  WTith respect
to Moldavia, Wallachia, and Servia, the treaty of Akjerman was renewed, with an engagement on the part of the
Porte, to execute, within a given period, the concessions
made to the Servians.  A separate treaty was concluded
for the Danubian principalities; the most important points
were the nomination of the hospodars for seven years,
instead of for life, as heretofore; direction of the administration left in their hands; concession of a special
armed force, for the preservation of order.  Moreover,
no Mahommedan was to be allowed to reside, in future, in
the Danubian principalities; and all the fortresses on the
left bank of the Danube were to be razed. Among other
guarantees which the treaty gave to Russia, was liberty
of commerce for the subjects of the Czar in all the
Ottoman empire.  The indemnities to be paid to Russia
for the expenses of the war, were the object of a secret
article, and were fixed at the enormous sum of ten mnillions of Holland ducats, (this amount was reduced, in
1830, to seven millions, seeing the notorious impossibility
of the Porte to discharge it.) Turkey also adhered to the
treaty of July 6, 1897, as well as to the posterior arrangements made by France, England, and Russia in the question of Greek independence.
External peace was followed by domestic insurrections in
Bagdad, Bosnia, Albania, &c., which were not subdued
for several years.  A conflict with Mehemet Ali, Pasha
of Egypt, in consequence of his refusal to pay the arrears
of tribute, threatened the disruption of the empire, whic.h
would probably have taken place, but for the intervention
of the European powers. An Egyptian army under
Ibrahilm, the son of the Pasha, entered Syria, took Acre,
Damascus and Aleppo, near which city a Turkish force




TIHE TURKISH  EMPIRE.                 131
of 25,030 Turks was defeated with great loss; the campaifn closed with an annihilating victory over the Turks
at Konieh, December 21st, 18.32.  The advance of the
Egyptians on Constantinople, to which they were encouraged by the disaffection occasioned by the late events,
was prevented by the intervention of Russia, in dispatching a squadron to the Bosphorus, and a military force to
Buyukdere. In return for this timely aid, by a secret
treaty concluded with the Porte at Skelessi in 1833,
Russia obtained the privilege for her vessels of passing
the straits leading from the Black Sea to the Archipelago,
and the exclusion of the vessels of every nation that should
be involved in war with her. By the treaty of Kutaieh,
the whole of Syria, with the district of Adana, had been
ceded to Mehemet Ali, but hostilities were renewed six
years afterwards, between the Turks and Egyptians, and
on the 23d of June, 1839, the former were again signally
defeated at Nezib, near Aleppo.
Before the news of this disaster reached Constantinople,
the public criers had announced the death of Sultan
Mahlmoud in the streets of the capital.  This distinguished
sovereign, the thirtieth of the dynasty of Osman, died in
the 58th year of his age, and in the thirty-first of his
reign. The loss of Greece, the destruction of the fleet at
Navarino, and the conquests of Russia on the Black Sea
and in Asia, together with the great expenditure of blood
and money, undermined the foundations of the empire,
and reduced it to a state of feebleness, from which it has
not yet recovered.  The reforms of this enlightened
prince were more apparent than real.  In the destruction
of the Janissary force, so intimately connected by the
antiquity of its origin and the sanctity of its consecration,
by the venerable dervish Bektasch, with the history of the




132         THE TURKISII EMPIRE.
Ottoman empire, the Sultan also extinguished the spirit
of fanaticism - that all-powerful support of the imperfect
wvork of the founder of Islamism, the legislation of which
reposes entirely upon the principle of proselytism by force
of arms.  With the annihilation of this fanatical troop of
soldiers, the passion of the Turks for war —that vital
principle of their national existence —was also stifled.
Reared in the Seraglio, and leaving its precincts only
when called to the throne, his undisciplined and uninstructed intellect disqualified him for the part of a wise
and politic reformer.  He found every branch of the public
service impaired by the corruption and ignorance of the
various functionaries, and the military force inefficient to
the defence of the empire, or the prosecution of aggressive
war in consequence of its anarchial and undisciplined condition. Undismayed by the difficulties that surrounded him,
the Sultan resolved to eradicate the evils of the country
by the most prompt and energetic measures.  Ignorant
of the necessity of a previous education of his people to
the Christian institutions he endeavoured to force upon
them, his reforms were neither understood nor appreciated. His generous efforts to raise the empire to a
position of equality with the Christian States were foiled
by the exclusive and antipathetic spirit of Mohammedanism, and instead of restoring new life to its impaired
constitution, they have only precipitated its decay.  The
religious fanaticism  which gave birth to the Ottoman
power is also destined to be the cause of its destruction.
The stoic constancy and firmness of soul displayed by
Sultan Mahmoud, under the crtshing reverses that marked
his long reign, his resolution of character, and his expanded and enlightened views entitle him to a distinguished rank among the princes of the dynasty of Osman




THE  TURKISH  EMPIRE.                133
-the most fruitful of all royal races in remarkable
sovereigns.
On the 1st of July, 1839, Abdul Medjid, his eldest son,
ascended the throne at the age of 16.  Two weeks after
his accession, the captain-pasha deserted with the Turkish
fleet to Mehemet All.  In 1840, Prussia, Austria and
Great Britain signed a treaty at London, by which it was
resolved that the whole of Syria should be re-ceded to the
Porte.  Mehemet Ali, relying upon the assistance of
France, withheld his adherence to this stipulation, and
Great Britain and Austria intervening with a naval armament on the coast of Syria, besieged and took Acre, and
obliged the Egyptians to evacuate the country. In 1841,
France united with England, Austria and Prussia in a
treaty for the settlement of the Oriental question, by
which the hereditary government of Egypt was conceded
to Mehemet Ali and his descendants, and foreign vessels
of war, Russian as well as all others, were excluded from
the Dardanelles, while the Porte was at peace. These
events were followed by a rebellion of a very serious
character in the mountains of the Lebanon, which was
repressed by the energy and decision of Omar Pasha,
the present Turkish commander-in-chief on the Danube.
In 1852, a dispute arose between the Porte and the
Christian powers, on the subject of Montenegro and the
Holy Places. France laid claim to the grand cupola of the
church of the Holy Sepulchre, the tomb of Christ, the
stone of anointment, the chapel of the Virgin, the great
church of Bethlehem, the altar of the birth, and the
grotto of annunciation. The concession of these demands
gave rise to great dissatisfaction at St. Petersburg.  To
calm the irritation of the Greek church, the Sultan confirmed anew, by an imperial firman, the privileges, rights,
12




134         THE TURKISH  EMPIRE.
and immunities, which its members had enjoyed ab antiquo.
On the 2d of March, 1853, Prince AMenshikoff, Minister
of the Marine, arrived in Constantinople on a special
mission from the Czar, having first reviewed the Russian
fleets at Odessa and Sebastopol, by way of premonitory
menace.  His demands of a religious protectorate by the
Czar over the members of the Greek church in Turkey,
were refused by the Porte, as inconsistent with the independence of the empire. After studiously insulting the
Grand Vizir and the Sultan, and manifesting a most insolent and unconciliatory disposition, Menshikoff retired
from Constantinople on the 21st of May. This proceeding was followed by the expedition of an extraordinary
courier from St. Petersburg to Constantinople, bearing a
letter to the Grand Vizir, in which the imperial chancellor
announced the approval of the acts of his envoy by the
Czar, and his determination to invade the Danubian
Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, in case the
required concessions were not made.  The Turkish
government, in a firm and dignified manner, repeated its
former decision.
As soon as advised of the aggressive intentions of the
Russian autocrat, France and England dispatched a combined naval force to Besika Bay, near the mouth of the
Dardanelles, to protect the Ottoman capital against surprise. On the 25th of June, the Czar published a proclamation to his subjects, declaring that the rights of the
Greek church had been invaded in Turkey, and his determination to reassert and maintain them. The Russian
troops crossed the Pruth, and took up a position in the
Principalities, where they remained while negotiations for
the preservation of peace were opened between the four
great powers, and Russia. All diplomatic efforts at




TRHE TURKISIH  EMPIRE.               135
reconciliation having failed, the Turks advanced their
troops to the Danubian and Georgian frontiers, and prepared for war. In October, Omar Pasha addressed the
following summons to Prince Gortschakoff, to evacuate
the Principalities:
"MY DEAR GENERAL: - I have the honor to address
you this letter, by order of my government.  While the
Ottoman Porte has resorted to every means of conciliation
for the preservation of peace and its own independence,
the court of St. Petersburg has not ceased to raise new
difficulties. It has even violated existing treaties by the
occupation of the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, integral parts of the Ottoman empire.
" The Ottoman Porte, instead of making reprisals, has
confined itself to protestations, without closing the door
to a pacific arrangement.  Russia does not manifest a
similar feeling. It resists propositions which the mediating powers have recommended as necessary to the safety
and honor of the Sublime Porte. It has, therefore,
become an imperious duty to resort to war.
"'As, however, the invasion of the Danubian Principalities, and the violation of treaties, are the real cause
of the war, the Ottoman Porte, as a last proof of its
pacific intentions, through me, as its organ, proposes to
your Excellency the evacuation of the said provinces;
and it grants you a delay of fifteen days from the receipt
of this letter.  If, during this interval, I receive from
your Excellency a negative reply, the commencement of
hostilities will be the natural consequence.
"I have the honor to communicate the above to your
Excellency, and to avail myself of this occasion to assure
you of mny high esteem.
(Signed)                     "OMAR PASHA."
War was formally declared by the Queen of Great
Britain against Russia, March 28th, 1854; and immediately afterwards by France. A tripartite treaty was also




136         THE  TURKISH  EMPIRE.
formed between Great Britain, France, and Turkey, consisting of five articles, with the following provisions:
1. That England and France engage to support Turkey
by force of arms, until the conclusion of a peace that
shall secure the independence and integrity of the Sultan's
dominions.
2. That the Porte shall not conclude a peace without
the consent of its allies.
3. That the allies shall evacuate the Turkish territories
after the war.
4. This treaty to remain open for the adhesion of the
other powers of Europe.
5. Turkey guarantees to all subjects of the Porte without distinction of creed, perfect equality in law.
On the 30th of November, a squadron of three Turkish
frigates and two steamers, having several transports in
convoy, was attacked at the harbor of Sinope by a greatly
superior Russian force, and after a gallant resistance, was
entirely destroyed, with the exception of one vessel. In
execution of the mutual obligations of the tripartite treaty,
the allied fleets of England and France entered the Dardanelles. On the 22d and 24th of April, 1854, they
bombarded Odessa, and dismantled a'portion of the waterbatteries, but without inflicting any serious injury on the
city itself. The immediate provocation to this proceeding
was the firing on the British steamer Fury, on the 6th of
April, while seeking to enter the harbor under a flag of
truce.  An allied naval force, under command of Sir
Charles Napier, was also dispatched to the Baltic, which
is only waiting for the breaking up of the ice, to attack
Cronstadt and other Russian ports. The war on the
Danube and in Asia has thus far been carried on to the
advantage of the Turks; the Russians, having invested




THE TURKISH EM[PIRE.                 131
Kalafat for some time in vain, have crossed the Danube,
and entered the marshy plain of the Dobrutscha, lying
between that river and the Black Sea. The issue of this
great contest is one of vast importance to the European
world; and its solution, in favor of Russia or Turkey,
involves the consideration of the perplexing question,
whether Russian ambition and despotism, or Turkish
fanaticism and ignorance, is most prejudicial to the cause
of human progress.
12*




FOURTH PART.
POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION- MANNERS AND
CUSTOMS.
FIRST CHAPTER.
POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.
IN our rapid abstract of the Turkish history, we
described, in its proper place, the domestic organization
of the empire, but Sultan Mahmoud so completely reconstructed its political form, that but little resemblance
exists with the ancient institutions. The governmental
organization, and other innovations of that sovereign,
extended to all the branches of power with the exception
of the dignities and functions of the Ulemas, a circumstance which indicates his careful desire to avoid a conflict
with this important body, in the prosecution of his schemes
of reform.
I. OFFICES OF TIIE DIVAN.
The offices of the Divan comprise the ministries of
foreign affairs, of the interior, and of finance. By an
ordinance of March 8, 1834, all the offices of the Divan
are divided into four categories or classes, and the titulars
wear the corresponding insignia.
(138)




POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.         139
1st class.  1, the Kiajaberg, minister of the interior;
2, the Defterdar, president of the chamber; 3, the Reis
Effendi, minister of foreign affairs.
2d class. 1, the Tsauschbaschi, marshal of the empire;
2, the Nischandsibaschi, secretary of state, signing for
the Sultan; 3, Ewkasi-Humajuni Nasiri, inspector of the
imperial institutions of piety and beneficence; 4, inspector
of moneys; 5, inspector of farms; 6, inspector of expenditure; 7, inspector of foundries, of cannon and bombs;
8, inspector of arsenals; 9, inspector of powder mills; 10,
the president of the chamber of accounts; 11, the inspector of the census lists.
3d class.  1, the inspector of the state gazette; 2, the
first member of the council of state; 3, the Mekfubutschi,
secretary of state of the Grand Vizir; 4, the Beihikdschi,
referendary of state; 5, secretary of war.
4th class.  1, the president of the chancellerie of the
revenues of Mecca and Medina; 2, the officer of the treasury; 3, the director of the tobacco tax.
The costume of these four classes of the Divan is regulated by special ordinances.  The three ministers of state
of the first class wear an azure-colored overcoat, with gold
buttons on the breast, a rich embroidered collar, a diamond-hilted sabre, and the sign of the office. The three
ministers of state are, by prerogative, called Ridschal,
that is to say, the men, or Erkian, that is, the columns.
All other titulars of the Divan are styled Chodschaginn,
that is to say, masters of the Divan.
II. MILITARY OFFICES, OR THE ARMY.
The regular troops are not called, as under Selim III.,
Nisami Dschedid, but Asakari Manssurei Mohammedije,




140     POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.
or victorious army of Mahomet. The troops of the guard
are called Asakiri chassai schahane, troops of the palace.
*The commander-in-chief of the whole army is the Seraskier Pasha, the first after him is the captain of the guard,
the Vizir Beglerbeg. The different arms are: the infantry,
Pia.de; the cavalry, Suwari; the artillery, Topdschi; the
miners, Laghumdschi; the bombardiers, Chumbaradschi;
and the pioneers, Baltadschi. The divisions of the infantry and cavalry are called Ferik; the regiments, Alai;
each is composed of four battalions, Tabux, under the
command of a colonel, Miri alai. The battalion of eight
companies, Buluk, each of which is commanded by a major,
Bimbaschi. The captain of the guard occupies the first
post at the Seraglio.
The new organization of the army is that of the Redif.
There is also a police force.
The actual composition of the Turkish army is as follows: 1, the land force, which embraces the active regular
army, nizam; 2, the reserve; 3, the contingents of the
auxiliary troops; 4, the irregular troops.  The active
regular army is composed of six corps or camps, ordous;
each placed under the orders of a field-marshal, Muschir;
and who, in time of peace, have their principal quarters
at Constantinople, Monastir, Karbront, Damascus and
Bagdad. Each ordou consists of two divisions, under the
orders of a general of division, Ferik. Each division is
subdived into three brigades, under three generals of brigade, Livas. The complete ordou comprises in all eleven
regiments; that is, six regiments of infantry, four of
cavalry, and one of artillery. Independently of the six
ordous, there are three detached corps; a brigade in the
island of Candia of 4000 men of regular troops, 3500 of
irregular troops, and 600 native cannoneers, in all 8000




POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.      141
men; a brigade in the Eyalet of Tripoli, composed of a
regiment of infantry and a regiment of cavalry, or about
4000 in all; a brigade at Tunis of the same number.
Total: 16,000 men, infantry and cavalry. The special
corps, under the orders of the grand master of artillery,
form one corps; they are composed: 1, of the central
corps of artillery, four regiments; a regiment of reserve,
and three regiments distributed in the different fortresses
of the empire, in the straits, Servia, along the Danube,
in the Archipelago, and upon the coasts of Asia Minor
and the Black Sea; 2, of the brigade of engineers, two
regiments, each containing 800 men.
The reserve, or redif, forms a second army organized
with the same number of regiments in its different
branches. The regiments are divided according to the
localities, into battalions, or into companies, and have
complete lists of officers and sub-officers. The last receive
a fixed pay, under the obligation of residing in the towns
and villages, among the soldiers en conge, but not yet
dismissed, and of exercising them once a week. Every
year, the redifs assemble for a month at the quarters of
the ordou to which they belong, in order to take part in
the great manoeuvres. During their continuance, they
receive garrison pay and rations.
The auxiliary troops are made up of contingents, which
the tributary, and other provinces not yet subjected to
the recruitment, are obliged to furnish to the Porte in
case of war. These provinces are Servia, Bosnia, Herzegourina, upper Albania, and Egypt. The number of these
contingents is undetermined, and augments or diminishes
according to circumstances; they are estimated at from
120 to 130,000 men. The irregular troops comprehend:




142     POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.
1, the gendarmerie on foot, Kavas; the same force
mounted, Seymens, and the land militia, Soubechis, in all
30,000 men; 2, the Tartars of Dobrodja and Asia Minor,
about 6000 men; 3, the Hungarian and Polish volunteers,
5000 men; 4, the Mussulman volunteers, average number
50,000. All these different corps together make up a
total of 500,000 men, which, however, could not be immediately brought into service, on account of the distances
which separate the different populations of the empire,
and the expense of their previous equipment. As to the
contingents, properly so called, their number, as well as
the service they could render to the Porte, are subject to
great uncertainty.
III. THE NAVY.
It is at present composed of 2 three-deckers of 120 and
130 cannon, 4 two-deckers of 74 to 90 cannon, of 10
sailing frigates of 40 and 60 cannon, 6 corvettes of 22
and 26 cannon, 14 brigs of 12 and 20 guns, 16 cutters,
schooners of 4 and 12 cannon, of 6 steam frigates of 400
and 800 horse power, of 12 corvettes, and other smaller
vessels. Altogether 70 vessels, manned by 34,000 sailors.
There is, besides, an infantry regiment of marine (Bahrie
alai,) of 4000 men, under the command of a general of
brigade, and quartered at the arsenal when it is not embarked. The staff of the marine is composed of the
Captain Pasha, grand admiral, and minister of war; of
five admirals, of whom three are in active service; of the
commander of the fleet, and the admiral of the port
(Liman-Keissi), the vice-admiral of the fleet (Patrona), the
director of the workshops of the marine (Iplikane-Mudiri),
and the director of the naval school; of eight rear-admirals (Bahrie-mir-Alai), of whom three, with the honorary




POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.    143
title of Miali, command the stations of the Danube and
the Black Sea, of the Archipelago and the Persian Gulf,
while the four others constitute a part of the board of
Admiralty.  The Mirmarbachi, or engineer-in-chief, is
likewise a member of this board. These different officers
have the rank and pay of officers of corresponding grades
in the army; thus the admirals are assimilated to the
Feriks, the vice-admirals to the Livas, and the rearadmirals to the Mix-Alais, or colonels. The commander
of an admiral's vessel, in the same manner, ranks with a
colonel.
IV. THE OFFICERS OF THE COURT.
Immense changes were introduced by Mahmoud into
the Seraglio; there are but two chambers, that designated
under the name of chanei-chassa, and that of the treasury;
thirty pages are dedicated to the guardianship of the
mantle of the prophet.  The number of cooks employed
in the palace is about 500.
V. TIIE GENERAL GOVERNMENTS, AND THE FUNCTIONS
OF WAIWODE.
The domestic administration of the country forms three
classes of officers —those of governor, sandschake, and
waiwode. The two latter are, properly speaking, but a
reduction of the former, upon whom they are dependent.
The present governments.are: — 1. Abyssinia and
Dschidda; 2. Archipelago; 3. Roumelia; 4. Damascus;
5. Bagdad; 6. Scherhfort; 7. Baffra; 8. Egypt; 9. Aleppo;
10. Bosnia; 11. Ssased, Ssaida, and Beyrout; 12. Tripoli
in Syria; 13. Erzeroum; 14. Siwas; 15. Silistria; 16.




144     POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.
Candia; 17. Trebizond; 18. Caramania; 19. Adana; 20.
Diarbekir; 21. Rakka; 22. Meraasch; 23. Tschildir;
24. Kars; 25. Wan; 26. Moussoul; 27. Tunis; 28.
Tripoli.
The sandschakes are: — 1. Jerusalem and Nablous; 2.
Widdin and Nicopolis; 3. Tirhola; 4. Janina; 5. Delwino;
6. Awlonia; 7. Scutari; 8. Ilbestan; 9. Ochri; 10. Semendria; 11. Krochissar; 12. Meutesche; 13. Aidin; 14.
Bigha; 15. Koisarije; 16. Selanik; 17. Tschoroum;
18. Tekke; 19. Uskub; 20. Gustendit; 21. Persia; 22.
Klis; 23. Smornik; 24. Ilerschk; 25. Dulkagin; 26.
Canea; 27. Akscheler; 28. Retimo; 29. Alaje; 30. Gonia.
The number of waiwodes is 50.
VI. DIGNITIES, AND JUDICIAL OFFICES.
a.  The first judicial dignitary.  The Mufti.
The functionaries immediately after the mufti are; —
1. The Scheichul-Islam Kiajesi, that is, the representative
of the mufti in all political and economical affairs; 2.
The Telschisidschi, the man of the business of the mufti
at the Porte; 3. The Mektubschi, his chancellor; 4. The.Fetwa.Ermini, director of the Chaniellerie, in which are
prepared the fetwas (answers.)
b. Judicial dignities of the first order.
These dignities are those of president, scudur, judges
of Constantinople, and mollas of the holy cities of Mecca
and Medina; the mollas (judges) of Adrianople and other
cities. There also exist judicial dignities of the first,
second, third, and fourth order.
The preparatory studies for these offices arm made
under the directions of professors called murderisses.




POLITICAL -AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.    145
The students are named sochta, that is, those who burn
with a love of knowledge. When he has passed his
examination, the student becomes mutasoun, or a candidate for judicial dignities.  The professor of the elementary school is known by the name of chodschou.
VII. THE ULEMAS; THAT IS, JURISTS AND THEOLOGIANS.
The name of ulema, which signifies the profession of
savant, is given to all the servants of God and the law;
and it is for this reason that the descendants of the prophet, as well as the friars, are counted among the ulemas.
This large and respectable body also includes the judges,
cadis, juriconsults, muftis, the imams, and those who by
blood descend from the prophet, the emirs and dervishes.
At the head of the ulemas is the Grand Mufti, who, in
his quality of first dignitary of the judicial order, presides
over the corps of the ulemas of the whole empire.
a.  The Sheik of Islamism, or, the mufti of the capital.
The Sheik of Islamism is invested with the first spiritual
dignity of the state, as the Grand Vizir is with the highest
temporal dignity.  He is the grand patriarch, the pope
of the Ottoman empire, and, as such, designated by peculiar titles of honor. HIe is called, " Counsellor of mensea of all sciences." Mahomet II. gave to the mufti of
the capital a more elevated rank than that of all the
other muftis of the empire, and the title of Sheik of Islamism. Under Soliman, he became the chief of the whole
corps of ulemas; although the supreme authority of justice, he has only a consulting and deliberative voice, but,
it is proper to add, that his opinion generally decides the
judgment. The mufti, in a word, is the oracle and organ
18o




146     POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.
of the law, and he enjoys the highest consideration. The
whole empire is subject to his authority, because he is the
absolute lieutenant of the Sultan in affairs of religion and
civil justice, and the Grand Signor never pronounces a
capital condemnation without previous consultation with
him. The respect which the sovereign bears to this sacred
personage is carried to such an extent, that he rises upon
his entrance, and advances seven steps towards him. The
mufti has the right of kissing the left shoulder of the
Sultan, while the Grand Vizir himself is only permitted
to touch the hem of his robe with his lips.  He is irremovable.  Next to him are the four counsellers of the
Ottoman consistory.
1. The Sheik-ul-islam Kiajossi.-The attorney of the
sheik.
2. The Telchisdschi.-The referendary, author of the
treaties.
3. The Jlektoufdsc]hi. - The chancellor of the mufti,
and head of the chancellerie.
4. The Fetwa Emini.-To whom the answers to questions concerning certain points of law and other matters
of law are referred. These questions are always propounded in such a manner that the answer must be simply
alur or omas (it can, or it cannot, be done).
b. The Judges.
These charges and dignities are divided into five categories: 1. the grand mollas; 2. the minor mollas; 3. the
muffetis; 4. the cadis; 5. the naibs.
1. The mollas. —They are six in number: 1. the judges
of the province of Roumelia; 2. the judges of the province
of Anatolia; 3. the judges of Constantinople; 4. the
judges of Mecca and Medina; 5. the judges of Adrian



POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.    147
ople; 6. the judges  of Scutari, Galata, Jerusalem,
Smyrna, Aleppo, Larissa, and Selanik.
Molla is, in particular, the honorary title of the profession of judge; the two first officers are those of the two
Kadiaskeres, or judges of the army in Europe and Asia;
each of these has six officers under his direction.
2. The minor mollas. - These are the judges of the
small towns of the second order: Meraasch, Bagdad,
Bosnaserai, Sophia, Belgrade, Amintab, Kutahijea, Konin,
Filibe, Diarbekir.
3. The liuffetis, or judges of instruction.-  All
investigations concerning establishments of religion form
a part of their functions, and especially all that is within
the province of the authority of the grand vizir, the
mufti, and of the rislar agassi.  There are five judge
instructors: three at Constantinople, one at Adrianople,
and another at Brusa.
4. The Cadis, or judges properly so called. — These
are judges of other towns of the empire; they are
divided into three categories: that of Roumelia, Anatolia,
and Egypt. Their number amounts to 456.
5. Naibs, or Vicars.-These Vicars are only representatives, the substitutes of the mollas and cadis; they form
five distinct classes: 1. Kasa Naibi, village judges, heads
of a jurisdiction dependent upon a molla or cadi; 2. Bab
Naibi, the substitutes of mollas of the first and second
classes; 3. Molla Wekili, the substitutes of those mollas
who hold the title without exercising the duties; 4. Kadi
Wekeli, the substitutes of the cadis; 5. Arpalik Naibi,
the receivers of arpalik, or the impost upon barley.
These mollas, cadis, and naibs, pronounce decisions in
all civil and criminal affairs, and at the same time perform
the functions of notary publics.




148     POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.
c. The Muftis, or deliberating legislators.
These occupy a middle position between the judges and
the priests. The first of these muftis is the sheik-el-islam,
who is likewise the chief of all the ulemas. The empire
numbers 210, whose only business is to answer affirmatively or negatively to the questions addressed to them.
d. The Priesthood.
The priesthood is composed of sheiks, chatibes, imans,
muezzins, and kaims.
1. The Sheiks.-The sheiks are the ordinary preachers
of the mosques; the term sheik, which signifies an old
man, is bestowed upon every man who is distinguished
for his virtues and great age; but in Turkey the preachers
and the chiefs of the dervishes alone bear it. The former
are called Meschaichi Barsi, or sheiks of the pulpit, and
the latter Meschaichi Sawiji, or sheiks of the cloister.
Each mosque has its sheik, or preacher. The skeiks
form but one class in the whole empire.
2. The Chatibes.-The chatibes are those who offer up
prayers every Friday in the mosques for the reigning
Sultan. This prayer and the right of coining money
were among the original prerogatives of the Ottoman
monarchs. The chatibes yet bear the name of imans of
Friday, Imamot Dschuman, as the prayer for the Sultan
only takes place on that day.
3. The Imans.-Iman signifies chief of prayer, because
it is the iman who directs the attitudes and gestures of
the faithful by his own motions. His functions consist in
making prayer five times a day, at fixed hours, in the
mosque, Fridays excepted, when the chatibes officiate.
There are several imans for each mosque; the first is the




POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.        149
real priest, and he conducts the circumcisions, marriages,
and funerals A Turk is punished with the loss of his
hand, and a Christian with death, if he strikes an Iman.
4. The I3iuezzins.-The muezzins are the men charged
with ascending the minarets to call the faithful to prayer
in the consecrated formula.
5. The Kairms. —The Kaims correspond to our church
wardens, and only exercise the lowest functions. The
number of priests is in proportion to the importance of the
mosque; but the largest never have more than one sheik
and a chatibe, two imans, twelve muezzins, and twenty
kaims. In the villages, the iman performs, at once, the
functions of muezzin, chatibe, and kaim.
e. The Emirs, or near descendants of the Prophet.
The near relatives of the Prophet do not form a part
of the corps of ulemas, or interpreters of the law; but
the first among them, the Nakibal Eschraff, as well as the
chief of the banner of the empire, Miri-Aalem, who are
both taken from among the emirs, are clothed with the
highest dignities of ulemas. Emir, in its literal signification means prince; and those are thus called who, in
Arabia, are invested with the sword and banner. In
Turkey they are styled beys. The emirs are found in all
classes of society. Almost all the street porters, among
others, are emirs; and one of the four members of the
corps of ulemas is their chief.
f. The Muderris or Professors, the Corps of Instruction.
These form the nursery whence proceed the Ulemas, all
taken in their ranks. The first college or medrece,
founded at Brusa, dates from Sultan Orkhan. The number of analogous establishments, and of professors, increased under his successors. It was Mahomet II. who
13*




150     POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.
regulated the corps of ulemas, and constituted its hierarchy, such as it exists, with a few slight irodifications,
to the present day.  The following is the order of this
hierarchy: the students of the last class are called Suchta
Softa; the next, Mind; and the others, Danishmend.
These last are not obliged to dedicate themselves to the
duties of cadi, mufti, or iman. These colleges are divided
according to their revenues, into ten classes, through all
of which the students must pass, before they can obtain a
place of molla. The muderris of the whole empire are
divided into three classes: 1, those of Constantinople;
2, of Adrianople and Brusa; 3, and of the other towns.
The muderris of the first class can arrive at the first judicial offices, while those of the second and third must
content themselves with inferior employments.
This rapid sketch of the organization of the body of
ulemas, may be sufficient to convey an idea of the plan,
at once ingenious and simple, of this remarkable institution. It may be compared to a house, in which it is
necessary to pass through all the lower stories, before
arriving at the top. The ulemas must pass through all
the degrees of their institution, before attaining the great
dignities; and it may be said they well deserve them,
when they at last obtain them.
g. The Dervishes.
The dervishes carry their origin up to Abou-Bekr and
Ali, who first, and under the eyes of the prophet himself,
founded similar religious fraternities. The "sofis," or
mystics of Islamism, appeared in the first century of its
existence, owing to the modifications forced upon it by
Christian, Persian, and Indian influences. The dervishes
correspond to the Catholic monks, and the sofis to our




POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.        151
mystics. The number of their different orders amounts
to thirty. The most reputable, those whose organization
is intimately connected with that of the state, are the
Nakseh-hendi, the MIewlevi, the Begtaschi, the Kadri, the
Chalwelti, the Rufaai.
All these orders have their particular costume, of
which the head-dress constitutes the principal difference.
In conformity with their statutes, the dervishes are bound
to repeat, at least twice a day, the seven mysterious
names of God, which are also employed in the ordination.
They are: 1, LaIla illallah — there is no other god but
God! 2, Iallah —oh God! 3, Ia hu —oh, He! 4, Ia
Hakk - oh, the true of the true! 5, Ia Hajj - oh, the
dispenser of life! 6, Ia Kajum -oh, the eternal God!
7, Ia Kahhar -oh, avenger of the avengers! These
seven mysterious names allude to the seven heavens, seven
lands, seven seas, seven colors, seven planets, seven
metals, and seven tones.  Sultan Mlahomet wished to
abolish the dervishes, when he destroyed the Janissary
force; but he only partially succeeded in this project.
7. The -Divan, or council of the EmJinpire.-The name
and organization of the divani, like those of most of the
oriental monarchies, go back to the remotest periods of
the history of the kingdom of Persia. Divan is employed
in the East for the word sopha, because the counsellors
of oriental kingdoms seat themselves upon a sopha. Let
us now penetrate within the great hall, under the dome
of which assembles the council of the empire. This divan
rests upon the four first classes of state dignities, as upon
four columns (whence the name, Erkiani Dewlet, or pillars of the empire); and it comprises within its supervision the public solemnities of the state, the political festivals, and the reviews. The parade costumes of the




152     POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.
ministers and grandees of the empire, derive their name
from the divan, and are called Divan-Kurke, pelisses of
the Divan. The working-days on which the divan meets,
are called Divan-Guni, or days of the divan. Upon
those days, the members assemble early in the morning,
after prayer, before the gate of the seraglio, Babi Hammajurn; that is, the gate of the empire.
8. Religious Condition of the Empire. —It is known
that the Ottomans profess the Mohammedan religion; but
it is so closely allied with the state and its political constitution, and it has such a direct influence on the form
of government, that it is necessary to give a general idea
of its principal features.
The history of Islamism commences with the flight of
Mahomet, 622, A.D.  Mahomet aimed not only at being
the founder of a new religion, but also of a new state.
To give authority to his doctrines, civil as well as religious, he declared them the work of God; and it is thus
that the Koran has become the civil and religious code
of the Mussulmans.  Two of the precepts of Mahomet
contributed to render his armies so terrible and formidable. The first is that which admits the doctrine of
fatality, and causes it to play such an implacable part in
the events of life. There was, indeed, no possible danger
for the soldiers of Mahomet. Fatality determined everything- they were either to be victorious, and then what
regard was to be paid to danger? or they were to succuTnb, and, in a such a case, every effort to oppose the
decree of destiny would be utterly hopeless. In the
second place, the remission of their sins, and an entrance
into paradise was promised to all who should perish, with
arms in hand, combating the heretics. Mahomet depicted
this paradise with all the luxuriance and brilliancy of co



POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.    153
loring of an oriental imagination. The faithful sol(lier
of the crescent believes that death is but an exchange of
mortal vicissitudes for an eternal felicity; and that brighteyed. houris will welcome him to the celestial gardens,
where, amid bubbling fountains and groves of bliss,
he will exist in never-ending and ever-varying pleasures.
Mahomet inspired himself with the profound truth of
his doctrines, and mistook for divine revelation the vivacity of his imagination, and the fervor of meditation.
Hie considered himself as the envoy of God on earth,
commissioned to lead his people to a knowledge of the
only true God. In the heat of his zeal, he imagined that
the book in which he promulgated his doctrines was a
work written from all eternity; his followers said that it
had been transmitted to him by the angel Gabriel, in the
name of the Supreme Being. This divine origin, ascribed
to the Koran by Mahomet, was the cause of the faith
and blind obedience it met with among the people. Whatever seemed good and profitable to be done, he sustained
by a verse from the Koran. To this day, the chiefs of
the Ottoman empire have recourse to the same wondrous
talisman.  When Mahmoud sought to destroy the Janis-.saries, he invoked a passage from the Koran, and the
danger, in a great degree, vanished; -for it was confined
to a mere military revolt, in which the nation took no
part. When Abdul-Medjid gave a constitution to the
Turkish empire, he cited the Koran, and what appeared
to be impossible ceased to be so. The Koran, as a work
of genius, and a sublime poem, unique in its kind, could
not but be regarded as a revelation from on high, by a
people in whose eyes the poetic genius itself is a divine
manifestation; and in this respect the Ottomans have
shown a superiority over many nominally civilized people.




154     POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.
Mahomet did not seek to prove his revelation by any other
sign.  " The wonders of nature," says he, "of the earth
and heavens, the plants, the animals, the tempests, the
mysteries of procreation, and the Koran, are they not
evident signs for him who is willing to believe?"
The doctrines of the existence of one only God, of the
immortality of the soul, of the duty of man to manifest
his gratitude to the sovereign creator, to accept misfortune
with resignation, and happiness with wisdom; to seek to
convert the infidels to a belief in God; to employ his
intellect in the study of wisdom and science, and of the
true, the good and the beautiful —these are the principles by which the prophet was inspired, and which he
sought to inculcate in every page of the Koran.
The whole collection of the sacred writings of the
Mohammedans consists of four principal books.  They
are: -1. The Koran, to which (according to the popular
belief,) Mahomet consecrated twenty-three years of his
life, in writing it verse by verse, under the dictation of
the angel Gabriel, and which was arranged by Abou-Bekr,
the 13th year of the hegira, (635, A.D.) and two years
after the death of the prophet. 2. The Itadiff, or Sunneth, which is a sort of colloquy on the Koran, and contains various reflections and discourses of the disciples
of Mahomet, as well as some particulars on the actions
and mode of life of the prophet. 3. The Idjhay-ummeth,
or explanations and decisions of the principal disciples
of the prophet, especially of the first four caliphs. 4.
Finally, the Kiyas, in which are embodied all the canonical decisions of the imans and priests, during the first
century after Mahomet.
The Koran is divided into 114 chapters or sures, which
are sub-divided in their turn into verses.  It consists of




POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.        155
moral, social, or religious precepts, and is written in the
purest Arabic dialect, and with the fertility of imagination habitual to the orientals.  In the preface of this
remarkable book, the following passages are to be found.
"In the name of the all-merciful God.  Glory be to
God, to the lord master of all creatures, merciful to all,
to the king of the day of justice. We worship thee,
lord, and we beg thy aid. Guide us in the right way, in
the way of those to whom thou hast been merciful, and
not in the way of those who have merited thy wrath, not
in the ways which lead to darkness."   Concerning the
contents of the Koran, it is said in the same preface:
" There is no doubt in this book; it is an instruction for
the use of the faithful -those who hold for true the
mysteries of the faith, who rigidly observe the hours
dedicated to prayer, and distribute a part of the goods
which have been granted to them in alms to the poor; they
who believe in the revelation first made to the prophet,
and in a future life, they shall be happy and blessed."
Each chapter bears an inscription or title, as, for example, the table, the booty, the thunder, the prophets, the
pilgrimage, the resurrection. In the chapter on the resurrection, it is written, "In the name of the all-merciful
God! Truly I swear by the day of resurrection, I swear
by the self-accusing soul!
"Does man think that he shall not re-assemble his
bones, one with another?  Yes, he can join together the
small joints of his fingers. You will see the Lord God,
face to face, at the day of judgment, as you see one of
your own kind.  Then will the caller call; let every
people follow the object of its adoration. But all those
who worship idols, instead of the true God, whether they
be good or bad, shall be cast into eternal fire."




156     POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.
The following passage may give an idea of the moral
precepts:"Oh, you faithful, remain steadfast to justice, when
you are called to testify, be it against yourselves, your
relatives, or your friends. Remain, also, steadfast to the
truth, as well to the rich as to the poor, for God is more
than all them. Never testify against what is just, when
you are prompted to do so by your own interest.
"No one of you possesses the true faith, who does not
love his brothers.
"Actions are estimated by motives, and in everything
it is the motive that gives the value.
" Do not count your good works.
" He who has- ancestors is, before God, as he who has
none.
"Every child is born with the faculty of acquiring
knowledge.
" Tell me, says a man to the Prophet, the works which
conduct to paradise.  The Prophet answered, he who
makes good use of his fortune, who serves God, above all
things else, who prays, does alms, and performs his' domestic duties, he shall enter into the kingdom of heaven.
"I, Mahomet, am the first of men with the son of
Mary. The prophets are all children of the same father.
Between me and Jesus, there is no prophet.
" Do not name yourselves after me, as the Christians
call themselves after the son of Mary. You are the servants of God, and of his Prophet also."
These few citations will suffice to show the spirit which
breathes throughout the Koran, from the first to the last
page.
The Prophet prescribed fasting and prayer, and the
Turks observe this commandment with the utmost scrupu



POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.        157
lousness. The principal prayer is the Ramaz, or that
recited every day, at certain fixed hours; the very
instant is prescribed, and the gestures and the posture
which accompany them, are regulated by law. God is
served as well on the field of battle as in the mosque.
Before prayer, every one must wash himself, and turn his
face towards Mecca. The Ramaz is preceded by an introduction, during which the most serious countenance is
assumed, with the thumbs placed upon the upper part of
the ears; then a passage from the preface of the Koran
is read, during which, with downcast eyes, the right hand
is placed upon the left, a little below the waist. These
different gestures and postures, as well as other similar
ones, must be strictly observed. Prayers are made either
at the house, or more meritoriously at the mosque.
Nothing is more various than the form of the mosques;
some are round, others are square, and some again neither
round nor square, but almost all possess a large court,
planted with trees, and in which is a fountain, surrounded
by a basin, for the ablutions prescribed by law. A row
of columns surrounds the edifice, and forms the peristyle
of the temple, under which the women, who are not permitted to enter the mosque, follow and hear the prayer.
The roof is of a cupola shape, surrounded by a crescent,
emblem  of the Mussulman faith.  Around this cupola,
arise other smaller ones, for ornament.  In every case,
the minaret is obligatory, which is a kind of tower, of the
form of a lofty column, the diameter of which varies from
four to ten.feet. The minaret shoots up from the roof
of the temple, preserving, at first, the same dimensions
up to a gallery, into which access is had from the interior of
the mosque, by means of a door, which also must face the
holy city of Mecca; from this gallery it goes on dimin14




158     POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.
ishing, and terminates in a spire, ornamented with a
crescent. The great mosques, or dschiamyi, have from
three to six minarets.  It is from the gallery that the
muezzin every day summons the faithful to the five ordinary prayers, with the cry, " There is no God but God,
and Mahomet is his prophet -to prayer! to prayer! "
On the grand fetes, the minarets are splendidly illuminated with lamps.
In the interior of the mosques, marble tables may be
seen against the walls, but no pictures or statues, painting
and sculpture being proscribed arts by the Prophet. A
great number of columns, decorated with lamps and inscriptions from the Koran, are always to be found in these
buildings. Although there are no chairs or seats, carpets
abound in profusion; upon these the faithful prostrate
themselves at certain passages in the prayer.  Upon
the side of the mosque which looks toward Mecca is a
stone, called Kibla, to which the worshipper must turn his
face.
In every Mahommedan temple, and below the Kibla,
is an altar, denominated Mihrab, consisting of an excavation of 6 or 8 feet; the pulpit of the muezzin is to the
left of the altar, and that of the sheik (Knesy) to the
right; in the large mosques there is also a pulpit for the
chatibes.
The holy temple of the Kaaba at Mecca, according to
the Mohammedan tradition, was built by angels. Adam
reconstructed it with the stones that the celestial spirits
brought from Mt. Lebanon, Mt. Ararat, Mt. Sinai, and
the mountains of Hara and Olives. But the Kaaba,
having been transported to heaven with Adam, his son
Seth built another, which was subsequently destroyed by
the great catastrophe of the deluge. Abraham re-erected




POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.       159
it for the fourth time, and placed it under the guardianship of his son Ishmael.  The Kaaba remained isolated,
down to Kanea, a descendant of MIahomet, who for a skin
of wine bought the keys of the edifice, and the sovereignty
of Mecca.  He caused the temple, Mesdjid-Cherif, to be
built around the sanctuary. The Kaaba, which the Mussulmans are obliged to visit once in their life, is only open
at six periods of the year, the fifteenth day of the month
of Ramazan, of Zilkade and Zilhidje for the men, and the
sixteenth of the same months for the women. It may be
entered from day-break to noon.  The door is' elevated
about five feet above the ground level, and is only accessible by means of a portable ladder.  The walls are
covered with verses from the Koran, in cufic characters.
The Mahommedans believe that the interior of the sanctuary is inhabited by celestial spirits, and that the ceiling
is resplendent with such a dazzling light as to strike blind
those who should indiscreetly look upon it. They say
also that no bird dare alight upon the roof, except a peculiar species of pigeon, of the breed of those which deposited their eggs in the grotto, Ghari-Seior, the same
day the Prophet fled thither for refuge.  There is also a
belief that every savage animal becomes gentle and tame
on entering the precincts of the holy city. The criminals
who succeed in fleeing into the Kaaba, or into MesdjidCherif, cannot be arrested-a similar custom to that which
rendered the Christian churches sanctuaries of crime in the
middle ages, and which yet prevails in certain countries,
where churches, convents and sacred edifices are considered
inviolable asylums.
The most celebrated of all the edifices consecrated to
the daily services of Islamism is, beyond doubt, the superb
basilica of St. Sophia. It was built under Constantine,




160     POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.
in eight years and five months, by the famous architect,
Anthemius of Tralles.  Its original form was that of a
Greek cross, surmounted by a spherical cupola, but in
558, under the emperor Justinian, an earthquake threw
down the dome.  The architect to whom was intrusted its
reconstruction, changed the dome from a spherical to an
elliptical shape, and, to give it more solidity, he placed
between the great pillars granite columns, united by
arches, and encased in the walls. Besides the principal
cupola, lighted by twenty-four windows, there are two
large half-domes and six smaller. A long and spacious
portico precedes the temple,  This peristyle has nine
doors of bronze, ornamented with bas-reliefs.
The interior of the mosque is decorated with beautiful
columns of porphyry, Egyptian granite, and other precious
marbles; but they are crowned with ill-assorted capitals,
and the mingling of orders and proportions seems to indicate that they are the remains of other temples placed
there against all rules of taste and architecture.  Upon
the interior walls, on large tablets, the names of God, of
Mahomet, and the four caliphs Abou-Bekr, Omar, Osman
and Ali are inscribed in Arabic letters. A profusion of
glass lamps of various colors, mingled with globes of
crystal, ostrich eggs, and ornaments of gold and silver,
attached to circles, are suspended from the deme. Around
the base of the dome are circular galleries, abutting
against immense pulpits, whence the colossal proportions
of this noble monument may be seen in all their grandeur.
The pavement, originally a Mosaic of verd antique and
porphyry, is at present covered with rich carpets, and no
seats of any kind are to be seen upon it. At the top of
a long flight of narrow steps stands the pulpit of the




POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.        161
MIufti. A gilded grating surrounds the space reserved
for the Sultan.
This edifice, as seen from the exterior, does not present
an agreeable aspect from the confused medley of heterogeneous constructions; the effect of the dome is, however, imposing, although, from its sunken form, less conspicuous at a distance than that of other mosques. As
a whole, St. Sophia is not so striking as the beautiful
mosque of Sultan Ahmed, on the Hippodrome, which,
although inferior to it in extent, surpasses it in elegance
and magnificence of architecture.
The use of wine, as well as all fermented liquors of an
intoxicating kind, comprised under the general name of
musIcirat (intoxicating drinks), are absolutely prohibited
to the Mussulmans in several verses of the Koran, of
which the following is one of the most positive: " Oh! you
believers! know of a truth that wine, gaming, and idols,
are abominations suggested by the cunning of the devil.
Verily, it is by wine and play that the spirit of
darkness seeks to array you, one against the other."
Wine,". said Mahomet, "is the mother of abominations.
The moment a man takes in hand a glass of that liquor,
he is struck by an anathema of the angels of heaven and
earth." In consequence of this absolute prohibition, the
horror of the Mussulman for wine is such that he cannot
swallow a drop without resorting to some external or internal antidote. The vessel which may have contained it
must be washed ten times before being again used.
Seadeddin, the Ottoman historian, attributes all the disasters which afflicted the reign of Bajazet the 1st, to his
love of wine and drunken revelry. Happy would it be
for Christian nations did the same aversion for intoxicating beverages prevail among them!
14*




162     POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.
The cypress is regarded by the Mussulmans, as well as
by the Christians, as a funereal tree; with them, as with
us, its melancholy verdure is appropriated to the decoration of cemeteries.  These trees are, however, much less
numerous in our burial-grounds than in those of Mohammedans.   The custom prevalent among the latter of
placing a cypress upon each tomb, converts their cemeteries into immense and sombre forests, which give to the
Oriental landscapes a character of immobility and solemnity in unison with the exterior of the people.
On all sides, and particularly on the borders of the
sea, are to be seen these groves of cypresses which, in
this luxuriantly fertile country, attain to a great height
and size. But of all the cemeteries, that of Scutari, one
of the suburbs of Constantinople, on the Asiatic side of
the Bosphorus, is the most remarkable for its extent and
beauty.  It is a magnificent forest, situated on a gentle
declivity, pierced by wide avenues, and covering a surface
of more than three miles.  The monumental stones are
all of marble, from the island of Marmora; they consist
of a column, terminated by a turban, of which the great
variety of form denotes the rank of the deceased; those
of the women are more simple, and are readily distinguished. An inscription sculptured in bas-relief, and
carefully gilded, denotes the name and qualities of the
dead, for whom the divine clemency is invoked. These
epitaphs are sometimes in verse, commemorative of the
fragility of life, and eulogistic of the being whose loss is
deplored. A cavity excavated in the tomb, is destined
for the reception of the flowers and plants with which the
relatives signalise their visits to the resting-place of their
brother, sister, or parent.
The funerals of the Mussulmans are characterised by




POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.      163
a grave and simple character, which cannot fail of producing great emotion of feeling.  When the body has
been well washed, it is carefully wiped, and camphor is
thrown upon the forehead, the knees, hands, and feet.
It is then enveloped in a white cloth, covered with verses
from the Koran, and is exposed at the door of the house
on a bier sustained upon trussles.  This exposition lasts
for several hours; the iman arrives, throws water on the
body, and prepares to accompany it to its final abode,
whither it is sometimes carried by friends, or by mercenaries, and frequently by persons who regard this pious
duty as an act of meritorious devotion.  The funeral
procession is composed exclusively of men; women are,
however, frequently seen weeping over the grave, who are
paid for this testimony of respect for the deceased.  The
Mussulmans undoubetedly inherited this custom from the
Greeks and Romans.  When the funeral arrives at the
cemetery, the iman takes care to turn the face of the
corpse towards Mecca; and then, advancing to the edge
of the grave, pronounces in a solemn tone this profession
of faith: "I believe in one omnipotent God, and I adore
only him. I believe that Mahomet is the envoy of God
on earth, and the prophet of prophets.  I believe, also,
that Ali is the true chief of the faithful; that this land
is his, and that the true believers owe him obedience, &c."
The iman then addresses the dead; "Know  well,"
says he, "that the God we adore is great and glorious;
that he is the most powerful and the most elevated of all
existences, and that there is none above him.  Rest
assured, also, that Mahomet is the first of all prophets,
and the most cherished of all the messengers of God;
that Ali and his successors are the only true guides of




164     POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.
good believers, and that all which proceeds from them and
the prophets is true; that the visit which Mounkir and
Nekir, the two angels of darkness and messengers of Allah,
are about to make to you is true;.... that heaven and
earth exist; that hell and the day of judgment are also
true; confidently rely upon all these things, for they are
true. Now may God thy master, the great and glorious
God, who will one day come to raise all the dead from
their tombs, be merciful to thee; may he accept thy
answers, and conduct thee in the way of salvation; may
he grant thee the favor of approaching his divinity and
the prophets; and may his grace be with you forever!
Amen!"
The iman then retires some thirty or forty paces, and
cries out with a loud voice, "Approach, Mounkir and
Nekir; approach! behold a true believer; come, he awaits
you!"  He then returns to the edge of the grave, and
says, "Great and glorious God, we humbly implore thee
to render the earth light to thy pious servant, and may
he find grace and mercy at thy hands! Amen!"
The cemetery of Scutari, which we have just described,
offers a striking contrast with that which dominates the
quarters of Pera and Topkhane, in Constantinople, and
which, under the name of the Champ des Miorts, is appropriated to the Greeks, Armenians, and Franks. In the
former, in which only Mussulmans are interred, a solemn
and profound silence reigns, while the latter presents the
most animated spectacle.  It is the rendezvous of the
fashionable society of the Christian quarter of Pera, who
every day resort to it to enjoy the most admirable view
which can be conceived, and of which the spectator never
tires; this immense prospect embraces the shore of Scutari, of Calcedonia, the Princes' Islands, and on the




POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.       165
horizon Mount Olympus of Bithynia; then the opening
of the Bosphorus, in the sea of Marmora, the Seraglio
point4 and the second, seven-hilled imperial city, with its
minarets and domes, the port of the Golden Horn, Eyoub,
Galata; in a word, the whole of that incredible array of
picturesque scenes, over which a pure sky sheds its magic
hues.
For the Mussulman, Scutari is the preferred place of
interment, because it is situated on the same soil with the
holy cities of Mecca and Medina.  The Turks look upon
Asia as their true country, and they believe that the ashes
of the true believers will more securely repose there than
on the European continent, where, according to the popular conviction, the Ottoman empire is destined to a more
brief existence. Believing, as they do, that their possessions in Europe will, sooner or later, fall into the hands
of the ghiaours, nothing is more revolting to the Turks
than the apprehension that their ashes may some day be
trodden under foot by the unbelievers.
The exercises of the turning dervishes, or mevlevi, are
among the few religious spectacles of Constantinople, at
which the Christian stranger is permitted to be present.
These monks, who enjoy a great influence in the East,
admit the public to their ceremonies every Friday. Their
principal establishment is in the Christian quarter of Pera,
in the vicinity of the great cemetery. Nothing can be more
singular than their manner of worshipping the Divinity.
The spectators occupy a gallery, which, at an elevation
of five or six feet, surrounds the smooth, polished floor,
upon which the devotees go through their manoeuvres.
The superior is.first seen to enter, escorted by two
brethren, who seat themselves on the sedjeddahs (prayercarpets), with the face directed towards Mecca and Me



166     POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.
dina.  Next follows a crowd of the brethren of the
convent, advancing, one after another, in profound silence.
The sacred phalanx makes the circuit of the hall, and
each monk, in passing, salutes the superior, who neither
responds by word nor gesture.
Thereupon, they all suddenly turn round upon their
heels; by degrees, this rotary movement becomes more
rapid, and the dervishes diffuse themselves through the
hall. Their arms are crossed, the head sunken on the
shoulder, the eyes closed, and the countenance glowing
with delirious ecstacy. Their robes, adroitly disengaged
from the sash at the beginning of their evolutions, puff
up with air, and stand out in a circle at several feet from
the body. This species of balloon sustains them, and
powerfully aids them to preserve their equilibrium. These
movements are accompanied with discordant music, composed of ear-piercing hautboys and clamorous kettledrums.  This orchestra, which is in perfect keeping with
the character of the ceremony, guides the movements of
the turners, restrains or accelerates them according to
the prescribed rules, and only ceases when the fraternity
has left the room. There is a moment when the music,
precipitating its march, stimulates these revolving bodies
into an extraordinary agitation, and raises their ecstacy
to the highest pitch of frenzy; a singular spectacle, which
often gives a spectator the vertigo, and astonishes him by
its novelty and eccentricity, as a religious exercise. These
ceremonies occupy about an hour, and during all this interval of time, the indefatigable brethren repose but twice,
for a few moments.
It is pretended that the mevlevi are the secret instruments of the political police. Their riches, and the influence they exercise upon all classes of Mussulman society,




POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.       167
give them the means of discovering what escapes the officers of government, who are always very negligent in the
execution of their duties, and but little skilled in eslpionage.  The Sultan, occasionally, is present at these ceremonies, and it is said that, during their dance, he is
advised, through secret signs and words, by some one of
the brethren, of anything of importance that may be on
foot in the capital. When the three acts of this curious
form of worship are finished, the dervishes again make
the circuit of the hall, inclining their heads before their
superior, who then rises and retires, followed by the pious
cohort.  This monastic order, and that of the howling
dervishes at Scutari, are among the most curious institutions of Islamism.
Another characteristic sight of the capital is the assembling and departure of the pilgrim caravan for Mecca.
This pilgrimage, as is well known, is commanded by the
Koran, and although, by another article of the holy book,
the Mussulmans may be exempted from its observance on
the payment of a small fine; they, in general, obey the
injunction, unless prevented by some overruling cause,
such as physical debility, or sickness.
The pilgrims assemble at Scutari, under the command
of their chief, the Surre-Emini, on the day fixed for the
departure of the caravan.  It is an interesting spectacle,
this multitude of individuals preparing to encounter the
fatigues and dangers of a long voyage across the burning
sands of the desert. Provided with some articles of food,
and a small number of utensils, among which figure the
indispensable coffee pat, they begin their march, sume on
horses, some on camels, and others on foot. A rernarkable object in the procession is the sacred camel, bearer
of the presents, which the Sultan annually sends to the




168      POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITION.
temple at Mecca.  Other camels, among those which
carry the baggage, are loaded with leather panniers, filled
with medicines; and during the journey, they are confided to the special charge of a Turkish physician. The
benedictions and good wishes of the spectators accompany
the pilgrims.
IIow many of these intrepid pilgrims will never see the
end of the journey!  When they traverse the deserts
which separate Asia Minor from the holy city, provisions
and water may fail them, a consuming sun will inflame
their blood, and parch their throats with a torturing
thirst; digeases will assail them, which the remedies,
composed by their medical attendants, are not of a nature
to remove; other enemies no less formidable, the wandering hordes of Bedouins, will pitilessly rob and murder
them; a long train of skeletons will mark the route pursued by the caravan, which will at last arrive at the city
of the Prophet, exhausted, perishing, and greatly diminished in numbers. But what are all these risks in comparison with the glory achieved by the journey?  Are
not those who die by the way, assured of eternal felicity?
Happy, these elect of heaven! those who survive them,
envy their fate.  Upon the return, the same perils, the
same enemies, are to be encountered; but heaven reserves
eternal palms to those who have thus perilled their lives,
in order to address their prayers to God in his privileged
temple; and the title of IHadji,* which ever after is
bestowed upon the pilgrims, is a sufficient indemnification
for so many sufferings, so heroically undergone.t
a Hadji signifies holy. This title is a gi-ven to the MIussulmans, who have performed the pilgrimage to Mecca.
t Besides Mecca, the more devout Mussulmans visit Jerusalem
in memory of Christ, Medina, which contains the tomb of the




MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE TURKS.            169
CHAPTER SECOND.
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF TIIE TURKS.
IN eating their meals, the Turks do not take their
places at table, as we; but sit cross-legged upon a carpet
or piece of leather, spread upon the floor, with their faces
turned to the east. A small tripod is placed before them,
upon which the meals are served in a large round dish of
tinned copper.  Each guest has before him  a piece of
unleavened bread, of the form of a pancake, which also
answers the purpose of a plate, of which the Turks make
no use. Knives and forks are also considered superfluous.
The only table utensils are wooden spoons, ranged in a
heap upon the floor cloth. In helping themselves to
unsauced meats, the fingers alone are employed.
The principal and favorite dish of the Turks is the
pilaff, which is boiled rice, strongly seasoned with pepper.
The richer class eat it with chicken, duck, or mutton. In
general, meat is but little eaten; and it is always preferred boiled. Beans, peas, and other vegetables, are the
more usual dishes. Whey is one of the daily articles of
food, and nothing but water is drunk during the repast.
The Turks generally dine after sunset; and a considerable number of devout persons make but one meal for
Prophet, and the city of Ali, the schismatic, to which latter the
chiite sectaries, in particular, resort. They sometimes, to accomplish their acts of piety,' go into the deserts of Idumea, and ascend
Mount Itor, to pray at the tomb of IIaroun (Aaron), and then traverse the wilderness to Hebron, to kneel in devotion at the sepulcilre of Abraham.
15




170      MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF TIIE TURKS.
the whole day, at this hour.  Others, on the contrary,
eat several times, especially after the morning prayer, at
noon. when they lunch on fiuits, and a regular dinner at five
o'clock.  The breakfast consists of coffee, and kaimiac (a
mixture of milk, cake, and melon); sometimes also of
sherbet (a kind of very sweet raspberry, strawberry, or
apricot syrup).  A  refreshing beverage, of which the
Turks are very fond, is yaourt, which is made of milk
fermented with a mixture of wine dregs, or yeast, and
keeps for a long time.  Coffee, however, is the preferred
beverage; and opium  is sometimes taken to produce
intoxication.  The public caf6s, once dedicated to the
consumption of this weed, and where its devotees might
be seen in every stage of its effects, from stupid inanity
to the wildest delirium, have, within a few years, been
closed by order of the government.
The Turkish bread has no leaven, and can only be
eaten fresh. Frequently the grain is simply roasted; and
is eaten in this state like bread, without any other preparation. The Turks observe the fast-days with the utmost
strictness. During the twenty-nine days of the month
of Ramazan, the true Mussulman is obliged to abstain
from eating or drinking, from sunrise to sunset.  He is
even prohibited from smoking, or inhaling the odor of any
perfume. These injunctions, which are an actual punishment during the long days of the warm months, are scrupulously observed. No one would dare to contravene
them, at least publicly; for he would be looked upon as
an apostate, and in danger of eternal misery.
During the day, the abstinence is complete; but when
the cannon announces the setting of the sun, and the
rupture of the fast, the Mussulman indemnifies himself
for the privations of the day by an abundant supper. It




MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF TIIE TURKS.    171
is just, however, to state, that he manifests no impatience
in awaiting the signal, which puts an end to his daily
torture. An hour before night, he repairs to the caf6. or
beneath the shade of a tree, and looks with indifference
upon the Frank, alongside of whom he is seated, eating,
drinking, and smoking. When he hears the sound of the
cannon, he tranquilly rises, and returns at a measured
pace to his residence, without betraying the least sign of
joy upon his countenance.
Meanwhile, the streets of the city, so gloomy and deserted in the day-time; fill again with people, and glitter
with myriads of fires. The illuminations of the mosques,
the lights of the cafes and shops, and the lanterns of the
provision-shops, envelope Constantinople in a splendid
blaze, which dazzles the eyes, and covers the waters of
the Bosphorus, of the Golden thorn, and the Sea of Marmora, with a golden glow.  The Easter of the Turks, or
the little Bairam, lasts three days, which joyously terminates this long and painful fast.  This fete produces a
sudden change in the character and bearing of the Mussulman. His ordinarily serious face assumes a gay and
satisfied expression.  He is affable to everybody, without
distinction. Of some, he grasps the hand with affectionate warmth; to others, he proffers his own without arrogance or pretence; to all he wishes happy days, and the
felicities of Paradise.  He pardons his enemies for the
evil they have done him, and he reproaches those who
have kept at a distance from him. He forgets his business, and he postpones his troubles to the end of the
festival. These are three days of real enjoyment, which
break the uniformity of his life.
The moon of Zildigi brings other holidays. Seventy
days after the fete to which we have just referred, comes




172    MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE TURKS.
the Grand Bairam, or feast of sacrifices (in commemoration of the sacrifice of Abraham), which continues for
four days.  Then, as during the little Bairam, there is
a sincere interchange of good wishes and compliments,
and generosity, and oblivion of offences are again the
order of the day. The mosques resound with prayer and
the reading of the holy volume; the Sultan himself goes
in procession and with great pomp, to prostrate himself
before the divine majesty.  The rich visit and entertain
each other in magnificent style; the poor find in the
public charity all that they need to imitate the example
of their superiors; all Constantinople is in gala, and the
paschal lamb is found on all tables.
Hardly have the four consecrated days of the Koran
expired, when everything returns to its accustomed order;
the physiognomy of the Turks resumes its ordinary gravity; the city becomes quiet, every one returns to his
business, and there is no more talk of amusement until
the following year. The Ramazan, in the space of thirtythree years, runs through all the different seasons of the
year. The epoch is never determined a long time in advance. The phases of the moon, as is well known, regulate the succession of months in the East.  Although a
knowledge of astronomy is, at the present time, sufficiently
diffused in Turkey to enable a fenw Mussulmans to calculate the lunar revolutions, the priests of the mosques are,
nevertheless, bound, as formerly, to pass the night on the
minarets to watch for the new moon, and it is after their
reports that the Turkish calendar is arranged.  But these
measures did not appear sufficient for the sacred months.
The government, consequently, charges two persons to go
and observe the moon of Ramazan from the summit of the
Giant's mountain, on the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus.




MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE TURKS.    173
The report of these messengers fixes the epoch of the
fast and the festivals. When, by chance, the sky is cloudy,
or the atmosphere is obscured by fogs which intercept the
light of the stars, reference is had to the chief of the
astrologists, who solves the difficulty by affirming that the
moon ought to have appeared at such a moment of the
night.  His declaration suffices, and the three sacred
epochs are proclaimed.
A frank and reckless gaiety is never to be seen among
the Turks. Dances and public sports, noisy amusements,
&c., are rigidly prohibited. The popular pastime consists in slow and silent promenades through the streets
or in the environs.  Parents and friends unite in parties
of ten or fifteen to visit their relatives and acquaintances,
but these visits never last longer than a few minutes.
The Turks sometimes form groups upon the squares and
promenades, smoke, drink coffee, and converse upon the
rumors and news of the day with an extraordinary equanimity and complacency. A man, perhaps, is passing in
the street, bending under the weight of a burden enveloped in a camel's skin, and roughly corded together; he
may be asked, perhaps: " What are you carrying there?"
and if he replies, "A dead slave!" no one would think of
questioning him farther, so utterly indifferent are they to
know, when seeing a dead man borne along, if he has
been assassinated, drowned, or suddenly struck down by
some secret malady.
Some commercial notabilities, accompanied by members
of their respective embassies, are assembled in the antechamber of a Turkish minister, on the subject of a commercial treaty concluded with the Porte; the statesman is
seated by himself in a corner of the sofa, and while the
deputation is explaining the object of their visit, he will
15*




174    MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE TURKS.
be tranquilly paring his nails with a penknife. This important operation terminated, he will call one of the
subalterns of the bureau, deliver him on a sheet of paper
the nail-parings, and phlegmatically recommend him to
bury them in a corner of the garden.  It is understood
that the minister does not open his mouth the whole time
the audience endures, and it must not be forgotten that
we are speaking of a statesman, and of what takes place,
not in Kurdistan, but Constantinople. It is well known
that, even at the present day, astrology plays a prominent
part, as well in the high government spheres, as in the
modest circles of provincial administration; and that no
agent, small or great, would dare to take a grave resolution, to set out on a journey, or to engage in any other
important action, without consulting the Munedschimlbaschi (court-astrologer), and unless he had declared the
stars propitious to the projected affair.
After this, there can be no astonishment created at
learning that the proposition adopted with such commendable zeal by the government, (the enlightened and liberal
spirit of which is worthy of all praise,) of allowing a meridian ball to be erected on the Seraskier square at Constantinople, like those of Trieste and Greenwich, was
obliged to be abandoned, the Munedschimbaschi have announced that it would be unlucky to the Turkish empire.
The Oriental poets call tobacco, coffee, opium and wine,
the four elements of the world of enjoyment - the four
cushions of the sofa of pleasure. On the other hand, the
Ulemas denominate them the four columns of the tent
of voluptuousness, or the four ministers of the devil.
Tobacco has become of such universal use among the
Ottomans, that there are many who smoke six, ten, and
twenty pipes; there are likewise some who smoke inces



MIANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF TIIE TURKIS.    175
santly while their eyes are open.  As much attention is
paid to the beauty of the pipe as to the good quality of
the tobacco.  The stems (tchibouk) are ordinarily of
cherry, jasmnin, rose, and walnut woods, &c., garnished
with gold or silver, and are terminated by mouth-pieces
of yellow or white amber, and sometimes of coral, elegantly worked. The bowls of these pipes are made of a
fine clay, which has undergone a particular preparation,
and some are even gilded.
It is a common act of politeness among the Mussulmans to invite every body who visits thema to smoke, and
it is considered indecorous to refuse.  For this reason, a
great number of. long tschibouks are always to be seen
arranged in the antechambers in stands.  The smokers
sit down on the low sofa or divan which surrounds the
walls of the room, with a small brazen dish on the floor
before them, upon which they rest the bowl of their pipe,
that its ashes or tobacco may not set the carpet or matting
on fire. A Turk rarely goes out without his pipe and tobacco;
the former is divided into two or three pieces, which fasten
together by silver screws, and it is carried in a cloth cover,
attached to a belt under the coat.  The richer AMussulmans are always followed by a black slave, who is the
bearer of this indispensable instrument of enjoyment.
The amber mouth-pieces are dear, and much care is
manifested in their selection; their price varies from four
to five dollars to hundreds of dollars, according to the
quality of the material and the richness with which it is
ornamented, some being set with gold and pearl.
The costume of the Turks varies according to social
position, with some  exceptions.   The Turkish shirt
resembles that of our women, and is worn over large
cotton drawers.  The feet are also covered with cotton.




176     MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THIE TURKS.
This kind of covering for the feet is called terlyos; and
it is sometimes replaced by small slippers of very fine
leather, which are worn in socks attached to the shakschir,
or large red trowsers. For walking, a peculiar species
of slipper is used.  In addition to the chemise and
trowsers, the Turks wear, also, a long vest lined with
cotton, called entari; and over this the famous caftan,
which descends to the heels.  This last garment, closed
around the waist by means of a sash, is only an in-door
dress; and a Turk of quality never appears in it in
public.  The caftan, in its turn, is also covered with the
dschiouppeh (overcoat), some three or four inches shorter
in length. In winter it is lined with fur, and the sleeves
fall only to the elbow. Other garments with long sleeves,
called benysch, cover all. In fine, this costume is as rich
as it is inconvenient.  The prophet prescribed white and
yellow colors for dress, and prohibited red and yellow;
but this commandment is not strictly observed.
The Turks, as almost all the Mohammedans, shave the
head, with the exception of a small tuft on the top; and
they cover it with a red woollen cap, around which they
fold the turban.  The Sultan, the ministers, the great
dignitaries, and the judges, alone have the right of wearing the beard; the rest of the nation must rest contented
with the moustache.  The turban is the national headdress of the Turks; but at the present day they add to
it the fez cap. It remains, even after death, the distinctive Ottoman sign in the cemetery.
In their houses the Turks prefer comfort to elegance;
but it differs widely from our own. We have need of a great
quantity of furniture; while the Turk is satisfied when,
with pipe in mouth, and reclining upon a divan, he can
enjoy his ease. In every room there is a kind of seat




MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF TIIE TURlKS.    177
against the walls, raised about two feet above the floor,
and three or four feet in width, running around the apartment,  which is composed of soft mattrasses, covered with
cotton, cloth, or velvet, according to the means of the
proprietor of the house, with high cushions for backs.
It is in the luxury of these divans, and the richness
of their material and color, and the magnificence of the
carpets, that the Ottoman dwellings are distinguished.
The Turks neither make use of chairs nor tables; the
divan is a substitute for all, and fiequently it serves them
for a bed.
In Turkey stoves and chimneys are unknown; and
people warm  themselves by means of earthen or brass
braziers, which are placed alongside of the divan. These
mangals, as they are called, are generally put under a
table spread with a carpet, which, falling down upon all
sides, preserves the heat of the few live coals it contains.
A stuffed seat with a back surrounds this table (tandur),
at which several persons may be seated.  From  the
commencement of cold weather, the women rarely quit
their tandur.
The harem, or apartment of the women, in Turkey,
forms a separate part of the house, and it is connected
with the portion inhabited by the men by means of a,
gallery.  This arrangement divides the house into a great
number of rooms, which pleases the Turkish taste. Besides his ordinary residence, every rich or distinguished
person possesses also his Kiosk, or summer pavilion,
along the umbrageous shores of the Bosphorus, where he
may calmly contemplate the passing fleets of vessels
sailing to and fro between the Black Sea and the
capital.  The form of these Kiosks is either square or
round, of wood, and elegantly painted both on the out



178    MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE TURKS.
side and interior, with windows closed by lattice-work.
Their furniture consists of nothing but carpets and
divans.
The Prophet authorized his followers to take several
wives, but it would be a grave error to believe that this
has led to a profligacy of morals. The Koran, on every
page, inculcates chastity and decency, and the organization of the harem itself demonstrates that the commandments of their religion have entered into the morals of the
Mlussulmans. The women occupy a part of the house,
as isolated as a cloister. The harem, in its Ottoman
acceptation, is a sacred place where virtue reigns, and
which is hermetically closed against all strange intrusion.
The separation of the sexes is so absolute, that no servant
of the house, not even an eunuch, can penetrate into the
harem. The women are served only by female slaves.
The nearest relatives, brothers, fathers-in-law or fathers,
are only admitted in the two fetes of Bairam, at marriages, or a circumcision. A woman is not allowed to
address any one unveiled, except her near relatives, with
whom marriage is prohibited. Physicians are only permitted to visit a female patient in the presence of the
husband or a slave, and they cannot feel the pulse unless
the arm is covered with muslin.
With such laws, it is difficult for women to deviate
from the path of honor and virtue. Should they be going
to the bath, or on a visit to a relative, or shopping, they
must be accompanied by other women, as well as by their
slaves.  Women of distinction are rarely seen in the
streets, for it is considered mauvais ton to leave the
house, except from necessity. Gadding about in flaunting attire for pastime, or the indulgence of an idle vanity,
is considered a vulgar practice, befitting only the ~wives




MIANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF TIIE TURKS.           179
and daughters of the ghiaours.  It is for this reason that
only women of low extraction are generally seen in the
streets, and even these are veiled, very reserved in their
behavior, and rarely speak to any one.
The most important, and almost the only domestic
fetes, are marriages.  The law permits the Turks to unite
themselves with a woman in three ways: the first, by
marriage, the second by making a sort of engagement
with her, and the third by purchase. A marriage can
only be celebrated on Friday evening, which corresponds
to our Sunday. The second mode, called capin, requires
no other formality than that of going before a cadi, and
in making  an engagement to keep and maintain the
woman for a certain fixed period of time.  The father of
the man, or two other relatives, must confirm  it.  He
obliges himself, in case children should be born from such
a union, to provide for their support, and to pay a certain
sum to the woman, if he should send her away before the
expiration of the contract.  The children of such a connexion have equal rights with the others, and the father
must keep them under all circumstances.  But this kind
of marriage is very rare.   The third mode is the purchase of a slave.*  The children from this union are free,
and have a right to inherit from the father.
* Slaves are generally carefully educated, for their value depends
not only on their physical beauty, but upon the talents they possess. The young girls learn to dance, sing, play on an instrument,
and to embroider. The young boys are reared with yet greater
care, and the superior ones among them are sold at high prices.
Some of them, purchased for the Seraglio, acquire the favor of the
Sultan, and may become great personages; for the prejudice which,
among the Greeks and Rtomans, stamped the slave with an indelible stigma, is entirely unknown to the Mahommedans. The Mussulman women treat their slaves as sisters and daughters, and the




180      MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF TIIE TURKS.
Another domestic fete, is that which takes place on a
circumcision.  This operation is not obligatory, for if it
has been neglected in youth, a certificate of the physician that it would be dangerous, is a sufficient reason for
dispensing with it.  It is rarely omitted, however.  The
uncircumcised, akhalf, enjoy but little consideration, and
they cannot testify as witnesses before a judge.  Children
Oriental monarchs frequently entrust to these young captives,
whom they have sometimes even admitted to the honor of their
alliance, the highest dignities of the empire. In our days, the
Grand Vizir, Khosrew, and Halil Pacha, son-in-law of Sultan
Mahmoud, are examples of fortune, but little in accordance with
European notions, and particularly with those prevalent in the
new world.
Among the slaves whose career has been the most singular,
history yet preserves the remembrance of the Countess Potocka.
This young and beautiful slave, exposed for sale at the bazaar of
Constantinople, was bought, about the close of the 18th century,
by a French nobleman, the Marquis de V-, who, shortly afterwards, quitted the Levant to return to France with his precious
treasure.  Upon arriving at Kaminiek, Side V -was received
with the highest regards by the Count de Witt, a HIollander in the
service of Russia, and governor of the place. The Count was
hardly thirty years of age; he was a lieutenant-general, stood high
in the favor of Catharine II., and to these advantages united a
prepossessing exterior. Ile was so struck by the beauty of the
young slave, that he fell desperately in love, and offered to marry
her. She accepted him, and abandoned her first master. Two
years after his marriage, Count Witt obtained a conge, and visited
all the courts of Europe. Everywhere, the beauty of his wife
excited the liveliest admiration. At Hamburg, Count Felix Potocki, commander-in-chief, and grand master of the artillery of the
republic of Poland, could not resist the charms of the beautiful
Oriental, and to gratify his passion, he obliged the general to a divorce. Thus the young girl, sold at the bazaar of Constantinople,
became by turns the slave of a French noblemlan, the wife of a
general, and finally the companion of one of the most illustrious
nien of Poland!




MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE TURKS.    181
are generally circumcised in the seventh year, and in the
paternal house, in the presence of the relatives, the grandmother and father, and of the Imam of the nearest
mosque. The operators are called Sunnet Dschys; they
all employ a razor. During the eight or ten days which
follow this mutilation, the relatives exert themselves to
amuse the newly-circumcised, and they carry him about,
here and there, as if in triumph. They decorate his
garments, his turban in particular, with gilt or silver
bands, as well as with rich tufts of feathers. It is also
customary to kill a lamb or a kid on such an occasion,
and to distribute alms.  The Sultans, in these ceremonies, display all the splendor and magnificence of the
throne.
The use of the bath is so general among Mussulmans,
that bath-houses are to be found in the smallest towns of
the empire. That of Mustapha Pasha, at Constantinople,
is one of the most elegant.  It is built of cut stone, and
is of the form of a parallelogram. The pavement is of
different marbles; in the centre is a large reservoir filled
with water, and the dome is sustained by richly carved
columns. In entering the first hall of the establishment,
the hammandji (master of the bath,) conducts the new
comer to the divan assigned to him. In the centre of the
hall is a fountain, and all around the wall runs a divan;
it is here that the bather undresses. The attendant
presents you with a napkin, with which you envelope the
waist; then another is bound around the head. In leaving the divan, high-heeled leather slippers are put on,
with which you shuffle into the second chamber.  Here
the temperature is more elevated, and you remain within
it until the perspiration pours off the body. Then commence the important operations.
]6




182     MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE TURKS.
You are conducted into a third apartment, lighted by
circular glass inserted in the dome.  On entering, you.
perceive that the heat is much greater than in the preceding chamber.  While the attendants are occupied
with other bathers, you smoke a pipe and drink a cup of
coffee.
Your turn is come, for one of the attendants of the
bath stands ready to shampoo you. He first examines
with the hand if the skin is in a proper condition. If he
deems the moment favorable, he invites you to stretch
yourself at full length upon a slab of white marble in
the middle of the hall, some three feet above the floor,
and which is heated by an oven beneath. You lay on
your face on this table, but not without precaution; for
there is some risk in burning the skin from contact with
the hotter parts of the marble. Before beginning, the
attendant makes a final experiment; he strikes you with
a rather severe blow on the shoulder or thigh; and if
the noise produced by the compressed air makes the
vaulted roof resound, he hesitates no longer.
The sensations produced by shampooing are far from
agreeable. This pressure of the muscles, and manipulation of the flesh and members, is painful. The coup de
grace is particularly formidable; this last manceuvre consists in cracking the joints by strongly pressing the knee
in the midst of the arms folded on the breast.  The
shampooing usually lasts about twenty minutes.  This
torture finished, you repose an instant, then enter another
chamber, where softer impressions await you. A boy
pours warm water upon your head in profusion, and then
vigorously rubs the body with a coarse hair glove. The
douches and the friction are repeated until the skin is
perfectly cleansed, and the blood may be seen circulating
through the transparent veins.




MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE TURKS.          183
You then pass into another hall, where you are washed
from head to foot with water perfumed with Candia soap.
After being sponged with a handful of tow, a basin of
the same saponaceous water is placed before you, in
which you wash yourself free from all remaining impurities.
The operation is now finished, and the attendant dries
your head and limbs, envelopes them in clean linen,
and leads you to the first chamber on entering. You
recline upon a divan, with the head raised upon cushions,
to prevent congestion of the brain. By degrees the
agitation caused by the heat, the shampooing, and the
frictions, gives way to a calm quietude, which invites to
sleep.  The attendant then replaces the moist linen, with
which the body is enveloped with other linen, which
effectually dries the whole surface. A pipe and cup of
coffee are presented, as in the third chamber. At last,
when you feel sufficiently cool to go into the air without
danger, you dress and call the boy, who presents a
mirror, upon which you deposit the price of the bath.
The Turkish ladies are very fond of frequenting the
baths. Friday is the day fixed for the gratification of
this religious duty and the distractions which accompany
it. They pass almost all the day in its pleasures, and
frequently eat their meals there.  The entrance of the
women's baths is rigidly interdicted to the men, and they
are conducted with perfect order and decency.
The moderate price that is asked for a bath permits the
poor as well as the rich to enjoy it.  It is quite common
for the hammandjis (the proprietors of these establishments,) to ask nothing of those whose exterior denotes
their destitution; and it is a sort of alms, in their opinion,
which is equivalent to the glass of water of the Gospel.




FJIFTH PART.
GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF TURKEY-OF ITS PRINCIPAl
TOWNS, FORTRESSES, AND OTHER PLACES CONNECTED
WITH ITS MILITARY HISTORY.
THE Turkish empire, the territorial possessions of which
extend over a large portion of Europe, Asia, and Africa,
covers a surface of about 21,000 square leagues, and comprises a total population of 35,000,000, distributed  as
follows:
Thrace.................... 1,800,000
Bulgaria..........   3,000,000
Moldavia................... 1,400,000
TURKEY   Wallachia...........   2,600,000
IN     Bosnia and IHerzovingia.   1,000,000
EUROPE.  Rournelia.................. 2,700,000
Albania.................... 1,200,000
Servia..................... 1,000,000
Islands....................  700,000
15,500,000
Asia Minor................ 10,000,000
TURKEY   Syria, Mesopotamia, and KurlN q distan.4,500,000
IN       distan.................. 4)500,000
AsIA.   Arabia, Mecca, Medina, and
Ethiopia................   900,000
16,200,000
Egypt...................... 2,000.000
Tripoli, Fez, Tunis....... 1,800,000
3,800,000
Total....................... 35,500,000
(184)




GEOGRAPHY  OF TURKEY.                       185
The classification of this population, which is reduced
to 26,700,000, if the tributary provinces be excluded, is
as follows, distributed according to races:Races.         In Europe.    In Asia.    In Africa.  Total.
Ottomans...... 2,150,000    10,800,000            12,950,000
Sclavonians.... 6,200,000         --               6,200.000
Roumeliotes.... 4,000,000                          4,000,000
Albanians...... 1,450,000           -               1,450,000
Greeks......... 1,000,000    1,000,000    -        2,000,000
Armenians.....  400,000    2,000,000         -    2,400,000
Jews..........    70,000        80,000       -        150,000
Tartars........   16,000       50,000        -       66,000
Arabs*........               900,000  3,800,000   4,700,000
Syrians and Chaldeans.......               250,000                250,000
Druses.........               30,000         -       30,000
Kurds......                  1,000,000              1,000,000
Turkomans.....                 90,000         -       90,000
Gipsies........  214,000          -,                 214,000
15,500,000   16,200,000  3,800,000  35,500,000
Arranged according to religions, it gives the following
results:
Religions.     In Europe.   In Asia.    In Africa.  Total.
Mussulmans......  4,600,000  12,650,000  3,800,000  21,050,000
Greekst........ 10,000,000   3,000,000            13,000,000
Catholicst......   660,000     280,000               940,000
Jews...........    90,000      80,000                170,000
Different sects...                                   340,000
15,350,000  16,010,000  3,800,000 35,500,000
* Including the African population, the basis of which is Arabic.
t With the Armenians.
t Under this category are included all the Oriental churches recognising the authority of the Holy See, although the forms of
worship vary; they are:  1. The Latins or Catholics who use the
Roman Liturgy. They have a Patriarch resident at Jerusalem
since 1847, and besides the Bosnians and Albanian Catholics, they
consist of Greeks, Armenians,Alepponians, Bulgarians, Croats, &c.,
to the number of 680,000. 2. The United Greeks, or Melchites, who
have a-Patriarch resident at Damascus, and eight suffragan sees,
16*




186         GEOGRAPHY OF TURKEY.
The principal river of Turkey is the Danube, which
enters the empire at Belgrade, and empties by five different mouths into the Black Sea, where it forms a marshy
delta (bogasi).  Its chief tributaries on the right are the
Save, 590 miles long, which joins it at Belgrade, the
Morava, the Timok, the Isker; on the left, the Czerna,
the Schill, the Aluta, the Ardsisch, the Jalonitza, the
Sereth, and the Pruth. The other rivers are the Maritza,
which empties into the Archipelago, after traversing Roumelia, and passing by Philippopolis and Adrianople; the
Koralou, the Baodar, the Indische-Karafou, the Salambria, and the Elkeda, which also enter the Archipelago.
In the Ionian Sea fall the Rolia, the ZEspropotamos, the
Arta, and the Kalamos; in the Mediterranean, the Iris;
and in the Adriatic, the Vojussa, the Ergent, the Toti, the
Mati, the Drin, the Bojane, and the Narenta. The principal
fortresses are Belgrade, Widdin, Silistria, Roustschouck,
Shumla, Varna, in Bulgaria, Scutari, in Albania, Zwornick, Behacz, and Banjalouka in Bosnia, Bassora, Trebisond, Jean d'Acre, Alexandria, and some other less important defences, such as the citadels of Smyrna, Bagdad,
Tripoli, and Cairo.  The fortresses which protect the
Straits of the Dardanelles and Bosphorus, and the Balkan
range of mountains, the real bastions of the empire, also
deserve mention.
The principal mountain ranges of Turkey are those of
25,000. 3. The Armenians united, whose Patriarch, residing at
Jiezoumme in the Lebanon range, has under him seven Archbishops irnparibus, and for suffragans, the bishops of Aleppo, Mardin,
and Amasia Tekar, 75,000. 4. The United Syrians and Chaldeans,
with Patriarchs at Mossoul and Aleppo, and fifteen suffragans,
20,000. 5. The Maronites, with their Patriarch at Cannobin, in the
Lebanon, and seven suffragan bishops, 140,000. Total, 940,000.




GEOGRAPHY OF TURIKEY.                187
the Pindus, dividing Thessaly and Greece, the Lebanon
running through the heart of Syria and Palestine, and the
great and little Balkan.  This celebrated range is less
remarkable for its height, the loftiest summits not being
above 7000 feet, than for its precipitous sides, thickly
overgrown foreground, and the narrowness of its passes.
That part which lies nearest to the Black Sea, contains
seven passes; the most important is that into which converge all the roads from Bessarabia and the Dobrutscha,
and Rassova, Silistria, &c., which unite at Shumnla. This
defile is defended by the impregnable Shumla. The pass
of the iron door, Demir-Kapu, unites all the routes which,
starting from the Danubian strongholds of Turtukay, and
running to Sistova, lead to Constantinople.
The Dobrutscha, a marshy and pestilential tract lying
between the Danube and the Black Sea, and over which
the Danube is once supposed to have flowed, is the high
road for an army directing its course to Constantinople,
or of one advancing from the south against Bessarabia
and Podolia. This peninsula is bounded on the south by
the wall of Trajan, and includes the fortified towns of
Toultscha, Matschin, Hirsovia, and  Kustendji.  In
1828-9, the Russians passed the Balkan from the Dobrutscha, having first obtained possession of Varna, on
the Black Sea. For the sixth time, they have again
taken up their position in this district, for the purpose of
reaching Adrianople by the mountain route; but the inability to take Varna, in consequence of its great strength,
and protection by the allied fleets, will probably defeat
their plans of penetrating to the Turkish capital.
The Ottoman empire is divided into Eyalets, or general
governments, whose administrators are called V'ali (viceroy), or mutecharif (governor-general). The Eyalets are




188        GEOGRAPHY OF TURKEY.
subdivided into provinces (Livas), at the head of which
are the kainakams (lieutenant-governors), or mohassils
(prefects); the Livas are divided into cazas (districts),
and the cazas into Nahijes (communes).
Turkey in Europe is composed of 15 Eyalets, 42 Livas,
and 376 Cazas. The Eyalets are: 1, Edirne (Thrace);
2, Silistria (Bulgaria); 3, Boydhan (Moldavia); 4, Eflak
(Wallachia); 5, Widdin (Bulgaria); 6, Nissa (Bulgaria);
7, Uskup (Eastern Albania); 8, Syrp (Servia); 9, the
fortress of Belgrade; 10, Bosna (Bosnia and Croatia);
11, Roumili (Albania and Macedonia); 12, Yania (Epirus); 13, Selanik (Macedonia and Thessaly); 14, Djizair
(Archipelago); 15, Cryt (Crete), with governors-general
at: 1, Adrianople; 2, Silistria; 3, Jassy; 4, Bucharest;
5, Widdin; 6, Nissa; 7, Uskup; 8, Belgrade; 9, Serajevo; 10, Monastir; 11, Janina; 12, Salonica; 13,
Rhodes; and 14, Candia.
Turkey in Asia is divided into 18 Eyalets, 83 Livas,
and  885 Cazas.  The Eyalets are: 1, Kastamouni
(Paphlagonia); 2, Khoudavenguiar (Bithynia); 3, Aydin
(Lydia); 4, Caraman (Phrygia and Pamphylia); 5, Adana
(Cilicia); 6, Bozoq (Cappadocia); 7, Sivas (Cappadocia);
8, Tarabezoun (Pontus and Colchis); 9, Erzeroum (Armenia); 10, Moussoul (Assyria); 11,, Kurdistan; 12,
Kharberout (Sophene and Comagene); 13, Halep (Syria
and Orsoene); 14, Saida (Phenicia and Palestine); 15,
Cham  (Syria); 16, Bagdad; 17, Habesch (Arabia and
Ethiopia); and 18, Armin-Nabevi, with governors-general
at: 1, Kastamouni; 2, Brusa; 3, Smyrna; 4, Konia;
5, Adana; 6, Angora; 7, Sivas; 8, Trebizond; 9, Erzeroum; 10, AMoussoul; 11, Diarbekir; 12, Charpout; 13,
Aleppo; 14, Beyrout; 15, Damascus; 16, Bagdad; 17,
Djedda; and 18, Medina.




GEOGRAPHY OF TURKEY.                       189
Turkey in Africa is divided into 3 Eyalets, 17 Livas,
86 Cazas. The Eyalets are: 1, Missr (Egypt); 2, Tarablousi-Gharde (Tripoli in Africa); 3, Tunis, with governor at Cairo; 2, Tripoli; and 3, Tunis.
I. TERRITORIAL POSSESSIONS OF THE TURKISH EMPIRE
IN EUROPE.
CONSTANTINOPLE, called Istamboul by the Turks; capital of the
empire, with the suburbs of Pera and Galata, and Scutari (the
latter on the opposite Asiatic shore, but forming an integral part
of the metropolis), numbers 750,000 inhabitants, thus divided:
450,000 Ottomans, 180,000 Greeks, 50,000 Jews, 40,000 Franks
(Christians), and about 30,000 land and naval troops.  It is
situated between the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmora, at the
entrance of the Bosphorus, and upon the channel which separates
Europe from Asia, and whose depth and sheltered position form
one of the finest harbors in the world; the residence of the Sultan, the Mufti, the ministers, and all the grandees of the empire.
The Christian and Israelitish religions are all represented there
by their respective patriarchs and high priests. It contains 346
mosques, 518 medreces, or superior schools, 300 public baths, more
than 1200 primary schools, and 35 public libraries, each containing from one to two thousand volumes, and rare collections of precious manuscripts. From its magnificent position on the borders
of Europe and Asia, midway between the remote East and the
Christian states of the world, its commercial advantages, its
superiority as a dominating point over the Black Sea and the
Levant, and the beauty of its environs, it is one of the most
remarkable cities on the globe.
Cities in Roumelia.
ADRIANOPLE, in Turkish Edrene, upon the banks of the Tundscha;
second capital of the empire, with 150,000 inhabitants, 134 m.
N. W. of Constantinople, on one of the richest plains in the
world.
TSCHIRMEN, capital of a sandschack, with 8000 inhabitants.
DscHISR-MUSTAPHA, upon the Maritsa, with 2000 inhabitants.
DEMOTIKA, 15,000 inhabitants, the residence of a Greek archbishop.
KIRKHILISSI, with 16,000 inhabitants.




190         GEOGRAPHY OF TURKEY.
BURGAS, small town on the Black Sea, very important in time of
war, for its excellent harbor, 7000 inhabitants.
In the interior of the Empire are:
PHILIPrPOLIS, large town with 80,000 inhabitants, seat of a Greek
archbishopric. The most thriving of the manufacturing towns
of Turkey, in silk, woollen, and cotton stuffs.
TATAR-BASARDSCHIK, upon the grand route from Belgrade to Constantinople, 10,000 inhabitants.
ESKI-SAGRA, at the foot of the Balkan, 20,000 inhabitants.
KASANLAK, in the gorges of the Balkan, 10,000 inhabitants.
SELIMNIA, near the iron gate of the Balkan, 20,000 inhabitants.
One of the largest fairs of the empire is held here; a manufactory
of arms.
URUNDSCHOWA, important commercial town, famous for its large
fairs.
KAWALA, upon the coast of the Archipelago, with a port and 3000
inhabitants.
ENOS, the port of Adrianople, near the mouth of the Maritza, 36 m.
N. W. of Gallipoli, at the head of the Archipelago.
GALLIPOLI, upon a peninsula of the same name, in the sea of Marmora, with a good harbor at the entrance of the Dardanelles,
17,000 inhabitants. Large manufactures of morocco, with an
extensive commerce, and vast magazines for the provisioning of
the Ottoman fleet; first town taken by the Turks in Europe.
KILID-BAHR, the most important fortification of the Dardanelles,
mounting 155 cannon, opposite the castle of Asia.
SULTANICALESSI, on the Dardanelles, Asiatic castle, 196 cannon,
18 of which are of the largest calibre.
BOVALLI-CALESSI, site of the ancient Sestos, a castle of the Dardanelles, with 50 cannon. All the batteries together on the European shore number 336 guns, 4 of which are mortars; those on
the shore of Asia contain 486 cannon and 4 mortars. In all the
fortresses on the Dardanelles there are 822 cannon and 8 mortars.
RoDosTo, a flourishing commercial town, constantly increasing.
Principal towns of Mlacedonia.
SALONICA, (ancient Thessalonica,) on the gulf of the same name,
the most important place of commerce in European Turkey, after
Constantinople. 60,000 inhabitants, two-thirds of whom  are
Turks, the rest Jews, Franks, and Greeks. Exports raw cotton,




GEOGRAPHY OF TURKEY.                       191
tobacco, wool, silk, wheat, linseed, hempseed, &c.; in 1837,
amounting in value to nearly $1,000,000.
SEDES, village with mineral springs and baths.
JENIDSCHE-VARDAR, 6000 inhabitants.
KARAFERIA, manufacturing town, 20,000 inhabitants.
VODINA, (anc. Edessa.)
SERES, not far from Takino, 30,000 inhabitants: near to it is
ATHOS, with 16 cloisters, and more than 300 chapels, cells, and
grottoes, inhabited by 4000 monks.
KASTORIA, USKUP, KOPROLO (with a stone bridge over the Vardar);
STROMZA, PETROVICH (with large tobacco plantations), KUSTENDIL, KARATOVA, and BITOGLIA.
The most important towns of Thessaly are:
LARISSA, upon the banks of the Solambria; seat of a Greek archbishopric. 30,000 inhabitants. Here all the routes of Thessaly
converge. In its vicinity is
TRIKALA, with a fort; 12,000 inhabitants. Near the defile of
Agrafa.
TURNAVOS, AMBELAKIA, on the slopes of Mt. Ossa, once celebrated
for spinning and dyeing cotton yarn.
The principal towns of Bulgaria are:
SEHUMLA, one of the strongest positions of Europe, and one of the
advanced ramparts of the empire; on the northern side of the
Balkan, 290 m. N. N. W. from Constantinople, on one of the main
roads to which it lies. The Russians failed in all their attacks
upon this impregnable fortress in 1774, 1810, and 1828. Its
tinmen and braziers are the best in Turkey, and carry on active
trade with the capital; population 30,000.
MADARA, large village, inhabited by 2000 Mahommedan women
who live in common.
RASGRADE, small town.
RouSTSCHOUK, a fortified town on the Danube, with 33,000 inhabitants, composed of Armenians, Greeks, Turks, and Jews; large
manufactures and flourishing commerce.
SILISTRIA, strongly fortified on the Danube, 20,000 population.
Defended in 1829 for two months by 1200 Turks against 50,000
Russians.
BOSARDSCHICK, important town for its position on the Danube.




192         GEOGRAPITY  OF TURKEY.
VARNA, one of the best ports of the Black Sea, the ancient Odessus, 47 m. E. Shuinla, surrounded by fortifications of immense
strength, the mart of an extensive and fertile region. It produces
excellent wines and fruits, and carries on a large trade in
leather, tallow, wax, honey, building timber, &c. It has an
advantage over its rival, Odessa, in the fact that its harbor does
not freeze.
KARNABAD and PARAVADI, upon the military route of the Balkan.
DE.MIR-CAPU, iron gate, celebrated passage of the Balkan from Selimnia in Roumelia, to Stareka in Bulgaria.
SOPHIA, between the Isker and Nissava, population 50,000.
WVIDDIN, strong fortress on the Danube, population 25,000.
SISTOVA, beautifully situated on the Danube, and famous for its
cotton and leather manufactures.
RAsSOVA and HIRSOVA, strong citadels.
NicoPOLIS, on the Danube, which is here 6 miles broad. 10,000
population.
MATSCHIN, ISAKCHI, and TULCHA, fortified towns for the defence of
the right bank of the Danube, and which have acquired great
importance since the Turks have been forced to change their
lines of defence from Braila, Giurgewo, and Turna, Tultscha
commands the forks of the Danube, and at Isakschi there is a
ferry, over which is the general route from lower Bulgaria to
Wallachia.
BABA-DAGH, 10,000 inhabitants, and TURNAVE, 9000 population,
are important military points.
In Albania are:
JOANINNA, upon a lake, the former capital of the blood-thirsty Ali
Pasha; 18,000 population. In the neighborhood are:
MEZZOVO, 7000 population; KONITZA, PREMITI, CLISIURA, celebrated
citadels; DELVINO, with a strong fort, and 8000 population;
SULI, memorable for the valor of its inhabitants, and PARAMITIIA.
AGIROCASTRO, 9000 population, OCURIDA, DUK.GIN, and PERSERENPI, 4000 inhabitants.
ALEsss, at the mouth of the Drin, and CROYA, 6000 population.
SCUTARI, large fortified town, 20,000 population, flourishing commerce, and formerly celebrated by the brilliant court of
Mustapha.




GEOGRAPHY OF TURKEY.                       193
DU)LCIGNIO, in the Adriatic, 2500 population. ANTIVARI, seat of
a Greek metropolitan, a mile from the roadstead of that name.
ARTA (anc. Ambracia), 6000 population; SALAGORE, PRERESA,
with a harbor. PARGA, on the Adriatic, BUTRINTO, formerly a
Venetian fortress; JAKOVA, 20,000 population; DURAzzoO (anc.
Dyrrachium), 5000 population, commercial trade.
Principal towns of Bosnia:
BOSNA-SERAI, large town on the Mig liazza, with walls and ramparts, small forts, and 70,000 population; large manufactures
of arms, iron, copper, wool, cotton; central point of Bosnian
commerce.
TRAVNICK, with a citadel, 8000 population. Seat of the Grand
Vizir of this Eyalet, to whom the Porte gives the honorary title
of Vizir of Hungary.
VADROUK and MAGLAI, small towns on the Bosnia, with good
citadels.
ZWORNICK, one of the three fortresses of Bosnia; 14,000 population.
MOSTAR, upon the Narenta, 9000 population; celebrated for its
stone bridge, of which one arch has a span of 300 feet.
BIHACZ, one of the great fortresses of Bosnia. NovI, small town,
with citadel and important trade.
JAICZA, small town, with strong castle.
BANJALUKA, large town of the Sandschack of the same name;
15,000 population. One of the three great fortresses of Bosnia.
DESBIR, small fortified town.
LIVNo, town upon the great rojte of Austrian Dalmatia; flourishing commerce, 4000 population.
TREBINJE, strong town, 10,000 population.
Principal towns of the island of Candia:
CANDIA (Kirid in Turkish), capital of the island. Good citadel,
and about 15,000 population; remarkable for its remains of the
Venetian domination, with a good harbor, but shallow.
STANDIA, small island near Candia, with some good harbors.
RETYMO, town of Candia, with a harbor and port; 6000 population.
CANEA, most frequented port of the island; 12,000 population.
SFAKIA, chief town of the Sfakists of the island.
SPINALONGA, small fortress, upon the north side of the island;
17




194          GEOGRAPHY OF TURKEY.
good harbor, and 2000 population. The island of Candia is 110
miles from the coast of Asia Minor, is about 160 miles long, and
20 miles broad. Total population 160,000, of whom 100,000 are
native Greeks, 40,000 Turks, remainder Jews, Franks, &c. In
ancient times supposed to have contained 1,200,000 inhabitants,
and under the Venetians, 600,000; highly rich and fertile soil,
producing cotton, tobacco, wheat, barley, oats, oil, figs, wine,
oranges, lemons, linseed, honey, &c. Its numerous mountains are
covered with luxuriant forests of oak, chestnut, walnut, pine,
cypress, &c., and haunted by wild boar, wild goat, &c. Climate
healthy, and but few endemic diseases. It is governed by a
pasha, who is either an European or Asiatic Turk.
Five other of the principal islands of the Archipelago,
belonging to Turkey, merit notice:CYPRus, 300 m. east of Candia, is 132 m. long, and 35 m. broad.
Population, 100,000; one of the most fertile soils in the world,
producing, in abundance, grapes, lemons, oranges, figs, olives,
oil, silk, &c., with extensive forests of pine, beech, and oak. Its
wheat and cotton are of a superior quality; and its neglected
copper mines, in ancient times, were worked with great profit;
its mountains also contain gold, silver, and iron; and near Baffa,
asbestos is found in large quantities. It is one of the most prolific regions of the East for the grape. Owing to misgovernment,
the population, which, in ancient times, amounted to 1,000,000,
has greatly declined. Possesses, however, all the elements of
prosperity; abounds in good harbors. Larnica, the consular
residence, on the coast, has 5000 inhabitants; restored by Egypt
to Turkey in 1840, and now forms a separate Eyalet.
SAMOS, off the coast of Asia Minor, is 175 square miles in extent,
and although mountainous, it is very fertile, producing a great
variety of fruits, and abounding in forests of chestnuts, oak,
platane trees, as well as medicinal plants, such as jalap, scammony, &c., and mines of emery, marble, iron; loadstone and
ochre pits are also found. Population, 60,000, in a state of demriindependence; inhabitants turbulent enemies of the Ottoman
yoke.
RHODES, ten miles from coast of Asia Minor, 36 m. long, 14 m.
broad. Population, 50,000; produces corn, wine, oil, cotton,




G.EOGRAPHY  OF TURKEY.                     195
fruit, wax, honey.  Capital town, Rhodes; population, 8000,
with the houses and fortifications of the Knights of St. John yet
standing.
Scio, a magnificent island, separated from Asia by a strait eight
miles wide, contains 392 square miles; climate very healthy.
Famous for its luxuriant production of silk, cotton, oranges,
lemons, figs, wine, mastic, &c., and its beautiful women. Chief
city, Scio, on the east side, with a population of 15,000. The
whole population of the island previous to the massacre of 1822,
100,000, now about 40,000. It is the paradise of the Archipelago.
MYTILENE (ancient Lesbos), on the northern edge of the Gulf of
Smyrna, 50,000 inhabitants; one of the best cultivated islands,
and in a state of high prosperity; raises excellent wine, olives,
grain, figs, and other fruits. Chief town, Castro; 10,000 population; 137 miles in circumference; 260 square miles in extent.
II. TERRITORIAL POSSESSIONS OF TURKEY IN ASIA.
The frontiers of this natal country, as it were, of the
Ottomans are: to the north, the Dardanelles, the sea of
Marmora, the Bosphorus, the Black Sea, and Russia in
Asia; to the east, Russia in Asia, and the kingdom of
Persia; to the south, Arabia; to the west, the Mediterranean and the Archipelago. Turkey in Asia is divided
into eighteen Eyalets, or general governments.   The
principal points (which we can alone mention) are:
KUTAHIJE, population 50,000; seat of the Beglerberg of Anatolia,
and of a molla.
BRUSA, at the foot of Mount Olympus, one of the most prosperous
towns of the empire; population 100,000. The capital of the
empire, down to the taking of Adrianople.  The seat of a
molla of the first class, of a pasha, a Greek metropolitan, and
an Arminian archbishop.  Celebrated for the fertility of its
adjacent plains, and its superior manufactures of silk and
cotton fabrics, carpets, and velvets, its khans and colleges, its
hot baths, and the charming beauty of its situation.




196          GEOGRAPHY OF TURKEY.
MUDANIA, on the sea of Marmora, with a harbor, by means of
which it is put in communication with Constantinople and
Europe. It is the port of Brusa.
SMYRNA, upon the gulf of that name. Large and beautiful town,
with one of the most extensive bazaars of the East; principal
seat of Asiatic commerce with Europe. Exports raisins, figs,
opium, Turkey carpets, rhubarb, raw silk, cotton, &c. 150,000
population; one half Turks, the residue Franks, and a representation of all the nations of the East.
VOURLA, small town on the gulf of Smyrna (anc. Clazemene).
Seat of the Greek archbishop of Ephesus, and one of the best
naval harbors of the empire.
NICODEMIA, one of the largest cities of the Roman empire; as the
capital of which it was selected by Dioclesian; at the extremity
of a gulf five miles wide, and thirteen miles deep, on the sea of
Marmora; 5500 houses, but only 30,000 population. Constantine the Great died here.
In this part of Anadolia, to the south and opposite to the island
of Tenedos, is the bay of Besika, near the entrance of the Dardanelles from the Archipelago, the anchorage-ground of the allied
fleets.
DEMONESI, or Princes' Islands, a group of islets in the Sea of
Marnmora, within sight of Constantinople, at the entrance of the
Bosphorus.
MARMORA, the largest island of the sea of that name. Celebrated
for its marble quarries.
BODROUN, ancient Halicarnassus. Port and dock-yards for construction of Turkish vessels of war.
MARMORIZZA, small island to the south, containing one of the finest
harbors in the Mediterranean.
TARSOUS, formerly the most beautiful, richest, and most powerful
city of Cilicia; flourishing commerce; population 30,000.
PAYAS, small town on the Gulf of Alexandretta.
MERASCH, in the interior of the country, capital of the government
of the same name.
KONIEH, formerly residence of the Sultans of Roumelia, and at
present seat of a Greek Metropolitan and a Pasha. Important
for its carpet and morocco manufactures; population 30,000.
TOKAT, large town, with an European aspect. Seat of an Arme



GEOGRAPIHY  OF TURKEY.                     197
nian archbishopric. Famous as a point of gathering for caravans, for its copper foundries, dye-works, and Turkey leather
manufactories; population 90,000.
TREBISOND, on the Black Sea, with a magnificent roadstead and
two harbors. The port of European trade with India, Persia,
&c., and the emporium of all the countries to the S.E. of the
Black Sea. Veins of copper and lead in the neighboring mountains. Manufactures of arms and other articles; a Nourishing
place, and of great prospective importance; population 50,000.
An Austrian and Turkish line of steamers run regularly between
this city and Constantinople.
BATOUN, small port on the Black Sea, near Trebhisond and the Russian frontier, latterly known as the base of the Turkish operations in their attack on Fort Nikolajew; population 6000.
ERZEROUM, near the north shore of the Euphrates, important city
of Turkish Armenia, on an elevated plain; 134 m. S. E. of Trebisond - highly flourishing trade - on the high road between
Asia Minor, Georgia, and Persia; manufactures of arms and
the best sabres of the empire — the Ottoman rampart against
Russia and Persia.
DIARBEKIR, upon the right bank of the Tigris, large and beautiful
town; seat of a Chaldean patriarch, of a Catholic bishop, and
a Jacobite patriarch. Manufactures and commerce; population
55,000.
MosuL, on the Tigris, 193 m. N. N. W. Bagdad, population 50,000;
near the site of the ancient Nineveh, very healthy climate, important manufactures of muslins.
BAGDAD, on the Tigris, 200 miles from its junction with the Euphrates, built on both banks of the river, here about 650 feet
wide, and connected by a bridge of boats. Maintains an active
trade with Asia Minor, Syria, and Europe, in the distribution
by caravans of goods from India, imported at Bussorah, and
thence boated up the Tigris. Merchants from all parts of the
East are to be met with in its thronged bazaars. Once the residence of the caliphs, and the principal seat of Oriental learning,
until it was destroyed by Genghis Khan.
BUssORAH, on the S. W. bank of the Euphrates, 70 miles from its
mouth, and 45 miles below its junction with the Tigris, and 2 70
S.E. of Bagdad. Grand emporium of the Turkish empire for
17*




198          GEOGRAPHY OF TURKEY.
the produce of the East Indies; accessible for vessels of 500 tons
burden. 60,000 population.
ALEPPO, formerly the first city after Constantinople and Cairo, and
at present containing 140,000 inhabitants; surrounded by gardens and vineyards; still a place of considerable trade. Has
been overthrown on several occasions by violent earthquakes.
TRIPOLI, the best built town of all Syria, with a good harbor on the
Mediterranean, and a large commerce; excellent tobacco raised
in its vicinity. " Tripoli," says McCulloch, " was taken by the
Crusaders in 1108. It had previously been one of the most
flourishing seats of Oriental literature, and possessed a very
large collection of Persian and Arabic works. It is said that
100 copyists were constantly kept employed copying manuscripts, and that the princes of Tripoli were in the habit of sending messengers into foreign countries to discover and purchase
rare and valuable works. Unfortunately, however, this extensive and precious collection, amounting, it is said, to 100,000
volumes, was destroyed by the Crusaders, who displayed on
this occasion the same fanatical zeal of which they have accused, though we believe unjustly, the Arabs in the case of the
Alexandrian library. A priest in the suite of Count Bertrand
de St. Giles, having visited an apartment of the library in which
were a number of duplicate copies of the Koran, reported that it
contained none but the impious works of Mohammed, and that,
consequently, it should be destroyed 1 And, as a matter of course,
it was forthwith set on fire!
ST. JEAN D'ACRE, strong town on the sea-coast; formerly a celebrated port, but now filled with obstructions; surrounded by
fortifications of great strength; sustained many memorable
sieges during the crusades, and remained in the hands of the
Christians for 100 years; the Saracens took it in 1291. It is at
the entrance of the valley that leads to Nazareth and the heart
of Palestine. 20,000 population.
JERUSALEM, the most celebrated city of the world - the cradle of
Christianity and Judaism, and the second sanctuary of Mahommedanism. Beyond its sacred Christian sites, it contains one
of the most elegant mosques in the Turkish dominions, that of
Omar, built on the foundations of the temple of Soliman; within
its precincts is the holy stone, Hadjr el Sakhara, with an impress




GEOGRAPHY  OF TURKEY.                      199
of the foot of the Prophet, when he was translated to heaven.
Chiefly dependent for existence as a place of resort for Christian,
Hebrew, and Mahommedan pilgrims, and in its trade of holy
souveniris. Population about 12,000, of whom 7000 are Turks.
DAMASCUS, one of the most ancient cities of the world.  50,000
pilgrims from Turkey in Europe and Asia, Persia, and Turkestan, annually visit it; population 140,000. The Turks of this
city live in great magnificence, and the bazaars, khans, and
hospitals, are among the most famous in the East; place of
great commerce, and a grand rendezvous of caravans for Mecca,
Bagdad, Aleppo, &c. Situated in one of the most fertile and
beautiful plains of the world, covered with all kinds of fruit
and grains; one of the most fanatical cities of Mahommnedanism.
BEYROUT, the port of Damascus on the Mediterranean, and chief
town of export of Syria, on the edge of an extensive plain
covered with mulberry and fig plantations; population 13,000.
III.  TRIBUTARY COUNTRIES OF TURKEY IN EUROPE AND
AFRICA: MOLDAVIA, WALLACHIA, SERVIA, EGYPT,
TRIPOLI, AND TUNIS.
Each of the tributary countries of the Porte possesses a
peculiar government under the protectorate of the Sultan.
In Servia, the prince, or Hospodar, in concert with a
senate, and by the payment of an annual tribute of two
millions of Turkish piasters (461,250 francs), exercises
the domestic government of the principality. By treaty
stipulations, the Turks cannot reside in Servia, Moldavia,
and Wallachia; but they occupy the  frontier Servian
fortress of Belgrade in case of war, and the Hospodar
is obliged to furnish an auxiliary force of 12,000 men.
In conformity with the conditions of the treaty of
Adrianople, the Sultan published a Hatti-sheriff, regulating
the obligations of Servia to the Porte, leaving, however,
its domestic administration entirely free.  By virtue of
the same decree, all the personal or other taxes, which




200        GEOGRAPHY  OF TURKEY.
the Sultan or Grand Vizir could increase or diminish at
pleasure, have been abolished, with the exception of the
yearly tribute.  The incorporation with the principalities
of six formerly independent districts, Timok, Carmala,
Drina, Prahin, I(ruschowatz, and Starrovolsk, was also
determined by the treaty.
The princes (Waiwodes, Hospodars,) of Moldavia and
Wallachia are under the sovereignty of the Porte, and
the protectorate of Russia; but they are appointed by the
Sultan.  Their armed force, at present, amounts to 7000
regular troops, and 50,000 militia; they send no representatives to foreign nations, and have no relations with
them.  The hospodars are appointed by the Sultan for
life, and are selected from among the boyards of the
first class, according to the treaty of 1829.  Egypt,
Tripoli, and Tunis-the first recognised as a vice-royalty,
inheritable in the family of Mehemet Ali - are likewise
tributary countries to the Porte.
Montenegro, a small mountainous country between
Albania and Dalmatia, is altogether independent of the
Porte.  In an extent of about seventy square miles, it
contains 130,000 inhabitants, of the Greek confession, of
whom 20,000 are accustomed to the use of arms. Its
constitution is almost republican, and its chief is called
Wladika (bishop). The translator had the pleasure of
receiving a visit, in 1851, at Naples from the predecessor
of the actual Wladika.  He was a tall, commanding
person, thoroughly educated at a German University, a
tragic poet, whose compositions had been performed with
considerable success on the Vienna stage, and a warm
republican in political -sentiment.  He spoke of his
people as a warlike and semi-barbarous race, fierce lovers
of liberty, for which they had valiantly contended for




GEOGRAPHY OF TURlKEY.                   201
ages against Christian and Mussulman enemies.  HIe was
a firm believer in the superiority of the Sclavonic stock,
and was particularly inimical to Kossuth and the Hungarians. Upon parting with me, he expressed the hope of
receiving me among his native mountains, and of making
me acquainted with his martial subjects. "The only two
perfectly free countries in the world," said he, as he
retired, "are the United States of America and Montenegro!"  The present Wladika is Daniel I. Petrovich
Njegosch, and combines the dignity of prince of the
church, with that of chief of the state.  He resides in
the capital of Montenegro, at Cettignie, the population
of which is abtut 6000.
1.  Principality of Mloldavia.
Moldavia is situated along the right bank of the Pruth,
embraces an extent of 800 square' miles, and contains
1,400,000 inhabitants. For a short distance the Danube
serves as its frontier to the south; the Pruth and Sereth
both empty into it. r The principal towns are:
JASSY, capital of the principality on the Beglui, a tributary of the
Pruth, 160 miles W. N. V. of Odessa; residence of the foreign
consuls; population 40,000.
ROMAN, a town, 1800 population; seat of a bishop.
GALATZ, on the Danube, centre of the commerce of the principality,
with a port, and 30,000 population; strongly fortified.
DoROHOE, capital of Upper Moldavia.
BOTTUSCHANI, the most considerable town of Upper Moldavia, for
its relations with Brody, Brunn, and all Austria.
2.  The Principality of Wallachia.
The principal rivers of Wallachia are the Danube,
which forms the frontier on the side of Turkey, and its
tributaries, the Schyl, the Aluta, the Ardschisch, the




202         GEOGRAPHY  OF TURKEY.
Jalomitza, and Sereth. The Hospodar is appointed for
life, and can be deposed only for some one of the
offences laid down in the treaty of Adrianople.  Ile exercises the free government of the province in its domestic
affairs.  Wallachia, as Moldavia, has the advantage of
being exempt from the maintenance of a Turkish corps
6f occupation.  The extent of its territory is 13,500
square geographic miles, and its population amounts to
2,600,000. The most important towns are:
BUCHAREST, upon the Dambrowitza, a tributary of the Danube,
280 m. W. N. W. of Constantinople, residence of consuls and the
richest boyards; great commerce; population 90,000. In its
vicinity are PLOYESTI, WALENI, KIMPINA, inmportant for their
commerce.
TERGOVIST, former residence of the Hospodar.
FoKSCHANI, considerable commercial town on the frontier; and
BusNo, 4000 population.
BRAILA, fortified, with a port on the Danube; population 18,000.
GUIRGEWO, on the Danube, opposite Roustschouck, citadel upon an
island; population 16,000.
SIOBODZIN, 7000 population.
ARDSISCn, celebrated for the route which traverses it, leading to the
passage of the red tower.
KRAJOWA, chief town of little Wallachia; large commerce; population 17,000.
OLTENITZA, at the junction of the Ardsisch and Danube. IIere
the Turks crossed in 1853, and obtained an important victory
under its walls.
KALAFAT, celebrated by its heroic defence by Omar Pasha, and
unsuccessful siege by the Russians in 1854.
3. Principality of Servia.
Servia is bounded on the north by the Danube and the
Save; to the west by Bosnia; to the south by Albania
and Roumelia, and to the east by Bulgaria and Wallachia.




GEOGRAPHY OF TURKEY.                    203
It contains 700 square geographical miles, and 1,000,000
inhabitants.  The principal towns are:
SEMENDRIA, at the confluence of the Morawa and the Danube; a
considerable town, fortified, and the capital of the Principality.
Population 12,000.
BELGRADE, the most important and best built town of Servia, and
one of the strongest fortifications of Europe; population 25,000.
NISSA, fortified town, and seat of a Greek bishopric.
KRAGOJEWATZ, the present seat of the government.
UBICZA, point of junction of many important routes.
VALLIEVO and GLODOVA, small villages on the right bank of the
Danube.
SHABACZ, strongly fortified town, population 8000.
NOvIBASAR, population 7500.
With these geographical notices upon Turkey in
Europe, Asia, and Africa, we have sufficiently accomplished our aim of giving, within a limited space, an outline of the natural and military resources, and population
of the Ottoman empire. The present theatre of war is
transferred from the immediate borders of the Danube to
the country surrounding the Black Sea. This spacious
sea is no doubt destined to be the scene of an immense
inland commerce at some future day. The dangers of
navigation from its fogs, currents, and violent winds, will
be overcome when its shores shall be provided with lighthouses, and a proper map of its soundings and physical
features shall have been made.
The Venitians and the Genoese were the first modern
nations who appreciated and sought to avail themselves
of the position and riches of the Black Sea, in ancient
times visited only by the vessels of the Grecian republics.
Genoa there established its route to the East Indies,
neglecting that over the isthmus of Suez. It is, perhaps,
to the commercial enterprise of the Genoese in the East



204        GEOGRAPHY  OF TURKEY.
ern seas, that we may ascribe a reason for the energetic
obstinacy with which they defended against Mahomet II.
the city of Constantinople, which, for a long period, had
become in their hands a vast entrepot of trade.
Numerous and different races occupy the shores of the
Euxine. In the west are the Turks and Bulgarians;
further, the Russians at Odessa, Sebastopol, &c.; to the
north and north-east, the Cossacks; upon the eastern
shore are the Mingrelians, Georgians, the Lazes, the
Abazes, and the Circassians; to the south rove the Mussulman tribes of Asia Minor.
The products of the countries bathed by this sea are
no less various. The grains, cattle, and woods of Bithynia are celebrated in the East. The environs of Sinope,
the ancient capital of Paphlagonia, afford tar, hemp, ship
timber, and other articles requisite for the naval service.
Trebisond  possesses productive  copper mines.  The
eastern coast is also very fertile, and the demi-civilised
tribes who inhabit it carry on a large commerce in furs.
From Georgia and Circassia the rich Mussulmans supply
their harems. Who could estimate the number of victims
which the inhabitants of these two countries have sacrificed to the merciless avarice of the slave merchants of
Constantinople, and the insatiable voluptuousness of the
dignitaries of the Ottoman empire?  From  these fine
populations, who inhabit the cradle-land of the human
race, were furnished the Mamelouks of Egypt-that
redoubtable cavalry force which, for so long a period,
swayed the fortunes of the land of the Pharaohs.  To the
north is the Crimea, whose grains are exported to all the
countries of Europe; and the mouths of the Danube bring
down upon its waters the rich and varied products of the
vast region drained by that great stream.




GEOGRAPHY  OF TURKEY.                205
From the 15th to the close of the 18th century, the
Turks excluded all,other nations from  entering the
Euxine. After 1799, the Russians finally gained a footing upon its shores, but it was only thrown open to the
world at large by the treaty of Adrianople. Its exclusive possession would be a source of incalculable wealth
and power to Russia, and would enable her to realize her
ambitious dreams of naval supremacy in the Mediterranean. Among the mountains of the Caucasus, and the
high plains of Armenia, and in the defiles of the Balkan,
within sight of its waters, the hostile camps of the contending nations are now engaged in a conflict, the issue
of which is to affect the interests of the whole human
family.
THE END.
18








APPEND I X.
I.
OFFICIAL NOTE, ADDRESSED BY THE SUBLIME PORTE TO
THE AMBASSADORS OF FRANCE, ENGLAND, PRUSSIA,
AND AUSTRIA.
"ALTHOUGH the question of the Holy Places, which formed one
of the objects of the mission of his Excellency, Prince Menshikoff,
ambassador extraordinary of Russia, was settled to the satisfaction
of all parties, the prince has advanced certain pretensions with
respect to the Greek church and its clergy, of an entirely different
nature.
" The Sublime Porte holds itself bound to preserve unimpaired,
now and at all times, the religious immunities, as well as the rights
and privileges granted under preceding reigns, and confirmed by
the reigning Sultan, to the churches, monasteries, and clergy, of
the Ottoman subjects professing the Greek religion; it has also
never intended to violate them in any manner, nor has it ever
called in question the friendly and loyal intentions of his majesty
the Emperor of Russia. But to stipulate with a foreign government by a sened (obligatory act), under the form of a convention,
or by a note or declaration having the same force and value, rights,
privileges, and immunities (were they even exclusively confined to
the religion, faith, and church), in favor of a numerous commu(0o7)




208                    APPENDIX.
nity, subjects of the government, this trenches upon the independent rights of the power which engages itself, and is not to be
compared with concessions made by former treaties.
" The facts, however, have been frankly laid before Prince Menshikoff; and a disposition has also been manifested to give every
assurance proper to dissipate the apprehensions entertained with
respect to the faith which his majesty the Emperor of all the Russias, personally professes. But, unfortunately, this has not led to
an understanding between the two parties; and the Sublime Porte
deeply regrets that the prince has pushed matters so far as to discontinue all further relations, and to quit his post.
"The Sublime Porte cherishes no hostile intention towards the
august court of Russia; its most ardent aspiration, on the contrary,
is to draw yet tighter the bonds of friendship which are so dear
and precious to it, by the resumption of official relations. It
hopes, then, that his majesty the Emperor, in view of his well
known character for justice, will not without cause engage in hostilities; and that the firm principles of his imperial Majesty, of
which the world is a witness, will not permit him to adopt a course
at variance with the positive assurances which he has given to the
august courts of Europe.
"But as it is a fact that the prince has broken off all relations,
and quitted his post; as, in this interval, the Sublime Porte has
in nowise been assured that war would not take places whilst it
sees great military preparations made by Russia on land and sea,
on the frontiers of the Ottoman empire, the Sublime Porte, although it has no hostile intention, finds itself obliged, however, in
common precaution, to adopt certain preparatory measures; and
it has resolved from this date to take measures of defence, and it
trusts that the high courts, signers of the treaty of 1841, will
admit the propriety of its conduct.
"In acquitting myself, by sovereign order, of this communication, I seize, etc., etc.
(Signed)                      "MOUSTAFA RESCHID."




APPENDIX.                         209
II.
MANIFESTO OF THE EMPEROR OF RUSSIA.
"BY the grace of God, we, Nicholas I., Emperor and Autocrat
of all the Russias, etc., etc. WVe make known:
"By our manifesto of the 14th of June of the present year, we
made known to our faithful and well-beloved subjects, the motives
which obliged us to reclaim of the Ottoman Porte inviolable guarantees in favor of the sacred rights of the orthodox church.
"We likewise announced to them that all our efforts to bring
back the Porte, by means of amicable persuasion, to sentiments
of equity, and to the faithful observation of treaties, had failed;
and that we had, consequently, deemed it indispensable to advance
our troops into the Danubian principalities. But in adopting this
measure, we yet entertained the hope that the Porte would recognize its errors, and would satisfy our just reclamations.
"Our expectation has been deceived.
"In vain even did the principal powers of Europe endeavor, by
their exhortations, to shake the blind obstinacy of the Ottoman
government. It is by a declaration of war, by a proclamation of
false accusations against Russia, that it has answered to the pacific
efforts of Europe, and to our forbearance. Finally, enrolling in
its ranks the revolutionists of all countries, the Porte commences
hostilities on the Danube. Russia is provoked to the combatnothing more is left to it than, reposing confidently upon God, to
have recourse to arms in order to constrain the Ottoman government to respect the treaties, and to obtain a reparation for the
insults with which it has replied to our most moderate demands,
and to our legitimate solicitude for the defence of the orthodox
faith in the East, which the people of Russia also profess; convinced that oar faithful subjects will unite with us in fervent
prayer to the Most High, to deign to bless our arms in his holy
cause, which has always found ardent defenders in our pious
ancestors.
"In te, Domine, speravi; non confundar in aeternum.
"Given at Toarkoe-Selo, the 20th day of the month of October,
of the year one thousand eight hundred and fifty-three, and of the
twenty-eighth of our reign.
(Signed)                          "NICHOLAS."
18*




210                   APPENDIX.
III.
DECLARATION OF WAR BY ENGLAND.
"Her Majesty, with deep regret, announces the failure of her
anxious and continued efforts to preserve to her people and to
Europe the blessings of peace.
"The Emperor of Russia having persisted in his unprovoked
aggression upon the Sublime Porte with such a disregard of the
consequences, as to refuse the just and honorable propositions
presented to him by the Emperors of Austria and France, the King
of Prussia, and Her Majesty; Her Majesty feels herself obliged,
by the honor of her crown and a due regard for the independence
of the States of Europe, to repair to the defence of an ally whose
territory has been invaded, and whose independence is assailed.
" In justification of the measure she has been obliged to resort
to, Her Majesty refers to the events which have transpired.
" The Emperor of Russia found some motive of complaint against
the Sultan, with reference to the adjustment by him of the conflicting claims between the Greek and Latin churches, to certain
of the Holy Places in Jerusalem and its vicinity. The Sultan did
justice, in this particular, to the complaint of the Emperor of
Russia, and the ambassador of Her Majesty in Constantinople had
the satisfaction of promoting an agreement to which the Russian
government made no objection.
"But while the Russian government repeatedly assured the
government of Her Majesty, that the mission of Prince Menschikoff
to Constantinople was exclusively directed to the settlement of the
question of the Holy Places at Jerusalem, Prince Menschikoff
himself pressed upon the Porte other demands of a far more serious
and important character, the nature of which he, tn the first instance, endeavored, as far as possible, to conceal from Her Majesty's
ambassador. And these demands, thus studiously concealed, affected not the privileges of the Greek Church at Jerusalem, but the
position of many millions of Turkish subjects in their relations to
their sovereign the Sultan.
" These demands were rejected by the spontaneous decision of
the Sublime Porte.
" Two assurances have been given to Her Majesty: one, that the




APPENDIX.                        211
mission of Prince Menschikoff only regarded the Holy Places; the
other, that his mission would be of a conciliatory character.
"In both respects, Her Majesty's just expectations were disappointed.
"Demands were made which, in the opinion of the Sultan, extended to the substitution of the Emperor of Russia's authority for
his own over a large portion of his subjects; and those demands
were enforced by a threat; and when Her Majesty learned that,
on announcing the termination of his mission, Prince Menschikoff
declared that the refusal of his demands would impose upon the
Imperial Government- the necessity of seeking a guaranty by its
own power, Her Majesty thought proper that her fleet should
leave Malta, and, in co-operation with that of his Majesty the Emperor of the French, take up its station in the neighborhood of the
Dardanelles.
"So long as the negotiation bore an amicable character, Her
Majesty refrained from any demonstration of force. But when, in
addition to the assemblage of large military forces on the frontier
of Turkey, the ambassador of Russia intimated that serious consequences would ensue from the refusal of the Sultan to comply with
unwarrantable demands, Her Majesty deemed it right, in conjunction with the Emperor of the French, to give an unquestionable
proof of her determination to support the sovereign rights of the
Sultan.
"The Russian government has maintained that the determination of the Emperor to occupy the Principalities was taken in
consequence of the advance of the fleets of England and France.
But the menace of invasion of the Turkish territory was conveyed
in Count Nesselrode's note to Reschid Pacha, of the 19th (31st)
May, and re-stated in his despatch to Baron Brunow, of the 20th
May, (1st June,) which announced the determination of the Emperor of Russia to order his troops to occupy the Principalities,
if the Porte did not within a week comply with the demands of
Russia.
" The despatch to Her Majesty's ambassador at Constantinople
authorizing him, in certain specified contingencies, to send for the
British fleet, was dated the 31st of May, and the order sent direct
from England to Her Majesty's admiral to proceed to the neighborhood of the Dardanelles wtas dated the 2d of June.
" The determination to occupy the Principalities was, therefore,




212                   APPENDIX.
taken before the orders for the advance of the combined squadron
were given.
"The Sultan's Minister was informed that unless he signed
within a week, and without the change of a word, the note proposed to the Porte by Prince Menschikoff, on the eve of his departure from Constantinople, the Principalities of Moldavia and
Wallachia would be occupied by Russian troops. The Sultan could
not accede to so insulting a demand; but when the actual occupation of the Principalities took place, the Sultan did not, as he might
have done in the exercise of his undoubted right, declare war, but
addressed a protest to his allies.
"Iter Majesty, in conjunction with the sovereigns of Austria,
France, and Prussia, has made various attempts to meet any just
demands of the Emperor of Russia, without affecting the dignity
and independence of the Sultan; and had it been the sole object
of Russia to obtain security for the enjoyment by the Christian
subjects of the Porte of their privileges and immunities, she would
have found it in the offers that have been made by the Sultan.
But as that security was not offered in the shape of a special and
separate stipulation with Russia, it was rejected. Twice has this
offer been made by the Sultan, and recommended by the Four
Powers: once by a note originally prepared at Vienna, and subsequently modified by the Porte; once by the proposal of bases of
negotiations agreed upon at Constantinople on the 31st of December, and approved at Vienna on the 13th of January, as offering
to the two parties the means of arriving at an understanding in a
becoming and honorable manner.
"It is thus manifest that a right for Russia to interfere in the
ordinary relations of Turkish subjects to their sovereign, and not
the happiness of Christian communities in Turkey, was the object
sought for by the Russian government. To such a demand the
Sultan would not submit, and his Highness, in self-defence, declared
war upon Russia; but ITer Majesty, nevertheless, in conjunction
with her allies, has not ceased her endeavors to restore peace between the contending parties.
" The time has, however, now arrived when the advice and remonstrances of the Four Powers having proved wholly ineffectual, and
the military preparations of Russia becoming daily more extended,
it is but too obvious that the Emperor of Russia has entered upon




APPENDIX.                         213
a course of policy which, if unchecked, must lead to the destruction
of the Ottoman Empire.
"In this conjecture, HIer Majesty feels called upon by regard for
an ally, the integrity and independence of whose empire have been
recognised as essential to the peace of Europe, by the sympathies
of her people with right against wrong, by a desire to avert from
her dominions most injurious consequences, and to save Europe
from the preponderance of a Power which has violated the faith
of treaties, and defies the opinion of the civilized world, to take up
arms, in conjunction with the Emperor of the French, for the defence
of the Sultan.
" IIer Majesty is persuaded that in so acting she will have the
cordial support of her people; and that the pretext of zeal for the
Christian religion will be used in vain to cover an aggression,
undertaken in disregard of its holy precepts and of its pure and
beneficent spirit.
" IIer Majesty humbly trusts that her efforts may be successful,
and that, by the blessing of Providence, peace may be re-established
on safe and solid foundations.
"WESTMINSTER, March 28, 1854."
IV.
ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.
TlE Ottoman empire is governed by a code of laws called multeka,
founded on the precepts of the Koran, the oral laws of Mohammed,
his traditions, usages, and opinions, together with the sentences
and decisions of the early caliphs, and the doctors of the first ages
of Islamism. This code comprises a collection of laws relating to
religious, civil, criminal, political, and military affairs; all equally
respected as being theocratical, canonical, and immutable, though
obligatory in different degrees, according to the authority which
accompanies each precept. In some instances it imposes a duty
of eternal obligation, as being a transcript of the divine will as




214                   APPENDIX.
revealed to the prophet: in others it invites to an imitation of the
prophet in his life and conduct. And though to slight the example
be blamable, it does not entail upon the delinquent the imputation
or penalty of guilt; while the decisions of doctors on questions
that have arisen since the death of the prophet are of still inferior
authority. When a matter occurs that has not been foreseen or
provided for by the early promulgators of the law, the Sultan pronounces a decision; and his authority is absolute in all matters
that do not interfere with the doctrines or practical duties of religion.  The code multeka is, however, alone considered as paramount law: the decisions or decrees of the Sultan (hatti scheriff),
of which a compilation was made by Solyman the Magnificent,
under the name of canon nameh, are considered as emanations from
human authority, and, as such, are susceptible of modification, or
even abolition, remaining in force only during the pleasure of the
Sultan or his successors.  (Thornton, i. 107, &c.)  The adet or
provincial customs are also allowed considerable influence.
In all the districts and towns of the empire, justice is administered byjudges (cadis), who are of fire different ranks, according
to the importance of the place in which they are established, each
cadi being assisted by a deputy, or naib. Nothing can be more
simple and expeditious than the forms of proceeding in Turkish
courts. Each party represents his case, unassisted by counsellors,
advocates, or pleaders of any kind, and supports his statements by
the production of evidence.  The deposition of two competent
witnesses is admitted as complete legal proof in all cases whatever.
The promptitude of Turkish justice has been often praised; but
though dilatoriness be, in this respect, highly blamable, we apprehend that it is a far less evil than the other extreme. In Turkey,
no ordinary legal authority can detain an untried man in prison
more than three days; and in criminal cases the execution of sentences follows close upon the decision of the judge; but neither of
these regulations appears to be advantageous; for, in the one case,
sufficient time is not allowed to prepare either a defence or an accusation; and in the other, the immediate execution of the sentence
prevents the power of appeal to a superior tribunal, and consequently takes away the only means of getting an unjust decision
reversed, and, what is of more consequence, an unjust or ignorant
judge exposed and degraded. In the greater number of civil cases




APPENDIX.                        215
appeals may be made from the naib to the cadi, from the latter to
the cadi-asker, or judge of the province, and hence to the Sultan.
The latter, however, is rarely practised; and is effected only by
presenting a petition to his highness on his way to the mosque.
Bastinado, fine, imprisonment, the galleys, and capital punishment
by hanging, drowning, beheading, or strangling, are the principal
means of disposing of criminals. Death is sometimes awarded for
what we should consider comparatively venial crimes, as, for instance, unfair dealing on the part of tradesmen; though a butcher
or baker convicted of short weight is more frequently nailed by
the ear to the door of his shop.
Speaking generally, the administration of justice is in the most
disgraceful state in Turkey. According to law, all the judgments
of the pachas and of their deputies should be submitted to the cadi,
and can only be legally carried into effect when approved by the
latter. But, in practice, this salutary regulation is generally disregarded, and in most cases the sentences of the pacha are executed
whether they be approved by the cadi or not. (Boue, iii. 351.)
But the grand vice of Turkish justice consists in the venality of the
judges and the toleration of perjury. "The monarch's despotism
is not the greatest evil in Turkey: his subjects would, perhaps,
bear that without much murmuring or great distress. The radical
destruction of all security lies in the iniquitous administration of
their laws, which are an impending sword in the hand of corruption, ever ready to cut off their lives and properties."  (Porter,
ii. 1.) Mr. Thornton seems to think that Turks have rarely to
complain of injustice, and that, speaking generally, the decisions
of the judges, in cases where both parties are Mussulmans, are
fair and impartial. We are assured, however, by those well
acquainted with the fact, that this statement must be received with
great modification, and that a rich or powerful Turk has, in most
instances, little or no difficulty in obtaining a decision in his favor,
however unjust his cause; and that as respects Christians and
Jews, they have no chance in a litigation with a Turk, unless they
succeed beforehand in securing the good offices of the judge. It is
a principle of Turkish law that written testimony is of no avail
when opposed to living witnesses; and hence every precaution
should be taken to render the latter trustworthy. But, instead of
this, the most detestable perjurers enjoy an all but total impunity,




216                    APPENDIX.
and carry on a lucrative as well a.s an infamous profession. False
swearing is punished by leading the culprit through the streets
seated on an ass, with his face turned to the animal's tail; and
even this punishment, trifling as it is when imposed on such
wretches, is rarely enforced.  Magistrates are compelled to decide
according to the evidence of notorious perjurers, unless they detect
their falsehlood at the moment. The subjects of foreign powers
residing in Turkey are allowed, in virtue of treaties to that effect,
to support their claims by written evidence. (Thornton, i. 196, &c.)
M. Bou6, whose remarks on the administration of justice are as
superficial as can well be imagined, is good enough to inform his
readers that si on ne pouvait pas citer defaux temnoins, des temoins
subornas a prix d'argent, et m&nte des juges qui se laissent gagner, la
justice Turque meriterait tout aussi bien ce nomn que la notre!  (iii.
355.) True, and on the same principle we might say that if A.
were not a thief, he would be as honest as B.
There is a considerable discrepancy in the accounts of the state
of the police in Turkey, though most recent travellers say that it is
extremely defective. No doubt, however, considering the abuses
inherent in every department of the administration, it is superior
to what might have been expected. This is mainly ascribable to
the regulation which makes every district of the country resplonsible for all the murders, robberies, and other crimes of violence
committed within its bounds; and which consequently makes their
repression the business of all the more respectable inhabitants.
Owing to the jealousy of the Turks of the invasion of their privacy, no writ of search can at any time be executed in the interior
of the house of a Turk but in the presence of the Iman, nor in
that of a Christian except accompanied by a priest; nor of a Jew,
unless a rabbi be present. The rooms occupied by the women,
which are never entered, frequently shelter criminals.-From
AM' Culloch's Geog. Dic.
THE END.