HOW TO PARSE. B~y the author of "How to Parse." HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY. Rules and Exercises on English Composition. i6mo. Cloth. Price, 6o cents. ENGLISH LESSONS FOR ENGLISH PEOPLE. By E. A. ABBOTT, M.A., and J. R. SEELEY, M.A. i6mo. Cloth. Price, $1.5o. -4 ROBERTS BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, Boston. HOW TO PARSE. an attempt to Slppl tje trincfplet of cfrolarJljip TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. WITH APPENDIXES ON ANALYSIS, SPELLING, AND PUNCTUATION. BY THE REV. EDWIN A. ABBOTT, D.D., HEAD MASTER OF THE CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL; AUTHOR OF "HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY.' BOSTON: ROBERTS BROTHERS. 1878. THE, AUTHOR'S COPYRIGHT EDITION. Cam bridge: Press of _7ohn Wi/son &' Son. PREFACE. THE First Part of this book is intended for pupils so far advanced as to be able to distinguish the Parts of Speech. The author's object has been to teach elementary English Grammar as simply as is consistent with the honest recognition of difficulties, and not to accumulate masses of information that might be of use to foreigners, but must be useless to English boys. I have been accused, by a very friendly and favorable reviewer, of " unkindness " in completely ignoring the " Article " in my introductory treatise How to Tell the Parts of Speech. It has occurred to me, in consequence, to prefix to this work a Glossary of Grammatical Terms - many of them, let us hope, obsolete or obsolescent. Here the pupil may now and then refresh his memory as to the meaning of Article, Genitive, Nominative, Accusative, Case, Proper Noun, Conjugation, Decline, and the like; and by this means he will be able to satisfy himself that many of these terms, when applied to the Grammar of his native tongue, are absolutely superfluous or erroneous. It is also probable that ready access to a Glossary, explaining etymologically Cardinal, Inflection, Apostrophe, Climax, Bathos, Verse, &c., may in many cases be of positive as well as negative benefit. The Exercises are specially written to illustrate the rules. This has involved some labor; but I am convinced that the labor was well spent. A pupil cannot _- I F,`: -i. vi HW0 T TO PARSE. be regarded as thoroughly tested in his knowledge of grammatical rules till he has applied them to connected narrative. As long as he is tested in nothing but short sentences, you can never feel sure that his accuracy is not merely mechanical. Paragraphs 1-82 are of a much simpler character than those that follow; and the pupil should be well drilled in them before passing onward. The grammarlessons of three or four months may be very well spent in teaching boys how to select the Subjects and Objects of the different Verbs in a Sentence, and a month or two more may well be given to Relative Sentences. Indeed, if the majority of a class of boys, between 11 and 12 years old, can, after six months' training in grammar, parse " jay " in: - " The jay that robbed the other birds of their feathers was afterwards punished for robbing then "I should, myself, think the six months spent to very good purpose. Paragraphs 82-162 are decidedly more difficult, and constitute work for a higher class. The chapter on the Subjunctive Mood is put last, out of its place, owing to the extreme difficulty of the subject. The chapter on Irregularities, Paragraphs 191-230, is of a different nature from the former part of the book. It is intended to prepare the pupil for Part II., and is an attempt to apply the principles of scholarship to the explanation of the irregularities of English Grammar. These principles are few, and capable of brief enunciation, viz., (1) that every irregularity is a deviation from a " regula " or rule; (2) that there must be some attracting force to produce this deviation; (3) that this attracting force is generally one of three causes, of which the " confusion of' two constructions " is by far the most common. Simple and brief though they are, these principles require, as every teacher knows, careful and constant inculcation before the pupil is imbued with them. But when the pupil has once mastered them, he has the key to unlock any idiomatic irregularity, in any PREFACE. vii language -always provided that he is well acquainted with the particular language in its regular expressions. Not much space is given to Analysis; but perhaps as much as the subject deserves. If this subject is to be taught at all - and there is much in it that constitutes a useful mental exercise -it ought, in the opinion of the author, to be disencumbered of its present technicalities, and to be taught more logically. For exampie, in most treatises on Analysis, it is assumed that, in such a sentence as:"Feeling the man's hand in my pocket I turned suddenly round," -the words " feeling the man's hand " are an Adjective Phrase, or " Enlargement of the Subject." But nothing surely ought to be more obvious than that (whatever the grammatical construction may be) I' feeling" here means " when, or because I felt," and is nearly the same as "on feeling;" so that the words in question form really an Adverbial, and not an Adjectival Phrase. It is almost startling that this Adjectival error should have been gravely inculcated for a generation in the best, as in the worst, treatises on English Grammar. Possibly the servile imitation of Latin Grammar -the ruin of all good English teaching —has been at work here, as in so many other cases, assimilating the English to the Latin Active Participle, and ignoring the extent to which the English Participle has been merged in the English Verbal Noun.' For these reasons, in the Chapter on Analysis, several changes have been introduced with the view of discarding technicalities: and the terms Phrase, Clause, and Sentence, are rigidly used according to their definitions. (See Glossary and also Par. 239.)2 In the " Hints on Spelling," Paragraphs 266-291, an attempt has been made to give explanations, or 1 See Paragraphs 585-595. 2 I gladly acknowledge my obligation to Mr. Mason for his excellent method of indicating the Subordination of Sentences by underlining. viii iHO W TO PARSE. suggestions of possible explanations, of a few among the thousand anomalies that strew this wilderness and despair of teachers. The author has at least succeeded (Par. 283) in impressing upon himself, what he never could remember before, the right spelling of " succeed," " proceed," and" exceed." Whether others will derive the same benefit from the explanation is perhaps doubtful; but the mere fact that an explanation exists is a just cause for thanksgiving. Mr. Laurie's useful Manual of Spelling has been of great service in the composition of this chapter. Part II. Chapter I., is explained by its title, " Difficulties and Irregularities in Modern English." It is intended for the higher (not for the highest) classes in our first-grade schools. Here I must acknowledge very large obligations to Matzner's two volumes on English Syntax. Adopting his arrangement, I have selected from these two volumes every difficulty that appeared likely to be a difficulty to an English boy -I believe I may add, in many cases, to an English man - as distinct from a foreigner. A few examples from Campbell, Scott, and Byron have been quoted from Mtitzner, unverified; but in such cases, the reader is always warned by a foot-note. The vast majority of the examples have been modified or re-written to illustrate the difficulty under consideration, or they are the fruits of my own reading. In this part of the work it has been of course necessary to illustrate modern English by older English of different periods: and here, while again acknowledging my obligations to Matzner, I must also add the name of Dr. Morris, whose elaborate Historical Outlines of English Accidence - a book that, the more you study it, impresses you the more with the feeling that much is left to study-have been laid under large contributions for this part of my work, and more especially for the Appendix on the " Growth of the English language." Here I have also to acknowledge the invaluable assistance of Mr. Skeat, who was kind enough to correct the proof-sheets of the Appendix, and from whose PREFACE. ix edition of the Gospel of St. Mark' I derived great help in obtaining an insight into the "Period of Confusion " in early English. I have had the less hesitation in occasionally referring to statements and examples about early English found in the Shakespearian Grammar, because all of these were supervised and many of them originated by Mr. Skeat, but for whose kindness and learning I should scarcely have ventured on ground of which it may be said, no less than of the field of criticism, that"Fools rush in where angels fear to tread." The chapter on Poetical Constructions will, I hope, be found as useful as any in the book. It is an attempt to draw out in grammatical detail the principles of poetry as laid down by Professor Seeley and myself in English Lessons for English People, and to lead the pupil to see the reason and the beauty of "poetical irregularities." In the Appendix on the "Growth of the English Language," I have ventured so far to differ from Dr. Morris, in his account of the " Periods of the English Language," as to assign a separate period to the sixteenth century, and also to give names to the several periods. I do not think boys will find it easy to remember the periods without epithets of a rather more picturesque nature than ordinal numbers. I have also added some remarks on the Elizabethan period. A few tables of the Early Forms are added in the Appendix with the view of illustrating remarks scattered through the book. But no attempt has been made to give any complete system of Accidence. To try to do this completely, in the face of Dr. Morris's Accidence, would have been superfluous: and to do it imperfectly, in the way in which it has been done in many Grammars, under the title of "Etymology," 1 The Gospel according to St. Mark, in Anglo-Saxon and Northunibrian Versions. Synoptically Arranged. Edited for the Syndics of the University Press by the Rev. Waltei W\. Skeat, M.A. Cambridge: Deighton, Bell, & Co. 1871. X HOW TO PARSE. would have been worse than superfluous, mystifying English children by telling them what, when they know what well enough already, and need only to be told why. But to tell the why of English Accidence requires - and it is useless disguising the fact - a great deal of knowledge in the teacher and not a little in the pupil. If it is to be done at all, it should be done thoroughly, with the aid of such a book as Dr. Morris's, and by pupils old enough to appreciate it. Consequently, though the pupil will find " strong" and " weak " verbs defined in the Glossary, he will see no lists of them in the book. Lists of irregular plurals will also be missing; the teacher will look in vain for focus, foci; datum, data; nebula, nebulce. The only apparent sacrifice to the mania for " learning something by heart " is this, that the modern verb will be found " conjugated " in the Appendix to Part II. But this has been done, not to give the pupil something to learn by heart, but to enable him to compare the old verb with the new at a glance. Throughout the book, the author has endeavored to keep in view the main object of a teacher teaching English grammar to English children, viz., to teach, not so much what as why. The division of the book into parts, the first of which is differently arranged from the second, might cause some difficulty in referring, were it not that a full Alphabetical Index is inserted at the end - an appendage that, in the Author's opinion, may fairly claim to be accepted as a compensation, in a book of this kind, for many faults of non-arrangement or misarrangement. In passing the book through the press I have derived most valuable assistance from the two gentlemen whose names I had occasion to mention in the preface to How to Tell the Parts of Speech, viz., Mr. G. S. Brockington, one of the Assistant Masters of King Edward's School, Birmingham, and Mr. T. W. Chambers, B.A., Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, one of the Assistant Masters of the City of London School, whose sound judgment and practical experience have PRPEFA CE. xi frequently induced me to modify or even re-cast large portions of the First Part. I must also mention two others among my colleagues, Mr. T. Todd, and Mr. James Pirie, M.A., whose criticism and corrections have been of very great service. Lastly, while expressing my obligations to the admirable " Shakespeare Lexicon," compiled by Dr. Schmidt, and published by Messrs. Williams & Norgate, I may be also permitted, coming nearer home, to say that I have gained much help and many apt examples from the inspection of the proof-sheets of a Complete Concordance to the Poetical Works of Pope, compiled by my father, and now in course of publication. i I r j I i I i I i i I I CONTENTS.' PART I. ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. XVIi RULES AND DEFINITIONS........ XXViii CHAPTER I. SUBJECT AND OBJECT.......... 1 CHAPTER II. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.... 17 CHAPTERS III. AND IV. USES AND INFLECTIONS: I. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, &c...... 28 II. Verbs.............. 45 X For all detailed reference the reader is referred to the Alphabetical Index at the end of the book. xiv xiv HO W TO PARSE. CHAPTER V. THE INDIRECT OBJECT, &C.... 88 CHAPTER VI. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.......... 112 CHAPTER VII. IRREGULARITIES........ 127 APPENDIX I. THE ANOMALIES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD... 148 APPENDIX II. THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES... SCHEME OF ANALYSIS......... 153... 172 APPENDIX III. HINTS ON SPELLING............174 APPENDIX IV. HINTS ON PUNCTUATION.... SCHEME OF PARSING.......... 185... 195 CONTENTS. xv PART II. -4DIFFICULTIES AND IRREGULARITIES IN MODERN ENGLISH. CHAPTER I. P.ROSE.................199 CHAPTER II. POETICAL CONSTRUCTIONS..........281 APPENDIX. ON TILE GROWTH OF THEEENGLISH LANGUAGE. 293 ALPHABETICAL INDEX...........327 -. it a*-. _zi ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. FEW of the terms explained below are used by the author, and many of them are misused or badly constructed, e.g. " article," "accusative." But, as they are used in many grammatical treatises, it has been thought desirable to explain them, especially as an explanation is sometimes the best means of proving them to be superfluous or erroneous, when applied to English Grammar.1 The References, when not otherwise stated, are to the Paragraphs in How to Parse. The meaning given opposite to each word is the Etymological meaning. For a fuller or more accurate definition the pupil is referred to the Paragraph mentioned in each case. Ablative (Case) [L. ab, " from;" latus, " carried "]. The name for a Latin case denoting, among other things, ablation, or carrying awny from. Absolute (Construction) [L. ab," from;" solut-, "loosed"]. A construction in which a Noun, Participle, &c., is used apart, i.e. loosedJfrom, its ordinary Grammatical adjuncts (Par. 135). Abstract (Noun) [L. abs, "from; " tract-, "drawn "]. The name of an abstraction, i.e. of something considered by itself, apart from (drawn away from ) the circumstances in which it exists. Accent [L. ad, "to; " cant.s, "song "]. Perhaps originally a sing-song, or modulation of the voice, added to a syllable. Now used of stress laid on a syllable. Accidence [L. accident, "befall"]. That part of grammar which treats of the changes that befall words. Accusative (Case). The Latin name for the Direct Objective Inflexion. Pos 1 Many of the definitions are taken with little modification from the useful Etymological Dictionary published by Messrs. W. & R. Chambers, London and Edinburgh, 1867. b xviii ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF sibly the Romans regarded the object as being in front of the agent, like an accused person confronted with the prosecutor. Active (Voice). The form of a Verb that usually denotes acting or doing. Adjective [L. ad, "to;" jact, "cast or put"]. A word put to a Noun. Apheresis [Gr. (ap," from; " airesis, " taking "]. Taking a letter or syllable from the beginning of a word. Adjunct [L. ad, "to; "junct, ''joined "]. A word grammatically joined to another word. Adverb [L. ad, "to; " verb, "word" or "Verb"]. A word generally joined to a Verb (45). Adversative [L. adversus, "opposite "]. An epithet applied to Conjunctions that (iike "but") express opposition. Affix [L. ad, "to;" fix, "fixed "]. A syllable or letter fixed to the end of a word. Agreement. The change made in the inflections of words so that they may suit or agree with one another in a sentence. (78). Alexandrine. A rhyming verse of twelve Iambic syllables, said to be so called from its being used in an old French Poem on Alexander the Great. Alphabet [Gr. alpha, beta: "a," "b"]. The list of letters, so called from the names of the first two letters in Greek. Anacolouthon [Gr. a-, " not; " acolouthon, " following"]. A break in the Grammatical sequence, or followin.y. Analysis [Gr. anq, "back;" lusis, "loosing"]. Unloosing anything (e.g. a Sentence) bback into its constitutent parts. Hence an analytical period in a language. See Par. 556. Anomaly. A Greek-formed word meaning " unevenness," "irregularity." Antecedent [L. ante, "before;" cedent "going"]. (a) That part of a sentence which expresses a condition (167). So called because the condition must ygo before its consequence. See consequent (2). (b) Also used for the Noun that goes before a Relative Pronoun. Anti-Climax. The opposite of a climax. A sentence in which the meaning sinks in importance, instead of rising at the close. Antithesis [Gr. anti, "against; " thesis. "placing"]. The placing of word against word, by way of contrast 1 Apodosis [Gr. apodosis, "a paying back"]. A Greek name for the ' Consequent." The condition was regalded by the Greeks as denanding its consequence, as a sort of debt, to be paid in return for the fulfilnment of the condition. 1 See How to Write Clearly, Par. 41. GRAlIMMA TICAL TERMS. xix Apostrophe [Gr. apo, "from;" strophe, "turning "]. A mark shewing that a letter has fallen out of (?been turned away froml) a word. Appellative [L. appella, "call to']. Another name for the Vocative or calling use of a noun. Paragraph 32. Apposition [L. ad, "near;" posit, "placed"]. Theplacing of one noun or pronoun near another, for the purpose of explanation (137). Archaism [Gr. archaios, "ancient "]. An ancient word or expression. Article [L. articulus, " a little joint or liimb"]. A name (a) correctly given by the Greeks to their " article" because it served as a joint uniting several words together: (b) then loosely used by the Latins (as was natural seeing they had no "article") of any short word whether Verb, Conjunction, or Pronoun; (c) foolishly introduced into English, and once used to denote "the" and "a." Aspirate [L. ad, ".to;" spira-, "breathe"]. The strongly breathed letter, h. Asyndeton [Gr. a, "not;" syndeton, " bound together "]. The omission of Conjunctions, so that sen tences are not bound together. Attribute. A quality attributed to a person or thing. Auxiliary (Verbs) [L. auxilia-, "to help"]. Verbs that are used as helpers or companions to other Verbs (95). Bathos[Gr. bathos, "depth"]. A ludicrous fall to a depth, i.e. a descent from the elevated to the mean in writing or speech.2 Cardinal (Numbers) [L. cardin-, "hinge.'"]. That on which any thing hinges or turns: hence, "important," "principal." A name given to those more important Forms of Numeral Adjectives from which the Ordinal forms are derived. Case [L. Casus, "falling"]. The Latin translation of the Greek term for the uses of a Noun. The Greeks regarded the subjective form as "erect" and the other forms as more or less fJlling away from it. Hence the terms "oblique," "decline " &c. Clause [L. claus-, "shut"]. A number of words shut up within limits. In this book the word is used of a sentence preceded by a Conjunction, the sentence and Conjunction together being Called a Clause (239). Climax [Gr. climax, " lad 1 In Rhetoric, the apostrophe was the turning away from one's audience to address some absent person. Possibly therefore the apostrophe may have been so called because it was intended to turn one's attentionfrom the present word to the absent letter. 2 See Par. 40, How to Write Clearly. xx ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF der"]. The arrangement of a sentence like a ladder so that the meaning rises in force to the last.1 Cognate (Object) [L. Co-, "together;" nat- "born "]. The name given to an object that denotes something akin to (born together witl) the action denoted by the Verb (125). Colon [Gr. colon, "limb"]. The stop marking off a limb or member of a sentence. Comma [Gr. comma, a " section "]. The stop marking off a section of a sentence (294-308). Common (Noun). A name that is common to a class and not peculiar or proper to an individual. Comparative (Degree). The form of an Adjective denoting that a quality exists in a greater degree in some one thing than in some other with which it is compared. Complementary[L.comple-, "fill up"]. That which completes or fills up (97, 106). Complete (State). A name given to an action (whether Past, Present, or Future) that was, is, or will be complete (72). Complex (Sentence) [L. con"together; " plic-, " fold "]. A sentence that is folded together, or involved. Hence a sentence containing one or more Subordinate sentences (250). Compound (Sentence) [L. con or corn, "together;" pon-, "place "]. A sentence made up of a number of Coordinate sentencesplaced together (247). Concord. The name given to syntactical agreement between words, e.g. between Verb and Subject. Conjugation [con, "togethel;'"jugatio "joining"]. A number of Verbs joined together in one class.2 Conjunction [L. con, "together; " junct-, joined "]. A word that joins two sentences together. Consequent. The name given to that part of a Sentence which expresses the consequence of the fulfilment of a condition. See Antecedent and Paragraph 167. Consonant [L. con, "together; " sonant, "sounding"]. Letters (such asp) that can only be sounded together with a vowel. Continuous (State). The name given to an action (whether Past, Present, or Future) that is, was, or will be continuing or incomplete (72). Copula [L. copula, " bond ']. The word " is," so called because it binds or connects Subject and Predicate in Logic. Correlatives. Words that are related together or mutually related, e.g., 1 See Par. 39, How to Write Clearly. 2 Hence to conjugate a Verb is to repeat the inflections belonging to the class or conjugation. But the Romans used decline and not contjugate in this sense (Madvig). GRAMMATICAL TERMS. xxi '"either," "or;" " both," "and;" when," "then." Dative [L. dativ,1 " that which has arisen from giving"]. The Latin name for the Indirect Objective case used after Verbs of giving &c. (126). Declension. The bending or declension ofthe Oblique (see Oblique below) cases from the Subjective form, which was regarded as " erect." Hence applied to the statenent of the cases of a Noun. Definite (Article). A name given to the Adjective "the" from the fact that "the" defines its Noun. See Article. Definition [L. de, "from:" Jinit-, " marked out," " bounded "]. That which marks out the boundaries of anything so as to distinguish it from all other things. N.f. Not a mere " description." Degree (of comparison) [L. f/radus, Fr. degyr, " step "]. The forms expressing the steps or degrees in which a quality can be expressed by an Adjective. Dentals [L. dent-, "tooth "]. Consonants pronounced with the aid of the teeth; d, n, t. Dependent( Sentence ).Sometimes used for Subordinate. But generally applied to Subordinate sentences that are the Subjects or Objects of Verbs. Diaeresis [Gr. diairesis, "separation "]. The mark placed over one of two vowels to show that each is to be pronounced separately e.g. in "aerial." Diphthong [Gr. di," twice;" phthongos, "sound"]. Two vowel sounds pronounced as one. Direct (Object). The Noun that denotes what is rer garded as the direct object of the action of a Verb.2 Ellipsis [Gr. elleipsis, "omission "]. The omission of words (said to be " understood" i.e. implied) in a Sentence. Emphasis [Gr. emphaino, "I make clear"]. Stress of the voice laid on particular words or syllables in order to make the meaning clear. Epigram [Gr. epi, "on;" gramma, "writing"]. A writing on a monutment. Hence a shortpoem. flence a short pointed poem or saying.3 Epithet [Gr. epithetos, " placed to "]. An Adjective placed to a Noun to describe some quality of the person or thing denoted by the Noun. Etymology [Gr. etymon, " true meaning; " logia, 1 Termination -ivus in Latin, when added to Participles, denotes that which has arisen from, e.g. "captivus," that which has arisen front "capture " 2 See Par. 14, 3 The point will generally be.at the end. Intentional "h bathos " sometimes borders on "epigram." See How to Write Clearly, Par. 42. xxii ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF " science "3. The science of the trute meaning of words, according to thleir derivatioii. Eup hony [Gr. eu, "well;" p nton e, "sound ''3. That which sounds well. Flat (Consonants). B, d, g. Foot. The metrical subdivision of a verse. A verse being supposed to sun, its lintbs or members might well be calledIfeet. Frequentative (Verb). A Verb that expresses a frequently repeated action, e.g. "pat-t-e r.'' Gender [L. genus, Fr. genre, " breed,' or " class "]. Forms to denote clasosification aceordlin~to sex. There are no Inflections for Genders in English (37). Genitive (C.,ase) [L. f/enitiv-, "4generating ] The name for the Latin case elenotuig generationI origination, possession. Sometimes app)lied to the English Possessive Inflection.1 Gerund [L. gero, "I carry on "]. Part of a Latin Verb denoting the cnrrying on of the action of the Verb. T1here was once a gerundive form in English (551). Grammrar LGr. gransnen, a 'letter; " Fr. " gIrminoni e"]1. The science of letters; hence the science of using words correctly. Gutturals [L. guttur, " throat "']. Throat letters, k-, and hard g. Heterogeneous (Sentence) [Gr. ketero, "different;" genos, " kind "]. A Sentence combining a mimber of Sentences of so diffrent a kind from each other that they ought not to be coinbined.2 Iambus [Gr. iambos]. In English, a foot of two svllables,.the first unaccented, the second accented. Idiom [Gr. idioma, " peculiarity "]. A miode of expression peculiar to a language. Imperative (Mood) [L. impera-, ''command ''. The commanisduiey Mood (70). impersonal (Verbs). Werbs miot used in the first or eecondl Person (328). Incomplete (State). The fornis of the Verb denoting an action iii an Inco,7uplete State (72). Indefinite (Article). A name given to " an," "a," because the Adjective leaves its Noun undefined, or indefinite. See Article; also Dfefinite. Indefinite (State). The forms of the Verb denoting an action of which the,State is not deflned (72). Indicativ~e (Mlood) [L. judica-, ''point nout ''3. 'T7he Mlood that points out or indicutes an action., &c., I The Latin " genitivus " is a mistran sl ation of the Greek genilke, which nmeant the qenseric case, i.e. the case that (denoted the qenus or class. Fog examlle, "life," "What class of life?" "Altau's i fe"."I 2 See Par. 43, How to Write Clearly. GRAMMATICAL TERMS. xxiii as a past, present, or future existence (70). Indirect (Object). The Noun or Pronoun denoting the person or thing regarded as niot directly but 'only indirectly influenced by the action of the Verb. But see Paragraph 118 for a more satisfactorv test. Infinitive '(Mood) [L. in, not;'' finit- "limited''7]. A mood not limited by any definition of Person or Number (70). Inflection. [L. inflecto, "1I bend "]. The bending of a word from the simple form, by means, of var-,'ing the terminitation. See Obliqe below. Interjection [L. inter-ject-, " thrown between". An utterance thrown in between worts, to express emotion. Not a Part of Speech. Intransitive (Verb). (L in, ' inot '' transiter-, "passing-across"]. AVerb whose action is not supposed to pass across, to any Object. But see Transiti6 below. Labials [L. labiuse "lip"] Lip-letters:f v, p, b, m, h~w (the -real sound in which) and w. Language [L. linyna, Fr. langne; "tongue "]. The expression of meaning by t h e t oneune. Lingual a [Latin linyna, " the tongue " ]. Letters whose sounds are produced by the tongue: sh, s in pleastire. Liquids. Letters of a flowing, liquid sound, as 1, s'. Metaphor [Gr. meta, "from one to another "1; phoar, " carrying "]. The carrying of a relation from one set of objects to another e.g. of the relation of ploughing from "plough'" and" land," to " ship " and " sea." - Metre [Gr. vietron, " measure "]. The measuring of language out into verses. Monosyllable [Gr. mono, "tonly "] A word of only one sv'llable. Mood'[L. mod-, "manner"] The form of a Verb expressing the msanner of action (70). Mutes [L. nsut-, " dumb"] Letters that are dumb without the aid of a vowel: k gl, t l, dIs, p, b, am. Nasal [L. nas-, " nosel] Cons-onants sounded through the ease; n, in. Nominative (Case) [L. noamina-, "to name "]. An old Latin term for the Subject, used because the Subject was regarded as a person or thing named. Noun [L. nomess, Fr. nom, "n ame"]. The name of anything. Object. The word, or group of words,7 denoting that which is regarded as the object or mark aimed at tbr the action of a Verb or thine motion of the Preposition.2 (13). But see Definition in Para,-Iraph 14. 1 English Tessons for English Peop~le. page, 78. 2 this l)ettnttta, though tu accordance with Etymology, is often Grammatically inapplicable. xxiv ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF Oblique (Case). A name given to all Cases but the Subjective. By the Greeks the Subjective form of a Noun was regarded as erect, and all the other forms as fillinys or oblique deviations from the Subjective. Ordinal (Adjective) [L. ordin-, "order"]. An Adjective, that answers to the question " in what order." Orthography [Gr. ortho, "correct "; grapho, "I write"]. The correct writing of words, i.e. correct spelling. N.B. Not "calligraphy," " pretty writing." Parenthesis [Gr. para, "aside "; enthesis, "insertion"]. A word. phrase, or sentence, inserted aside, or by the way, in a sentence complete without it. Participle [L. particip-, "participating "]. A form of a Verb participating of the nature of a Verb, and of the nature of an Adjective. Partitive [L.part-, "part "]. Denoting partition. Passive (Voice) [L. pass-, "suffering"]. The form of a Verb in which the Subject is supposed to suffer an action 1 (60). Palatals. Letters whose sounds are produced by the palate: ch, j. Perfect (Tense) [L. perfect-, "complete"]. The Name for the Latin Tense that has to represent (owing to the paucity of their Tenses) our Indef. Past and Complete Present. Period (Gr. peri, " round "; od-, "path "]. (1) The full, rounded path of a complex sentence, (2) a mark at the end of a sentence. Person [L. per, " through "; son-, "sound;" hence, persona "a mask through which an actor sounds; " ' an actor's part in a play"]. 'lhepartplayed in conversation, whether (1) speaking; (2) spoken to; (3) spoken of (79). Personification. Endowing what is impersonal with a Personal Character 2 Phrase [Gr. phrasis, a ' saying"]. A group of words not expressing a statement, question, or command (2:39). Pluperfect (Tense) [L. plu-, "lore; " perfect-, "conplete "], A?more than conzplete Tense. A Latin way' of expressing the Complete Past. Plural (Number) [L. pbl-, "more"]. The form of a Noun that denotes more than one (34-36). Poetry [Gr. poietes, a " maker"]. Language that is artistically made, as distinguished from that which is ordinarily written or spoken. Polysyllable [Gr. poly, " malny 'j. A word of many syllables. Positive. The simple form of an Adjective; so called 1 This definition is unsatisfactory, see Par. 60. 2 English Lessons for English People, page 131. GRAMMA TICAL TERMS. -xv because it expresses a quality not comparatively, but positively (42). Possessive (Use) [L. possess-, " possessed "]. The name given to the use or case of a Noun denoting possession (37). Potential(Mood) [L. potent-, ' powerful "] An old name for a supposed Mood, which is really either the Mood of Purpose, or else simply the Indic. of an Auxiliary Verb. So called, because it involves the meaning of power or possibility. Predicate [L. 'prcedica-, "proclaim," " state "]. A word or group of words making a statement about a Subject (263). Prefix [L. pree, "before;" fix-, " fixed "]. A letter, syllable, or word fixed beoJre another word. Preposition [L. prce "'before; " posit-, "placed "]. A Word (not a Verb) placed before a Noun or Pronoun as its object. Preterite (Tense) [L. "prceterit-, "past"]. A pedantical expression for "the Past Tense." Prodosis [Gr. pro, " before;" dosis, " giving "]. Literally, giving before. Hence, in a sentence, the Antecedent or Condition. See Apodosis. Pronoun [L. pro, "for;" L. nomen, "noun "]. A word usedfor a Noun Proper (Noun) [L. propri-, F'.propre; " peculiar"]. A name that is peculiar or proper to the individual, not common to a class. See Common. Prose [L. prosa, for prorsa, for pro-versa,1 i e. " turned forward"]. Writing that does not turn like verses (See Verse below) but runs straight on. Hence, the straiyht forward arrangement of prose. Prosody [Gr. prosodia, a "song "]. Hence, that part of Grammar which treats of verse, whether intended to be sung or not. Punctuation [L. punctum, "point"]. Dividing a selntence by means of points representing the pauses. Quantity. The quantity of time necessary to pronounce a syllable Redundant [Latin re(d), "back;" undant- "flowing"]. Flowing back or over, i.e. superfluous. N.3. This word is often lazily used to appear to get rid of a difficulty. But few words are, strictly speaking, redundant; thev serve some purpose, although the purpose may not be easy to detect. Reflexive (Verb) [L reflect-, "bend back"]. A Verb in which the action of the Subject is as it were bent back on the Subject, so that the Subject and Object denote thie same person or thing. Relative (Pronoun) [L re, "back;" lat-, "carried"]. 1 Compare our e'er o'er, for ever, over. Xxvi ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF A name given to who, which, &c. when thev do not, carry one forward (as they do whlen used Interrogatively), but carry one back to the 'Antecedent.1 Retained (Object). The nanse given to one of the Objects of a Transitive Verb when retained ais the Object of the same Verb in the Passive (123). 6 Rhyme fA S. rusm, nsumber "], identity of sound (fromt the vowvel. to the end) btentwo syllables at the end of twvo lines.2 The Anglo-Saxon Poetry was not based on rhyme but on alliteration. Rhythm [Gr. rhythmos,I t lowving motion '']' the folainq regrular motion of verse aiid of periodic prose. Root. Thsat form. f rom wh~ich another word springs, as a tree springs fromt its root. Semicolon [L. semi, half; (Gr. colon, "Ulmb"']. Half of the colon, i.e. of the stop that marks off a separate hisb or member of a sentence. "Sensuous" [L. senset-, sense "]. Appealing to the senses. Milton says that Poetry should be " simple, senseunms, and passionate." Sentence [L. 8ententia, a "usmeanin,,r"]. A. group of words of a meaning so far complete as to express a statement, question, cornnmand (2.39). Sharp (consonants): k,1 p, t, so called from their sharp sound. Sibilant [L. sibila-, hiss]. Hissing letters:, 7z, sh. Simile. A sentence expressing the sintilarity of relations, e. gy. between " plough and " land," " ship" and "~sea."l 3 Solecism [Gr. soloikismos; "speaking like the men of Soloi "14]. Inaccuracy of expression. Spirants [L. spire-, " breathe ". Letters in the pronunciation of whose sounds the breath is not wholly stopped, as it is in th~e pronunciation of " 4mutes."7 Stanza [It. stanza, a 4 stop "]. A division of a pocus containing every variation of measure in th e poem, arid generally furnishing a stopp~ing pl1ace at its termination. Strong ('Verbs). Verbs that make their Past Tenses, arid Passive I'articiples, not by adding -edi, -t, but by vowel changes. Style [L. stiles, " an instrument for writing"] A manner of expressing thought in lanu~rage. Subject [L. stibject-, " placed under"] That whicls is placed Under oine's thoughts, as the mnaterial or topic for 1 See flowv to Tell the Parts of `Speech, p. 124. 2 Syllables altogether identical dlo not rlivnie. Sen Eijt:1 ish Lessonssfiw Emmgtish Peopte. prige 1206. The derivation usually given, but probably inaccurate. GRAMMAlTICAL TERMS. XxvI1 speech. Hence, the Subject of a Verb is said to be that about which the Verb makes a statement. But see Par. 1. note. Subjunctive (Mood) [L. subjunct-, " subjoined "]. A Mood expressing a parpose, condition, &c., subjoined to somre statement, question, or answer (163). Subordinate (sentence) [L. sub, " beneath; " ordin-, "rank"]. A sentence that ranks beneath another sentence. See Par. 249. Substantive (Noun) [L. subst(antia, L substance "). A useless name given to Nouns denoting things said to have sb/sttantial existence. Suffix [L. sub, "beneath,".fix-, "fixed"]. Same as,Iff lix. Superlative (degree) [L. stq/er, " above; " lat-, carried "]. An Adjectival form denoting the expression of a quality in a (legree carried above other degrees (42). Supplement [L. sub, "up;" ple-, "fill "]. That which Jills up, or supplies what is wanting in a Verb (148). Syllable [Gr. syn, "together;" ab-, "take"]. A group of letters taken together so as to form one sound. Syncope [Gr. syn, "altogether" or " quite;" cope, "cutting "]. A considerable curtailment1 or cutting of a word, by omitting letters in the middle, e.g. ne'er for never. Syntax [Gr. syn, "together;" taxis, "arranging"]. The arrangement of words together in a sentence. Synthesis [Gr. syn, "together; " thesis, "placing"]. Placing together parts so as to form a whole. The opposite of analysis. Henoe a synthetical period in language. See Par. 551. Tense [L. tempus, Fr. temps. "time "]. The formns of a Verb indicating the time of an action (71). Transitive [L. trans, " across; " it-, " going "]. A Verb that has an Object, so called because the action of the Verb is regarded as passing or going across to the Object (55). Trochee [Gr. trochos, " a running"]. In English, a foot of two syllables consisting of an accented, followed by an unaccented syllable. So called from its brisk, or running nature. Verb [L. verb-, "word"]. The chief word in a sentence. Verse [L. vert, "turn ']. A line of poetry at the end of which one turns to a new line. Vocative [L. voca-, "call "]. The use or case of a Noun when the person or thing is called to (32). Vowels [L. vocalis "having voice"]. The letters that have a voice or are sounded Perhaps " a cutting in the middle so as to pull the extremes togtller." xxviii RULES AND DEFINITIONS. (not as the "consonants" form their Past Tenses and but) by themselves: a, e, Passive participles by addi, o, u. ing d or t, and not by Weak (Verbs). Verbs that changed Vowel. RULES AND DEFINITIONS. It is assumed that the ten following Definitions are known to the pupil: - 1. A Noun is a name of any kind (page 19 1). 2. A Pronoun is a word used for a Noun (page 21 1). 3. An Adjective is a word that can be put before a Noun either to distinguish it, or to point out its number or amount (page 32 1). 4. A Verb is a word that can make a statement (page 391). 5. An Adverb is a word that answers to the question "how? " "when? " where?" or " how far is this true? " (page 54 1). 6. A Preposition is a word that can be placed before a Noun or a Pronoun, so that the Preposition and Noun or Pronoun together are equivalent to an Adjective or Adverb (page 76 1). 7.2 A Sentence is a collection of words expressing a statement, question, or command (page 45 1). 8.2 Any other collection of words, having a meaning, is called a Phrose (page 451), or Clause. See Glossary. 9. A Con/unction is a word that joins two sentences together (page 85 1). 10. A Relative Pronoun is a Conjunctive Pronoun used so as to refer to a preceding Noun or Pronoun called the Antecedent (page 125 1). 1. The Subject of a Verb making a statement is the word or words answering to the question '" who " or " what? " before the Verb (Par. 1). 2. The Object of a Verb or Preposition is the word or words 1 The figures denote the pages of Ioto to Tell the Parts of Speech on which the first ten Definitions will severally be found. 2 A Sentence preceded by a Cotnjunction ceases to state, command, or question; it therefore becomes a Phrase, e.g. " When I s4w John." Such a Phrase may conveniently be called a Clause. See Par. 239. RULES AND DEFINITIONS. xxix answering to the question "whom?" or "what?" after the Verb or Preposition (14 1). '3. When the Relative is followed by a Conjunction introducing a new Sentence, leave out this sentence in parsing the Relative (24). 4. The Antecedent must sometimes be supplied from the sentence (25). 5. The Relative is sometimes omitted (26). 6. Some Pronouns are used Interrogatively, Conjunctively, and Relatively (28). 7. The Uses or Cases of a Noun are four, viz. Subject, Object,2 Possessive, and Vocative (32). 8. The Plural of a Noun is formed by adding-s to the Singular (34). 9. The Possessive Use or Case, in the Singular and Plural, is formed by adding 's to the Singular or Plural form (37). 10. An Adjective has three Degrees of Comparison, viz. Positive, Comparative, and Superlative (42). 11. To form the Comparative and Superlative, add-er, -est to Positives of one Syllable. "More" and "most" are used in other cases (43). 12. A Verb that can have an Object is called Transitive; a Verb that cannot, is called lntransitive.3 13. The Passive Voice of a Transitive Verb is the form assumed by the Verb when its Object is made the Subject (60). 14. The Active Voice of a Transitive Verb is the form that can be used with an Object (61). 15. A Participle can be distinguished by the fact that it can be, in part, replaced by a Conjunctive word (66). 16. Each Voice has four Moods: Infinitive, Indicative, Imperative, and Subjunctive (70). 17. The Infinitive Mood speaks of an action without defining the doer (70). 18. The Indicative Mood definitely points out an action (70). 19. Tie Imperative Mood commands an action (70). 20. The Subjunctive Mood expresses condition, purpose, wish, &c. (70). 21. Verbs have three Tenses: Past, Present, and Future (71). 22. Each Tense has four " States" of Action: the Indefinite, 1 These and the following References are to the Paragraphs in How to Parse. 2 If the Indirect Object is called a separate use, there will be five Uses of a Noun. The usual Definitions are given in Par. 55; but they are very unsatisfactory. xxx RULES AND DEFINITIONS. the Complete, the Incomplete, and the Complete Post-Continuous (73, 74). 23. A Verb agrees with its Subject in Person and Number (78). 24. "May," "can," "must," "will," " shall," "let," &c. are called Auxiliary Verbs (95). 25. " To" is omitted in the Infinitive after the Auxiliary Verbs, and after "see," "hear," "feel" (96). 26. An Infinitive may be used (1) as a Noun; (2) as an Adverb; (3) as an Adjective. 27. The Indirect Object of a Verb is the word or phrase answering to the question "For, or, to, whom?" "For, or, to, what? " when used after the Verb and the Direct Object (118). 28. When an active Verb taking two Objects is changed into the Passive Voice, one Object becomes the Subject of the Passive Verb, but the other is retained as Object (122). 29. Some Verbs, generally Intransitive, can take an Object bf a nature akin or cognate to the Verb, called the Cognate Object (125). 30. The Object is sometimes used Adverbially to denote extension, price, point of time (127-131). 31. The Subject, generally with a Participle, is sometimes used Adverbially (135). 32. A Noun or Pronoun, not Subject or Object of a Verb, but so connected with another Noun or Pronoun that we can understand between them the words "I mean," "that is to say," &c., is said to be in Apposition to the latter (137). 33. Nouns and Pronouns are used Subjectively when in Apposition to Subjects, and Objectively when in Apposition to Objects (138). 34. The (1) Intransitive Verbs "is," "looks," "seems," "appears," &c., and (2) the Transitive Verbs "make," "create," "appoint," "deem," " esteem." being used to express identity, and, as it were, to place one Noun or Pronoun in apposition with another, may be called Verbs of Identity, or Appositional Verbs (147). 35. Verbs of Identity, when Intransitive and Passive, take a Subjective Supplement; when Transitive, take an Objective Supplement (150). 36. "It" and "there" are sometimes irregularly used to prepare the way for the Subject or Object (151). 37. In a Conditional Sentence, (1) the Clause expressing the condition is called the Antecedent; (2) the Clause expressing the consequence of the fulfilnent of the condition is called the Consequent (167). 38. Auxiliary Verbs (when not following "if" or any other Conjunction expressing Condition) are used Indicatively, whenever they can be altered into the Indicatives of other Verbs (181). RULES AND DEFINITIONS. xxxi 39. Whenever language is irregular, there is some cause for the irregularity (192). 40. The three principal causes of irregularity are I. Desire of brevity; II. Colflusion of two constructions; III. Desire to avoid harshness of sound or of construction (198). 41. A Simple Sentence is a sentence that has only one Subject and only one Stating, Questioning, or Commanding Verb (245). 42. When several Simple Sentences are connected by "and," "but." "so," "then," &c., so that each sentence is, as it were, independent, and of the same rank as the rest, each is called a co-ordinate Sentence 1 (246). 43. A Compound Sentence is a Sentence made up of Coordinate Sentences (247). 44. When a number of Sentences are connected by Conjunctions that are not Co-ordinate, the Sentence that is not introduced by a Conjunction is called the Principal Sentence (248). 45. Sentences connected with a Principal Sentence by Conjunctions that are not Co-ordinate are called Sub-ordinate1 (249). 46. A Complex Sentence, is the whole Sentence formed by the combination of the Principal and Subordinate Sentences (250). 47. When a word passes from one form to another, a letter is often changed or doubled in order to preserve the original sound (266). 48. Final -e is dropped before an affix beginning'with a vowel, but retained before an affix beginning with a consonant (270). 49. A monosyllable ending in -11, when followed by an affix beginning with a consonant, or when itself used as an affix, generally drops one -1 (275). 50. If the termination of a word is a consonant preceded by a vowel, then, on receiving an affix beginning with a vowel, the final consonant in the word is doubled, provided that the word is a monosyllable, or accented on the last syllable (277). 51 When a word is separated from its grammatical adjunct by any intervening Phrase, the Phrase should be preceded and followed by a comma 2 (224). 1 The mark of a Subordinate Sentence is that when preceded by its Conjunction, it cannot generally stand as a Sentence by itself. A Co-ordinate Sentence can thus stand by itself. 2 For words, i iioms, &c., the pupil is referred to the Alphabetical Index at the end of the book. r+0 Ir HOW TO PARSE. CHAPTER I. SUBJECT AND OBJECT. I The Subject in a Stating Sentence. ALL Verbs that make a statement must be accompanied by some Noun, or equivalent of a Noun, about which the statement is made:(1) " Thomas failed." (2) " Ie failed." (3) " The attempt to take the city failed." (4) "That hefailed is certain." In each of the three examples above, if you ask the question "Who or what failed?"' the answer, being the subject of our statement, is called the Subject of the Verb. This leads us to a Definition: The subject of a Verb in a stating sentence is the word or collection of words answering to the question asked by putting " Who?" or " What?" before the Verb.l 1 It is not enough to say that the Subject is " that about which the statement is miade." For, in " A tempest wrecked our ship," tile statement is just as much about " ship " as about "tempest"; but "Ship" is not the " Subject." 1 2 S UBJE, CT. [Par. 2-4 - 2 Caution I. If the Verb is 'accompanied by an Adverb, as(1) " lie seldom sleeps." (2) " She does not sleep." - the Adverb should be repeated in the question: (1) " Who seldom sleeps?~" Answer: "-le," Subject. (2) " Who does not sleep?" Answer: " She," Subject. 3 Caution IT. If the Verb is accompanied by words.necessary to give the meaning,,as(1) " John is a mere. boy." (2) " Thomas was made lhoppq." - these words may be repeated in the question: (1) "Who is a mere boy?" Answer: " John," Subject. (2) " Who was made hapjpy?" Answer: " Thomas," Subject. 4The Subject in a Questioning Sentence. In a Questioning Sentence, e.g.(1) " Did John come 3 " -ask, "Did whto come?" Answer: "Did John coinie? "Therefore "1 Joins " is the Subject. Par. 5-7.1] S UBJE C T. 3 5 Caution. If the Sentence only answers our question by repeating " Who? " W What?" "Which?" &c. as(1) " What made you so foolish?" (2) " Who saw him die? " - then, " Who? " " What? " Which? "are themselves the Subjects. 6 The Subject in a Commanding Sentence.' The Subject in a Commanding Sentence is almost always "you"; or, in Poetry, "thou" or "ye." It is generally not expressed: (1) "Stay (you) where you are: the rest may go." (2) "Follow (thou) me." 7 Caution. Where a Verb follows a Conjunction, as(1) "... that the attempt may prosper." (2) "... ifThomas helps me." — it is useful sometimes to repeat the Conjunction before " Who? " or " What? ": - (1) "That what may prosper?" Answer: "The attempt," Subject. (2) " If who helps me?" Answer: "Thomas," Subject. In these sentences, the name " Subject " is usually given to the Pronoun denoting the person to wchom the commallll is addressed. 4 SUBJE CT. [Par. 7. The Conjunctions "and," "but," "for," "then," " so," " therefore," &c. need not be repeated. EXERCISE I. (SPECIMEN). Find out the Subjects of the italicized Verbs in the following Exercise:1 - Once upon a time there * lived 2 a mighty king whose * name was Xerxes, and he reigned over Persia. Does every boy know where Persia is? If you do not know, look it out in the Map. Though he was king of the Persians, and reigned over almost all the nations of the East, yet he was not satisfied with this; nothing but the whole world could satisfy him. So, learning that a little nation lived not far from him, on the other side of the 2Egean sea, and had not yet submitted to him, the king determined to conquer it. This nation, whicl consisted of several independent cities -Athens, Sparta, Thebes, and many others - was called altogether, by the name of " Greeks." All the Greeks together, when they mustered all their fighting men, did not amount to a hundred thousand, while Xerxes was obeyed by more* than a million of soldiers. Besides, the Greeks were often divided against themselves, one city fighting against another, so that they seemed to have no chance against the Great King —for this was the name by which tho King of Persia was known. Xerxes did not believe for a moment that the Greeks, few and divided as * they were, would resist him. So before 1 In this Exercise, and in those that follow, the Pupil may be asked to point out Nouns, Verbs, Adverbs, &c. But in that case, words marked thus * should be omitted. 2 The term " Subject" includes not merely the Noun that answers to the question " Who? " or " What? " before the Verb, but also all Adjectives or Adjective Phrases put to the Noun; e.g. " a mighty king' is the Slubject of "livedl;" " King" may be called the "Noun part of the Subject," or the "Noun Subject." Par. 7.] S UBJE CT. 6 he collected an army, he determined to try peaceable means. Accordingly he sent heralds to all the principal cities in Greece, and bade them demand from each city "earth and water." What made him ask for that? Why, you must know this was the Persian way of demanding obedience and subjection; for, among them, giving earth was the sign of surrendering their land to the Great King, and giving water meant that they surrendered their sea and navy to him. The heralds therefore, with this message from Xerxes, went forth on their several journeys. "Who lived " " A mighty king," Subject. " Does every boy know?" " Does who know?" "Every boy," Subject. "If who do not know? " "You," Subject. "Look it out." A command: Subject " you," implied. "Though who reigned?" "He," Subject. (Note that reigned is joined by the Conjunction "and " to the Verb was, and both these Verbs follow the Conjunction "though." We therefore repeat "though," in asking the question to find the Subject. Note, also, that the answer is " le," not "Xerxes." The answer must always be a word in the sentence.) "Who or what could satisfy him? " "Nothing but the whole world," Subject. "Who or what had (not yet) submitted?" "A little nation," Subject. These words are also the Subject of lived, which is joined to submitted by " and." "Who or what was called? " " This nation," Subject. "Who or what did (not) amount?" "All the Greeks," Subject. "Who was obeyed? " "Xerxes," Subject. "Who were often divided?" " The Greeks," Subject. " Who seemed?" " They," Subject. 6 POSITION OF TIHE SUBJECT. [Par. 8-Io. " What made him ask?" Here the answer is the same as the question, viz. " What;" and " What" is the Subject of "made." " Whtat was (the sign of surrendering)?" "Giving earth," Subject. 8 Position of the Subject. The Subject of a Verb expressing a statement generally (a) comes before the Verb; but it (b) sometimes comes after the Verb, e.g. when " there " or an emphatic Adverb, or some other emphatic word, comes at the beginning of the sentence:(a) (1) "He reigned in Persia." (b) (1) " There is no doubt about it." (2) " Next came my brother." (3) "'Stop,' cried the soldier." 9 In Poetry, the Subject often comes after the Verb (See Pars. 513-4):(1) " Loud blew the blast." IO In Questions, the Subject is generally (1) in the middle of the Verb, but sometimes (2) after the Verb (1) "What did the man say? " (2) " What said the man?" - unless the Subject happens to be "Who" or "What "(1) " IVho saw hi die?" Par. ii.] FORMS OF THE SUBJECT. 7 EXERCISE II. Write down the Subjects of the italicized Verbs in the following Exercise:When the heralds had arrived at the cities of Greece, and delivered their message, they were received differently in different places. Some cities gave earth and water, because they were afraid of the Great King; others, because they were jealous of their neighbors, and hoped the Great King would help them and destroy their enemies. But the men of Athens and of Sparta would give neither earth nor water. Indeed the Athenians were so angry at the message, that they threw one of the heralds into a pit, and bade him take his earth thence; another they threw into a well, telling him that he could find water there. Xerxes, when he heard how his heralds had been treated, and how the men of Athens and Sparta had refused earth and water, determined at once to levy an army and to conquer Greece. Never before was so vast a host collected. They drank whole rivers dry.* The Hellespont, across which they had to pass into Greece, was bridged with boats: a promontory (its name was Mount Athos) was cut through to give a passage to their fleet. And now this monstrous army, amounting to a million at least, had penetrated Greece, and was marching southward. Still no one ventured to oppose them, and in a few days the hosts of Xerxes, with undiminished numbers, had reached a pass called Thermopylae. II Different forms of the Subject. The Subject may be - x. A Noun, Pronoun, or Adjective put for Noun:"John runs," " He runs," " Who runs? "That is a mistake." 8 FORMS OF THE SUBJECT. [Par. II. 2. A group of Nouns connected by " and ": - "Two and three make five." "You and I are cousins." 3. A Noun-Phrase, or Noun-Clause: - (1) " To write an exercise without afault requires much care." (2.) " That he was guilty was not proved." I EXERCISE III. Write down the Subjects of the italicized Verbs in the following Exercise: — "What is a pass " perhaps you ask. A narrow path with steep mountains on both sides is called a pass. In this case there * were mountains on one side, and, on the other side, was a marshy place stretching down to the sea, so that there * was only room for a cart or two to pass. In such a place, to resist a host was an easy matter for a few * brave men. But, just then, the Greeks were terrified. To remain at Thermopylae seemed to them certain death; so they determined to retreat. Then Leonidas, who was king of the Spartans, when he found that he could not persuade the other Greeks to remain, determined to remain by himself with a few * brave Spartans, to resist Xerxes, and to gain time for his countrymen. With him remained about three hundred men, and the * rest * departed. When Xerxes, after arriving at Tlermopyla, sawv the handful of Spartans prepared to resist him, he laughed at them, and bade his soldiers bring them to him in chains. But the Persian soldiers, on advancing to the charge, found that their master was mistaken in his laughter. 1 The Noun-Clause in (2) may be called a Noun-Sentence, for convenience; but it must always be borne in mind that a Sentence preceded by a Conjunction, so that it no longer states, questions, or commands -ceases, strictly speaking, to be a Sentence, and becomes a Clause. See the Definitions, p. xxviii. The word Phrase includes Clause. Par. 12, I3.] OBJECT. 9 Charge after charge was made by the Persians, but to no purpose. The Persians were slain in hundreds, but the Greeks were neither taken nor driven back. That the Persians were no match for the Greeks was made evident even to the proud King Xerxes; and, when the sun set, he retired to his tent in great sorrow. 12 The Object. Supply what is wanting to complete the sense after the following Verbs and Prepositions: — 1. The grey-hound killed -. 2. I am travelling towards-. 3. The woodman felled-. 4. The soldier shot -. 5. We wish for —. 6. We desire-. 7. I look for-. 8. John is seeking -. 9. I come to-. 10. They reach-. 11. The cart-wheel ran over-. 12. I am thinking about-. 13. I am living in-. The best way to supply what is wanting is to repeat the Verb or Preposition, and ask whom? or what? (not before the Verb, as when you were finding the Subject, but) after the Verb. For example, " Killed what?" Answer: " A hare." "Towards what?" Answer: " Paris." Now "hare" is called the Object of the Verb "killed," and " Paris" the Object of the Preposition "towards." 13 " Object" means "put in the way." Just as a target is put in the way of the marksman, and is called the object at which he sloots, so the word or group of words answering to the question whom? or what? after a Verb or 10 OBJE CT. [Par. 14, I5. Preposition, often denotes the object of the action of the Verb, or of the motion implied by the Preposition. For example, "the hare" is the object of the action of "killing "; "Paris " is the object of the motion implied in " towards." hence the name "Object" is given to the words answering the question whom? or what? after the Verb or Preposition, even in some cases where the name may seem misapplied. For example, in "He isrtravelling from Paris," you can hardly say that Paris is the object of motion. Nevertheless, in conformity with the general rule, " Paris" is called the " Object" of the Preposition "from." 14 ThZe word or collection of words answering to the question whom? or what? after a Verb or Preposition is called the Object.1 15 Different forms of the Object. The Object, like the Subject, must be a Noun, or the equivalent of a Noun: - i. A Noun or Pronoun: - " I like playing, John, nothing." 2. A group of Nouns connected by "and ":' He is sitting between qou and me ": " This railway connects Paris and Brussels." 3. A Noun-Phrase, or Noun-Clause:(1) " I like to play, to hear music, hearing music, a rascal to be punished." 1 As in finling the Subject, so here, if the Verb is modified by " not " or any other Adverb, the Adverb may be repeated with the Verb in asking the question. Par. 16-ix9. OBJECT. 11 (2) "I know that he was not guilty " ": I asked whether he had arrived." i6 Position of the Object. The Object generally follows the Verb or Preposition, but not always. For example: — I. When the object is an Interrogative or Relative Pronoun:(1) " Whom did you see? " (2) " The house that I live in." I7 II. When the Object is emphatic:(1) " Silver and gold have I none." (2) "Not one word did he say." (3) " Some he killed, others he took alive." i8 III. In Poetry (514) - "A monarch's sword when mad vain-glory draws. 19 Some Verbs have no Object. Some Verbs denote (1) states, e.g., "be," "remain," " seem," " appear," and generally all forms of " be " followed by the Verbal forms in -ed, -en, &c.; others denote (2) actions not regarded as having an external object, e.g., " run," " walk," &c. These two classes of Verbs do not take a Grammatical Object. The former class suggests the question " who? " not " whom? " e.g., " He seems - "; " seems who or what? " Answer, " He seems a 12 OBJE CT. [Par. I9. rascal." Here "rascal" answers to the question "who?" (not "whom? ") and is not called the Object of " seems." See Par. 147. EXERCISE IV. (SPECIMEN). Find out the Objects of the italicized Verbs and Prepositions in the following Exercise - Next day the Persians attacked the Greeks again, but to no purpose. Not the slightest impression did they make on the little Greek phalanx. Their gold and silver armor was no match for the steel spears of the brave Greeks. Besides, the Greeks were fighting for their country, while the Persians did not want to fight, and were driven to the battle with the lash. So the sun set again, and Xerxes found that he was again defeated. But, that night, while the king was angrily thinking that he should have to retreat, a traitor came to his tent and offered to show him a path over the mountains, by which the Persians might come down behind the Greeks, -and thus (might) attack them in the rear as well as in front. At once, a Persian battalion set out under the guidance of the traitor, and by sunrise next morning, the Persians, with two vast hosts, had shut in1 the little band of Greeks between the sea, the mountains, and their enemies. "Attacked whom?" " The Greeks," Object. "They did (not) make what? "2 "The slightest impression," Object. 1 "Shut in " is one Compound Verb. See How to Tell the Parts of Speech, p. 77. 2 See Note on page 10. The term " Object" includes not merely the Noun, but the whole of the answer to the question " whom? " or " what? " after the Verb. The Noun-part of the Object may, fr convenience, be called the Noun-Object, and may be stated separately, if desired, e.g., "the Par. 20.] OBJECT. 13 "For what T?" "The steel swords of the brave Greeks," Object. "For what " " Their country," Object. "Did (not) want what? " " To fight," Object. " With what?" " The lash," Object. "Found what?" " That he was again defeated," Object. " Was (angrily) thinking what ".Thlat he should have to retreat," Object. "To what? " " His tent," Object. "Offered what? " " To show him a path over the mountains," Object. The rest you can answer for yourself. 20 Many parts of the Verb that take no Subject may take an Object. For example, you cannot ask " Who or what killing? " but you can ask " killing whom or what? " Consequently "killing" can have no Subject, but may have an " Object." And so may " to kill." EXERCISE V. Find out the Objects of the italicized Verbs and Prepositions in the following Exercise: - Leorlidas saw at once that he and his men had no chance of escape. But instead cf lamenting, he seemed delighted at the thought of dying honorably. lIe told his men to clean their armor and weapons, and to prepare themselves as if for a feast. Then, when the sun was sinking, " Take your suppers," said he, "and remember that you slightest impression " is the " Object," but " impression" is thle " Noun-Object" of" dild make." I The Subljects of tie italicizedl Verbs may also be found both in this and in the preceding Exercise. 14 OBJECT. [Par. 2o. will take your breakfast elsewhere." But in that little band there was not one man that feared to die; for a soldier's death was counted an honorable, and not a terrible thing, among the Greeks. When night came, out marched the Greeks against the army of Xerxes. Wherever they went, they carried death and terror with them; they overturned the tent of Xerxes and slew his guards. The proud king was forced to flee for his life; and, if the night could have lasted for a night and a day, perhaps they might have destroyed the whole of that vast host. But, when day began to dawn, the enemy discovered the small number of the Greeks, and took courage. The Greeks were weary with slaying their thousands, the Persians were fresh; the Greeks were three hundred men, the Persians were more than three hundred thousand. So the Persians gathered round the Greeks, attacking them with slings and darts and spears, because they did not dare to attack them in close fight. When the Greeks charged, the Persians fledfiom them; when the Greeks retired, the Persians approached them. First one and then another of the Greeks fell beneath the shower of darts, others were wounded and could scarcely stand; but none would surrender. Before sunset, every Greek was slain, and the Persian army had gained the victory. But, from that day to the present (day), all men have honored the names of Leonidas and his brave Greeks, who hare left for us and for all men an example teaching us not to be afraid of dying honorably. EXERCISE VI. Write or repeat the Subjects of the italicized Verbs, and the Objects of the italicized Verbs and Prepositions, in the following Exercise: — Par. 20.1 OBJECT. 15 Tommy had heard from Mr. Barlow many stories about the taming of wild animals; so he thought to himself he should like to tame1 a pig. He had heard that the youngest animals are most easily tamed'; so he chose out the youngest pig in the farm-yard, and approached it with some bread in his hand. " Come here, little pig," said he; but the pig ran away. " Then I must fetch you," cried Tommy, and, so saying, he caught it by the leg. The little pig squeaked, and the old sow, coming up, ran between Tommy's legs, and knocked him down in the mud. " Who did all this mischief?" said Mr. Barlow, coming out that moment from the house. "That foolish pig," said poor Tommy. "Oh! no," replied Mr. Barlow, "that foolish boy." In doing the above Exercise, make three columns, thus: Answer to the ques- Answer to the question twhom? or what? after tion whoe? er or Preposibefore the Verb, i.e. te Verb or Preosition, i.e. WORD. SUBJECT. OBJECT. had heard Tommy many stories about the taming of wild animals from - Mr. Barlow to tame - a pig 1 Some of these Verbs, e.g., to tame, have no Subjects; some, e.g. are tamed, have no Objects. 16 OBJECT. [Par. 20. EXERCISE VII. Write or repeat the Subjects of the italicized Verbs, and the Objects of the italicized Verbs and Prepositions, in the following Exercise: - A lion, while quietly sleeping, was surrounded by some mice. They began dancing round him, and at last' one young mouse, bolder than * the rest,* jumped up on his body and scampered across his face. The lion awoke with a roar, and the mice ran away: but the young mouse was stopped bIq the lion's* paw. "Spare me!" cried she, "and I will never disturb you again." The lion good-humoredly took his paw off her, and lay down again. Some days afterwards, the lion was caught in a net spread by some huntsmen. In vain 1 he roared and struggled: lie found that his struggles only entangled him more in the net, and he cried in despair, "I have no chance of escaping." Just then, up came the little mouse with a thousand brothers and sisters. To work they fell, gnawing the net, and in ten minutes the lion was released by the mice. 1 An Adverbial Phrase. See How to Tell, &c., page 79. CHAPTER II. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 21 How to Find whether the Relative is Subject or Object. IN the sentence " Bring the book that pleases you best," what is the Subject of "pleases?" Perhaps you may ask the question in the usual way, " What pleases?" Answer, "the book." But this is not right. "Book " is the Object of "bring." "Bring what? " Answer, " the book." Now the same word is never both Object and Subject; so "book" cannot be the Subject of " pleases;" and the real Subject of " pleases "is the Relative Pronoun " that." You will generally answer questions of this kind rightly if you remember that the Relative Pronoun 1 is in some sense a Conjunction, so that it joins together two sentences, one of which states, commands, &c., and may be called (Par. 248) the Principal Sentence; while the other- as it is introduced by the Relative Pronoun - may be called a Relative Sentence. If these sentences are kept quite distinct - the Principal Sentence being first repeated 1 How to Tell, &c., page 125. 2 18 T-IE RELATIVE PRONOUN. [Par. 22. and parsed by itself, and afterwards the Relative Sentence - the pupil will have no difficulty. 22 In parsing the Relative Sentence, the Noun or Pronoun for which the Relative Pronoun is used - that is, its Antecedent' —should be written in brackets by the side of the Relative Pronoun. Thus, in parsing the Sentences of the next Exercise, write down the Principal and Relative Sentences as follows:Principal Sentence.... (1) " The jay was very soon punished for her robbery." Relative.,, (2) " That (jay) robbed the peacocks of their feathers." If the Sentence contains two or three Relative Sentences, they may be taken separately, e.g. in the seventh Sentence of the following Exercise: Principal Sent Relative Principal Relative Principal Relative tence (a) (1) "The girl that I told you of was tanght a lesson that she never forgot." (a) (2) " Who (the girl) counted her chickens before they were hatched.", (b) (1) "The girl was taught a lesson that she never forgot.", (b) (2) "I told you of that (girl.)",, (c) (1) "The girl was taught a lesson.",, (c) (2) "She never forgot that (lesson)." I How to Tell, &c., page 125. Par. 22.] THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 19 The form who, or whom, will of itself tell you at once whether it is Subject or Object. In parsing a Relative Pronoun, state - 1. Antecedent. 2. Subject of what Verb, or, 3. Object of what Verb or Preposition. EXERCISE VIII. Parse the Relative Pronouns in the following sentences:1. The jay that robbed the peacocks of their feathers was very soon punished for her robbery. 2. The ass that frightened the beasts of the forest ryas laughed at when he began to bray. 3. The crow dropped the cheese, which the fox immediately snapped up. 4. The lion that spared the mouse was afterwards released by the mouse. 5. The travellers, all of whom had seen the chameleon, could not agree about its color. 6. Shakespeare tells us that the man that does not love music is fit for murders and conspiracies. 7. The girl that I told you of, who counted her chickens before they were hatched, was taught a lesson that she never forgot. 8. Have you ever heard of Horatius Codes, who defended the bridge against a host of enemies, and whom the Romans honored by erecting a statue to his memory? Write these down as follows: - Word. Antecedent. Subject of Object of that jay robbed which cheese - snapped up 20 THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. [Par. 23, 24. Find out the Subjects and Objects of all the Verbs in the foregoing sentences. 23 The Position of the Relative. Note that the Relative Pronoun, when used as Object, precedes both the Subject and the Verb. The reason is that the Pronoun, serving the purpose of a Conjunction, has to precede the sentence that it joins to the Principal Sentence. 24 When a Parenthetical Sentence intervenes between the Relative Pronoun and its Verb, that sentence must be carefully separated from the Relative Sentence. A Parenthetical sentence is a sentence inserted in the midst of another sentence, the latter being complete without the former. The following are examples of sentences containing Relative Pronouns followed by Parenthetical sentences:(1) "Yesterday I met Robert, who -you will hardly believe it - as grown to be six feet high, with a beard reacling to his watch-chain." (2) "Yesterday I met Robert, whom (though I had not seen him for ten years) I recognized at once." In the following Exercise, the Conjunctional sentences are inserted between parenthetical marks; Par. 24.] THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 21 but the pupil must be prepared to parse the Relative hereafter without the aid of these marks. The following will be found a useful Rule: - When the Relative is followed by a Conjunction (e.g. "though" above in (2)) introducing a new sentence, leave out this sentence in parsing the Relative. EXERCISE IX. Parse the Relative Pronouns in the following Exercise, stating the Antecedent, and the Verb or Preposition of which each is Subject or Object:Once there was a quarrel between the eyes and the nose about the ownership of the spectacles, which (so said the nose) were uindoubtedly intended for him and not for his two neighbors the eyes; who, on their part (although they admitted that the nose had a share in the spectacles), yet claimed the largest share for themselves. The two ears, whom both parties accepted as judges, called on the tongue, who was counsel for both, to plead first the cause of the eyes, and then that of the nose. So the tongue began by saying that spectacles that had no eyes to look through them, were of no use; the word "spectacle," which the Latins used to denote a " place for seeing," proved, of itself, that the instrument was meant for seeing and not for smelling. The judges, who (though they became rather inattentive while Latin was being quoted) had listened with great patience to the arguments that the tongue brought forward, now desired to hear what the nose had to say. So the tongue, taking that side of the question, which lie pleaded remarkably well, called attention to the saddle that was between the two glasses, 22 'TIlE RELATIVE PRONOUN. [Par. 25. which, said he, was clearly intended for the nose. He added, with great force, that, if the eyes were closed or even altogether removed, the spectacles would still remain faithfully in their place, but a man that suddenly lost his nose would certainly lose his spectacles as well - "which," 1 said he, "clearly proves that the nose is the owner of the spectacles. If a dog were placed between two claimants, should we not readily admit that the claimant to whom the dog went would be the rightful owner? My lords, the spectacles, which (because they have no power of motion) sit patiently there between my two clients, would clearly shew you, if they could move, to which claimant they adhered. Cut out the eye, the spectacles will sit unmoved: cast down the nose, the trusty spectacles will immediately follow their fallen master." Here the judges, declaring that what 2 they had heard was enough to enable them to arrive at a decision, stopped the counsel, and at once decided in favor of the nose. EXERCISE X. Write or repeat the Subjects and Objects of the Verbs italicized in the last Exercise. 25 Omission of the Antecedent. Tell me the Antecedent of which in the following sentence: - "The ass in the lion's skin frightened all the beasts in the forest till he began to bray: * which at once changed their fear into laughter." 1 See " Omission of the Antecedent," Par. 25. 2 What should be parsed here thus: " what is put for that which; that is the Subject of was; which is the Object of had heard." The sentence, fully expressed, would run thus; "declaring that that (Subj.) which (Obj.) they had heard was enough," &c. Par. 26.] THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 23 There is no Noun or Pronoun here that can be called the Antecedent of which. Which stands for "the ass's beginning to bray," or " the braying of the ass," or some other words to be supplied from the previous sentence. In parsing which you must say, "which stands for an Antecedent to be supplied, viz. 'the braying of the ass. " 26 The Omission of the Relative. When the Relative would be the Object, it is often omitted:(1) "The book (that) you sent me is not mine." (2) "Where is the parcel (that) I left here yesterday? " (3) "The message (that) I was sent with was to this effect." In Poetry it (Par. 520) is sometimes omitted, even where, if inserted, it would be the Subject - (1) "'Tis distance (that) lends enchantment to the view." EXERCISE XI. Write down the Subjects and Objects of the italicized Verbs, and parse the Relatives, as in the last Exercise:The sun had nearly set when Harry, having delivered the message he had brought, began to turn his steps home 24 TltlE RELATIVE PRONOUN. [Par. 26. wards. There was no moon, which1 (together with his ignorance of the neighborhood) made him quicken his pace across the common. For some time he managed to keep the path, which was nothing but two cart ruts leading from one farm to another. Presently, however, a track that turned off to a gravel-pit, led him astray. When he had once gone wrong, he found that he could not find the path lie had lost. Through brambles, over furze-bushes, he scrambled onward, till, at last, he fell into a deep pit which, having been left by the peatcutters, had been filled with water oozing from the bog around, and would have drowned him, if he had not been able to swim. Suddenly, to his great joy, he saw a light, which 2 he wondered that he had not noticed before. He ran towards it, supposing it came from some cottage belonging to a shepherd he had seen in the morning keeping his sheep near the middle of the common. Just when lie was close on the light, he fell into another deep pool, which was so broad that he had great difficulty in swimming across it. Scrambling out, he looked round for the light he was seeking; but to his surprise, it seemed to be behind him. Just at this moment another light appeared, straight before him, which, when he approached it, retired from him. Thinking it was the torch of some traveller that, like himself, had lost his way, he shouted to the man to stop, and ran towards him; but, instead of stopping, the light ran away faster than before, seeming to choose the most miry and boggy spots it could find, so that poor Harry soon fell a third time into the water. I See Paragraph 25. 2 Wh7ich is not the Object of wondered. Par. 27, 28.] INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 25 27 Uses of "Who," "What," &c. The pronouns "who," "what," "which," were once always used Interrogatively:A. (1) " Who has a good conscience?" In time, questions of this kind were used with their answers, thus: - (2) " Who has a good conscience? He is prepared to die." Afterwards, for shortness, the two sentences were blended in one. Then, sometimes the whole of the Interrogative sentence was treated as a Noun(3) " (Who, or whoever, has a good conscience) is prepared to die." But, more commonly, the Interrogative force of the first sentence was quite forgotten, and "who" being treated like " that," the two sentences became - B. (4) " He who has a good conscience is prepared to die." 28 Again, when Sentence A was made the Object of a Verb in a preceding sentence, e.g. " I asked," the second sentence lost its Interrogative force; and "who," instead of being Interrogatively used, was used Conjunctively, so as to join the sentence " I asked" with the following words:C. (5) "I asked who had a good conscience." 26 TIHE RELATIVE PRONOUN. [Par. 29. Carefully distinguish the three uses:(A) " What say you?" (Interrogative.) (B) " /What you say is true." (Relative.) (C) "I asked what you said." (Conjunctive.) If you are asked where are the Antecedents of the Relatives "what" and "whoever," you can often supply the Antecedents, thus: — (1) " What you say, (that) is true." (2) " Whoever said that, (he) was mistaken." 29 Sometimes, as in the fourth line of the next exercise, " what " may be parsed either as (1) Conjunctively, or as (2) Relatively used:(1) " What should he do? Harry did not know." (2) "Harry did not know what, i.e., that which he should do." EXERCISE XII. Parse the Relative Pronouns, and state the Subjects and Objects of the italicized words:Harry's * efforts had almost exhausted him. Wet, weary, and almost in despair, he stood shivering on the pool's * brink, looking at the waters from which he had escaped, not knowing what he should do. Another light began to dance before him, but the chase he had had after the light already, made him decide not to pursue it. "I have had enough of following you, Mr. Traveller," * said he; " yet what shall I do? If I stand here much longer, the little strength I have will be exhausted; yet I do not know which way to turn, and what I have seen of this com Par. 29.] THtE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 27 mon convinces me that a man that does not know the road well, may go on walking round and round for hours and only come back to the place he started fromn." Just then tlhe clouds, which, while lie had been wandering about, had hitherto covered the sky, now parted and showed a few stars. Among them was a constellation he knew very well, called the Great Bear. Then, all at once, what Mr. Barlow had told him occurred to his mind, that two of the Great Bear's * stars always point to.the Pole-star, which is always in the North. Now he knew that the farm he had lately left was six miles to the south of his home, so that the path he ought to take, lay to the north. Off he started at once, keeping his eyes on the Pole-star, which, though it led him through more brambles and furze and pools, yet at last brought him out of the common. When he came home, he told his father about the moving lights, which, his father informed him, were called Will o' the Wisps, or Jack o' Lanterns. Those lights came front the marshes, and it * was * the wind * that * made * them shake and dance about - which poor Harry mistook for the motion of a traveller. Words marked* are not to be parsed for the present. CHAPTER III. USES AND INFLECTIONS OF WORDS. 3~ Inflections. The different forms of the same words, as, (1) "like," "likes," " liked;" (2) " man," " man's," "men;" (3) "quick," "quicker," "quickest," are called Inflections. The word "Inflection" means a "bending," or slight alteration. 31 Some words in a sentence are inflected to suit or agree with other words with which they are put. For example, we say " He likes me;" but, if ' he" is altered into " they," "likes" must be altered into i" like" to agree with " they." The rules for the "putting together" or arrangement of words so as to agree with one another, are called Rules of Syntax (syn-, together; taxis, putting). 32 Uses of the Noun. I. A Noun may be used in the (1) Singular Number. Apple, man, mouse, ox. Par. 33.1 NO UNS. 29 (2) Plural Number. Apples, men, mice, oxen. Singular is nearly the same word as " single." Plural means "1more (than one)." II. Again, a Noun in a sentence may be used as(1) Subject. " John strikes." (2) Object. " I strike Joh n." (3) Possessively (ie odeoetePossessor). " John's book," " men's thoughts." (4) Vocativ'ely (i.e. "1callin g by") " Came here, John." 33 These Uses, inasmuch as they represent the condition or case in which the Noun stands relatively to other words in the Sentence, are sometimes called "1 Cases." The word case, in its original Greek, use, 7rr(ost, meant"1 falling." By the Greeks the Subject was regarded as erect, while the action, anil those affected by the action, were regarded as subordlinate, bent orfalling. Hence the Greeks wouldl not have used such an expression as the Subjective case at all: to thein it would heave been as absurd as to speak of 1,an erect fal/ing." lint the Latins, translating,rr~oats into casus, lost time Greek sense, and we have lost it also; So that now case meauss little more thass " use in. connection with other words." 30 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 34-36. 34 Inflections of the Noun. 1. The Plural use of a Noun is denoted by an Inflection, which is generally formed according to the following Rule: — The Plural of a Noun is formed by adding -s to the Singular; as apple, apples. 35 To this rule there are some exceptions well known to all English children. The reason for tle exceptions generally is, that the regular Plural would be harsh and hard to pronounce: hence for " churchs " we say "churches," and for " calfs," " calves." 36 Some of our irregular Plurals are remains of old Plural forms, and are made by - (1) Adding -en: e.g. "oxen." (2) Changing the vowel sound of the monosyllable: e.g. " mice," " men," " feet," " teeth." (3) Leaving the singular form untouched: e.g. "sheep," " deer." In some cases the modern Plural is derived from an old disused Singular. For example, the old Singular forms, " fle," " citie," are retained in the modern Plurals, "flies," " cities." In other cases words (1) early introduced into the language received (and retain) the old-e, while (2) words, with similar terminations, later introduced, are spelt without -e: - '(1) Echoes, heroes, potatoes. (2) Grottos, tyros, dominos. See Par. 283; also Morris's Historical Outlines of English Accidence, p. 95. Par. 37, 38.] NO UNAS. ' 31 37 II. The Possessive Use or Case, in the Singular and Plural, is formed by adding 's to the Singular or Plural form, e.g. "sun," "sun's;" "children," " children's." The mark ('), called an Apostrophe (see Glossary), denotes that something is omitted. In Early English there was a vowel instead of the Apostrophe. The Apostrophe serves the purpose of distinguishing the Possessive, e.g. "sun's" from the Plural "suns." When the Plural Noun ends in -s, the Possessive -s is omitted, and nothing is added but the Apostrophe: " boys' books." This is also the case in the Singular, where a Singular Noun of more than two syllables ends in -s, e.g. "' Lycrgyus' laws." The other uses of Nouns have no Inflections to denote them.1 38 Uses and Inflections of Pronouns. The uses of Pronouns are the same as those of Nouns, except that (1) some of the Pronouns, e.g. "I," " he," cannot be used Vocatively; (2) instead of being used Possessively, they have Possessive Adjectives formed from them. These Possessive Adjectives are really old Possessive Inflections or Cases of the Pronouns, wlich have now ceased to be recognized as Cases. See Par. 569. Some inflections were once used to denote gender, e.g. -ster, ('spin-ster,' meaning a female spinner) and -ess. But these inflections cannot now be used to denote the genders of all or even of many Nouns: consequently they are now terminations, and no longer to be called inflections. 32 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 39, 40 The Inflections of the Personal Pronouns are as follows - PERSONAL. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. PERSON. SUBJECT. OBJECT. SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR. 1st... I we me us my our 2nd. you you 3 you you your your 3rd.. he, she,2 they him, her, them his, her, their it it its 39 The Interrogative and Relative Pronoun has (1) Subject, "who;" (2) Object, "whom;" (3) Possessive Adjective, " whose." The Inflections are the same for Singular and Plural. A few Adjectives used as Pronouns have Plural Inflections, e.g. "these," " those," "others." 40 How to Parse a Noun or Pronoun. In parsing a Noun or Pronoun, state:I. NUMBER: Singular or Plural. 1 Old form, Subject " thou," Object " thee." Possessive Adjective, " thv" or " thine," still used in verse. 2 He, &c. is not, by derivation,, a Personal Pronoun, but a Demonstrative Adjective, once having three Genders, /le, heo (she), hit. See Par. 569. 3 Old form " ye," Subject, sometimes used as the Object. Par. 40.] NO UNS. 33 II. USE or CASE: Subject or Object, or Possessive or Vocative. III. REASON FOR CASE: (1) Subject of what Verb. (2) Object of what Verb or Preposition. (3) Defining what Nounz. Notice that a Possessive Noun often has an Adjective joined to it: e.g. "this boy's book." Here " this " points out " boy's " not "book." EXERCISE. Parse the Nouns and Pronouns in Exercise XII., those marked * as well as others, thus: - Noun 1. Subject of V. or Number. Use or Case. 2. Object of V. or P. Pronoun. 3. Defining N. Harry's Singular Possessive efforts efforts Plural Subject had exhausted him Singular Object had exhausted Answer the rest for yourself. 1 For example: "The sun's bright light." Here "sun's" is Possessive, pointing out clearly, or defining, " light." 3 t 34 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 41-43. Uses and Inflections of the Adjective. 41 I. USE. - The use of an Adjective is to point out, qualify, or " enumerate," a certain Noun.' 42 II. INFLECTIONS.- There are three degrees (degree means step) in most Adjectives, e.g. "long." (1) " Longer" of two things, i.e. long when compared with one other thing. This we call the Comparative degree. (2) " Longest " of more than two. This is, as it were, carried above the Comparative degree, and we therefore call it the Superlative degree (super- above, lat- carried). In poetry the Superlative inflection is sometimes used, without any notion of comparison, to mean " very." " A little ere the mightiest Julius died." (3) " Long," without any thought of comparison at all, but simply and positively long. This is called the Positive degree. 43 To form the Comparative and Superlative, add - (1) -er, -est, to Positives of one syllable.2 (2),,,, two syllables ending in -y, -le, -ow, -er. See How to Tell,,&c., page 32. "Enumerate" here means to answer the question how many? or how much? before a Noun. 2 For changes in spelling, see Par. 268. Par. 44.] ADJECTI VES. 36 These forms sound as though they had only two syllables, e.g. "happier," "nobler." Hence the exceptional formation. (3) More and most in other cases. " More," " most," are not Inflections, but substitutes for Inflections. A few dissyllabic Adjectives are occasionally found with -er, -est. But this license is best reserved for Poetry. (4) Other formations are quite irregular, e.g. not " good-er," but " bet-ter," from an old form " bet " so " worse." " Every " has no Inflections. Some few Adjectives (e.g. " these ") have a Plural Inflection; but these are so few that they need not be considered. There was once a Definite form in -e of which perhaps " olden " retains a trace (MORRIS). 44 How to Parse an Adjective. In parsing an Adjective, state - I. Degree of Comparison. II. Function of Adjective, i.e. whether it qualifies, defines, enumerates, &c. This may be found by answering the question, " What does the Adjective tell me? " III. Noun or Pronoun, qualified, defined, enumerated, &c. Where the Noun is omitted, as in " I do not like these books; are they the best (books) that you have?"-you may say that " best " qualifies the Noun " books," implied or understood. 36 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 45. EXERCISE. Parse the Adjectives in Exercise I., thus:Adjective. Degree. Function. Prooun. Mighty positive tells you what king. sort, or "qualifies" Whose - tells you whose, name. or " defines" Every - tells you how boy. many, or "enumerates" The other Adjectives in this and other Exercises may be similarly parsed. 45 Uses and Inflections of the Adverb. I. Uses. An Adverb may be used with - 1 (a). A Verb: " le declared positively that he would not come." 1 (6). An implied Verb having for its Subject a Noun Clause made up of the Sentence:(1) "He will positively not come," i.e., " That he will not come is positively true." 1 (2) "Perhaps lie made a mistake," i.e., "That he made a mistake is perhaps true."l 2. An Adjective: "IIe is very, more, less, least, successful." I Adverbs thus used are sometimes said to modify sentences. Par. 45.] AD VERBS. 37 3. (a) An Adverb, or, (b) Adverbial Phrase: (a) " More, less, very, often." (b) "I labored altogether in-vain." "I came merely to-help-you." "You livefar from-me." 4. A Noun (rarely): "Even Homer sometimes nods." This is a short way of saying " Even (so wakeful a poet as) Homer;" so that, in reality, "even" modifies an implied Adjective. Only requires care in such sentences as: " Only a tyrant would act thus." In early English " one " (an) was used in many places where we should use "only," or "alone." (For the use of"' one" as an Adjective to signify " only," cf. the Latin "Ego unus supersum.") Thus, instead of"not this only, that," they wrote: - (1) "Not that one (an) that," &c. (2) "God One (i.e., God alone, or only God) can do this." (3) "He was king One," i.e., " He alone, or, only lhe." In the earliest times " only " (ondich) appears to have been used as an Adjective for " lonely," " solitary," and to have had a Superlative form (6nlukest). In this sense we still speak of " an only child." But the Adverbial termination -ly (cf. the -y in " many ") (Par. 218) has encouraged the Adverbial, and discouraged the Adjectival, usage. Ourmodern Adverbial " only " is therefore a compromise between an Adjective and an Adverb. It is not exactly an Adjective in the sense of "an only tyrant "; nor yet is the " only " an ordinary Adverb modifying " would act." It is a confusion between "A tyrant is the only or one person that would act thus," and " A tyrant by himself (one-ly) would act thus." "Only" should be parsed as "Adjectival Adverb irregularly modifying 'tyrant."' 38 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 46-49. 46 II. Inflections. Adverbs have their Degrees of Comparison expressed (rarely) by Inflections, e.g. " soon," " soon-er," " soon-est"; more commonly by the addition of "more," "most," e.g. "happily," " more happily," "most happily." 47 In parsing an Adverb, therefore, you may state - I. With what Verb, Adjective, Adverb, or Noun it is connected. Always ask yourself before parsing an Adverb, " What does this Adverb tell me?" The answer will contain the Verb, Adjective, or Noun, with which the Adverb is used. II. Whether it is in the Positive, Comparative, or Superlative degree. 48 Caution. Some Adverbs are used as Conjunctions:" You say you wish me well; will you help me then?" Here " then "must be parsed as a Conjunction, or as an Adverb used Conjunctively.l 49 The Adverbs " where," " when," " whence," &c., are used (1) Interrogatively, (2) Conjunctively, (3) Relatively.2 (1) " Where is the book?" (2) "I asked him where (in what place) the book was." (3) "You will find the book where (in the place in which) you laid ii." 2 1See low to Tell, &c., page 101. 2 In (3), as well as in (2), where is Conjunctively used; but it is also used Relatively, and is thus described, to distinguish it from the merely Conjunctive use. Par. 49.] ADVERBS. 39 EXERCISE. Parse the Adverbs in Exercise I., thus' - Used with what Adverb. Word. What the Adverb does.2 Once There Where Not Out Almost Far Yet Altogether Together Often lived see Par. 152 is do know part of "look out" all "from him " (Par. 45) had (not) submitted "taken " understood did (not) amount were divided Tells you when he lived. Asks where Persia is. Used Conjunctively. See lHow to Tell, sc. pages 101, 102. See How to Tell, &c. page 55. See How to Tell, &dc. page 78. See How to Tell, &Sc. page 60. Tells you where the nation lived. Tells you when the nation had not submitted. The meaning is (taken) altogether, the nation was called " Greeks "; or " altogether" may be connected with "was called" as " together " below. Tells you how or in what circumstances " they did not amount." Tells you when they were divided. _ _ _ _ _ The rest of this, and other Exercises, may be similarly parsed by the pupil. 1 Tile Degree of Comparison is so unimportant that it need not be menltioned unless specially asked. 2 This colulmnn should not be written; nor need it be repeated. if the pupil has been well drilled in such work, while learning to distinguish an Adverb. 40 PREPOSITIONS. [Par. 50, 51. 50 The Use of the Preposition. The Preposition has no Inflections; and, in order to parse it, there is no need to state anything but the Noun or Pronoun that is the Object of the Preposition. Caution: 1. Some Prepositions are used as Adverbs, e.g. - "Come in," " Heave to." '2. Some Prepositions or Prepositional Adverbs are parts of Compound Verbs, e.g."He was run over by a heavy waggon." 51 3. When a Preposition has a Relative Pronoun for its Object, it often follows the Pronoun, e.g. - "The people that I am with." In such cases the Relative Pronoun is often omitted "The boy you spoke to was my brother." EXERCISE. * Parse the Prepositions in Exercise I., thus: -- When: Object, " a time." Over:,, "Persia." In:,, " the map." Of:, "the Persians." Over:,, "almost all the nations of the East." Of:,, "the East." I All this ought to have been (lone by the Pupil in learning to distinguish Prepositions. See How to Tell, &c., pp. 71, 80. Par. 52, 53.] CONJUNCTIONS. 41 The other Prepositions in this and other Exercises may be similarly parsed. 52 The Use of the Conjunction. The Conjunction has no Inflections, and therefore, in order to parse it, nothing is needed except to state what it does, i.e. what are the two sentences joined together by it. (See pages 104 and 105 of " How to Tell," &c.) 53 Caution. Some Adverbs are used as Conjunctions - (1) "I asked the man where1 my brother was." (2) " It was useless to attempt to persuade him; so1 I took my leave." In "as far as," "as soon as," &c., the first "as" is an Adverb modifying "far," " soon; " the second "as" is a Conjunction. See How to Tell, &c., p. 99. These words are, however, sometimes parsed as Compound Coijunctions. EXERCISE. Parse the Conjunctions in Exercise I., thus: 2 " If" jins (1) "You do not know." loins (2) "Look it out in the map." " Where " joins (1) Does every boy know." (2) " Persia is." "Though" joins (1) " He was king —of the East." hou joins(2) He was not satisfied." "Yet" joins the same sentences. I See How to Tell, &c., pages 101, 102. 2 " And." "than," and the second " as" in "as - as." may be simply called Conjunctions, without attempting to write down the Sentences joined by them: ib., page 142. 42 VERBAL NOUNS. [Par. 54. The other Conjunctions in this, and in other Exercises may be similarly parsed. 54 How to Parse a Verbal Noun. A Verbal Noun is a Noun formed from a Verb by adding -ing to it, e.g. " I like walk-ing." 1 A Verbal Noun resembles other Nouns in being the Subject of some Verb, or Object of some Verb or Preposition; but it differs from other Nouns in often taking an Object of its own, e.g."I like eating beef." Here "eating" is the Object of "I like," but also has for its object "beef." Hence in a Verbal Noun you may state1. Whether it is used as Subject or Object.2 2. (a) Of what Verb it is Subject, or (b) of what Verb or Preposition it is Object. 3. What is its Object, if it has one. EXERCISE XIII. (SPECIMEN). Parse the Verbal Nouns in the following Exercise: - On reaching the shore, Mr. Barlow pointed to a speck far off on the horizon, and asked Tommy what it was. After observing it attentively, Tommy replied that it must * be a very small boat. "What can the boatmen be doing so far out at sea " asked Mr. Barlow. " They must be 1 Verbal Noun Phrases may also be formed, such as, "I do not like being deceived," " He does not like having been deceived," &c. As to spelling, see Par. 267-73. 2 Verbal Nouns are generally in the Singular, so that the Number need not be stated. Par. 54.] VERBAL NOUNS. 43 engaged in catching fish," said Tommy. " Look again," said Mr. Barlow a few minutes * afterwards; " and, before replying, note whether the speck has changed." "Yes, indeed!" cried Tommy, "instead of appearing a boat,* it now seems to be a small vessel,* sailing this way." A half* an hour * afterwards, Mr. Barlow bade Tommy look * once more. " Why," said Tommy, " the vessel by coming nearer, seems to have changed into a ship, and, on looking more closely, I see that it has three masts." " Then," replied Mr. Barlow, smiling, " I trust you will now believe, without being very much surprised, that the sun is really larger than the earth, and only appears to be smaller, because of its being-so-far-off. And when you hear people saying that 'seeing is believing,' remember for the future, that, though you may see rightly, your reasoning may be wrong. You said you saw nothing but a speck at first, and there you were right; but you were wrong in ilferring that the speck was a boat." Verbal Noun is the Object of isthe S has foritsObject. ject of reaching on - the shore observing after - it catching in - fish replying before - - appearing 1 instead of - - coming by - - looking on - - being sur- without prised being, &c. of - - seeing* - is - reasoning - may be - [boat inferring in - the speck was a " Appearing " does not take an Object after it; for you cannot ask "appears wh1om? " See Par. 147. For the same reason, "believing " is not the Noun-Object after is" for " is " cannot be followed by " him." We say, "it is he," not" is him." 44 VERBAL NO UNS. [Par. 54. EXERCISE XIV. Parse the italicized Verbal Nouns inThe Sun and the Wind were one day disputing which was the stronger. On seeing a traveller approaching, "Cease your bawling," said the Sun to the Wind, "and let us decide the question by doing and not by talkigq. Whoever can succeed in taking away that traveller's cloak shall be confessed to be the conqueror: what do you say to deciding thus." " I agree," cried the Wind; "but would you mind my trying first? " " Not a bit," said the other; and straightway the Wind set to work. First he tried blowing quietly, then more furiously; and at last he blew so loud that you could not have heard yourself speak for his howling; but all his blustering was in vain. So far from giving up his cloak, the traveller only drew it closer round him. Now it was the Sun's turn to try. He began by driving away the clouds that the Wind had gathered; then lie warmed the air with his bright face till the traveller was forced to loosen his cloak because of the heat. On seeing this, the Sun redoubled his efforts, till at last, fainting with the heat, the weary traveller flung himself on a bank to rest, after stripping himself of cloak and coat as well. CHAPTER IV. USES, FORMS, AND INFLECTIONS OF THE VERBS. 55 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. WHEN you hear a person say "I struck," you are led to ask "struck whom?" for the action passes across, as it were, from the Verb to the Object of the Verb. In "I walk," the action is confined to the walker, and you are not led to ask " walk whom or what? " Hence " strike" is called a Transitive Verb (trans, across; itive, passing): " walk" is called an Intransitive Verb. The following Definitions are usually given: — I. Transitive Verbs are those that denote an action not confined to the agent, but affecting something else. II. Intransitive Verbs are those that denote (1) "being" or (2) " becoming," or (3) some action confined to the agent, and not affecting anything else. 56 Most Transitive Verbs can take a Noun-Object or Pronoun-Object after them, e.g. "I love, hate, 46 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 57-59. strike Thomas, them:" and, as a rough test, it may be said that if a Verb cannot take " them " after it, it is not a Transitive Verb. 57 But a few Transitive Verbs take a Noun-Phrase or a Noun-Clause as Object, and rarely or never a Noun or Pronoun, e.g. " I think, hope, that he will come." Here " that he will come " is the Object of the Transitive Verbs think or hope. These Verbs are very seldom followed by a Noun-Object, e.g.(1) "Think not so foul a thought." (2) " I hope better things." 58 Caution. Some Verbs seem to be (but are not) used Transitively. The apparent Object is really a kind of Adverb; it might be made the Object of an inserted Preposition, but it is not the Object of the Verb. See Par. 131. (1) "He ran (for) a mile." (2) " She waited (for) an hour." (3) "We slept (during) the whole morning." The Verbs is, seem, appear, remain, become, &c., are Intransitive Verbs (see Par. 147). 59 Active and Passive Forms.' When the Object of a Transitive Verb, e.g. " John wounds Thomas," is made the Subject, e.g. " Thomas 1 These forms are usually called Voices; but the Latin term (Madvig) seems to have been " forma " or " genus." Par. 60, 6i.] VERBS. 47 is wounded by John," then the Verb in the second sentence tells us what is done to Thomas, or what Thomas stuffers. Hence the form of the Verb, is wounded, is called the Passive (i.e. " suffering "). 60 The Passive Voice is the form assumed by the Verb when its Object is made the Subject. Hence only Transitive Verbs can have Passive Voices, for only Transitive Verbs have Objects. It is sometimes said that a Verb is in the Passive Voice when its Subject "denotes a person or thing acted on "; but this is not true. In " Goliath fell, or perished, by the hand of l)avid." "Goliath" denotes "a person acted on": yet " fell" and " perished " are not Passive Forms. The ordinary form of the Verb is often called the Active (i.e. " doing ") Voice, because it generally tells us what the person or thing denoted by the Subject does, e.g. " John wounds." This is not always true. In " Goliath fell or perished," " fell " and " perished " tell you rather what Goliath suffered than what he did: yet they would be called Active. The following definition seems truer: - 6i The Active Voice of a Transitive Verb is the form that can be used with an Object. Intransitive Verbs are always in the Active Voice. 48 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 62-64. 62 Verbs of Motion are exceptions to this rule. We still say (and once used to say more commonly) " I am arrived," " he is come." The agent is here considered as affected by his own act: cf. the French " s'en aller," "se promener." 63 Participles. 1. Most Verbs, Transitive or Intransitive, can have Verb-Adjectives formed from them by adding -ing (rejecting final-e), e.g. "dancing," "wandering." 1 64 These words are used as(1.) Adjectives: " A dancing bear," "a wandering gipsy." (2.) Verbs with Conjunctions or with Relative Pronouns: "A gipsy wandering (i.e. when, while, or because he was wandering) across the heath, found the child." (3.) Parts of a Stating Verb: "A gipsy was wandering across the heath." Consequently, as these words participate in the nature of Adjectives and also in the nature of Verbs, they are called Participles. 1 For changes in spelling, see Par. 267-78. Par. 65, 66.] PARI CIPLES. 49 When these words are used as Adjectives, they should be parsed as "Participles used as Adjectives." 65 2. A second Participle is formed from Transitive Verbs by adding -ed to the Verb, e.g. wound, wounded. See Par. 558. This kind of Participle is often used with a Noun, to denote that the person or thing represented by the Noun suffers the action denoted by the Verb; e.g. in " a wounded man," " wounded" denotes that a " man" has suffered wounding. Hence the Participle in -ed is called the Passive Participle. The Passive Particle is also formed in other ways, e.g., break, broken: bring, brougqht: sing, sung. The Participle in -ing is called the Active Participle. 66 How to Tell a Participle. A Participle can at once be distinguished (1) from an Adjective, (2) from part of a Stating Verb by the fact that it can be, in part, replaced by a Conjunctive word, i.e. by a Conjunctive or Relative Pronoun. You must judge from the sense of the passage what Conjunction is (partly) to replace any Par4 50 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 67. ticiple. For example, "walking" might be replaced by1. While or when: " Walking along the street one day, I saw Thomas." 2. Because: " Walking on the ice in spite of the park-keeper's warning, the boy fell in." 3. Though or if: " Walking with the greatest care you will scarcely keep yourself from slipping." 4. " I once saw a man walking on a rope," i.e., " a man that was walking." 5. " I saw him walking towards me," i.e., "while he was walking," or "that he was walking." 67 There is probably some confusion between (I) " I saw him a-walkbig~," i.e. ' in, or, in the act oj; wallking (Noun)"; (2) " I saw him walking (Participle)"; (3) "I saw him walk (Infinitive)," which Infinitive was once " walk-en " easily confused with the Verbal Noun and with the Active Participle. EXERCISE XV. (SPECIMEN). Change the italicized Participles into Verbs and Conjunctions or Verbs and Relative Pronouns:A little boy running carelessly along the street, knocked against an old woman cmrryinq a basket of eggs on her head. Down fell the basket smashing all the eggs. The thoughtless boy at first ran on; but, looking round and seeing the people staring and the old woman beginniln to cry, he turned back, saying, " I am very sorry; I would not have knocked against you, if I had seen you." " Yes, master," replied the old woman, looking sadly at the fragments of her broken eggs lying about the dirty pavement, " but your sorrow will not mend my eggs, nor feed my grandchildren waitiny for bread at home." Par. 67.] PARTICIPLES. 51 Conjunction, Participle. or Relative Verb. Pronoun. running while he was running carrying o who was carrying smashing and it smashed looking > when he looked back seeing when he saw staring that (Conj.) people were staring beginning that (Conj.) she was beginning saying and he said looking a while she looked lying which were lying waiting who are waiting Passive, as well as Active, Participles can be changed into Verbs with Conjunctions or with Relative Pronouns. EXERCISE XVI. (SPECIMEN). Change the Participles in the following Exercise into Verbs and Conjunctions or Verbs and Relative Pronouns: A rich gouty man troubled with disease in his feet, went to a physician distinyruished for his skill, promising to do exactly what the physician ordered, if only he would cure him. Seeing his patient deprived of the use of his feet, and too lazy to use them, the physician took him up into a room containing no chair, couch, or seat of any kind, and having a floor lined with iron. There he left him and went out, locking the door behind him. Presently the rich man found his feet growing unpleasantly hot. Irritated at this he called out, but no one answered. 52 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 68. IIobbling to the door on his crutches, he found it locked. By this time his feet, heated by the hot iron floor, pained him so much that he began to raise them, lifting first one, then the other, at first slowly, then more and more quickly. In this way, forced to use his legs, lie found the use of them grow more and more easy, and was cured against his will. Conj unction Participle. or Relative Verb. Pronoun. troubled that was troubled distinguished that was distinguished promising and promised seeing o since he saw deprived. that (Conj.) his patient was decontaining " that contained [prived having that had lined that was lined locking, after lie had locked growing that his feet grew irritated - since lie was irritated hobbling after he had hobbled locked O that (Conj.) it had been locked heated since they were heated lifting and he lifted forced because he was forced 68 Participle after " see," "hear," &c. You must be particularly careful after the Verbs of the senses, such as "see," "hear," and " find" (where " find " means " understand "). Thus, in " I saw my friend shot down," the meaning is " I saw my friend being, i.e. when he was in the act of being, Par. 69.1 PARTICIPLES. 53 shot down;" but in "I saw his body thrown on one side and frightfully mangled," the meaning might be, either " when it was being thrown," or "after it had been thrown:" and you cannot tell which is meant without carefully looking at the whole of the passage. In other words, a Passive Participle, e.g. " shot," may stand for "being shot," or, " having been shot." 1 69 How to Parse a Participle. A Participle, like an Adjective, (1) must always be connected with some Noun or Pronoun; (2) as being part of a Verb, it must be either Active or Passive; (3) if Active, it may have all Object. In parsing a Participle, therefore, you can state 1. What Noun or Pronoun it is joined to. 2. Whether it is Active or Passive. 3. What is its Object, if it has one. In order to answer (1), first replace the Participle by a Conjunction and Verb; then ask the question who? or what? before the Verb replacing the Participle. 1 See Par. 67. Possibly, in some cases, the Passive Participle represents the old Infinitive. Compare: - "That they would suffer these abominations By our strong arms from forth her fair streets (to be) chased." SHAKESPEARE, Rape of DIzcrece, 1. 1, 634. "Would swear him (to have) dropped out of the moon."-PoPE. 51 MOODS. [Par. 70. The answer given by the sentence to this question is the Noun or Pronoun to which the Participle is joined. For example, in the last Exercise, " troubled " is replaced by " that was troubled." " Who was troubled?" The answer given by the sentence is " a rich gouty man;" then " man" is the Noun to which "troubled " is joined. "Seeing " is replaced by "since he saw." " Who saw? " Answer, " A rich gouty man;" then "man" is the Noun to which "promising" is joined. EXERCISE. Parse fully Participles not marked * in previous Exercises. 70 Moods. When we speak about an action or state, we may speak of it in several different ways or Modes. I. We may point out the action definitely, as past, present, or future, e.g. " he comes, came, will come." This is called the Pointing or Indicative Mode or Mood. (Indica-, point out.) II. We may speak of an action without defining the doer, e.g. " to come is easy." This is called the Infinitive Mode or Mood (in, not; finit-, marked out, defined). Par. 71.] TENSES. 55 III. We may command an action. This is called the Commanding or Imperative Mode or Mood (impera-, command). IV. We may speak of an action not as past, present, or future, but as (1) expressing a condition, e.g. " if he should come;" or (2) subject to a condition, e.g. " I should see him;" or (3) (a) purpose, e.g. " Come here that I may see you;" or (b) purpose approximating to a wish, e.g. "I pray that his life may be spared." In all these cases, except (2), the Verb is preceded by a Conjunction -if, that, &c.; and this Mood might therefore be called the Conjunctive Mood. But it is generally called the Subjunctive Mood.1 71 Times or Tenses. For the present, in speaking of the Times or Tenses of a Verb, we shall confine ourselves to those of the Indicative Mood. A Verb may tell you1. What any person or thing does at the present time - " He catches fish." 1 In any sentence, the statement of fact is called the principal clause, and the part of the sentence describing the purpose condition, &c., is called sub-ordinate, and is said to be sub-joined to the principal clause. Hence the Mood of the Verb in this subjoined clause is called Subjunctive. 66 STATES OF ACTION. [Par. 72. 2. What he did in past time:" He caught fish." 3. What he w ill do in future time:" He will catch fish." A Verb, then, has three times of which it can speak - Past, Present, and Future. Now the French for " time " is temps; and from this French word, slightly altered, we have made the word Tense. A Verb has three Tenses- Past, Present, and Future. 72 States of Action. Suppose you are speaking of a fisherman whom you saw some time ago, i.e. in past time, catching fish. 1. You may say simply" He caught a salmon." Here you do not define the action further than by saying it is past. This Tense may therefore be called the "( not-defined Past," or Past Indefinite. 2. You may say - "He was catching a salmon just as I left him." Par. 72.] TENSES. 57 — that is, the action was in an incomplete state, still going on, or continuing. This Tense may therefore be called the Past Incomplete, or Past Continuous. 3. You may say"He had caught a salmon just as I left him." - that is, the action was in a conplete state. This Tense may therefore be called the Past Complete. The same three divisions may be found in the Future and Present:I. Future Indefinite: " I shall catch fish." 2. Future Incomplete: "I shall be catching fish." 3. Future Complete: " I shall have caught fish." I. Present Indefinite: " I catch fish." 2. Present Incomplete: "I am catching a salmon, but have not yet landed it." 3. Present Complete: "I have caught a salmon, and here it is in my basket." 53 TENSES AND [Par. 73, 74. 73 In old English, it was more easy to see that "I have caught" was a present tense: for they used to arrange it thus, "I have the salmon caught," clearly shlowing that the Time of the Verb was Present (as is shown by " I have " i.e. " I possess ") and that " caught " was only a Participle or Adjective telling you what had happened to the salmon. But it is not so easy to see this in Intransitive and Passive Verbs, e.g. "I have run." Each Tense has three States, the Indefinite, the Complete, and the Incomplete. The Passive Tenses are formed by placing the Passive Participle after the different Tenses of the Verb " to be." 74 Some of the Passive Tenses are rarely or never used, owing to their lengthiness; and there is one "state" that is found in the Present, Past, and Future of the Active, but not of the Passive. (1) "I have been (2) "I had been catching." (3) "I shall have been This "state" denotes an action completed, after being continuous. It may therefore be called the Complete Post Continuous. Hence all the Tenses may be arranged as follows: 75 Scheme of Tenses.1 STATE. INDEFINITE. INCOMPLETE. COMPLETE. COMPLETE POST CONTINUOUS. it Un a, Time. Present. Past.. Future Present. Past.. Future. (I) take (I) took (I) shall take (I) am ] (I) am being [ (I) shallbe (I) shall be j ACT (I) am taking (I) was taking (I) shall be taking IVE. (I) have taken (I) had taken (I) shall have taken (I) have been taking (I) had been taking (I) shall have been taking PASSIVE. (I) am being ' (I) have been (I) was being.S (I) had been 0 (I) shall be being2 J (I) shall have been 1 For a fuller scheme of the whole of the Active form, see Par. 584. 2 Not used. 60 TENSES AND [Par. 76, 77. 76 Common Mistakes in Tenses. The Tenses and Participles of Irregular Verbs will be best learned by practice. But the pupil may be cautioned against confusing:I. "Lay," "lie," "lie." LAY (Transitive) "to place or put down." Present. Past. Passive Participle. (I) lay (I) laid (I have) laid LIE (Intransitive) = "to recline." (I) lie (I) lay (I have) lain LIE (Intransitive) = " to tell a falsehood." (I) lie (I) lied (I have) lied II. The Past Indefinite, and Passive Participle of " ring," " sing," &c.; often confused by Milton and Pope, but to be kept distinct in Modern English: - (I) sing (I) sang (I have) sung (I) ring (I) rang (I have) rung See Dr. Morris's Historical Outlines, &c. In E.E., sang was used in the Singular, sung in the Plural, of the Past Tense. " Lay " is the Causative form of " lie," as "raise " of " rise," " set" of L sit," " fell" of " fall," " drench " of" drink." The Negative, or Interrogative Form. In questions and denials we prefer a different form of the Indefinite Present and Past. Instead of "I came not;" "Why speak you?" we say "I did not come;" "Why do you speak?" The advantage of this form of the Verb is, that it enables us to put the Verb at the end, while the Par. 78, 79.] STATES OF ACTION. 61 did or do prepares the way for it. You may call this the Negative or Interrogative form of the Verb. More rarely this form is used affirmatively, to emphasize the truth of a statement: - "Who says I did not come? I did come." 78 Person and Number. If you alter the Subject of a Verb, you often have to alter the Verb so as to agree with the Subject. 1. If you alter "I " into " he," you must alter "catch " into "' catches," so as to agree with "he." 2. Again, if you alter "he" into " they " you must alter "catches" to "catch," so as to agree with the alteration of the Subject from Singular to Plural. This is expressed by saying that - A Verb agrees with its Subject in Person and Number. 79 As an explanation of our distinction between First, Second, and Third Persons, it may be remembered that the Romans, whose grammar we have copied, thought it natural for a person speaking to think first of himself (I), secondly of the person to whom he was speaking (you), and thirdly of any one else about whom he was speaking (him or her). The following Scheme shews how a Verb agrees with its Subject — 62 PERSON AND NUMBER. [Par. 80. Subject. Verb agreeing with its Subject. 1st Person Sing. I am walk 2nd,,,, thou1 art walkest 3rd, lie, she2 is walks 1st Person Plural we are walk 2nd,, you3 are walk 3rd,,,, they are walk The Verb " to be " is the only Verb in English that has a separate form of the Verb when the Subject is in the Plural. In other Verbs the Plural form is the same as that of the First Person Singular, e.g. " I have," "they have." 80 How to Parse a Verb.4 If asked to parse a Verb in the Indicative Mood fully, e.g. " has caught," in " He has caught a fish," you may state - 1. Th~e kind or nature of the Verb: Transitive. 2. The Voice: Active. 3. The Mood: Indicative. 4. The Tense: Complete Present. 1 Old Forn. 2 It is sometimes called a Personal Pronoun, for convenience; it does not stand for a Person (except in the curious idiom mentioned in Par. 158). Not only he and she, but it and all Nouns spoken cf, arre said to be in the Thirdf I'erson. A Noun denoting a Person spoken to is said to be in the Second Person, e.g. " come lere, John." 3 There was once an old form of the Subject ye, still used in Poetry, and sometimes now used as Object. 4 For the present, only the Indicative Mood is here spoken of. Par. 8i.] 1O iW TO PARSE VERBS. 63 5. The Person: in the Third Person. 6. The Number: Singular. 7. It agrees with its Subject "he." 8. It hasfor its Object "a fish." Caution. - Note that the Present Indicative is often used where, logically, the Future should be used:(1) " He will come when he is able." (2) " I shall wait till he comes." After " when," " till," &c., Shakespeare often uses the Future or Subjunctive, e.g. "When he shall be able." The modern Present may in these cases be parsed as "used for Future." For the Present after "if," see Par. 168. 8i The Noun-Subject, and Noun-Object. It is usual, in parsing a Verb, and stating the Subject and Object, not to state the whole of the Subject or Object, but only the Noun or Pronoun, omitting any Adjectives or Adjective Phrases connected with the Noun. For example, in the sixth Verb parsed in the Exercise below, the Subject of "had seen" is " the keen eyes of the lion;" but you need only take the Noun part of the Subject, and may answer simply "eyes." 64 tOOW TO PARSE [Par. 82. In the same way, when stating the Object of " didst thou leave," you need not write down " thy cruel master," but only the Noun part, "master." 82 EXERCISE XVII.1 Caxton brought the printing press to England from Bruges in 1476. In addition to the difficulties that attended the new art of printing, the language had come into such a state that an author needed much judgment to select his words and frame his style. A conflict was raging between the new-fangled French affectation and English pedantry, and Caxton was sorely distracted between the "honest and great clerks," who advocated the former, and the " gentlemen," who stood up for " old and homely terms." " Our language," says the printer, "varieth far from that which was used and spoken when I was born; " and he adds that " the English that is spoken in one shire varieth from the English spoken in another." He goes on to tell a tale how certain merchants on the Thames sailing to Zealand and compelled by contrary winds to remain on the Foreland, went into a farmhouse and asked for "eggs." The good-wife answered that she spoke no French. " Why talkest thou of French? " replied the merchant, angry at being taken for a Frenchman, "I speak no French, nor understand it, I ask for eggs." But the farmer's wife, in spite of all his anger, could none the better understand him, till one of his companions said he wanted " eyren," and the eggs came fast enough. " Lo what shall a man in these days now write?" adds the puzzled printer. Shall he write "eggs" or " eyren"? Certainly, it* is hard to please every man, by cause of diversity and change of language. 1 This Exercise is modified from the admirable Short History of the English People, J. It. Green, M.A (Macmillan, London). It may be parsed after the following Specimen Exercise. Par. 82.] VERBS. 65 EXERCISE XVIIa. (SPECIMEN). State the Noun-Subjects, Noun-Objects, Kinds, Voices, and Tenses of the italicized Verbs:Many centuries ago, a slave, who had made his escape from a cruel master, fled to a forest where night surprised him, so that he was forced to take refuge in a cave. Scarcely had lie closed his eyes in the attempt to sleep, when he heard the roar of a lion beside him. lie started up, but it was too late; the keen eyes of the lion had seen him, and were slowly coming nearer. Androcles - who had no arms of any kind- now gave himself up for lost. " What shall I do? " said lie: " I have no spear or sword - no, not so much as a stick to defend myself with. And lie cried aloud in agony," 0 foolish Androcles, why didst thou leave thy cruel master, who at least would have spared thy life because thou wast useful to him, whereas now thou wilt be the meal of this hungry lion? What was his surprise, however, to find that the lion, instead of springing on him, was walking quietly up to him, limping as though he were in pain. Gaining courage at this, Androcles made no attempt to run away. Presently tle lion held out his paw, and on examining it, Androclesfound that it was inflamed 1 and swelled. Looking more closely, he perceives that a thorn has pierced the ball of the foot, and that it is from this that the lion is Sltffering. 1 Notice thatlhere " inflamed " and " swelled " are Adjectives describing the condition of tile foot. But in tie sentence "i l blearing tlis, the king was ilnflameed witli fury,' teas inflamed would be a Verb. You call say ' all inflamed foot," but not " all inflamned king." 5 66 HOW TO PARSE [Par. 83, 84. 83 84 V r Kind and TState, or er Voice. ense. Division of Tense. Voice. had made Trans. Act. Past Complete fled Intr. Act. Past Indefinite was forced Passive 1 Past Indefinite had closed Tr. Act. Past Complete was2 - Past Indefinite had seen Tr. Act. Past Complete were coming Intr. Act. Past Incomplete had 3 Tr. Act. Past Indefinite shall do Tr. Act. Future Indefinite cried Tr. Act. Past Indefinite didst leave Tr. Act. Past Indefinite wast - Past Indefinite wilt be - Future Indefinite was walking Intr. Act. Past Incomplete held Tr. Act. Past Indefinite found Tr. Act. Past Indefinite has pierced Tr. Act. Present Complete is suffering Intr. Act. Present Incomplete "Governing" an Object. Where a word, e.g. he, has one form when used as a Subject, he, and another when used as an Object, him - the Verb is sometimes said to govern the Object, because the Verb, as it were, controls and alters the form of the Object. 1 Passive verbs are necessarily Transitive; this, therefore, may be taken for granted, and "' Transitive " need not be repeated every time with " Passive.' 2 " Be," " was," &c., are not called either Active or Passive. See Par. 147. 3 Carefully distinguish the Indefinite Past " had," when used by itself, from the Complete Past "had seen him." Par. 85.] VERBS. 67 Person. Number. Subject. Object. 3rd 3rd 3rd 3rd 3rd 3rd 3rd 3rd 1st 3rd 2nd (old) 2nd (old) 2nd (old) 3rd 3rd 3rd 3rd 3rd Sing. Sing. Sing. Sing. Sing. Plural Plural Sing. Sing. Sing. Sing. Sing. Sing. Sing. Sing. Sing. Sing. Sing. who slave he he it (i.e., his starting up) eyes eyes who I he thou thou thou lion lion Androcles thorn lion escape eyes him arms what "0, foolish," &c. master paw "that it was inflamed," &c. ball Only in cases where the Objective differs from the Subjective form, can a Verb be said, with truth, togovern the Object. EXERCISE XVIII. 85 Parse, as above: - Gathering fresh courage from the behavior of the lion, Androcles at last rentures to lay his hand on the extended paw; he touches and handles the swelling, and in spite of the growing darkness, succeeds in drawing out a large thorny splinter, which had run deep into 68 VERBS. [Par. 86, 87. the foot. As soon as the thorn was extracted, the lion showed his joy by evident signs, and at first lay down by the side of his benefactor, as though to protect him; but presently he departed. Next morning, however, before tile sun had risen, back comes the lion to the cave with a deer in his jaws, which he sets down at the feet of Androcles; and, for several days, while Androcles was hiding in the cave, lie was protected from all danger andl supplied with ample food by the grateful lion. But one day, just when the slave was congratulating himself that lie had escaped his pursuers for ever, a party of soldiers, passing through the forest, catch2 sight of him resting in the cave in the absence of the lion. At once they arrest him, and carry him back to the city whence he had escaped.3 86 Singular Nouns with Plural Verbs. Some Nouns, though Singular, are sometimes treated as Plural, because they are Plural in meaninq, e.g. "party" in " A party of friends are coming to dine with me to-day." Here, although "is coming" would not be absolutely wrong, yet "are coming " sounds more natural,. because " party " means a number of persons coming from distinct quarters, and regarded as distinct. See Pars. 334-9. 87 Shall, Will. Note that in the Indefinite Future, shall is used in the First Person, and will in the Second and Third Persons:Ist Person I shall We shall. 2nd Person Thou wilt You will. 3rd Person Iie will They will. 1 Repeat "was." 2 Note ' catch " not " catches." See next Paragraph. s Continued in Par. 102. Par. 88.] TIIE IMPERATIVE. 69 The reason is this: shall, like " must," implies compulsion. Now we do not mind using a word implying compulsion about ourselves; but it seems rather rude to use it about others. For this reason we dislike saying, except in anger, "you shall," "he shall," and prefer to say, "you will," " le w.ill." " You will" once meant "you wisli or are willing to;" but now it generally means no more than "you are going (to)." When we are bestowing a favor that does not depend on the recipient but on our own will, we may use " shall " with the Second Person:(1) " You shall have a holiday to-morrow." Here the context absolutely destroys the notion of compulsion, and therefore " shall " may be used without rudeness. For a similar reason, there is no rudeness in(2) "' Shall you see him to-morrow? " (3) "He says he shall be out of town all the summer." Imperative Mood. You cannot command a man to do any thing unless you speak to him; consequently the commanding or Imperative Mood is, strictly speaking, always in the Second Person, Singular or Plural, e.g. "come." 88 Sometimes we, as it were, exhort or command ourselves, e.g. " let me see," "let us run." But this is 'the same as "suffer me to see," "suffer us to run." Here, therefore, "suffer" and ' let" are Imperatives, addressed to some imaginary personz; but " see " and " run " are not Imperatives, but Infinitives, the " to" being left out. (See Par. 94). 70 THE IMPERATIVE. [Par. 89-9i. 89 Again, sometimes, when we are speaking of a Third Person, we seem to command him, e.g. " let him beware;" but this is explained in the same way, and is put for " let him (to) beware." The Imperative is almost always in the Active. The Passive, when used, is formed (like every other Mood and Tense of the Passive) from the Passive Participle preceded by "be ":(1) " Be pleased to enter." (2) " Be pacified, be persuaded that all is well." 90 In the Bible, the Subject of the Imperative is often expressed, e.g., "come ye": but it is generally omitted in modern English. As a command applies mostly to the present time, there are no Tenses in this Mood. A command relating to the future is sometimes expressed by the Future Indicative; either the compulsory form, " You shall bring the book tomorrow," or the courteous form, " You will have dinner ready by seven." We also say, "Have done," Pres. Compl. 91 How to Parse the Imperative. An Imperative has no Inflections, and therefore cannot with truth agree with its subject. It is therefore wrong to use agree about the Imperative. The Imperative has a Subject. In parsing an Imperative, use the form given in Par. 80, remembering that, though the Subject of an Imperative is seldom expressed, yet it is always implied. Par. 92, 93.] TIIE INFINI T1 VE. 71 92 Forms of the Infinitive. The Tenses of the Infinitive Mood of a Verb, e.g. "send," are as follows:Active. Passive. Indefinite (to) send (to) be sent Incomplete (to) be sending (to) be being sent Complete (to) have sent (to) have been sent S Complete (to) have been (to) have been Post-Continuous sending being sent There is no Past Tense. The Future is expressed by different phrases, such as " to be on the point of sending," " to be about to be sending," " to be going to send," &c. The "to" is enclosed in brackets, because it is sometimes omitted, e.g. "I saw him (to) fall," where "fall" is Infinitive. See next Paragraph. 93 "To" Omitted. We can say indifferently - (1) " He dares not come." (2) " He has not dared to come." Why is " to " inserted in the second, and omitted in the first, example? 1 Rarely or never used. 72 "TO" OMITTED. [Par. 94, 95. Again, compare together - I bade him I ordered him I let him come I permitted him. to come I made him I compelled him I can I am able I dare I venture I may I am allowed I must come I am compelled to come I shall I am certain I should I ought I will I am willing To is also omitted after the Verbs see, hear, need, feel, e.g. "I saw him die," "I heard her sing." What is the reason for the omission of to after all these Verbs? 94 The reason is that our ancestors used not to put to before the Infinitive. Instead of "to walk" they used to say " walk-en." " To " was only used to denote purpose, with a special form of the Verb, "to walk-ene," i.e. " in order to walk." In time, the inflections -en and -ene became disused. So, to denote the Infinitive, they used " to " in all cases, not only in its proper sense of purpose, but also as the mere sign of the Infinitive, even where the Infinitive was nothing but a Noun. Thus, instead of saying "I like walk-enz," they began to say "I like to walk." 95 But after some Verbs, such as let, may, can, &c., it was not found necessary to use to. These Verbs, Par. 96, 97.] THE INFINI7I VEI. 73 4r because they are so often companions or allies to other Verbs, are called " allied" or Auxiliary Verbs. When these Verbs therefore were used, everybody knew that an Infinitive was pretty certain to follow, even though to was not put in: " let us (to) pray." 96 For a similar reason, to was not inserted after see, hear, &c., because they were Verbs of such common use that everybody understood that a Verb could be in the Infinitive after them, without the insertion of to.' But remember, the Verbs after the Auxiliary Verbs, e.g. "let us pray," are Infinitives, just as much as after other Verbs where to is inserted, e.g. " permit us to pray." " T " is omitted in the infinitive after the Auxiliary Verbs "may," "can," "will," "let," rc., and also after " see," " hear," "feel," g'c. 97 The Complementary Infinitive. The Infinitive is often used to complete, i.e. to be 1 Partly also the to may have been omitted because these words may, can, see, hear, &c. are so comllmlon that the insertion of to, whenever we use them, would make our language lengthy and tedious. Occasionally in Sllkespeare, to is fulln inserted where we should omit it, and omitted wlere we slioutl insert it. People had not yet drawn a fixed line letween Auxili;ry Verbs and others. Even now, where the Verb "dare " is used like an ordinary Verb, to must be instirted after it. You may say, " He dares not come," but scarcely, " He will never dare come " To must be inserted in the last selltence. So, "they made him sit on the ground;" but " he was made to sit." 74 THE INFINITI VE. [Par. 98. the Complement of, a preceding Noun or Pronoun. For example, in - (1) " I like a rascal to be punished." (2) " The prisoner was ordered to be executed." Here (1) "a rascal " is not the Object of " like," for you do not like " a rascal," but "a rascal to be punished." Consequently, "rascal" is only the Partial Object, and it has for its Complement the Infinitive " to be punished." In the same way (2) (though the Subjective Construction is less common than Objective), the "prisoner" was not "ordered" at all; what was ordered was the execution of the prisoner, or, in the words of the sentence, " the prisoner to be executed." Consequently, "prisoner" is only the Partial Subject, and it has for its Complement the Infinitive " to be executed." 98 Uses of the Infinitive. The Infinitive is used I. (a) As a Noun: (1) "I like to walk." (2) " To walk is healthy." I. (b) As part of a Noun-Phrase used Objectively: - (1) "I like a rascal to be punished." (2) ' I know him to be honest." Par. 99-Ixo.] THIE INFINITIVE. 75 (3) "He reported the experiment to have failed." (4) " I perceived him to have made a mistake." (5) "I saw him (to) fall." I. (c) Less frequently, as part of a Noun-Phrase used Subjectively: - (1) " He is said to be coming." (2) " The prisoner was ordered to be executed." But these may also sometimes be parsed as Adverbial Infinitives. See Par. 105. 99 II. As an Adverb, or part of an Adverb, modifying a Verb or Adjective: - (1) "I am come (for what purpose?) to see you." (2) "I am sorry (on account of what?) to hear this." (3) "He is slow (in what respect?) toforgive." (4) "You are cruel (in what respect?) to frighten her." I00 III. As an Adjective-Phrase:(1) " Water to drink," i.e. "drinking-water." (2) "Paper to write with," i.e. " writing-paper." (3) "Their importunity was not to be resisted," i.e. " ir-resistible." (4) "Your mistake is to be deplored," i.e. "deplorable." 10I How to Parse an Infinitive. Hence, in parsing an Infinitive, you may first state1. Kind of Verb. Transitive or Intransitive. 7G TllE INFINITIVE. [Par. 102. 2. Voice. Active or Passive. 3. Mood. Infinitive. 4. "State," or Division of Tense, i.e. whether Indefinite, Complete, or Incomplete. 5. Object, if it has any. To these statements you may add whether it is used as aI. Noun: and, if so, (a) of what Verb it is the Subject or Object, Complementary or otherwise; and (b) to what Noun or Pronoun it is Complementary. II. An Adverb: and, if so, by what Preposition and Verbal Noun it may be replaced.l III. Adjective: and, if so, with what Noun it is connected. ExERcISE XIX. (SPECIMEN). 102 Parse the Infinitives in the following Exercise 2: Having been brought before the judge, Androcles was at once condemned, and ordered to be exposed to wild beasts 1 The pupil may also be asked to mention the word modified by the Adverbial Infinitive, as in parsing an ordinary Adverb. 2 For brevity, the Voice, Mood, and " State," are omitted, as also is the Object of the Infinitive, and the word modified by the Adverbial Infinitive. Par. I02.] THE INFINITIVE. 77 in the amphitheatre, to strike terror into all other slaves that might wish to run away from their masters. Accordingly, on the appointed day, the wretched slave was made to stand in the presence of thousands of spectators, opposite the cage of a lion, which had not been suffered to eat any thing for several days, to increase its natural savageness. The furious roaring of the famished lion struck terror into every heart, and made the poor slave prepare for the worst. Suddenly, tile signal is given, and from the open cage forth bounds the lion. But, what was the astonishment of the spectators, to see the savage beast, on reaching its victim, at once change its nature. Instead of devouring Androcles, it began to fawn on and caress him. Tie spectators, indignant at the cowardice of the beast - for so they called it-bade the officers let loose a second lion to destroy the first. It was done, and forthwith a monster larger and more furious than the first, rushed with open jaws at the trembling slave. But the first lion, at once springing on the assailant, forced it to turn from Androcles, and after a terrible contest, left it disabled on the sand. The' admiring spectators now shouted applause,t declaring that the slave must be asked to explain the lion's extraordinary conduct. On hearing the story of his adventures, they begged the Governor to pardon Androcles, and not only to give him his freedom, but also to bestow on him his faithful lion. Tleir importunity was not to be resisted, and both requests were granted. 1 See Par. 125. 78 TIE INFINITIVE. [Par. 0x3, o04. 103 Infinitive. 1. Subject or Object. Of what class? 2. Adverbial. 3. Adjectival. to be exposed to strike to run away to stand to eat to increase (to) prepare 1 to see (to) change1 to fawn (to) let loose to turn (to) be asked I to explain to pardon to be resisted Complementary Subject. Adverbial. Object. Complementary Subject. Complementary Subject. Adverbial. Complementary Object. Adverbial. Complementary Object. Object. Complementary Object. Complementary Object. Complementary Subject. Adverbial.1 Complementary Object.1 Adjectival. EXERCISE XX. 104 Parse the Infinitives in the following. Exercise: - Long ago, when people used2 to worship many gods, a carter was striving3 to make his way with a heavilyladen wagon through a miry lane.. The horses did their best, but the wagoner, who did not wish to take more trouble than he could 4 help,4 was content to 5 sit 1 "To " omitted, see Par. 93 " To explain," see Par. 105. 2 ' Used' is a Transitive Verb, and can govern a Noun or an Infinitive as its Object, e.g. " we use steel pens," " we used to walk." The Object Infinitive now rarely occurs after use, except after the Indeilnite Past, as here. ' Began' is also a Transitive Verb and can be followed by anl Object. 3 ' Strive' is not a Transitive Verb; therefore " to make " should be considered as an Adverbial Infinitive of purpose, "striving for Par. I04.] TIIE INFINITI VE. 79 1. If Complementary, state the ParSubject or Object of tial Subject or Object. waSubject Veor Object of 2. If Adverbial, replace by a Preposition andl Verbal Noun. 3. If Adjectival, state Noun qualified. was ordered Androcles for the purpose of striking might wish was made the slave had been suffered which for the purpose of increasing made the slave - at seeing see the beast began bade the officers forced it must the slave - for the purpose of explaining begged the Governor qualifies " importunity" upon the wagon and let 4 the horses carry him, while he cracked his whip and sang songs. Presently the road began 2 to rise, but still the wagoner kept his seat. Soon they came to a place where a torrent seemed to have dashed across the road, wearing a deep pit with its waters. Tihe horses put forth all their strength to pull the wagon across, but in vain; all their efforts could4 not even move the wheels, which began to sink deeper and deeper into the pit. Now, when it was too late5 the purpose of making his way." On the other hand, " try" is a Transitive Verb, and therefore can take an Object after it. 4 " Could " is the same as " was able." The following Infinitive nmay be regarded as the Object of "can " or " couldl; " " cai " was * once a Transitive Verb. " Let" is the same as " suffer; " dare " is the sanie as ' venture " " Help " meant 1st" to reniedy," 2nd " get rid of," 3rd " avoid.' " Than lie could help," "Than lhe could avoid " 5 " To sit " is the same as " with sitting." IToo late to do any thing " is ' too late for the purpose of doing any thing." 80 THE INFINITI VE. [Par. 105. to do any thing, the good-for-nothing carter got down from his wagon; but all that he did was to curse and swear at tlie horses. Finding tllat cursing did not move the wagon, lie at last thought lie would try wliat praying could4 do. So, falling on his knees, lie besought Hercules, the god of hard work, to come and hell) him in his troubles. In an instant Hercules was on the spot; but, instead of helping him, "You lazy fellow!" said lie, " hIow dare4 you send for me, till you have tried 3 to do witliout me? Learn that IHercules helps none but those that are willing to help 5 themselves." 105 Caution. After Verbs of asking, commanding, advising, compelling, it is not always easy to determine whether the Infinitive is Adverbial or Complementary. For example, in - (1) " They besought him to help them." - the meaning is the same as(2) " They besought him that he would help them." Here there is a notion of purpose: and hence "to help" in (1) may be parsed as an Adverbial Infinitive meaning " for the purpose of helping." a t" Strive" is not a Transitive Verb; therefore " to make " sholld be considered as an Adverbial Infinitive of purpose, "strivinlg for the purpose of making his way." On the other hand, "try" is a Tr:asitive Verb, and therefore can take an Otbject after it. 4 ", Could " is the same as " was able." The following Infinitive may be regaried as the Object of ' can " or " could; " " can " was once a Tralsitive Verb " Let " is the same as "suffer;" " dare" is the same as "' venture." ) You might be disposed to say here that " are willing" is the same as '' wish," I'and that " to liell " is tile Object of ' wish," wllic is impulied in " are willing." But, if you bear in mnin(l ow ofienl to is used in such sentences, e.q " I anm sorry, g,, wllin, ll able. to do this," it will seem better to take "to help" as an Adverbifal Intinitive, meaning " as regards doing," " iu the matter of helping" Par. o06, 107.] THE INFINITIVE. 81 But "him to help" might also be treated as meaning " his helping," and regarded as the Object of " they besought." Either parsing may therefore be allowed, Adverbial or Complementary. When the pupil has once grasped the notion that could, would, &c., are followed by Infinitives, it will be no longer necessary to separate the Auxiliary from the Infinitive. The whole may be parsed together as a Compound Verb. For example, in the last exercise, "could do," may be treated as a Compound Verb. The Complementary Subject Infinitive. io6 Note that the Complementary Object Infinitive cannot always be converted into a Complementary Subject Infinitive. You can say - (1) "I like a rascal to be punished." But not (2)" A rascal is liked to be punished." The reason is this, that in (2) the Noun "rascal" is separated and disconnected in meaning from tile Infinitive " to be punished;" and therefore "l rascal " would be il danger of being regarded as the complete Subject of " is liked." 107 Consequently the Complementary Subject Infinitive is seldom used except where the Noun-Subject and the Verb are so related that the former might 6 82 THIE INFINIT IVE. [Par. I08. be made the Complete Subject of the latter, without making utter nonsense. For example, he" e " ight be made the Complete Subject of "is known," "was heard," "was asked"; although in a very different sense from that of the following examples, in which "he" is Partial Subject: - (1) " le is known to be honest." -(2) "He was heard to say, seen to do," &c. (3) "lHe was asked to do, ordered to come," &c. In all these cases it is better to parse the Infinitive as Complementary; but it may be parsed, though not so well, Adverbially, e.g. "he is known as regards being honest," "he was heard in the act of saying," &c. io8 The Infinitive after Adjectives. I. As an Adjective can be modified by an Adverb, so can it by an Adverbial Infinitive:(1) "Pleasant to see," i.e., "in seeing," or, "for the purpose of seeing." (2) " This is hard to bear," i.e., " in," or "for bearing." (3) "I am content to be poor," i.e., "w ith being poor." (4) "iHe is quick to detect imposition," i.e., "at detecting." (5) " This apple is fit to eat," i.e., "for the purpose of eating." Par. Iog, iio.] THE INFINITIVE. 83 I09 The Adjectival Infinitive Explained. An Adjectival Phrase may be made up by the Preposition to and the Infinitive, as easily as by a Preposition and Noun. There is no difference, in principle, between "a monkey with a long tail; " " apples for eating; " "paperfor writing;;" vwater for drinking," and - (1) "Apples to eat;" " paper to write with;" ' a house to let." (2) "Duties to pefonrm; " " debts to pay; " " work to do." (3) " A time to work, and a time to play;" "nothing to do." (1) "This is not to be believed;" "it is not to be denied." (2) "It is to be deplored, to be renzembered," &c. The Adjectival force of the Infinitive may be seen by the ease with which, in many cases, "to " may be replaced by -ing or -able, so as to convert the Adjective-Phrase into an Adjective: " writing-paper," " playing-time," "deplorable," undeniable," &c. II0 The Parenthetical Infinitive. The Adverbial Infinitive of Purpose is often briefly used in a Parenthesis:(1) "I came by a circuitous path, or rather - to tell the truth -I completely lost my way." This seems to be a short way of saying " (In order) to tell the truth (I must say that), I completely lost my way." (2) " Will you come then? " To be sure, I will." This seems to be a condensation of " (In order for you) to be sure, (I say distinctly) I will come." 84 TIlE INFINITIVE. [Par. iii, 112. III The Exclamatory Infinitive. The Infinitive is sometimes used absolutely in exclamations: - (1) " To think that he should be so foolish! " (2) "Simpleton! To dream that he could succeed without effort!" In (1) "to think" appears to be the Subject of some Verb understood, e.g. "astonishes me;" in (2) "to dream" is probably an Adverbial Infinitive modifying "simpleton" repeated. " Simpleton to dream " is the same as "foolish to dream," or "for dreaming." 112 EXEnCISuE XXI. Parse the italicized words in the following Exercise: A lean hungry wolf one day met a mastiff, who had lost himself in the forest, and asked the wolf to shew him the way home.* For a moment the wolf thought of springing at the dog's throat; he was so plump and sleek and seemed so good to eat. But the mastiff was too strong to be overpowered; so the wolf replied, " Show you the way, Sir? To be sure I will:" and away they trotted together. Presently the mastiff looked askance at the wolf. " You seem to mie," said he, " to be in good condition for the chase, but you are not shapely to look at: one can count your ribs." "I am content to be poor," replied the wolf: "here in these woods there is not much to eat. But what makes you so fat I and sleek? 1 I would give any thing to be in stuch condition." " Then I advise you to Par. 113, II4.] THE INFINITIVE. 85 come with me," replied the mastiff, " and you will be sure to get what you want. You will have nothing to do, but to bark at beggars and vagrants, and then you may eat as much as you like of good beef and mutton. Will you come " At the mention of mutton, the wolf could not contain himself; his mouth watered and he began to weep for joy. " To think of your doubting whether I would come," he cried: " most gladly will I accept your offer: my life is no longer to be endured. Indeed, to tell you the truth, I have not tasted food for the last four days." So on they went at a quickened pace. I 3 As they walked and talked, the wolf could not forbear every now and then turning to admire his companion. While * doing* so, he noticed a mark round the dog's neck where the hair appeared to be worn away. " What's that?" asked the wolf. "Nothing." " Nothing? " Nothing to speak of," answered the mastiff in a rather confused way. " But what is it?" asked the wolf again: for lie began to be suspicious. " Well tlen, if you are determined to know - it is only the mark of the collar round my neck. Sometimes I am ordered to be tied up to prevent my losing my way, as I have done to-day. It is ol no consequence." "It is of so much consequence," interrupted the wolf, that I must wish you* good-by.* and bid you go home by yourself. To lose one's freedom is a loss not to be endured. I prefer to starve free I rather than to be a plump slave." I4 The Tenses of Participles. Participles, like Adjectives, have no Tenses of their own, but borrow the time they express from 1 Cf. " to live happy," "die rich," &c. This use of the Adjective is a sort of compromise between (1) an Adverb, and (2) the Supplementary use in Par. 149. 86 86 ~THlE TENSES [a.15 [Par. II5 - some other Verb in the sentence. Thus "1walking " or "supported" may be Past, Present, or Future:1. Past:(1) W Ialking on, I soon reached Windsor," i.e., "after I walked on." (2) "Supported by this scanty food, lie lived for ten days longer," i.e., " since hie was supported." 2. Present:(1) "I see an old man walking towards me," i.e., itwho is walking," or, " and hie is walkinq." (2) " I see an old man coming this way, suppJorted by his son," i.e., " who," or, " and hie, is being supported." 3. Future:(1) " W~alking on, you will soon reach 'Windsor," i.e., "if you (will) walk- on." (2) " Supported by his son's daily labor, lie will live for the rest of his life in comfort," i.e., "since lie will be supported." 15 The Participial forms might be arranged as follows, accordling to their formsAcTIvE. PASSIVE. INCOMPLETE supporting (being) supported COMPLETE having sup- having been ported supported Par. II6.] OF PARTICIPLES. 87 But the Incomplete form may sometimes denote an action in the Indefinite Past, as in the first example of Paragraph 114. Note that the Complete as well as the Incomplete form of the Participle can be used either for Present, Past, or Future. For example, "Having walked on, I came to Windsor" means not " when I have walked on" but " when I had walked on," so that the Participle is here put for the Complete Past. A future action is expressed in a Participle by a Phrase with " being," e.g. " being on the point of death," "being about to die " (where " to die " must be regarded as the Object of " about"). II6 The confusion in the uses of the Participle is, perhaps, in part explained by its having been confused with the abbreviated Adverbial use of the Verbal. For example, "in," or, "on walking" could naturally mean either " engaged in walking," or" upon," i.e. " afer walking." When this Adverbial Phrase was contracted to "a-walking," or simply " walking," it was easily confused with the Participle. Originally the Participle ended in -nd, and the Verbal in -nq; but very early, the Participle assumed -ng. See Par. 554-8. CHAPTER V.1 THE INDIRECT OBJECT. I17 FIND the Object of the Verb in the first of the following sentences:(1) "John brought Thomas a book." (2) "I will forgive them their fault." (3) " The father allowed his son two hundred pounds a year." (4) "I envy her her good health." (5) " This conduct will lose you your friends." (6) "Fill me tie cup." (7) "My mother tauglit my brother French." (8) " I will ask your sister this question." Ask the question in the usual way, " Brought whom or what?" Answer, " Brought a book;" therefore " book " is the Object of i" brought." If any one were to say,"' No, the sentence gives the answer 'brought Thomas,' " you would reply, " Jollhn did not bring Thomas, he brought the book for or to Thomas; and 'brought Thomas' is only a short way of saying ' brought for or to Thomas."' 1 The Subjunctive Mood. which would laturally follow here, is deferred to Par. 163, owing to its difficulty. Par. II8-I20.] TIlE INDIRECT OBJECT. 89 118 Nevertheless, as "Thomas" does (in a certain sense) answer to the question " whom?" after the Verb, it is called an Object. But "book" is called the Direct Object, as it is the first and direct object of the action; and Thomas is called the Indirect Object, as being the second object indirectly affected by the action. Rule. The Indirect Object of a Verb is the word or phrase that answers to the question " For, or, to whom? " " For, or, to what?" when asked after the Verb and its Direct Object. II9 There are a few exceptions to this rule. In " lie played me a trick," "on," not "for," would be supplied before "me." Also, after "ask," "of" or "from" has to be supplied: "he asked (of) his sister a question."l 120 N. B. The Indirect Object can easily be detected as follows: it always comes before the Direct Object, and cannot be placed after the Direct Object without the insertion of a Preposition, in which case it ceases to be the Indirect Object of the Verb, and becomes the Object of the Preposition:(1) "John brought a book for Thomas." 1 Probably in (8) after " ask," the word " sister " may be regarded as the Direct Object, and ' ask-a-question " as a Compound Verb having as its Object " sister." 90 TIHE OBJECT [Par. I2I, I22. (2) " I will forgive their fault to them." 1 (3) " The Father allowed two hundred pounds a year to his son." EXERCISE XXII. 121 Which are the Direct and which the Indirect Objects of the italicized Verbs? - 1. John fetched me a book. 2. He forg/ave me my fault. 3. My mother taught me French. 4. The judge asked him a question. 6. He refised me this slight favor. 6. My cousin did me a good turn. 7. The thief gave me a sudden blow. 8. My uncle left me a small sum of money. 9. She will tell me what she wants. 10. You shall send me some more soldiers at once. 11. He lent me a thousand pounds. 12. I will shew your friend every thing that is to be seen. 13. This man owed me money. 14. He played me a trick. 15. This conduct will lose you the esteem of your friends. 16. He promises us much, but does little. 17. He answered me nothing. 18. I envy you your good health. 19. A little forethought will save us a great deal of trouble. 20. His father allowed him two hundred pounds a year. The Object after a Passive Verb. 122 When an Active Verb, taking two Objects, is changed into the Passive Voice, one Object becomes the Subject of the Passive Verb, but the other is retained as Object. This Object may be1 This and other similar constructions, e g. "I envy your good health to you," are extremely harsh, and not to be imitated. Par. I23, 124.] AFTER PASSIVE VERB. 91 I. The former Indirect Object of the Active:(1) " Their lives were offered them by the conqueror, if they would surrender." (2) "His fault was forgiven him by his master upon his promise of amendment." (3) " This favor was refused me by my friend." (4) "Much trouble was saved me by his kindness." (5) " Three questions were asked me by the examiners." (6) "Writing was taught me by my mother." II. The former Direct Object of the Active: - (1) " They were offered their lives by the conqueror." (2) " He was forgiven hisfault." (3) "I was refused this favor." (4) " I was saved much trouble by his kindness." (5) " I was asked three questions by the examiners." (6) "I was taught writing by my mother." 123 If a distinction is needed between the two kinds of Objects used after a Passive Verb, the terms Direct and Indirect Object of the Active may be used. But unless such a distinction is asked, it will be enough to say that it is the Object retained after a Passive Verb, or, for shortness, the retained Object. 124 Caution. Carefully distinguish the Retained Object from the Supplement (Par. 148) of a Verb in itself incomplete. For example, " to make king," is a Compound Verb, equivalent to " to king," or " to be-king." Consequently, 92 COGNATE OBJECT. [Par.I25, I26. " king" is not the Retained Object, but the Supplement of an incomplete Verb in:" They made him king," i.e., " they made-king," or " be-kinged him." The Cognate Object. 125 Some Verbs, though generally Intransitive, take occasionally after them an Object whose meaning is akin to the Verb. Such Objects are called Cognate (co-, together; nate, born: Hence "born together," " related," "akin "). This usage is more common in Poetry and in elevated language than in ordinary Prose: — (1) " They have slept their sleep." (2) " He has fought a good fight;" " They shouted applause." (3) " We have walked a long walk to-day." The Early English Dative. 126 In the earliest English there was a special Inflection to denote the Indirect Object. Being mostly used after such Verbs as " give," " lend," " send," "forgive," " refuse," &c. - all of which imply " giving " or "not giving "- this Use or Case of the Noun or Pronoun was called the Dative (i.e. giving) Case. In the earliest English, this Inflection would make it perfectly clear which was tlhe Direct and which the Indirect Object. Compare together (1) the modern English, and (2) the earliest English, in the following examples:(1) " This king gave (to) the minsters large gifts." (2) " This king gave large gifts mnlistr-zum." Par. 127, 128.] ADVERBIAL OBJECT. 93 In (2), but not in (1), we see distinctly by the Inflection -u2m (which is the sign of the Dative use), that "mynstrum " is the Indirect Object. If the old Dative case had to be specified, wherever it is found in Modern English, we shouid have to call the Objects in the following examples, Datives:(1) "Trust me and believe no one else." (2) "A calamity has befallen us." (3) "Obey me and disobey him." (4) "It displeased the king, though it pleased the people." 1 But in modern English the Object after" trust," " befall," &c. must now be called the Direct Object. The Adverbial Object. 127 An Adverbial Phrase is sometimes contracted into a Noun with a Prepositional Prefix, e.g., " aboard," "a-foot," " a-field;" and sometimes still further contracted into a Noun without Prefix of any kind: (1) "I am going fishing" (this is a contraction for " go on fishiln," or, "go a-fishing "). Home (E.E ham) is repeatedly used as an Adverb in " Layamon," and also as an Inflected Noun. 128 Again, in the earliest periods of the language, an Adverbial Phrase was sometimes represented by an Inflected Noun, the Inflection representing a modern Preposition (see last paragraph): (2) "He that was dead came forth, bound hand-unm and f6t-uli," i.e., "as regards," or, in, "hands and feet." (3) (Modern English), "- bound hand and foot." 1 In (3) and (4) the Verbs are derived from French, and were followed (generally) by the Preposition ' &." 94 ADVERBIAL OBJECT. [Par. I29-I31. I29 Hence, even where no Preposition was ever inserted, the Objective form is sometimes used in answer to the questions "How far?" "How much? " "When?" " Where?" e.g.(1) "He is worth you and me put together." (2) "He walked a mile." (3) "He is ten years old." The Objective form me in the first sentence shews that all these Nouns and Pronouns must be regarded as Objectively used. I30 These Adverbial Objects are sometimes, as it were, compromises between Adverbs and Direct Objects. For example, "is worth" implies the Transitive Verb " equals," and may therefore naturally be followed by a Direct Object. On the other hand, it is in form Intransitive, so as to require an Adverb rather than an Object. 131 In some of these cases a Preposition may be inserted before the Object, as - (1) "We waited (for) an hour." (2) " IIe is (by) a trifie taller than I." (3) " We will come (in) three days from this time." (4) "(At) that nmoment Thomas appeared." (5) " He came (by) the shortest wal." (6) " tIe stood (on) this side of me." But it is not to be supposed that a Preposition was thus inserted in early English. Par. 132, I33.] INDIRECT OBJECT. 95 EXERCISE XXIII. (SPECIMIEN). 132 Parse the italicized Nouns and Pronouns in the following Exercise: - The Romans had given Lars Porsena offence by banishing their king Tarquin the Proud. So Porsena sent thlen an ambassadol, bidding them take back their king or prepare for war. But the Romans knew well that they would never be forgiven their rebellion by king Tarquin; and, although pardon was offered them if they would submit, they knew they could not trust his promises. So they gave the ambassador an answer of defiance, and sent him away. Then king Porsena, after waiting some dai/s to see whether they would submit, determined to teach the lomans a lesson and to humble their pride. So, two months after the banishment of Tarquin, the Tuscan king set out for Rome. I33 Great was the fear that the Tuscan army caused the IRomans, when it suddenly appeared on the other side of the Tiber. The senate was just then taking counsel; but on hearing of the enemy's approach, all rushed that instant toward the wall. Messenger after messenger had arrived bringing the consuls word that this town had been taken or that village burned; but still the Romans had not expected that the army could reach Rome that day. Forcing his way through crowds that pressed round asking him anxious questions about their friends and relations, the consul mounted the wall and at once cried out: If yonder bridge is not broken down, the enemy will be upon us this,moment." Then out spoke Horatius and said: "I and two others will keep the bridge for you: hew it down at once." So Horatius and two other brave Romans took their stand on the bridge, to fight their battle against the whole Tuscan army, while the rest of the Romans, Senators and Commons together, worked 96 ADVERBIAL SUBJECT. [Par. 134, 135. hard at the bridge, loosening the props and tearing down the planks. 134 An Object may be parsed as follows:After Direct. 1.1 Active AVer 2 I ndirect.. Verb |2 Iniret 2 After what Verb. Object. After 3"Retained." 3. Passive 4. Adverbial. 4. Answering what question. Lars Porsena Indirect had given. Them Indirect sent. Rebellion Retained would be forgiven. Them Retained was offered. Days Adverbial "How long " Romans Indirect to teach. Lesson Direct to teach. Answer the rest for yourself. Adverbial Subject. 135 I. The Subject is sometimes used with the Participle (without any Verb of which it can be called the Subject) so as to make an Adverbial Phrase - (1) " They dragged my friend away, I in vain resisting and protesting," i.e., " while I," &c. (2) " Up we climbed, he remaining below." (3) " This done, they departed." (4) " Breal:fast ended, they went out for a walk." Examples (1) and (2) shew us that in this construction the Noun is used Subjectively, and not Par. 136, I37.] APPOSITION. 97 Objectively; for ~he Subjective forms "I" and "he" are used, not " me " and " him." The Subject may be explained as Subject of the Verb implied in the Participle; e.g. in (1) " Iresisting" is the same as " while, or, though, I resisted." The Subject in this construction being free from or loosed from its usual connection with the Verb, is sometimes called the Subject Absolute (ab, from; solut-, loosed). 136 II. Sometimes the Participle is omitted:(1) " Sword in hand, the captain led on his men." (2) "I was lying on the grass, an unopened book by my side." (3) " Breakfast over, we prepared for our journey." In all these cases some Participle, such as " being," can be easily supplied. Apposition. I37 Sometimes a Noun or Pronoun is used not as the Ordinary Subject or Object of a Verb, but as a sort of repetition and explanation of the Subject or Object. In such cases, " I mean," or " that is to say," or some similar expression, may be supplied between the two Nouns: - (1) " Next came Thomas, (that is to say) the boy Then we saw that cleans the boots." 7 APPOSITION. [Par. 138-140. Here "the boy," being in close connection with "Thomas," is said to be in Apposition (ad, near; position, position) to " Thomas." I38 For "the boy," write the Third Personal Pronoun. Then the sentence becomes(2) "Next came Thomas, he that cleans the boots." (3) "Then we saw Thomas, him that cleans the boots." In (2) "Thomas" is the Subject, and the Pronoun in Apposition has the Subject-Inflection; in (3) "Thomas " is the Object, and the Pronoun in Apposition has the Object-Inflection. Hence we get this Rule: - Nouns and Pronouns are used Subjectively when in Apposition to Subjects, and Objectively when in Apposition to Objects. I39 By " used Subjectively " or " Objectively" is meant that -if the word has Subject and Object Inflections - the Subjective Inflection or Objective Inflection must be used. I40 In most cases it may be shewn that words "used (1) Subjectively " and (2) "Objectively" respectively, answer the question (1) " who 2" or " what? " before the Verb, or (2) "whom? " or " what?" after the Verb - so that they are logical/l entitled to be described as being themselves Subjects or Objects. Thus " he," above, answers " who came?" Nouns or Pronouns in Apposition may be therefore described as Appositional Subjects or Objects respectively. Par. 141-143.] APPOSITION. 99 141 Apposition with Indirect Object, &c. The Indirect Object is not often emphatic enough to have another Indirect Object in Apposition to it. But such a construction may occur: Will you give him your confidence - a rascal banished from all respectable society? " 142 The Noun when used Possessively, being almost an Adjective, is rarely or never followed by a Noun in Apposition. It would scarcely be English to say: "Thllis picture was not mine but my brother's - an artist himself, and a great connoisseur." Even were such an Appositional use allowable, the Possessive could not be tolerated in apposition; the Objective would have to be employed, e.g. " artist" above, and would have to be regarded as the Object of an implied " of." In the following examples there is no Apposition; the Noun that was once Appositional has now become part of a Compound Noun: — (1) " William the Conqueror's character;" "King Alfred's reign." The word " house " must be supplied after each of the Possessive Nouns in the following Example: (1) "Let us go to Macmillan's the Publisher's." Apposition with an Implied Noun. 143 Sometimes a Noun is "in Apposition" not to another preceding Noun, but to some Noun implied from the preceding words: - (1) " He was said to have disobeyed his parents-a fault deemed unpardonable in those days." (2) " You were silent when accused-a clear confession of guilt." 100 INDIRECT AND ADVERBIAL [Par. x44. In some cases the Noun implied from the preceding sentence would, if expressed, be Objective. For example, the sentences might have run(1) "He was guilty of disobedience-afiault," &c. (2) "You kept silence -a confession," &c. But in other cases the implied Noun might be Subjective, e.g.:"If he were elected a Member of Parliament-not a very probable event," i.e. "if his election were to happen," &c. EXERCISE XXIV. Parse the italicized words inBy this time the Tuscan army had come up, their spears advanced, and trumpets sounding in triumph. When they saw the three brave Romans on the bridge offering them battle, at first the sight caused them laughter, and three of the bravest chiefs spurred forth at Porsena's command to open him a path. But the next moment, their three bodies lay bleeding beneath the Roman spears. Then three more Tuscans rode forward; but, these too being slain by the three Romans, fear and wrath fell on the whole army. So now, with levelled spears and closed ranks, they advanced all together against the champions, a sight to make the bravest shrink back. But the three stood their ground: and now they had gained their conltrymlen time enough to loosen the props of the bridge, which began to shiver under the force of the 144 stream. " Back, Horatius, back," shouted the Consul; and back rushed his two friends, just in time, the bridge cracking beneath their feet, and thundering downwards ~ ~ ~ Par. 145.] OBJECT. 101 as they touched the bank. But the brave Horatius, his wound retarding him (for he had been wounded in the last contest) could not run back in time, and so was left alone, the enemy pressing on him in front, and the river - which was fully fifty yards broad - surging and foaming behind. One moment he paused, and offered up a prayer; then leaped into the stream. Romans and Tuscan, all alike, eagerly watched the brave swimmer, swimming a strong stroke, wounded though he was: and Porsena cried aloud that he was worth twelve ordinary lives, and prayed that he might live and fight many another battle. One minute he seemed to be sinking, but the next lie rose, and at last, weary and faint, he reached the shore. From that time all the Romans paid HIoratius due respect, and bestowed gifts upon him, and set up his statue in the market-place, an honor rarely bestowed on any Roman citizen. EXERCISE XXV. Parse the italicized words in145 A great battle was raging between the birds and the beasts: it had lasted all dna/, and was not yet decided. Not a bird or beast but* had taken one side or other in the battle - all 1 but the bat. She alone, the cowardly creature, would take no part with either side. In vain the eagle, the general of the birds, being hard pressed by his enemies the beasts, sent her his commands by the swallow to join the army of the birds. " How can you give me the name of bird?" she replied; " what bird has teeth as I have? " Soon afterwards the lion, the king of tile beasts, finding the battle going against him, 1 "All" is in apposition with a Subject understood. It is as though the sentence had run, " the birds and beasts had all taken sides in the battle, all but the bat; " andt "all " is an Adjective used as a Noun, and in apposition with "birds and beasts," implied from the preceding sentence. 102 APPOSITIONAL [Par. 146, I47. sent to say that he would forgive her her past cowardice if she came at once to join his army. " What 146 right has he to ask me such a Jfior? " replied the bat. "How can he take me for a beast? Even a mole can see that I have wings. Who ever saw a beast with wings? " Saying these words, she flew to the birds, who seemed on the point of gaining a complete victory, andagerly offered the eagle her services. But the eagle answered, "Just now you told us you were a beast. Go to your friends the beasts: they need your help more than we." The bat retired in confusion; but an hour afterwards, fortune inclining toward the beasts, she humbly approached the lion, offering him her help. " You would not do us a kindness when we were in trouble," roared the lion, "and now do you talk about giving us your help? Away with you! The battle once over, I will make short work with you." Rejected by both parties - the natural result of her cowardice-the bat was forced to lead a solitary life. So sho skulks in dark places, and prefers the night to the day -a warning to all men that they must not " trim." Appositional Verbs, or Verbs of Identity. 147 It has been shewn that two Nouns or Pronouns when " in Apposition" are both used Subjectively, or else both used Objectively. There are some Verbs whose nature it is thus to connect Nouns or Pronouns, placing them, as it were, in Apposition. These Verbs sometimes express the identity between-two persons or things. The Verb "is" is commonly used thus: - (1) " Tle author of this book is my brother." Par. I48.] VERBS. 103 Here " is " expresses the identity between " my brother " and the Subject of " is," i.e. " the author." Hence the name Object could not be given to "my brother." Indeed, if you alter the sentence by putting yourself in your brother's place, it becomes (2) "The author of this book is I." Since, therefore, you are obliged to use the Subjective form " I" (not "me "), it follows that "brother" in (1) is Subjectively, not Objectively, used. For a similar reason, the ordinary term " Object" cannot be given to the Noun following the Verb in - (3) "He was made, appointed, created, ki7gq." (4) "He was thought, deemed, believed, supposed, called, named, a rascal." (5) "He seems, appears, looks a rascal." In these sentences the Verb by itself is incomplete. " He was made " is not only not the complete meaning; it is even untrue. The Verb is, not "was made," but " was made-king." "To make-king" and "to make-beautiful" are, each, just as much one Verb, as " to be-king" and "to beauti-fy." I48 Since the words " rascal" and " general" supplement the preceding Verbs, they may be called the Supplement of the Verb; and, since they are here 104 APPOSITIONAL [Par. I49. used Subjectively, they may be called the Subiective Supplement of the Verb.' On the other hand, in(6) " They made, appointed, created him general." (7) "We thought, deemed, supposed, believed, called, named, him a rascal." — since the identity is here between the Object "him" and the "rascal" or "general," we may call " rascal " and " general " Objective Supplements of the Verb.' I49 Adjectives are sometimes thus used as Supplements: (1) " We thought her foolish." (2) " I painted my house white." Here "thought-foolish" may be regarded as a Compound Verb. Somewhat different is the Participial use of Adjectives in(1) "They found the man dead." (2) "I bought the house new." (3) "I ate my dinner cold."I Caution. Distinguish carefully between:1. The Complementary Infinitive, which is the Complement of a Nouri or Pronoun (See Par. 97). 3. The Supplement, which is the Supplement of a Verb. t The term " Supplement," and not Complement, is used,for fear of confusion between the Supplement of the Verb, and the Complement of the Subject or Object mentioned in Par. 97. Par. 150-152.] VE P B S. 105 I50 N.B. -The Intransitive Verbs " is," " looks," "seems," " appears," and the Transitive Verbs ' make," "create," " appoint," " deem," " esteem," being often used to express identity, may be called " Verbs of Identity." Rule. - Verbs of Identity, when Intransitive and Passive, take a Subjective Supplement: when Transitive, take an Objective Supplement. Preparatory 'it' and 'there.' '5' Instead of saying "To walk is healthy," " To steal is dishonest," we sometimes wish to put the Subject, e.g. "to walk," at the end. But we should not like to say " is healthy to walk;" we want to put in some little word as the Subject of is, as it were to prepare the way for the real Subject that is coming later on. So we say "It is healthy to walk," i.e. "it is healthy - I mean to walk is healthy." This "it" may be called the Preparatory Subject of " is;" for it is like a servant sent on to prepare the way for his master and to secure room for him at an inn. " To walk" is the real Subject of ' is." I52 The Adverb there is used in the same Preparatory way, though of course it is not a Subject. For example, if you are beginning a story about a boy, it does not sound well to say "once a little boy 106 PREPARATORY [Par. 153, 154. was;" so we place "little boy" last, and put in the word "there," not to mean "in that place," but simply to make us feel that something is coming: - " Once there was a little boy." When there is thus used, you may say " it prepares the way for the Subject, and is a Preparatory Adverb." EXERCISE XXVI. (SPECIMEN). State the Subjects and Objects of the italicized Verbs, and parse the italicized Nouns in the following Exercise: - I53 Once there was a stag in a forest. Looking one day at the reflection of his antlers in the water, he thought himself the most beautiful creature he had ever seen, till his eyes fell on the long, slim, shadows of his legs. " Why," cried he, " has not Providence made all my limbs ornaments to me? Why has not Heaven given me the legs of the horse, which, though they do not carry him quite so swiftly as I run, are nevertheless swift and beautiful at the same time? It is certain that then I should 1 be the king of the forest, and there would 1 be none to dispute the title with me. But alas! my legs are mere sticks, and make me the scarecrow of the forest. However, complaints being unavailing, I must submit." I54 Scarcely had he spoken, when there was a sound of the huntsman's horn. Away flew the stag, through the thick wood; but he was sadly hindered, his long antlers catch1 You need not state the Mood of this Verb. Par. 155.] "IT" AND " THERE." 107 ing in the low branches, and checking his furious leaps. Before lie had gone a mile, the hounds were close upon him; but luckily he reached the open plain. Here his fine antlers, the ornaments of which lie had been so proud, no longer hindered him; and by the aid of his legs, the ugly sticks that he had been so contemptuously despising, he soon got safe away. It is a mistake you see, sometimes, to despise what is ugly... I55 Direct Object. Verb.' was thought has made has given are is shouldbe would be are make was Subject. a stag (Prep. Adverb, "there.") he Providence Heaven which that then I should, &c. (Prep. Pronoun "it.") I none (Prep. Adverb, "there.") my legs (my legs) a sound, &c. (Prep. Adverb, " there.") Supplement of the Verb. 1. Objective. rect 2. Subjective. Object. 3. Adjective. himself limbs legs, &c. "the, &c. seen" (Obj.) ornaments (Obj.) swift, &c. (Adj.) certain (Adj.) king of the forest (Subj.) sticks (Subj.) scarecrow (Obj.) me me 1 It will be convenient, for the sake of uniformity, to parse Verbs first, and then other words. 108 APPOSITION. [Par. 156. Noun. Use or Case. Reason for Use or Case. day Object Adverbial (Ans. when?) complaints Subject Absolute with Participle, "being unavailing" antlers Subject Absolute with Participle, "catching" a mile Object Adverbial (Ans. how fiar?) ornaments Subject In apposition to "antlers " sticks Object In apposition to "legs" what Subject "is ugly" (that) Par.28 (Implied Ob- Object of " despise." ject) EXERCISE XXVII. State the Subjects and Objects of the italicized Verbs, and parse the other italicized words in the following Exercise:I56 In a crack near a cupboard, filled with good things, there once lived a young mouse witl her mother. One day the little mouse, who had been wandering about by herself-a common custom with her-came running hastily back: her Jace and tail proclaiming unusual delight. "Dear mother," cried she, "it seems certain that the people here are very fond of us, for they have built us a house that will give us everything we need. They have made it square, and just of the right size: the floor is wooden, and so are the sides; but there are windows to let in the light, and bars to keep out those monstrous striped animals that you call cats. Besides, just inside the cottage, close to the door, there is a piece Par. I57-I59.] "IT" AND "THIERE." 109 of toasted cheese. As soon as I perceived it, the delicious smell attracting me, I was on the point of rushing in to taste it; but I thought it my duty to come and bring you word first." I57 "My dear daughter," replied the old mouse, " it is most fortunate that you did not enter that trap (for it was a trap) which you thought a cottage. If you had entered, you would have been taught by your death a lesson that you have now learned very cheaply. When young mice grow old, they find that many things that seemed made for them were made for quite a different purpose -a truth that, I trust, you will never forget." "It" as Antecedent. 158 I. "It" is still clearly used for the Antecedent of the Relative Pronoun in questions: — (1) " Who was it (i.e., the person) that you saw? " It is also thus used in the Bible, where we could hardly use "it":(2) "Art thou not it that hath cut Rahab and wounded the dragon?" Similarly in Shakespeare: - (3) "There was it for which my sinews shall be stretched upon him," i.e. "the thing for which I will attack him." I59 II. We do not now like to put "it" in an emphatic position. The word seems too light to bear, as it were, the weight that would sometimes fall on it, if placed in the usual position of the 110 "IT" AS ANTECEDENT. [Par. I60, 16I. Antecedent. For example, in answer to (1) above, we do not like to say, though it would be logically correct - (4) "It that I saw was John." Instead of this, we prefer to take some of the emphasis from " it " by shifting the place of " that." In this way, "it" becomes almost as unemphatic as the preparatory " it" in Par. 151:(5) "It was John that I saw." 6o0 By a similar transposition, instead of saying, "It that says so is you," we ought to say, strictly speaking - (6) " It is you that says so." But this sounds harsh. We feel that what we want to express is " You say so." Hence " You that says so" seems ungrammatical. Consequently, by a mistake of confusion (confusing (6) with "you say so "), we have fallen into the habit of writing the sentence thus:(7) " It is you that say so." I6I But, in parsing (7), the only right method is 1st, to state that "say " is, by confusion, used for " says;" 2nd, that the sentence is transposed from "it that says so is you;" 3rd, that "it" is the Antecedent of " that," and Subject of "is." The same parsing applies to - (8) " It was you that I laughed at," i.e., "it that I laughed at was you." Par. I62.] "IT" AS ANTECEDENT. 111 162 It would appear also to apply to(9) " It was at you that I laughed." (10) " It was from you that I received this insult." These sentences would appear to be for " It that I laughed at was you," It that I received this insult from was you." It has been suggested that " it" is here the " Preparatory it," and "that" a Conjunction, the meaning being " The fact that I received this insult was owing to, or, from you." But this does not seem to hold good for (9) " The fact that I laughed was at you." Of course however "it" is the Preparatory "it," and "that" is a Conjunction in: (11) " It was in the time of Julius Caesar that the Romans first invaded Britain." CHAPTER VI. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. BESIDES expressing facts, a Verb may express - 163 I. Purpose: _(1) "Give him some water that he may drink." (2) " We hid the water lest he should drink it all." 164 II. Condition: 1 (1) "If you were to give him some water..." (2) " Should you see him to-morrow..." I65 III. The Consequence of the fulfilment of Condition: 1 (1) "... he would drink." (2) ".. you would find him much changed." Every ordinary Verb has a manner, mode, or Mood of expressing Purpose, Condition, and Conditional Consequence. I66 Subjunctive of Purpose. Present. 'Past. (that he) may drink (that he) might drink (lest he) drink 2 (lest he) should drink 1 Since purpose is not generally so important a statement of fact, and is generally subjoined to statement of fact, the Mood of purpose is called the " Subjoined" or Subjunctive. The name is also given (less properly) to the Conditional Mood. 2 This is rarely used; more commonly, the Past Subjunctive, "should drink," is used in its stead. Par. 167.] SUBJUNCTIVE M OOD. 113 " Would " (apparently of purpose) is used in " We beqged, besought, that he would come." See Par. 173. The distinction between " might " and " should " appears to be, that " might" (expressing possibility) is a more modest word wherewith to represent one's object, than "should," which expresses ftturity, and necessity. (1) " gave him water (in the hope) that (possibly) he might drink." (2) "I took away the water (for fear) lest (which would certainly have happened) he should drink." In other words, since we do not like to express our hopes so strongly as our fears, we use "might" of what we hope, and " should " of what wefear. Subjunctive of Condition. The following is an important division of a Conditional sentence: 167 In a Conditional sentence, (1) the clause expressing the condition is called the Antecedent (" goingbefore"); (2) the clause expressing the consequence of the fulfilment of the condition is called the Consequent.l The forms in the Antecedent differ from the corresponding forms in the Consequent, and three out of five are identical with the Indicative, as will be seen from the following scheme — 1 These are also called (1) Protasis; (2) Apodosis. See Glossary of Grammatical Terms. 8 111 CONDITIONATL.MOOD. [Par. i68, x69. I68 Conditional Mood. Antecedent. Consequent. sees 1 1 will know were to see - (If he) l'should see (me), (he) would know me Ih sawou had seen wouldhaveknown I69 The Conditional Mood of Auxiliary Verbs. The Auxiliary Verbs have only the Indicative form of the Subjunctive; they do not use the " shall-form." For example, we do not say, " If I should can (be able to) come, I should will (wish to) do so," but "If I could come, I would do so." Remembering that" could,"" might," and " would" are the Past Tenses of "can," "may," and "will," and also bearing in mind the meanings of " can," "will," &c., viz. " to be able," " to be willing," we shall be able to express their Indicative Subjunctive forms in the ordinary Subjunctive forms, as follows: 1 The form "if he see " is now nearly extinct in good modern English. But a remnant of it renmais in " if it were," which is the only correct mo(lern form for the Past Conditional. " If I was you " is ungranmmatical, though found (as well as "you was") il the eighteenth century. " If it be," " though it be," are also still used, though falling into disuse. " Were " generally implies a Condition not fulfilled For an explanation of the curious anomalies of this Scheme, see Appendix I., Par. 231. Par. I70.] CONDITIONAL MOOD. 115 116 AUX ILIARY VERBS. [Par. 171, I72. EXERCISE XXVIII. 171 Replace the italicized Auxiliary Verbs by their equivalents in a non-auxiliary form; and, where they cannot be replaced, state the Mood represented by them:1. "If I might choose," said the camel to Jupiter, "I would have the neck of the swan, and the legs of the horse; then I should be the king of the beasts." " You could not hare amde a greater mistake," replied Jupiter; "if you had your way you would be nothing but a giraffe." 2. "If you would but throw me into the water," said the gudgeon to the fisherman; " I should soon grow fatter and bigger, and then, whenever you wanted me, I would come and be caught." "If I could feel sure of that," replied the fisherman, "perhaps I might let you go; but, as I am not at all sure, I must pop you into my basket." 3. " I could have won the race, if I had wisled," said the hare in a rage to the successful tortoise; " but I would rather lose the prize, than trudge for a dozen hours together, as you do, over a dozen yards." 4. The ass in the lion's skin milht have kept tle beasts in awe for ever, if hli could have kept quiet. 5. If I could sell my milk at a good price, I might buy a hen; the hen's eggs would give me money enough to buy a new gown; tlen I should be the best dressed girl at the fair, and I wouldl walk like a fine lady, tossing my head - like this." 172 CAUTION. 1iqht. - I might have " is often used for " I should have had power to," where " power " means "lawful power." It differs very little, in such cases, from 1 See Par. 173. Par. I73, 174.] AUXILIARY VERBS. 117 "1I could have," except that in "Icould " there is no notion of " lawf ul "power. * (1) "If hie had wished he might have helped me." (2) "If lie had not been too scrupulous, he could soon have niade his fortuiie." Bnt the two words are often coafused. Very often also it is doubtfnl whether ' iniiilit " and " could " are not Indlicatively, rather than Sitijuictively, used. ''He wiig/titavelhelp~ed mie " sometimes (sea3 Par. 17,5) Means " Ife /ied (Tille.) the power to have helped me (lint did not use it).'' Since, iiccordinig to the proverb, "1 no one knows what lie can dlo till lie tries," powe,(r may always be regardled (I) as existbig tlioiiih unused, i. e. lvdicatirely;or (2) as a possibility, s~iioject to the filfilmnit of condidtioii. i. e. Sabmioctirely. Helee, iii Latiii, the Indicative "II otui" is often used in Conditional laiguagre. 173 ill, would, - No te that - jus t as?n ay come " m ean s tiI shaoll possibly come," - in (lie same way " I will, or would come " often means " I shiol willingly, or, should willingly, come." In other words, " will " is used for the Future of itself, i.e. " I shall will," just as "may" is for "I shall may." Hence "would" is not quite th e same in - (1) "John said be (John) would be punctual." (2) "Jolii thought lie (John) would take a walk." In (1) the meshing is little more than "1John slaidl lie was goin~g to be punctual; "linut in (2) " will " is for "1shall will " or ",shall like," amil " woultl " is, therefore, for "1 should will ' or "1should like," so that the sentence means '1 John thought lie should tike to take a walk." This explains the use of "Iwould " for "1might " after Verbs of pra~ying (Par. 166). ' We begged that lie wouid conie" is put for "we beggLed that he might will, i. e. mright bepleased to come."1 Indicative Use of Auxiliary Verbs. The Verbs "can," ")6may," " shall," " will," together with their Past Tenses "could," "1 might," "6should," "gwould," being sometimes Indicatively and sometimes Subjunctively used, require much care. Here are examples of the Indicative use of these verbs: - I74 Can, could, "1to be able." 118 AUXILIARY VERBS. [Par. 175-178. "He did help me, but he could not (was not able to) help me much." 175 May, might (i), "to be allowed;" "to have power." (1) "I may (i.e. am allowed to) play now, because I have finished my work." (2) " Wlen I was a boy I miqht (i.e. was allowed to) always play after I had worked three hours." (3) " My father says that I may (i.e. am allowed to) go out." (4) "My father said that I might (i.e. was allowed to) go out." (5) "You might (i.e. had the power to) have helped me, but you would not." 176 lIay, might (ii), "to be possible." (1) "He says that he may possibly come, but he does not feel certain; " i.e. " his coming is possible." (2) "He said that he might come, but that he did not feel certain;" i.e. " his coming was possible." 177 Shall, should (i), "to be obliged; to be bound." (1) " You should (i.e. were, and are, bound to) control your temper." (2) " You should not (i.e. were bound not to) have been so hasty." 178 Shall, should (ii), " to be going." (1) " John says that he shall 1 (is going to) help me." (2) "John said that he should (was going to) help me." 1 There is no rudeness in "shall" here, because John is here avowing his own fixed intention. You do not use "shall" about John: John uses it about himself. Par. 179-182.] AUXILIARY VERBS. 119 I79 Will, would, "to be willing; to wish; to like." (1) " He would not (i.e. willed not, or, refused to) help me, although he could (i.e. was able to) easily have done it." (2) "Although he was warned of the danger, yet the foolish boy would (i.e. willed, was determined to) run upon the thin ice." (3) "After breakfast the old man would (i.e. liked to) generally take a walk." 180 Caution.- Notice that Indicative Tenses of A may," " can," " shall," " will," when depending on a Principal Verb in the Present, are Present; but when depending on a Past, are Past: - (1) "I say that I may, can, shall, will, help you." (2) "I said that I might, could, should, would, help you." 181 Rule. - The Auxiliary Verbs "can," "could," " may," "might," 5c. (when not following "if" or any other Conjunction expressing Condition) are used Indicatively, provided they can be altered into the Indicatives of other Verbs. How to Parse the Subjunctive. 182 1. Where the Mood expresses Purpose, parse the Verb as " Subjunctive of Purpose." 2. Where the Mood expresses Condition, but in the Indicative form, e.g. "If he comes, came, had come," you may parse the Verb as " Conditional 120 THtE SUBJUNCTIVE. [Par. 183. (Indicative form);" otherwise as simply "Conditional." 3. State whether the Conditional Verb is in the Antecedent or Consequent. It is good practice to replace Auxiliary Verbs by their equivalents, either in the Indicative or the Subjunctive, as the case may be. i83 EXERCISE XXIX. (SPECIMEN). State the Moods of italicized Verbs in the following Exercise:Hundreds of years ago, in the centre of the city of Rome there suddenly appeared one morning a deep chasm or pit. No one knew what could hate caused it, and no one could fill it up. If earth or stone could have filled it up, it would not have remained open long; but, although heaps upon heaps of stone and rubbish were cast down, the pit still remained unfilled. The people now began to fear that tle gods of Rome might intend to punish the city, and they thought the pit might be a sign of their anger. So they went to the priests to ask them what they ought to do. The high priest replied that the gods had sent the pit in anger at the citizens; " Even though you wet on casting in earth for centuries," said he, "the pit would never be closed: it will always remain open, until the most precious thing in Rome is cast into it." On learning this, the citizens cast in their gold and the women their bracelets and ear-rings, in the hope that thus they might satisfyl the gods and close the pit. But all was in vain, and it seemed as if nothing would be of use. At last a young soldier named Marcus Curtius, clothed in full armor and mounted on his Par. 184.- THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 121 horse, cried aloud that if a brave man had cast himself into the pit, it would have been closed long ago. Saying this he set spurs to his horse and leaped into the pit; which at once closed, and never opened afterwards. 184 Could have caused. "Was able to have caused." Indicative.1 Could hare filled. "Had been able to fill." Indicative form of the Conditional: Antecedent. Would have remained. Conditional: Consequent. M2iht intend. " It was possible that they intended (put for ' they were possible to intend ')." Indicative.l 2llight be. " It was possible to be (put for ' was possible to be ')." Indicative.1 Ought. "Were bound." Indicative.l WVent on. " Should go on." Indicative form of the Conditional: Antecedent. Would be closed. Conditional: Consequent. Is cast. " Shall be cast." Indicative form of the Subjunctive. Might satisf. " It was possible that they were going to satisfy (put for 'they were possible to satisfy')." Indicative.1 Would be. Conditional: Antecedent. Full sentence is, "as (it would seem) if nothing were going to be of use." Had cast. Indicative form of the Conditional: Antecedent. WVould have been closed. Conditional: Consequent. EXERCISE XXX. State the Moods of the following italicized Verbs:1 Note that the Indicative is used not only in questions, but also after Verbs of fearing, hoping, &c., in many places where it cannot be said to express a.fact. e g. (1) "I hope he has come," (2) " I fear he has not come," (3) " I will ask who has come, or, if any one has come." In Latin, the Subjunc. would be used in (2) and (3), the Infin. in (1). 122 TIHE SUBJUNCTIVE. [Par. 185, i86. 185 "If we had but a king," said some noisy frogs in a pond, " we should be peaceful and orderly; as it is, every one may do as he pleases, and say what he likes, and there is as much uproar in our pond as1 if we were a set of noisy ducks, instead of being quiet respectable frogs. A king would 2 soon set us to rights. 0! that Jupiter3 would give us a king." So they held an assembly and offered up a prayer to Jupiter that he would 4 give them a king. Scarcely were the words of their prayer out of their mouths, when down came a big black monster from the sky, splashing the water up like a fountain. Away swam the frogs in a fright. "Jupiter should not have sent us such a terrible monster," cried they; "why could lie not send us a decent quiet king, who might 5 keep us in order without frightening us out of our wits? As for this tyrant, if he terrifies6 us thus at his first coming, what will he do when he is7 used to oppressing us?" I86 But the big black monster took no notice of their terror. There lie lay, silent and sullen, and would not so much as move a limb. Astonished at his silence, the frogs, after their first fright, began to wish that their new king would 4 say or do something, so that at least they might be relieved from their suspense. So they took out 1 i.e. "as (there would be) if we were." 2 Here, as very often, the Antecedent is left out, but can be supplied, "if he were here." 3 "0! that Jupiter would" is a short way of saying "(we pray, desire) that Jupiter would." This is a more earnest and less hopeful way of expressing oneself than " we*'pray that Jupiter will, or may." If filly expressed, the sentence would perhaps be " if it were possible that one's prayer could be granted, we would pray that Jupiter would give us a king." This is " would " of purpose; Par 167. 4 (1) After " prayer" vwould expresses purpose: (2) after " wish " it may be changed into " was going to," and treated as IndiCative. 6 ", Who might keep us in order " is put for " that he might" and denotes purpose. 6 "If" here is the same as " since." Hence "terrifies" is Indicative. 7 See Par. 80. Par. 187.] TIE SUBJUNCTIVE. 123 of prison a frog that had committed murder, and promised him free pardon if he would swim within three frog's leaps of the king. Shivering with terror the poor frog swam towards the king, scarcely arlyaring to hope that he might l escape, and expecting every moment that the huge monster would dart upon him with open jaws, and swallow him up. Closer and closer he swam; still the king floated silent, motionless. Taking courage from this, the frog thought he would2 awake his majesty by croaking. He croaked, but tile king made no reply. He swam closer, and still closer, and at last, his suspicions being aroused, he extended one of his legs, and stroked the monster's face with it. It was as lie had suspected. The king was no king, nothing but a big black log. I87 Immediately the whole tribe of frogs, who had been watching from a distance, lifted up their voices and began to abuse Jupiter: "If he had wished to insult us," cried they, " le could not have treated us more contemptuously. We should not have minded a strong and somewhat fierce king, even if he had swallowed up a few of us now and then. Any thing would be better than this do-nothing, this King Log. Wly may not we have a king as the birds and the beasts have? Jupiter should not have treated us thus; he might 3 at least have sent us no king instead of thus insulting us. We will pray to him no more until he sends4 us a real king." So the frogs shut up all their temples, and for a whole day would say no more prayers to Jupiter. But at the end of the day there suddenly hopped down into the pond 1 " Miglht," see Par. 180. 2 " He thought he would" is put for " he thought he should will, i.e. should like." See Par. 173. 'Tlis is In(licative. if you take it to mean "he had the power; " but, if you take it to be " lie woul(d have been able (if he had pleased)," it is Conditional, Consequent. See Par. 172. 4 See Par. 80. 124 TIHE SUBJUNCTIVE. [Par. 188. a monstrous stork to be their king. He began by gobbling up a dozen of the noisiest frogs, and ordered that no frog should I croak in any part of the pond while he was asleep. This pleased the rest, who said, "Now we shall have order: it is worth while having a strong king that we may have peace and quiet." But, when they came swimming round him next morning, to pay their respects, and to ask him to judge their disputes, he would not hear them, but ate tliem up by scores, quiet and noisy alike, choosing the fattest. So now the frogs saw they had made a mistake, and they said, " If we were once rid of King Stork we would not find fault with King Log, and indeed we could be content to have no king at all." 4 i88 The Indefinite Subjunctive. Sometimes " should " is used where a Condition is implied rather than expressed: - (1) "It would be unjust that I should suffer for other people's misconduct." This is really equivalent to - (2) " It would be unjust if I should suffer," &c. But it is more difficult to explain why we say(3) " It is a shame that I should be thus insulted," i.e. " am thus insulted." (4) " I am sorry that my son should thus misconduct himself," i.e. " thus misconducts himself." (5) " To think that he should have so far disgraced himself! " i.e. "has so far disgraced himself." In the last three examples facts are spoken of: why then is the Subjunctive used? 1 "Should croak," notion of Purpose. Par. x89, I9o.] THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 125 The answer is, that we desire here to speak of the facts, not as definite facts, but as possibilities. In the same indefinite way we sometimes use the Infinitive, as being an Indefinite Mood:(6) " It is a shamefor me to be thus insulted." Consequently, this use of "should " may be called the Indefinite Subjunctive. 189 Tenses of the Subjunctive. It is usual to speak of the Present and Past Tenses of a Subjunctive: but, in reality, " if'he comes " refers to future time, and so does " if he came or should come." It may perhaps be said that, in " if he come(s), I will see him;" the Condition, though having to do with the Future, is regarded as Present to the speakers. Nevertheless, the fact that the Elizabethan writers often used to say "If he shall come," indicates that this form is more like a Future than any thing else. The form " if lie should come " seems to be a combination of Future and Past - the Future being represented by the shall, and the Past by the Inflection -d-as though with the intention of making a Condition that should apply to no time in particular, but to all time. The same intention seems obvious in " if he were to come," where the Past time is included in " were," and the Future in " to," which looks " to-ward" the future. The False Subjunctive. I90 "If" is sometimes used not in its ordinary Conditional sense, nor, on the other hand, exactly like 1 For to... be insulted," is really here the Old Infinitive with "for to " instead of " to." See Par. 402. 126 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. [Par. I90. "since," but rather in the sense of " assuming as a fact." In such cases it is followed by a true Indicative (not an Indicative form of the Conditional), and the Indicative (Present or Past) is also used in the Consequent: — (1) "If he says that, he is more ignorant than I supposed." (2) " If he said that, he was more ignorant than I had supposed." This must not be confounded with the true Subjunctive. Pope seems to use the Present and the Future indifferently after " while " in - "Whlile lasts the mountain or while Thames shall flow." CHAPTER VII. IRREGULARITIES. gI9 REGULARITY means that which is like a ruled line, for " regular " means " ruled." Irregularity, therefore, means that which is not like a ruled line. Language is said to be regular when it follows straight fixed rules.1 Irregularity of Idioms. 192 For example, it is regular to say, " I have a score of sheep." Here " score" is a Noun, and therefore is regularly followed by "of." On the other hand, it is irregular to say, "I have a dozen marbles," leaving out " of." Now bear in mind Whenever language is irregular, there is some cause for the irregularity. 1 For a Summary of the Rules of Syntax, see "RULES AND DEFINITIONS," p. xxviii. 128 IRREGULARITIES. [Par. 193, 194. Language does not bend away from its straight fixed rules for nothing; there is some cause that makes it bend. I93 In the last example there are perhaps two causes: (1) when we say, " I have a dozen," we confuse this with "I have twelve," that is to say, we confuse the use of a Noun with the use of an Adjective. So we treat " dozen " partly as though it were an Adjective, leaving out the "' of " after it, and partly as though it were a Noun, keeping the ' a " before it. We do the same thing in "I have a hundred sheep;" we ought to say, by rule, "I have a hundred (Noun) of sheep," or, " I have hundred (Adjective) sheep;" but we keep the "a," as though "hundred " were a Noun, and yet leave out "of" as though "hundred" were an Adjective. Thus we mix or confuse two constructions. (2) Another reason why the "of" is omitted after "dozen" and "hundred " is probably the desire to be brief. \.-..94 Here then there are two causes, and they are very common causes, of irregularity: (1) Confusion of two constructions, (2) the desire to be brief. (3) The desire to avoid harshness of sound or of construction, and (in Poetry more especially) the desire to give special emphasis to certain words, are also causes of irregularity. Par. I95-197.] IRREGULARITIES. 129 I95 Irregularity of Words. The " confusion of two constructions," or rather the " reduplication of constructions," affects the formation of words, as well as of idioms. It is very common for an Inflection to become obsolete and forgotten, and then to receive a second Inflection as an appendage, the two being blended or " confused" together. I96 I:or example (1) the old Genitive in 's, which is now retained only in our " Possessive Inflection," had once a 'wider use, so that it represented our " at" or " by," and was used for an Adverbial termination. Ience were formed: (1) "One-s" or " once; " " unaware-s; " " dbor-s;" "day-s;" i.e. " by (lay." In time, the Adverbial use of the Inflection becoming obsolete, a Preposition was inserted, but the old useless Inflection was retained: (2) "At once;" "at unawares" (Spenser); "in doors; " now-a-days." 1 Ig7 In the same way (1) "near " was recognized as a Comparative form, from "neah " nigh: (2) "' songster" was recognized as a Feminine, with the old Feminine termination -ster. But, as the sense of 1 Occasionally there is found "by littles and littles." 9 180 IRREGULARITIES. [Par. i98. the Inflection in each word became lost, new Inflections were added: (1) "Near-er." (2) "Song-stress." In this way may be explained the use of " yours" in "i a friend of yours." (See Par. 434). The use of " yours "1 for " your," is in part explained by "confusion," and in part by Law III. Law III., the " Desire to avoid harshness," accounts for the irregular retention of the following old forms for emphasis: — (1) "I want a book, give me one (emphatic form of a, an, ane)." (2) " Give me a book, for I have no(ne)." (3) "Keep my book, and I will keep your(s),l till you have done with li(ne)." i98 How to Explain Irregularities. Just as the attraction of the earth makes a bullet deviate from the straight line in which it is discharged, so some attracting cause makes language deviate from the straight path, i.e. from regularity, into a path that is not straight, i.e. into irregularity. 1 "Yours " was early used in the Northern Dialects. Par. i99.] IRRE G ULARTIES. 131 This may be illustrated by a diagram: — Attracting force:I. Desire of Brevity. II. Influence of some other construction. III. Desire to avoid harshness of sound or of construction, &c., &c. First, therefore, ascertain the regularity from which the irregularity in question has deviated. Secondly, ascertain the cause of deviation, whether it be (i) desire of brevity; (ii) confusion of two constructions; (iii) desire to avoid harshness of sound or of construction. (1) "He loved her as his own daughter," i.e., "as (he would llave loved her, if she had been) his own daughter." (Brevity.) (2) " All ofus remonstrated," i.e., confusion of the two constructions: "All 1 we remonstrated," and "some, many, ten, &c., of us remonstrated." (3) " It is you that say so." 1 Compare " All we, like sheep, have gone astray." I99 132 IRREGULARITIES. [Par. 200. In this last example two principles are at work. The regular construction would have been (1) "It that says so is you." Here steps in (III.) the desire to avoid the harshness of "it," used so emphatically; hence "it" is deprived of its emphasis by being separated from its Relative " that." (2) " It is you that says so." Here steps in (II.) "confusion" between this construction and the straightforward construction "You say so "-resulting in the idiom logically incorrect, but by process of custom stamped as perfectly good English: - (3) "It is you that say so."1 200 Irregularities are very common (i) with the Relative Pronouns and Relative Adverbs, (ii) with Adjectives and Adverbs of Number and Amount. A few of these irregularities are given below, in order to prepare the reader for dealing systematically with all irregularities in the English shape. In every case the same method will be adopted, viz. to askI. IVhat would be the regular construction? II. What is the cause of irregularity? I See also Par. 160. Par. 201, 202.] RELA TI VE WORDS.13 101) 00 Relative Pronouns and Adverbs. 201 1. " That " is often omitted as the Object, and sometimes (rarely except in Poetry) as the Subject: - (1) " 'Twas you (that) I saw." (2) )"'Twas you (that) said so, not I." The regular construction inserts "that." The cause of irregularity is (J.)' "the desire of lbrevity," and (II.) 1 confusion " with the straighltf orward construction "You said so." 202 2. "But" seems put for "that... not " or "4who...not," e.g. in(1) "There is no ooe here but hates you," i.e. " that does not hate you." The radical meaning of "1but " is "1be-out " or "9 with-out;;" hence "1 except." And therefore, tile regular construction is(2) )"T here is no man here but or except (hie) hate you.) Compare Julius Uesar, V. a, 35 - (3) "1I found no man bit he was true to me." Brev~ity steps in And omits " he." Also "but is confused with a Rlelative Pronoun, just as "1as " is. (See next Paragraph). For other uses of " but,1' see Index. 1 These Noimbers refer to the Laws of Irregularity roentioaed in Paragraph 198. 13,4 IRREGULARITIES. [Par. 203, 204. 203 3. " So." The radical meaning of "so" (Early English " swa ") is "in that way;" and the radical meaning of "as" (which is a contraction of an emphatic form of "so," Early English "all-swa," "alse," "als," " as ") is "in which way," or "in that way." Consequently, "as" has the Demonstrative meaning of " so," besides having its own Relative meaning. (1) "If you are busy, say so." (2) "I thought he was a rascal, and he is so." The Regular Construction would be(3) " He is it." But (Law III.)1 the harshness of "it" in so emphatic a position has tended to irregularity; and (Law II.) this construction has been confused with (4) " I thought he was a rascal, and he turned out so, proved so," &c. In (4), " so " is used in its proper sense, viz. " in that way," and it has been confused with and substituted for " it" in Example (2), in which " so" must be parsed as "used for it." 204 4. " So as-to." (1) " The sailors furled the sails so as to be prepared for the storm." 1 These Numbers refer to the Laws of Irregularity mentioned in Paragraph 198. Par. 205.1 RELATIVE WORDS. 135 The Regular Construction would be - (2) " The sailors furled the sails so (in the way) as (in which way) [they would furl the sails] to be prepared for the storm." Brevity (Law I.), disliking the repetition, omits the bracketed sentence. In the same way we say(3) " I am not so credulous as (I should have to be) to believe this." The words " so as " add indefiniteness, by suggesting condition. If they had been omitted: (4) " The sailors furled the sails to be prepared for the storm." -the purpose of the sailors would have been definitely expressed. But the insertion of "so as " implies rather that the work was of a nature tending towards a certain result, without distinctly stating the purpose. 205 5. " As." "In that way," "in which way." (1) "I have not such kind treatment as I used to have." (2) " Bring such books as you have." (3) " Parse such a sentence as this (is)." (4) " Such as it is, I give it you." The Regular Construction would be (since " such" means " so-like," and is the Demonstrative corresponding to the Relative " whic," i.e. whatlike): - (5) " I have not such kind treatment which I used to have." 1,36 IRREGULARITIES. [Par. 206-208. 206 Ilence, in Shakespeare, we often find " such " followed by "which" and "that" (Relative Pronouns):(6) "Such an affection which cannot choose but branch." (7) " You speak to Casca, and to such a man That is no fleering tell-tale." But (Law II.) the Regular Construction in (5) is confused with - (8) "I have not kind treatment as (i.e., in the way in which) I used to have." 207 The result is the irregularity in (1), which is now recognized as good English. But while this process of " confusion of constructions " was going on, many idioms were formed that have been discarded, and are not recognized as good English. We all know that it is vulgar to say(9) "This is the boy as I saw yesterday." Yet Shakespeare, using "as" for "that," precisely in this way, writes - (10) " I have not from your eyes that gentleness And show of love as I was used to have." 238 Hence we can explain the use of "as " in parentheses, as follows: - (11) " So you are late again, as (is) usual." (12) " As I told you before, you must work before you play." 1 These Numbers refer to the Laws of Irregularity irentioned in Paragraph 198. Par. 209.] RELATIVE WORDS. In both (11) and (12) " as" is used for the Relative Pronoun " which," while the Antecedent (see Par. 25) must be supplied from the context, thus:(11) in full, "so you are late again, which (lateness) is usual witli you." (12) in full, " you must work before you play, which (saying) I told you before." 209 6. "As" redundant. (1) "lIe was appointed as general." (2) " We will have him as our leader." ( ) "I esteem hlimn as a rascal." (4) " This shall serve us as ink." In (3) and (4) the Regular Construction would be (3) in full, " I esteem him as (I should esteem) a rascal." (4) in full, "This shall serve us as ink (would serve us)." It is more difficult to give the Regular Construction for (1) and (2), and probably the irregularities of (1) and (2) are caused not only by (I.) desire of brevity, but also by (II.) confusion of construction. For example, it is an easy transition to "We will havie him as" from:(5) "We will obey him, serve him, honor him, treat him, hold himn, as (we would obey, serve, honor, treat, hold) our leader." 138 IRREGULARITIES. [Par. 210-2I2. 2IO "As," in many similar sentences, is used to give the impression that the writer is not stating a fact, but somebody else's opinion: - (1) "He considered pleasure as (it would be considered if it were) the object of life." (2) " Ie represented the results of the expedition as (they would be represented, if they were) most disastrous." In all these cases " as" may be parsed as " redundant." The full construction should be given, or the construction that has caused the irregularity by a" confusion." For " as yet" and other uses of " as," see Index. 211 7. "As if," "as though," are often used where (I.) the Consequent is omitted:(1) "He loved her as (he would have loved her) if she had been his own daughter." (2) " Ile loved her as (much as he could have loved her, for he could not have loved her more) though she had been his own daughter." In both examples, Brevity is the Cause of Irregularity. 212 Words of Number.l Some much-used Adjectives and Adverbs of 1 (I.), (II.), (III.), refer to the "Laws of Irregularity," mentioned in Par. 198. Par. 213.] WORDS OF NUMBER. 139 Number and Amount present many irregularities. The same word is used sometimes1. As a Numeral Adjective, answering the question " How many?" 2. As an Adverb, answering the question " How much?" "In how great a degree? " &c. 3. As a Noun, being the name of a collection, e.g. "6 score." 213 Hence the principal "Cause of Irregularity " here will be the " Confusion of Constructions," viz. the Constructions of an Adjective, Adverb, and Noun. (1) "A dozen (of) pens, a hundred (of) men, half (of) the country,1 all (of) the men, more (of) pudding, a little (of) pudding." 2 Here the Regular Construction would have been (2) "Hundred men, twenty men," &c. But a feeling that each number represented a single "collection" led to the insertion of "a" without the grammatically consistent and necessary insertion of "of," so that the Noun Construction 1 Note that you cannot say " quarter the country." Why? Because " half" is more commonoly use(d than " quarter " (insom uch that half" is sometimes used for "'part," e g. " the larger half "); and remember irref/ularitiesfeed upon custom. It is where men have to say the same thingls qften and quickly, that men are most apt to cut andl clip and modify their language to suit their convenience. Hence, in Latin, " venio Romam," but " venio ad italiam." 2 See Par. 217. 140 IRREGULARITIES. [Par. 214, 2I5. was confused with the Adjective. In the same way, in earlier English, we find(3) "A score sheep," " a ten furlongs." And even in our Authorized Version of the Bible we have (4) " About an eight days after these sayings." 214 In some of these cases probably the Adjective and Noun are regarded as one Compound Noun. Compare "a fortnight," i.e. " a fourteen-night," " a twelve-month." But in modern English the irregularity is only licensed with a few much-used Adjectives-" dozen," "hundred," " thousand " (perhaps "million "). 215 1. " All." (1) "All of us rejoiced." Regular Construction " All we." Cause of Irregularity, partly (III.) the harshness of "all we," partly (II.) Confusion of (I.) with " ten, twenty, many, &c., of us." Note the following various uses: — (2) "He rushed up all out of breath," "all the better," Adverb. (3) "All is in vain: he will not help us at all," Noun. (4) In " The men all perished" - " all" may be parsed as an Adjective, just as we can say "The men - twenty in number - perished." Par. 216-2I8.] WORDS OF NUM1BER. 141 But undoubtedly "1all " owes its P.osition in (4) to a confusion of its Adjectival use with its Adverbial use, viz. " altocrethe'r."~ 216 2. "1Enough:" (1) "lHe has beeni punished enougqh,"l Adverb. (2) " We have had enoigh of wandlering," Noun. (3) "We hiave not enough men," Adjective, though really a Noun with " of " omitted; (II.) (4) "I have not men enouigh," Adverb in position, Adjective in use.; (II.) 2I7 "Few," "1little: "(1) " A few (of) men," " a little (of) pudding." Adjectives, with (IT.) Confusion of Noun Construction. Distinguish "1 a little (of) pudding " from "a little," i.e. "1a small puddingr." See Pars. 213-44. 218 3. "1Many:" (1) "M1-any a man has tried, but few have succeeded." The Regrular Construction would be, "1Many men; " but this appears to have been confused with(2) "M4any times a man has tried." The -y termination of "1many " has doubtless favored this Adverbial use. There is abundant proof that in Early English "many " was -used either as an Adverb, or as part of 142 IRRE GULARITIES. [Par. 219. a Compound Adjective " many-one," i.e. in Modern English " many-a." (See Shakespearian Grammar, Par. 85.) This began in the thirteenth century. In the same way the Germans say " mancher (Adj.) mann," but "manch (Adv.) ein mann." The insertion of " a" is common after Adjectives that are semi-Adverbial. Compare(3) " What a man he is! " (4) "Such a man as he is ought to know better." And, in Early English: — (5) "Each a man," "which a wife," i.e. "what a wife." Shakespeare also has (6) " Poor (i.e. barely) a thousand pounds." It is rare to find "many" (like "few ") now treated as a Noun (Shakespeare has "a many of our bodies "):(6) "A many (of) men." 2I9 4. "More:"(1) " Give me some, no, much, &c. more pudding." (2) " Give me three more books, one more book." Here " more" is an Adverb, and means " besides." But it owes its position to a confusion of the Adverbial with the Adjectival use of " more." Hence, instead of saying " Some pudding more, i.e. in addition," we say "some more pudding." Par. 220-222.] WORDS OF NUMBER. 143 220 " No," "any," "some," are used as Adverbs answering to the question " How much more?" in - (3) "He slept no more," i.e. " no longer;" "did not sleep any more, much more," i.e. "any, much, longer." 221 " More " is used as a Noun in - (4) " He is always asking for more." (5) " I want, (or) I said, no more." Here "no" may be regarded either as an Adjective making up part of a compound Noun, "nomore," or perhaps, more correctly, as an Adverb modifying the anomalous Adverbial Noun "more."' 222 " Some: " (1) "I had some difficulty," Adjective of Amount. (2) "I saw some children," Adjective of Number. (3) " He will come some time or other," Adjective of Indefiniteness. (4) " Some one or other said so," Adjective of Indefiniteness. (5) " Some twenty men arrived," i.e. "about," Adverb. Compare, for the Adverbial use of "some," Shakespeare's use of the word:(6) "I would detain you here some month or two." (7) " Some hour (i.e. about an hour) before you took ne." 1 For the Adverbial use of " no," see Index. 144 "EA CII," " EVER Y," t6c. [Par. 223, 224. And Early English (modern Scotch) use: — (8) "It is some late." "Five mile or some (i.e. thereabouts)." "Each," "every," " one," "none," "other." 223 1. "Each," "other: "(1) " They hated each other (or) one another." This is (f.) a contraction for(2) "They hated, each (hated) other," or, "They hated, one (hated) an other." In the same way we must explain (I.) by the Desire of Brevity:(3) "They inquired after-each (inquired after) other's health." Here, in modern English,1 we are inclined to treat " each other " as a Compound Noun; but it is not so. "Each " is in Apposition to " they," or Subject to " inquired " understood. 224 Caution. It is a common fault to use "eacll" with a Plural Verb. Whlere "each" appears to be the Subject of a Plural Verb, it is really not so, but only in apposition to the true Subject, e.y.: - (4) " They arc each going to their several homes." 1 See Par. 530. Par. 225, 226.] "E VER Y, ". ONE." O 145 Here also "their homes" for " his llome" is hardly logically correct.1 The following line of Pope is an example showing that, though " all " takes a Plural, " each " does not: - (5) " All join to guard what each desires to gain." 225 2. "Every" (once "ever-each,") is used like " a" before a Numeral Adjective and Noun: - (1) " There is a lamp-post every hundred yards." (2) " He wakes up every ten minutes." In such cases probably " ten-minutes," " hundredyards," are Compound Nouns like "fo(u)rt(een)night," "twelve-month." See Par. 214. 226 3. " One " (which is the same word, by derivation, as " ane," " an," " a ") may mean (a) a particular "one; " (b) any " one " you like; (c) a single "one; " (d) being used for " one person " or " one thing," it has come to mean a "person," "animal," (e.g. " young ones,") or " thing " - (b) " One knows very well that perseverance is necessary for success," Pronoun: "any one." (d) "All creatures love their young ones," Noun. (1) "I do not like this book; give me that one." (2) " I have no book; give me one." In (1) " one " is a Pronoun put for "book;" in (2) an Adjective (with the Noun to be supplied) put for "one (book) " or "' a (book)." Sometimes the meaning of " one" depends on its emphasis. 1 The Latins would have used the Singular "domum." 10 146 IRREGULARITIES. [Par. 227-229. For example, in (2) "one" is unemphatic, and means " a "; but where it is emphatic, it may mean " a single one," e.g. in (8) " Lend me a book; I have not one left." 227 4. " None," when used as a Subject, ought to be followed by a Singular Verb, as in Dryden:(1) "None but the brave deserves the fair." But when you are denying something about a number of persons, the Verb falls naturally into the Plural:(2) " None of my friends were at home." This arises from a confusion (II.) between " none was at home " and " all were not-at-home." 228 It is a common fault (not quite sanctioned by custom), to say: — (3) " Neither you nor he were to blame," for " was to blame." 1 This arises from a confusion (II.) with(4) " You and he were both not to blame.":229 "None" was once used -as an Adjective; and this usage is still retained in(5) " Wllere is your book? I have none." (6) " Hope have I none." 1 The Rule is that when two Subjects are separated by " nor," or " or," the Verb agrees with the latter. There is a little halshness in the correct" was." The harshness may be evaded by writing, "Neither he nor you were to blamine." Here " were" must be right, whether the Subject be regarded (incorrectly) as Plural " he nor you," or (correctly) as "you." Par. 230.] IRREGULARITIES. 147 Here " none " is used for the sake of emphasis. "I have no book " would not lay emphasis enough on " no." "Book have I no " would be intolerably harsh. And therefore we use the old emphatic form "' none; " just as we cannot say " this book is my," but have to say " this book is mine." "None " is Adverbial in(7) "He is none the happier for all his wealth," i.e. " no one whit," or " naught," Adverb. 230 5. c" No." If in the last example "the" were omitted, we should use, instead of " none," the less emphatic form " no ":1 (1) " He is no happier for all his wealth," Adverb. "No " does not seem to be a Numeral Adjective in - (2) " You are no soldier." It is rather Adverbial: " You are in no way, in no respect, a soldier." I Compare "none the less" with the less emphatic form of "none" in " nathless." APPENDIX I. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. IT is interesting to trace the processes that have shaped our modern anomalous Conditional Mood. For this purpose we will compare the Mood "as it is," with the Mood " as it might have been." Conditional Mood, as it is. ANTECEDENT. CONSEQUENT. f sees 1 f will know were to see If he should see me, he would know me. had seen j would have known 5OS, 1, J 231 As it might have been. 232 Out of the five forms of the Conditional Antecedent, three (those italicized above) are identical with the Indicative; and out of three in the Consequent, one is Indicative. Once there were many more separate Conditional forms; but they have now fallen into disuse, and the Conditional Mood is assimilated to the Indicative. Par. 233, 234.] CONDITIONAL. MO 0OD. 14 149 233 The reasons for this are (1) the general tendency in every language to drop distinctions wherever they can be (Iropped; (2) the "if," expressing the Condition by itself, has enabled us to dispense, in the -Antecedent, with the Verbal forms; but, in the Uonsequeent, there being no "1if," the Verbal forms have been retained.' There is no ambiguity in "1if he had seen me " used in the Antecedent; but, were that form used in the Consequent, e.g. "h e had knowi me," there would be dangTer of ambiguity. It is neither possible nor desirable to revive the 01(1 forms, but it is of use to perceive their regrularity. There are two ways of expressing the Conditional: (1) by Inflections, (2) by the use of Auxiliary Verbs. Supposing the Conditional Mood were regularly formed by Inflections, it would heI. A. Regular Conditional Mood with Inflections. 234 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ATNTECEDENT. CONSEQUENT. {be [ [be] (if it) ce 2 (true), (he) jj'e~y3 (g it. had been h /ad been8 git. 1Similarly, in the Antecedent when the " if" is oTmitted, (lie distinctive Grin of (lie Conditional innst be used. "1 Should I, 0r, were I to. see Wim " - not ' sinw I him.'' 2 Generally used of an ulifultilled condition. 3Still used iii Poetry. 150 150 ~APPENDIX.Pa.25 [Par. 235. Or, taking another Verb, e.g. "come ": 235 I. B. Modern Conditional Mood with Inflections. With the general decay of Infiections, the Conditional "if he conme" has fallen into such disuse that it-may now be called extinct. Hence the new scheme with inflections isANTECEDENT. CONSEQUENT. [comes [(no form) (If he) came (he) (no form) (mne). hod come Jhad seen4 1 Rarely used, except by pedants. But "1 be 11is still allowable as an exception: "1if it be true." 2 Not used. 3This ambiguous form of the Subjunctive is used two or three times by Shakespeare. See Shakespearian Grammar. Par. 361, "1If I rebuked you, then I check'd (i e. should checkl my fr~iends." Used only in Poetry, and archaic or elevated prose. Par. 236, 237.] CONDITIONAL MOOD. 151 236 II. A. Regular Conditional Mood with " shall." Bearing in mind that " shall" and " should" are nearly equivalent to " am to " and " were to," the reader will perceive the regularity of the following - ANTECEDENT. CONSEQUENT. shall,2 [be l to] shall see If le should, were to, should see. corIf h ae should have seen or [hadlbeen1 to] l J 237 II. B. Modern Conditional Mood with " shall." In course of time people came to think " shall" and " should" harsh words to use to any one to whom (Second Person), or about whom (Third Person), they were speaking. But when " shall" and " should " were preceded by " if," the " if" removed the notion of compulsion. Consequently "shall " and " should" were replaced by "will" and I Rarely, or never used. 2 Used by Shakespeare. Compare "If you should have taken vengeance on my faults, I never had (i.e. should have) lived."-Cymbeline, v. i. 8. "If he shall come" is common in Shakespeare. 152 152 ~APPENDLX[Pr 28 [Par. 238 - "6would " in the Consequent (with the Second and Third Persons), hut not fin the Antecedent. Hence arose the following scheme:ANTECEDENT. CONSEQUENT. (sall { wilt see If lie should, or were to h le Would see senme. [should have f wouldhvesn 238 III. Modern Mixed Conditional Mood. This is formed by'blending the New Inflectional Mood with the New Auxiliary Mlood, as follows:A NT E CED E NT. CONSEQUENT. {comesse If he cmo come [li e would se m. I a e r1were, 1to ee Lhad cameme e would hare seen Hence we see that the Inflectional. MAood, bavinio beeni assimilated to the Indicative, and heing' superior in brevity to the Auxiliary form, has gained the victory, as it were, in the, Antecedent, where the resemblance to the lIndicatiNve does not cajuse much dangTer of ambiguity; but the Auxiliary form has geained the victory in the Consequent. APPENDIX II. ON THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 239 IITHERTO we have treated a sentence as composed of words: now we shall treat it as composed of groups of words. Sentences, Phrases; Clauses. Def. A group of words expressing a statement, command, or question, is called a " Sentence." Def. A group of words expressing a meaning, but not a statement, i'c., is called a " Phrase." Def. A "PPhrase " that includes a " Sentence" may be called-a " Clause." (1) " He came." Sentence. (2) "To come;" "Upon his coming;" "In a short time." Phrases. (3) " That lie came;" " When he came; " " Because he came; " " If he had come." Clauses. Note that some Phrases, e.g. those in (3), include Sentences. But they are not Sentences; for they are neither statements, nor commands, nor questions. 154 ANA LYS IS [Par. 240. Such Phrases as those in (3), are sometimes, however, called, for shortness, Noun-Sentences, because they include Sentences. But it must be always borne in mind that they are not really Sentences, though they become Sentences if the Conjunction is removed. 24.0 Phrases and Clauses. A Phrase or Clause may express: 1. A Noun. 2. An Adjective. 3. An Adverb. 1. Noun Phrases 1 are exemplified by the italicized words in the following Sentences:1. To be anxious is useless. 2. That he is in error is certain. 3. Wthy you act thus I cannot understand. 4. I like a rascal to be punished. 5. What is done cannot be undone. 6. Whether he meant what he said, it is hard to determine. 7. Walking to school is being injuriously superseded by trains and omnibuses. EXERCISE. The pupil should construct other sentences on the model of each sentence above, having NounPhrases 1 for Subjects and for Objects. For example, beginning with (1), the pupil should make Noun 1 For brevity, the word " Phrase " is used to include " Clause." Par. 241, 242.] OF SENTENCES. 155 Phrases out of Infinitives; then passing to (2), let him use the Conjunction "that," and so on. 241 2. Adjective Phrases or Clauses:1. The monkey with the long tail. 2. The monkey that has the long tail. 3. A man without principle. 4. A man of honor. 5. Sing for the oak-tree, the monarch of the wood. 6. The light of the sun. 7. The moon's orbit. 8. The book belonging to my uncle. 9. The cow in the paddock. 10. The business in which I am engaged. 11. The painter of that celebrated picture. 12. This is an action to be deplored. 13. I have water to wash (i.e. washing water), but none to drink (i.e. drinking water). 14. The boy at the top. EXERCISE. As with the Noun Phrases, so with the Adjective Phrases, the pupil should construct other phrases according to the several models above. 242 3. Adverbial Phrases or Clauses:-' 1. Knowing 2 this (i.e. since I knew this) I was not surprised. 2. Smuprised at his answer, I knew not what to reply. 3. When, wshile, after, before, as, since, I perceived 7my mistake, I apol1 Note that an Adverbial Clause, e.g. "when I came," becomes, if the Conj unction is removed, a Sentence. 2 One of the first things to be (lone in the Analysis of Sentences is to understand the difference between (1) a Participle implying a Conjunction, and (as here) representing an Adrerbial Clause, and (2) a Participle implying the Relative Pronoun " that," and representing an Adjectival Clause. 156 ANALYSIS [Par. 243, 244. ogized. 4. I am living in, near, notffar from, pc. St. John's Wood. 5. I go daily to, from,, past, across, ~'c. the city. 6. This done, they departed. 243 7. This house was built, (Cause) owing to the increase of the owner's fanmil; (Purpose) to command a view of the river; (Agency) by a vwealtahy man: (Instrumentality) by foreiqn workmen: (Means) with timber off his own estate; (Source) out of his capital; (Place) near London; (Time) ten years ago; (Manner) with great haste; (Circumstance) amid the derision of the neiqhblors, in spite of the opposition of his fi.iends, thougyh he was in debt at the time; (Result) to the great detriment of his fortune, so expensively that he ruined himself by it. 8. I am moving (Purpose) in order to be nearer to mn friiends, or (Cause) because I am too far from my friends. 9. He is unwise to say this, i.e. " for saying this." 10. lVherever he goes le prospers. 11. He is too foolish to succeed, i.e. " for the purpose of success." 244 Note especially the following:12. The soldiers disliked tleir general, who seemed to take a pleasure in exposin them. to hardships, i.e. " because lie seemed-." 13. (Circumstance)1 Admitting that your facts are correct, I still deny your inferences. 14. (Circumstance) I If he comes, I will come. EXERCISE. Make Adverbial Phrases and Clauses on the model of the above. 1 The condition subject to which any thing happens, may conveniently be called a " circunistance." Par. 245, 246.] OF SENTENTCES. 15 157 Sentences. 245 1.- A Simple Sentence. - A Sentence that has only one Subject and only one Stating, Questioning, or Commanding Verb is a Simple Sentence:"John struck Thomas." Note that " John came, but soon departed," is not iisimple," because (though it has only one Subject) it has two stating Verbs; again, " John came that Robert might take a holiday," is not simple," because, though there is only one stating Verb,' yet there are two Subjects. 246 2. A Co-ordinate Sentence. - Whien several Simple Sentences are connected by "4 and," "1 beat," "so, "then," $76 7 c., 2 so that each Sentence is, as it were, independent, and of the samne rank as the rest, each is called a Co-ordinate Sentence: "John struck Thomas, so, and, buit, &c., Thomas struck John again." The mark of a Co-ordinate Sentence is that it can generally stand as a sentence by itself, preceded by its Conjunction, e.g.: - -l~e made all possible haste. For he was afraid of being late." ITn "Robert mnight take," "1might take " may be (Par. 1741 a statiifg Verb: but, when preceded by "Ithat," the Verb ceases to state. 2 The Co-ordinate Conijunctions are and, also, besides, rnoreover, too for, accordingly, consequen fiy, hence, so, then, aow, therefore, but, however, nevertheless, aotwithstanding, or. 158 ANALYSIS [Par. 247-249. 247 3. A Compound Sentence. -A Sentence made up of Co-ordinate Sentences is called a Compound Sentence:"John struck Thomas, and Thomas struck John again." 248 4. The Principal Sentence. — When a nunmber of Sentences are connected by Conjunctions that are not Co-ordinate, the Sentence that is not introduced by a Conjunction is called the Principal Sentence. 249 5. Subordinate Sentences.- Sentences colznected with a Principal Sentence by Conjunctions that are not Co-ordinate are called Sub-ordinate.1 The Sub-ordinate Conjunctions are "that "(introducing (1) Subject or Object, (2) Purpose, (3) Result); ' because," " when," " how," " since," " as " in the sense of " since," " after," " before," "while," &c.; and they are so called because " purpose," "time," " circumstance," &c., are regarded as being Sub-ordinate to the statement, question, or command expressed in the Principal Sentence. "Before (Subord.) he had heard the evidence (Princip.) he asserted that (Subord.) the prisoner was guilty." The mark of a Sub-ordinate Sentence is this, that 1 Implied Sub-ordinate Sentences are sometimes introduced without Conj unctions, by means of Interrogative and Relative Pronouns and Adverbs, e.g. " He asked what John said," where the italicized words imply the Sentence " What did John say? " See Par. 28. Par. 250.] OF SENTENCES. 159 when preceded by its Conjunction, it cannot generally stand as a Sentence by itself. You cannot write: "He made all possible haste. Because he was afraid of being late." N.B. All Sub-ordinate Sentences, when preceded by their Conjunctions, or introduced by their Relative Pronouns, become either:.(1) Noun- Clauses: " That he was guilty is certain." (2) Or, Adjective Clauses or Sentences:1 L' The boy that cleans the boots." (3) Or, Adverb Clauses: " I will come when I can." 250 6. The Complex Sentence. — The whole sentence formed by the combination of the Principal and Sub-ordinate Sentences is called a Complex Sentence. Now construct " Complex Sentences " using: 1. Noun Phrases or Clauses for Subjects, &c. 2. Adjective Phrases or Clauses to qualify the Noun Phrases. I It may be said that the italicized words are a Sentence not a Clause. Taken by themselves, if "that " be regarded as Demonstrative, they undoubtedly constitute a Sentence: hut, when attached to a Principal Sentence, they cease to make a statement, and therefore cease, strictly speaking, to be a Sentence. See Par. 239. 160 ANAL YSIS [Par. 251. 3. Adverbial Phrases or Clauses, the Clauses being Sub-ordinate Sentences preceded by Conjunctions, thug: - "After the capture of this important city (Adverb 1 of Cause or Tlme), this great general (S'ubject) - tle Hannibal of his day (Adjective qualcifying Sublject) -unsurpassed for military intuition and promptness of action (Adjective quallnyig Subject), incurring the suspicion of having betrayed the town (i.e. ' since he incurred,' tlerefore Adverb of Cause) was (part of Principal TVerb) so completely (Adverb) distrusted (rest of Pricipal Verb) even by his own solliers (Adverb of Agency) who had( won so many battles under him (i.e. 'tlough they had won,' therefore Adverb 2) that lie was deprived of his command, and would have been executed, but for the influence of his wife (Adverb of Result)." EXERCISE. 251 Expand the following Simple Sentences into Complex Sentences by introducing Adverbial Phrases to describe cause, purpose, material, agency, instruments, manner, place, time, circumstances, i.e., condition, obstacle, cc.:1. The house was built. 2. Napoleon died at St. Helena. 3. Clarles I. was executed. 4. James II. was deposed. 1 For brevity, the terms Adverb, Adjective, &c., are used for Adverbial Phrase, Adjectival Phrase, &c. 2 If it had beeni "The soldiers that liad won," the Relative Clause "that blitd won," &e., wonli lhave described the solliers; thereftore it woulll have been an Adjective Clause. But "who" also sometimes introduces an Adjective Clause. Par. 252, 253.] OF SENTENCES. 161 6. Elizabeth was respected. 6. David killed Goliath. 7. Alfred defeated Gutlirum. 8. Columbus discovered America. 9. The Spanish Armada was defeated. 252 Contracted Sentences. When two Sentences are connected by (1) the Co-ordinate Conjunctions "and" and "but;" (2) by Comparative Conjunctions, e.g. "as," " tlln;" the Verb in the second Sentence is often omitted and sometimes the omission extends to other words: - (1) "I saw John yesterday and (I saw) Thomas the day before." (2) "He is taller than I (am tall)." See " than," Index. (3) "I have as many apples as you (have apples)." In all such cases the full Sentences should be expressed if the whole Sentence is to be analyzed. See Par. 209. The Sentences introduced by "than" and "as" (in this sense) are Sub-ordinate; for " than " and " as " (in this sense) cannot stand at the head of a Sentence placed by itself. 253 Degrees of Sub-ordination (Synthesis). Note that a Complex Sentence may contain (1) a Principal Sentence; (2) a Sub-ordinate Sentence depending on the Verb 1 in the Principal Sentence; (3) a second Sub-ordinate Sentence depending on the Verb in the first Sub-ordinate; (4) a third Subordinate depending on the Verb in the second Subordinate; and so on. 1 Not always on the Verb. The implied Sentence in a Relative Phrase may qualify a Noun. 11 1G2 ANAI- L YSIS [Par. 253. TIhe degrees of Sub-ordination may be indicated by lines in the following way:1st Degree of Sub-ordination "Socrates knew that he knew nothing." 2nd,, "Socrates was declared by the oracle to be the wisest of men, because he knew that he knew nothing." 3rd,,,, "Socrates said that lie was declared by the oracle to be the wisest of men, merely because lie knew that hle knew nothing." 4th,, " We are told that Socrates said that he was declared by the oracle to be the wisest of men, merely because lie knew that he knew nothing." The process of putting a Sentence together as above is called Synthesis (syn, "together;" thesis, "putting"). The reverse process of taking a Sentence to pieces again, loosening its structure as it were, and exhibiting the different parts and joints of the Sentence, is called Analysis (ana, " back again;" lysis, ' loosening "). Par. 254.] OF SENTENCES. 163 254 Degrees of Sub-ordination (Analysis). Reversing the process in the last paragraph, we can take a Complex Sentence to pieces, beginning first with the Principal Sentence, then taking the first degree of Sub-ordination, then the second, and so on. Take, for example - " He said that I did not come last Tuesday though I had promised that I would come to see him before he left town." 1. The Principal Verb is " said." Read on from ( said" to the first Sub-ordinate Conjunction " that." "Tlhat" introduces the Object of "said," viz., the following Sub-ordinate Sentence: " I did not come last Tuesday, though I had promised.. town." This is a Sub-ordinate Sentence of the first Degree, which is therefore underlined once. 2. The Principal Verb in the first Sub-ordinate Sentence is " did (not) come." Read on from this to the next Sub-ordinate Conjunction though." The following words, " I had promised... town," make up a Sub-ordinate Sentence of the second Degree, and must be underlined a second time. 3. The Principal Verb in the second Sub-ordinate Sentence is "had promised." Read on to the next Sub-ordinate Conjunction -"that." The words "I would come... town" make up a Sub-ordinate 161 161 ~ANAL YS,-;IS [a.25 [Par. 255 - Sentence of the third Degree, and must therefore be underlined a third time. 4. 'The Principal Verb in the third Sub-ordinate Sentence is "1would come." Read on to the next Sub-ordinate Conjunction "1before." The following words,"1 he left town," make up a Sub-ordinate Sentence of the fourth Degree, and must therefore be underlined a fourth time.' 255 Relative Clauses. A Relative Clause sometimes introduces (1) an implied Co-ordinate, sometimes (2) an implied Subordinate Sentence. The Sub-ordinate Sentence may form part, sometimes of (2) an Adverbial, sometimes (3) of an Adjectival Clause. (1) "I heard it from the Landlord, who heard it from the policeman," i.e. " (and) he," &c.; a Coordinate Sentence, " who " being, put for "and (2) " I ought not to have been beaten by John, who has never beaten me before," i.e. " (since) lie has," &c.; Sith-ordinate Sentence. (Adverb.) (3) " I heard it from the boy that cleans the boots," Sub-ordinate Sentence. (Adjective.) 2 INote that, If the meaning ha-d been,1 "Though I biad promised *..town, yet lie comiplaine(1,' tlieii the words. ' though.. town 1 Wouild have ina~le up an Adverb of Circumstance, niodlifying '' cornpdaiiedl.' Ini that case, - (though) I had proniised " would have been in tlie first Degree (niot tie second) of Sub-ordlina-tion. 2 '1 Tlint, (boy) cleans the b~oots ' may perhtaps be called a, Subordinate Sentence in trodnceed by the ConjUn1ctiVe farce of the Relative "1that." See, Par. 249, Note. Par. 256, 257.] OF SENTENCES. 165 In sentences (2), (3), (4), and (5) of the next Exercise the Relative introduces an Adjective Clause; in Sentence (6) "which" is the same as " and these," and therefore the words "might be sold " make up an implied Sentence Co-ordinate with " she could get." 256 The different degrees of Sub-ordination may be indicated in the implied Sentences of Relative Phrases by underlining, as above. For example: (1) " The man that will not accept what is offered to him by opportunity, often lives to seek opportunity in vain." Here the two Sentences are (1) " That (man) will not accept what is offered to him by opportunity;" (2) " What is offered to him by opportunity? "1 (2) "The man that ought to have met me at the station where I got out was not to be found." Here the two Sentences are, (1) "That (man) ought to have met me at the station where I got out;" (2) "I got out." EXERCISE. 257 Express, by underlining, the Degrees of Subordination in the following Sentences: — 1. He asked me whether I had said that I should not come. 2. You would have acted wrongly if you had refused I For the originally interrogative use of "who," "what," "which," see Par. 27. 166 ANAL YSIS [Par. 258. help to the friend from whom you obtained help when you needed it. 8. When I heard that the train had started before I had arrived at the station where we had agreed to meet, I at once telegraphed. 4. Though you asked me when I would come and pay you tile visit that I had promised, you did not mention a definite day. 5. I confess that I was irritated when I heard that my cousin, after he had accepted my invitation, wrote to decline it, because he had been subsequently invited by some one whose society lie preferred to mine. 6. The market-girl reckoned tlat, if her milk sold well, she could get at least six dozen eggs, which, when they were hatched and grown to be chickens, might be sold, before May came round, for as much money as would buy her the best dress that could be found in the village. 258 Analysis of Sentences. Reversing the process in Paragraph 250, we can analyse a Sentence intoI. Principal Verb. The term Principal Verb includes the " Subjective or Objective Supplement," e.g. in " He twas appointed general," L" was appointed general" will be called the " Verb;" and so, in " They appointed him general," "appointed general" will be called the "Verb." See the Scheme on page 168. II. Subject. The terms Subject and Object here include their " Complements;" e.g. "a rascal to be punished " is the Subject in " A rascal is expected to bepunlished," and the Object in " I like a rascal to bepounished." III. Object. The Indlirect Object may either be treated separately, or be treated as an Adverb. If we can say, il " Tlle house was built by Thomas" that " by Thomas " is an " Adverb-Phrase of Agency," there seems no reason why we should not say 'i for Thomas" andi "to Thonls" are " Adverb-Phrases of Reception." Hence in" Give me the book," we may call " me " either Ind(irect Object, or an abridged " AdverbPhrase of Reception." The latter would probably be found, in the end, the simpler course. Par. 259, 260.] OF SENTENCES. 167 259 IV. Adjectives, or Adjective Phrases. V. Adverbs, or Adverb Phrases. SPECIMEN EXERCISES. 1. " Not knowing the value of his prize, the cock gave away the diamond that lie had found for a single grain of barley, when lie saw that the jewel did nothing but shine, and was not good to eat." I. II. III. IV. Verb.. Subject... Object..... Adjectives... V. Adverbs: (a) of Cause.,,: (b) of Circumstance,,,: (c) of Time or Cause " Gave away." " The cock." " The diamond." "That he had found" qualifies Object. " Not knowing- prize," i.e. " since he did not know." "For a single grain of barley." " When he saw- to eat." If further Analysis is required, the Adverbial Clauses may in turn be analyzed, as in the following Example: — 260 2. "A reader acquainted with the treasures of English literature will not unnaturally feel surprised, when he sees that so large a portion of time is devoted to the inadequate study of a few ancient authors, whose works have no direct bearing on the studies and duties of our own generation, while our English classics are comparatively neglected." 168 ANAL YSIS. [Par. 260. FIRST ANALYSIS. I. Verb...... " Will feel surprised."' II. Subject..... "A reader." III. Adjective..... "Acquainted with —literature," qualifies the Subject. IV. Adverb (a) of Cause. "WhVenhe sees-neglected.",,, (b) of Manner "Not unnaturally." SECOND ANALYSIS. "He sees that so large - neglected." I. Verb...... "Sees." II. Subject...... "Ie." III. Object...... "That so large-neglected." TIIRD ANALYSIS. "So large a portion -neglected." I. Verb..... "Is devoted." II. Subject..... "So large a portion of time." III. Adverbs (a) Manner or Purpose. " To the study-generation.",,, (b) Circumstance "While2 our Englishneglected." No further Sentence remains for analysis; but it may be well to mention that in Clause (a) the Relative Clause " whose works - generation," is an Adjective Clause qualifying " authors;" and that the Plhrase "of a few ancient authors " is an Adjective Phrase qualifying "study." 1 "Feel surprised " is a Compound Verb, like "He fell laine," " He grew tall" 2 " While " may either mean " at the very time when," (as perhaps here,) or " although," or simply '" but on the other hand." In the last case "while" approacles a Co-ordinate Conjunction in meaning, for it is nearly the same as "but, on the other hand." Par. 261, 262.] OF SENTENCES. Caution. 261 The principal difficulty in the Analysis of Sentences consists in distinguishing between Participles implying an Adverbial Phrase and Participles implying an Adjectival Phrase. The same difficulty exists in distinguishing between Relative Phrases. As " who" (or " which ") and " that" are loosely used by many writers, the pupil must not depend on these words for help, but upon the sense of each passage - (1) "I saw a ship sailing into harbor," i.e., "that was sailing," Adjective Phrase. (2) "Sailing too near the rocks the ship went down," i.e. " because slie sailed," Adverbial Phrase. (3) " Yesterday I saw a schooner here, which has now sailed away," i.e. "and," or "but, it has sailed," Co-ordinate Sentence. (4) " The schooner that was here yesterday," Adjective Clause. 262 (5) " The potent rod Of Amram's son in Egypt's evil day, WVared round the coast, up-called a pitchy cloud Of locusts, warping in the eastern wind." In the last example, "waved round the coast" seems to mean " whea or after it was waved," and not "the rod that was waved." Consequently it seems far better to treat the italicized words as an Adverbial and not as an Adjectival Phrase. But " warping" may fairly be replaced by "that came 170 ANALYSIS [Par. 263. warping," and may therefore be treated as an Adjectival Phrase qualifying "locusts." (6) " But me, scarce hoping to attain that rest, Always from port withheld, always distressed - Me howling winds drive devious - tempesttossed, Sails rent, seams opening wide, and compass lost." Here the second line is clearly Adjectival to " me;" but "devious" is not Adjectival, it is the Supplement of the Verb "drive;" to "drive devious " is to " drive out of the way," and is as much a Compound Verb as to "drive mad." On the other hand the abrupt pause between "devious" and " tempest-tossed" allows us to treat "tempesttossed " as co-ordinate with " withheld " and " distressed," and therefore as Adjectival to "me." " Sails rent" is of course an Adverbial Phrase, and "sails" is an "Adverbial Subject." See Par. 135. Phraseology of Analysis. 263 The Principal Verb of a Sentence is sometimes called the Grammatical Predicate, or, simply, Predicate. Adjectives and Adjective Phrases are called, as the case may be, Attributive Adjuncts to the Subject or Object; and, when attached to the Pre Par. 264.] OF SENTENCES. 171 dicate, Adverbs are called Adverbial Adjuncts to the Predicate. Again, Adjectives and Adjective Phrases are sometimes called " Enlargements of the Subject or Object;" and, when attached to the Predicate, Adverbs are called " Extensions of the Predicate." This phraseology does not appear to be necessary; but, if thought desirable, it can easily be substituted for the terms " Adjective," " Adverb," &c., used in the Scheme appended below. Summary of the parts of a Sentence. 264 The following Summary will be a useful preparation for the " Scheme of Analysis" on Page 172, and will also illustrate the comparison of the different technical terms of Analysis. ~ f SUBJECT.. PREDICATE COMPLETION OF PREDICATE Noun: or Pronoun; or Adj. put for Noun; or Noun Phrase.1 Verb. Object, Directl (If the Verb is Trans.) Object, Indirect (With some Verbs.) Supplement (If the Verb is Intrans. or Pass.) Adverb; or Adverbial Phrase. Adjective; or Adjective Phrase. _ CZ u. Sj I o c) f EXTENSION OF PREI)ICATE. ATTIiI UTIVE A )JUNCT, or ENLARGEMENT OF NOUN 1 Note that the Subject or Object may sometimes consist of a Noon or Pronoun with a Complementary Infinitive. e.g. " I know him to be in error." "He was believed to be dishonest." See Par. 97. 172 ANAL YSIS [Par. 265. 265 SCHEME OF For convenience, in order to preserve the order of the sentence ais In order to distinguiish the Adjective or Cumplewent from the rest Object from the Adverb, underline Adjective, Complement, SuppleAnalyse the following passage: - 111n one of the large richl cities of China there once lived a tailor named sistedl only of his wife and one son. This son, who was a very idle fellow, was boy to enter his shop, to learii the use of the needle; hut all lila father's enthan Aladdin was gone. Soon after Aladdin was thirteen years old, poor -fell sick and died." Subject (Including Verb with Adverb. Adjective, orSupe nt Complement.)Supe nt (11 In one of the large a tailor named Meustaph ie rich cities of China (2) there ()once Being, i.e. (since he he could maintain was) very poor This son who was a very idle was called Aladdin fellow Whenlhswas old enough his father wished to learn a trade (1) all his (21 fat her's endeav- were vaiis ors to loeep kint to his work-2 his back was turned Soon after Aladdin was poor Mustapha fell sickc thirteen years old (Mustapha)' died (Ile). (Iornp/. (3 topredict that was heard his so'n wouldl come to no, good1__________ I The A uxiliaries could, would, ccn. will, may, might, &c., may he treated as 'IThis Infinitive describing the nature of the " endeavors " may he regarded 3 These words might he analysed still further if desired. Any subordinate be analysed as a separate sentence. It will generally be advisable to analyse a Parenthesis after the rest of the Par. 265.] OF SENTENCES. 173 SIMPLE ANALYSIS. far as possible two columns are made for the Adverb. of the Subj. or Obj., the Supplement from tlhe Verb, and the Indirect ment, and Indirect Object. Write (Compl.) before the Complement. Mustapha. Being very poor he could hardly maintain his family, which concalled Aladdin. When lie was old enough to learn a trade, Mustaphla wished the deavors to keep hint to his work were vain; for no sooner was his back turned Mustapha - who was often heard to predict that his son would come to no good Conjunction, Object (including Adjective, 1. Adverb, or Conjunction or Complement.) 2. Indirect Object. Sentence.) his family, which consisted only (1) hardly of his wife and one son the boy (Compl.) to enter his shop to learn the use of the but needle' for no sooner than (3) Aladdin was gone and r" who" ="and, or now, lie ": 4 often.] parts of Compound Verbs. as an Adjective, see Par. 100. sentence may be taken out of the Adjective, Adverb, or other column, and may sentence. APPENDIX III. HINTS ON SPELLING. 266 English Spelling is so irregular that no systematic rules can be laid down for it. The knowledge of the derivation of a word is often a help towards the spelling of it; but this is not always the case. The best way to spell well is to read often, and so to become familiar with words. Thus misspelt words will be detected by their strange look. Change of Letters.- The following principle will explain many of- the variations in the spelling of words: Rule. -A letter is often changed or doubled in passing from one form of a word to another, in order to preserve the original sound. 267 I. - y. For example, -y final preceded by a consonant, as in "happy," is changed into i upon the addition of -er, -est, -al, -ed, -ous, or of any other affix (except -ing) beginning with a vowel. Other Par. 268.] HINTS ON SPELLING. 175 wise the sound of the word might be altered, e.g. " happ-yer," " gidd-yest." Hence - Defy, defiance; easy, easi-est; remedy, remedial remedi-ed; merry, merri-er; country, countries. In many of these words the original termination was -ie, which indeed was the regular English equivalent of the French -e': Citie; nobilitie; felicitie; clergie. From a very early period y and i were interchanged (for example in the Present Participle which ended in -inde or -ynde) so that in the Utopia (1516 A.D.) we have " writynge," "myghte," " thynge,"" fyne." Hence y began to supersede i in these terminations, so that in the Utopia, we find on the same page, "felicitye" and " felicitie." By degrees, the e after y, being found unnecessary, was dropped. It might have been expected that the same curtailment would have been attempted in the Plural: and accordingly in the Utopia we find " qualityes." But, owing perhaps to the danger of mispronunciation, " qualit-yes"-the innovation- did not succeed in supplanting tile old Plural " qualit-ies." This rule is also extended to -y before other affixes, viz. -ment, -ly -fil: - Necessari-ly; greediness; beauti-ful. 268 II. -y. When (1) the affix is -ing, or'(2) -y is already preceded by a vowel, or (3) -y terminates a monosyllable -in all these cases -y remains generally unchanged:(1) Pity-ing (not "pitting"); (2) enjoy-ment, valleys; (3) dry-ness. The reasons are in (1) the desire to avoid ii; in 176 HINTS [Par. 269-271. (2) and (3) because the sound is not altered by the retention of -y. Exceptions. - Nevertheless, out of conformity to other words"Dry" makes " dri-er," " dri-est; " "try," " tri-al," "tri-er; " " day," "dai-ly;" " pay," "pai-d; " "fly," "fli-es;" " lay," "laid; " "lay" (Past Tense of "lie ") " lai-n; " "say," " sai-d; " "gay," "gai-ly," "gai-ety." N.B. Pite-ous, plente-ous, from " pity," plenty." 269 III. When a word ends in -ie, the juxtaposition of iei in the Active Participle is avoided by changing -ie into -y - Die, dy-ing; lie, ly-ing, but li-ar. 270 Omission of Letters. - Rule. -e final is (IV.) dropped before an affix beginning with a vowel; but (V.) retained before an affix beginning with a consonant. IV. Instances of Rule IV. areGrieve, Griev-ance; fame, fain-ots; sense, sens-ible; judge, judg-ing; please, pleas-ure; remove, remov-able; blame, blam-inq; sphere, spher-ical. 271 Exceptions to IV. - (a) Cand g, though soft (e.g., in " service," " outrage") must necessarily become hard if followed by an affix beginning with a, o, or u. To prevent (1) this and (2) other changes of sound, final -e is sometimes retained: — (1) Service, service-able; outrage, outrage-ous. (2) Unsale-able. Par. 272-276.] ON SPELLLV"G.17 177 272 E.xceptions to 1 V. - (b) When -e is preceded by -s, -oIe -yj it is often retained before -ing, -able. This is in order to preserve the sound of the word, which mighlt otherwise be changfed:Slhoe-ii~q (not " shoing "); agree-able (not " agreable") 23 The -e is also retained in the Active Participles "dye-ing," or " singe-ing," "1 sw inge-ing," in order to distinguish thenm from "1 dy-ing," "1 sing-ing," and 64swillgC-inig." 274 -Exceptions to V.Abridg-nient, acknowledg-Ment, argu-ment, aw-ful, du-1y, j udg-ment, tru-1y, whol-ly. 275 Rule VI. - A monosyllable ending in -11 (1) when followed by an affix beginning wide~ a consonant, or (2) when itself used as an affix, generally drops one -1:Al-most, al-though, al-ready, al-belit, al-mighty, al-so, a/-together, a/-ways, bel-fry, f/-fil, we/-fare, el-bow,ful-ly, dr-o/-ly,fid-ness, re-call. 276 The -l appears to be dropped because, when combined with another sylla ble, the syllable ending ins -li required to be pronounced more rapidly. But in many words the two syllables have not coalesced so completely as to drop the -1. HenceUnder-se/I (and several words ending in -ness), tallness, smal/-ness, i//-ness, shrill-ness, droll-ness, fare-well, un-well, be-fe//, down-fal/, cat-call. 12 178 HINTS [Par. 277-279. 277 Doubling Letters.-Rule VII. If the termination of a word is a consonant preceded by a vowel (e.g. "-it"), then, on receiving an affix beginning with a vowel (e.g. "-ing "), the final consonant in the word is doubled (e.g. "-itting"), provided that the word is a monosyllable (e.g. " sit"), or a polysyllable accented on the last syllable (e.g. "remit"). This is in order to preserve the sound. If the consonant were not doubled, "hop-ping" would be confused with " hop-ing ": - (1) Hop, hop-ping; thin, thin-ner; fat, fat-test. ACCENT ON THE LAST. ACCENT NOT ON THE LAST. forgetting, remit-iing bracket-ing, debit-ing infer-ring, refer-ring cover-ing, offer-ing occur-ring, acquit-ting sever-ing, credit-ing 278 Exceptions to VII - Words ending in d1, although not accented on the last syllable, nevertheless double -1:Travel-ling, -ler; counsel-ling, -/or; revel-ling, -ler; marvel-ling, -lous; rival-ling; level-led; untrammel-led. Also, worship-ping. Unparallel-ed is an exception.1 EXERCISES. 279 I. and II. Add as many as possible of the affixes 1 Possibly, owing to the fact that "unparalleled" is of Greek derivation, containing the Greek long e, it may have been once pronounced "unparalleeled," and spelt accordingly. Par. 280-282.] ON SPELLING. 179 -al, -ed, -er, -s, -y, -ness, -ous, -s, to the following words: Lonely, employ, gaudy, daisy, decay, steady, accompany, enjoy, effigy, silly, occupy, busy, giddy, jelly, colloquy, chimney, ready, journey, shabby, annoy, prophesy, felony, try, lovely, efficacy, convey, lofty, supply, dismay, defy, gay, vary, penury, stately, day, accompany, pity, marry, plenty, continue. 280 IV. and V. Add as many as possible of the affixes -able, -ing, -ly, -ment, -ous, -er, -y, to the following words:Love, peace, move, blame, marriage, whole, sole, decree, ease, feeble, advantage, true, spice, village, due, charge, trouble, trace, pledge, judge, guarantee, manage, abridge, disagree, excuse. 281 VII. Add -ing, -ence, -er, -ous (where possible), toControl, bargain, recal, peril, benefit, admit, ballot, danger, infer, pencil, debit, acquit, abhor, glutton, begin, poison, suffer, traitor, gambol, extol, rebel, travel, compel, level, worship, cancel, model, sever, equip, allot, riot, murder, befit, ruin, sin. Reasons for apparent Irregularities. 282 I. -eive, -ieve. —It is sometimes difficult to decide, in such words as " receive," "believe," &c., whether the e or i should come first; but the diffi 180 HINTS [Par. 2b8. culty will vanish if it is borne in mind that (except after c) i comes first: — (1) Believe, reprieve, retrieve, grieve, mischief, mischievous. (2) Deceive, deceit, conceive, conceit, receive, receipt. The reason for the exceptional spelling of -ceive is that this termination represents the Latin cap-, French cev-; whereas ie is the non-Latin termination. 283 II. -eed, -ede. -A few compounds from the Latin ced- were introduced early and received the English spelling:Succeed, proceed, exceed. These words are very common in Shakspeare's plays. Other compounds were not introduced till afterwards, when it was no longer the custom to Anglicize the spelling of foreign words. Hence the Latin or French spelling is retained in - Accede, concede, precede, recede. These four are not found in Shakspeare's plays.1 The English spelling also accounts for the double e in "agreeable" (Fr. agreable), "degree" (Fr. deyre). 1 Preceding" is used once as an Adjective, and once as a Participle; in the latter case it is spelt ''preceading." Par. 284-286.] ON SPELLING. 181 284 III. -or, -our, -er. -These terminations are from different sources: -or is Latin; -our is Latin through French; -er is English. HenceLatin: (1) Actor, collector, demonstrator. French: (2) Colour, honour, odour. English: (3) Painter, player. Note that, wherever a Noun is formed according to English and not according to Latin rules, then, though the Verb be of Latin or French-Latin origin, the termination is generally -er; e.g., "defend-er," "extinguish-er" (the Latin Nouns would be defens-or, extinct-or); vict-or," but " vanquish-er." There is a tendency, especially in advertisements, to save space by omitting the French -u. " Governor" (for " governour") is now recognized as correct, and " honor" is aspiring to correctness. 285 IV. Latin: -(a)ble, -ible. -Strictly speaking, -ble, and not -able, is the Latin termination, a being part of the Root. Thus the Latin word was penetra-, and the termination -ble. In the same way, in a few cases, but not many, i is part of the Root, and -ble is the termination:(1) Penetra-ble, indisputa-ble, delecta-ble, indispensable, inconsola-ble, indonita-ble, insupera-ble, demonstra-ble. (2) Audi-ble, ed-ible, incorrupt-ible, indigest-ible, indestruct-ible, reprehens-ible, incomprehensible, incompress-ible. 286 V. English: -able. - This termination is used with English Verbs, e.g. "lovable," and also with many Latin Verbs (even where the Root does not 182 HIANTS [Par. 287-289. end in -a), provided that the Verb is so common as to be regarded as English: - Latin words with English termination: Indefinable, inextinguishable, redeemable, perishable, attributable, disposable. 287 VI. Latin (1) -(a)nt, (2) -ent, represent the Latin terminations for the Active Present Participles from (1) Verbs whose roots ended with -a, (2) other Verbs:(1) "Litiga-nt," "disputa-nt," "recalcitra-nt." (2) " Immine-nt," " reg-ent," " trans-ient." 288 VII. Latin-French -ant. -The French have but one termination, -ant, to represent the two Latin terminations. Hence, sometimes, similar words are spelt differently: where direct from Latin, -ent; where through French, -ant. (1) Transcendent. (2) Defendant, descendant. Hence the Latin dependens has, curiously enough, given rise to two English words, with different terminations: (1) "dependent," Adjective, direct from Latin, and with Latin spelling; (2) "dependant," Noun, through French, and with French spelling. Similarly, "ascendant" (though used by Pope as an Adjective) is now only used as a Noun. 289 VIII. (1) -ise, (2) -ize. —If -ize is to be Par. 290, 29I.] ON SPELLING. 183 retained, it ought, in strictness, to be retained only as the affix for Greek Roots:(1) Equalise, recognise. (2) Baptize, emphasize.1 290 IX. (1) -se, (2) -ce. - Distinguish between (1) the termination of the Verb in -se, and (2) the termination of the Noun in -ce:(1) Advise, license, practise, devise, prize. (Verbs.) (2) Advice, licence, practice, device, price. (Nouns.) Spelling List. The following words should be noted. They may be combined in sentences for dictation, or may be set by the pupils to one another. They are purposely unarranged: - 29I Niece, awkward, seize, courageous, ceiling, league, colonel, leisure, almond, treasure, intrigue, kernel, clothing, grandeur, ghastly, heifer, punishment, intelligence, villains, gardener, realm, principal, mountainous, principle, friar, poniard, sergeant, abhorrent, pony, necessarily, unparalleled, quarrelling, ecstasy, cavilling, kidnapping, limiting, dignitary, practice (Noun), reprieve, continually, character, potato, peddler, annually anomaly, business, mischievous, indictment, onions, cabbages, vengeance, deign (Verb), embarrassment, anonymous, committee, couple, 1 ' Analyze " is a mistake. The word is Greek, but contains and justifies no z. It should be spelt " analyse." 184 HINTS ON SPELLING. [Par. 29I. camphor, giraffe, syrup, guerilla, mosquito, veranda, azure, hammock, phosphorus, apartment, annalist, apparition, license (Verb), recede, decalogue, etymology, apparel, courteous, succeed, furlough, miscellany, scythe, morocco, chocolate, cemetery, proceed, accessory, bouquet, paroquet, exchequer, banquet, masquerade, accede, gelatine, obsequies, gazette, effigies, etiquette, balloon, encyclopedia, leopard, gudgeon, counterfeit, pigeon, menagerie, besiege, bereave, concede, inveigle, obeisance, complaisant, bivouac, neiglbor, pleurisy, journeys, quarantine, unique, cylinder, symptom, hydrophobia, rubies, valleys, mimicking, noticeable, milliner, sepulchre, available, sedentary, peremptory, pelisse, analyst. APPENDIX IV. HINTS ON PUNCTUATION. 292 Stops, or Marks of the Division of Sentences. 1. Full Stop.. (.) 5. Note of Interrogation. (?) 2. Colon... (:) 6. Note of Exclamation.. (!) 3. Semi-colon. (;) 7. The " dash" or" break ". (-) 4. Comma.. (,) 8. Marks of Parenthesis ( ) 9. Inverted commas, or, Marks of Quotation (" ") 293 Use of Stops.-The meaning of a sentence often depends on the pauses after certain words. These pauses are represented by marks, sometimes called (from their effect) Stops. and sometimes (from their appearance) Points. The Latin for "point" is punctunm, and accordingly the arrangement of points in a sentence is called Punctuation: - "John," said Thomas, "would come if he could." Omit the points in the foregoing sentence, and it becomes ambiguous. 294 The Comma. -The Comma (meaning "that which is cut off") marks the smallest " cutting off," or division of a sentence. 186 ItlNTS ON [Par. 295. I. Rule.- When a word is separated from its granmnlatical adjunct by any intervening phrase, the phrase should be preceded and followed by a Comma: - "The traveller, after alighting from his Verb horse, entered the inn." separated "His conduct, according to his own account, from is inexcusable." Subject. "The kig, wearied by the woman's importunity, granted her request." Verb separated "He endeavored, in every possible way, from to undermine his rival." Object. Verb " hen, after hearing your explanation, I separated promised to forgive you, I believed, in from accordance with your assurance, that Conjunction. this was your first offence." 1 Verb Now, thought he, he had succeeded." separated " lHe frustrated all the efforts his friends from were making for him, by his silly Adverb. vanity." 295 II. Hence the Comma is often used before and after an Adverbial Clause, including a Subordinate Sentence, whether the Sentence be (1) introduced by a Conjunction, or (2) implied in a Participle: (1) "I replied, as soon as I had recovered my presence of mind, that I could not consent." (2) " I replied, on recovering my presence of mind, that I could not consent." Tile Conjunction " that," not being capable of much stress, nor allowing much pause after it, often dispenses with the comma: - " Remember that in almost all business it is best to make haste slowly." Par. 296-298.] PUNCTUATION. 187 296 A Comma will therefore necessarily be inserted between two Conjunctions - "It was said that, when the Capitol was built, a human head was discovered amid the foundations." "It cannot be denied that, if this statement is true, your brother has acted most culpably." When a Subordinate Clause or Adverbial Phrase comes at the beginning of the sentence, the Comma is inserted after it, if the Clause or Phrase precedes the Subject of the Principal Verb (see Par. 306): (1) " VWhen I recovered my presence of mind, I replied, &c." (2) " On recovering my presence of mind, I replied, &c." (3) "Having recovered my presence of mind, I replied, &c." (4) " To be brief, there are but three courses open to us." (5) " The colonel having fallen, the major took the command." 297 HII. The Comma is often used between co-ordinate sentences connected by Conjunctions:"He went back to his home, and I went forward on my journey." In accordance with the Rule in Par. 294, - 298 IV. When a number of co-ordinate words have iss 111N TS ON [Par. 299-301 - the same grammatical adjunct, all but the last are followed by a Comma.(1) "John, Thomas, and Uenryi came." (2) " I saw John, Thoinas, and Henry." (3) "l~e was dutifri, kind, and brave." (4) "He is acting wiselq, justl, and mercifully." (5) "She loved, honored, and obeyed her husband." 299 But, if words are in pairs, then each pair (even the last) is followed by a Comma:(6) " To carp and to criticize, to slander and to rebuke, to warn and to discourage, are very different actions." 300 But sometimes, where " and " is repeated between a number of Co-ordlinate Nouns, the writer may regard them (It) as a mere list of names, all of one kind, requiring rapid enumeration, and therefore may omit the comma, or (2) as expressing different notions, and may therefore insert commas. Com pare - (7) "Havoc and spoil and ruin are my gain." - P. L. ii. 109. 18) "Where all is cliff, and copse, and sky." 2 -SCOtt. No doubt the omission of the comma here, as in Par..306, is nore easy bef-ore the Verb, when the reader is hurrying on to the Verb, than af ter the Verb, where pauses are more natural. 31V. A Noun used Vocatively or Appellatively, must necessarily have no grammatical adjuncts, 1The reason is that in this case "land " Is not inserted before the last pair. Hence then terniinationi is someht abrupt; and], after an enunmerationi of the pirs, the reader requires a pause, as though to insert " tbe'e ": " - (these) are very different actions." 2 Quoted by AMitner. Par. 302-304.] PUNCTUA TION. 189 and should therefore (unless uttered very passionately; Par. 313) be marked off by Commas:"Your conduct, Thomas, surprises me." 302 VI. In all the above Examples the principle is the same, that the Comma denotes separation from the grammatical adjunct. But sometimes tile Comma denotes the omission of the grammatical adjunct: " To carp is easy; to criticize, difficult." 303 VII. IWhen a Subject is a lengthy Phrase, it is often separated from the Verb by a Comma, especially when the Subject-Phrase contains some Noun that might at a hasty glance be supposed to be the Subject of the Verb. The object of the Comma is to indicate that not the word immediately preceding the Verb, but the whole of thepreceding phrase is the Subject of the Verb:(1) " To resent injuries inflicted on the weak and helpless, is the duty of all." (2) " That he made a very great mistake, is clear." 304 VIII. A Comma is sometimes employed when a statement or speech is introduced as the Object of a Verb, to mark a pause before the statement. But this is scarcely necessary or justifiable, except where the statement is in Apposition to a previous Noun: (1) "Who does not know the well-known proverb, that seeing is believing?" 190 HINTS ON [Par. 305, 306. (2) " Some people seem scarcely aware of this principle, that all men are better contented to make progress in small matters than to remain at a stand in great." Where the Noun in Apposition intervenes between the Verb and its Object, the Comma is justifiable on the principle stated above, Par. 294; where there is no intervening Noun, the Comma is unjustifiable. 305 IX. It has been seen, from Example (5) in Par. 298, that, when the same Object follows several Verbs, the Comma is not inserted after the last Verb; but, when the same Object follows several Prepositions, the Comma is inserted after the last Preposition: (1) "I am desirous of, and earnestly hoping for, an amicable settlement." (2) " I am sent by, and acting as the representative of, a large number of my fellow-citizens." The reason is that a Verb, being a more emphatic word than a Preposition, allows a greater stress to be laid upon it, and a longer pause after it. The Preposition, not allowing this, requires the aid of a Comma to denote the necessary pause. The purpose of the pause is to summarize, as it were, what has preceded, and to indicate that the Object is the Object not of the last Preposition alone, but of all the Prepositions. 306 Omission of the Comma. -I. When (1) an Adverb follows its Verb, or when (2) a subordinate Par. 307-309.] PUNVCTUA TION. 191 sentence follows its principal Verb, there is not so much need of a pause or division, and consequently the Comma may be dispensed with. Compare - " Very gradually, his health and strength re(1) turned." " His health and strength returned very gradually." "As soon as he caught sight of me, he ran (2) away." " He ran away as soon as he caught sight of me." 307 II. When the Subject-phrase is short, and the omission of the Comma produces no ambiguity, it is omitted:(1) " What you say is very sensible." (2) "To be ignorant is to be weak." 308 III. Caution.- The Comma ought not to be inserted (1) before "that" introducing an Objectphrase, nor (2) before " that" introducing a Subject after " Preparatory it." Avoid the following: - (1) "The ambassador replied, that no interference was needed." (2) "It was the common belief, that the house was haunted by the ghost of a murdered woman." 309 The Colon and Semicolon. - The Colon (meaning "limb" or "member ") is used after a "member " of a sentence; that is, after a portion 192 HINTS ON' [Par. 310-312. that has a complete sense by itself. The Colon is therefore used to shew some close relation between two or more sentences by combining them in one. The relation indicated may be consequence, cause, antithesis, similarity, &c.: - "How the door was opened no one knew: on the evening of the robbery it had been locked as usual." 3IO The Semi-colon (" half-member") is used between co-ordinate statements where a shorter pause is desired than that marked by the Colon. Generally, where there are more than two co-ordinate statements in a graphic description, the Semi-colon would be preferred to the colon:"After a terrific struggle, the infantry were forced back into the gates; the combined fleet and army opened fire upon the city; and preparations were made for an immediate assault." 311 If the Co-ordinate Conjunction is inserted, the Semi-colon is generally preferred to the Colon: - "Trial by jury is popularly attributed to Alfied the Great; but this is only an instance of the common tendency to associate popular institutions witl popular names." The Full-Stop requires no comment. 3I2 The Note of Interrogation is used, not only after questions asked for information, but also after Par. 313, 314.] PUNCTUATION. 193 "questions of appeal," where no answer is expected: - " What can be toilsome in these pleasant walks?" Paradise Lost, x. 179. "0 Grave! where is thy victory? O Death! where is thy sting? "- Pope. 3I3 The Note of Exclamation is used (1) after Vocatives; (2) after words or sentences uttered with sudden emotion; (3) very rarely after semi-interrogatory exclamations:(1) " Go, vwo.drous creature! mount where science guides; Go, measure earth, weigh air, and state the tides."-Ib. (2) " But hark! he strikes the golden lyre; And see! the tortur'd ghosts respire, See, siadl. folrms advance! " —lb. (3) " What sounds were heard, What scenes appear'd, O'er all the dreary coasts! "-lb. 314 The Dash is used (1) to mark a very abrupt break in the sentence, often introducing some quite unexpected word; (2) in a long sentence, to mark a return to the thread of the principal sentence: (1) " Conceal, disdain - do all things but for.qet."- lb. " come! oil teach me nature to subdue, Renounce my love, my life, myself-and you."-Ib. (2) " The strong-headed, manly, sharp-tempered, secular carpenter, with his energetic satisfaction 13 194 HINTS ON PUNCTUATION. [Par. 315. in work, his impatience of dreamers, and his early passion for Hetty's earthly loveliness" (then follows a long description of the principal characters in 'Adam Bede') "- these, with.the slighter, but equally true outlines with which the picture is filled up, form one of the truest and most typical groups of English life I have ever seen delineated." - utton. 315 Brackets are used to mark the insertion of a Phrase or Sentence that is allowed to interrupt another sentence: - "Yesterday, Thomas (you know Ichomn I mean) assured me that you were no longer in England." This kind of insertion is called a Parenthesis, i.e. a " side-insertion " (para, aside; enthesis, insertion). Such expressions as " said he," " replied I," &c., are generally marked off, not by brackets, but by commas. Inverted Commas, or Marks of Quotation, require no comment. SCHEME OF PARSING.1 OWING to the confnsion and ambiguity caused by the use of different abbreviations in Parsing Exercises, the following list is given below: ABBREVIATIONS. 316 Actire Adjective Adverb An tecedent AppIosition Aueiliary Cognate Conmparative Compjleinent 7omnipete Conditional Conj~nctiwn C'onjutnctire Direct Object Future Iniperative InJpersonal Incoin]) hte Indicatire Indirect Object Inde/inite lni/initire?interroqatire Intransilive Mood Noun = Act. =Adj.2 =Adv.2 =Ant. = App. =Anx. =Cogn. =Compar. = Conmptemn. = Coinp. Fut. =Ihnper. Inolpers. = I1coMnpi. leIndic. = lnd. 0. = hIdef. = luf. = interr. = Intr. M. =N. Number Object Participle Passir'e Past, Tense Person P/hrase Plnral Positive Preposition Present Pronoun liela/ire Retained Object Sinqnular Subject Sntbjiuictire Super/ati he Sutpp/elezent Tense Transitive Verb Verbal Vocotive Voice = Nr. - 0. = Part. = Pass. = P. T. = Pers. - Phjr. - Pi. = Pos. - Poss. = Prep. = Pres. - Pron. =Ret. =Retd. 0. = Sing. = S. = S1l1J. = Siqperl. =Se1ppi. - T. = 7Pr. = V. = V1. - Voc.= VC.3 For explanation of all the technical terms in thuis "1Seheme." the pupil. is referred to the " Glossary of Grammnatical. Tersms," paige xvii, where will also be found references to the Paragraphs in the Grammar, giving fuller explanations. 2 Ad/jectiva/, Aedverbial, and other Adjectives, may be distinguishied by adding -1, thus: Adji., Advi., &c. "1Clause " may be written (I. -3 V~oice need seldom be expressedi, as it is imupliedl by Active or Passive. 196 196 ~~SCHEMIE OF [a.3730 [Par- 317-320. 317 I. NOUNS.-Mention (i) FoRM; (ii) USE. i. FoRMn: Singular or Plural. iH. USE: (1) Subjective; (2) Possessive; (3) Vocative; (4) Objective. iii. SUBDIVISIONS OF EACH USE: 1. Subjective. (a) Subject, Partial or Complete, of a Verb; (b) in Apposition to some Subject; (c) Adverbial Subject, or Subject Absolute; (d) Supplement to a Verb. 2. Possessive. (No Subdivision; alw ays defines some Noun.) 8. Vocative. (No Subdivision.) 4. Objective. (a) Object, Partial or Complete, or Cognate, or Indirect, or "Retained;" (b) in Apposition to some Object; (c) Adverbial Object; (d) Supplement to a Verb. 318 It. (a) PRONOUNS (ordinary). -i. ii. iii. same as Nouns; iv. stands for what Noun? II. (b) PRONOUNS RELATIVE.-i. ii. ini. same as Nouns; iv. has for Anutecedent - II. (c) PRONOUNS CONJUNCTIVE.-i. ii. iii. same as Nouns; iv. joins what sentences? 319 III. ADJECTIVES. - Mention (i) FORM; (ii) USiE. i.- FORM: Positive, Comparative, or Superlative Degree. H~. USE: (i) joined to what Noun or Pronoun? (2) Supplemientary to what Verb 320 IV. VERBS. -(i) NATURE; (ii) FORM; iii. USE. i. NATURE: Transitive or Intransitive. Par. 321, 322.] PARSING. 197 ii. FORM: Mention (1) Voice; (2) Mlood; (3) Tense and "State;" (4) Person; (5) Number. iii. USE: A. (a) has for Subject - (unless Infin.) (b) has for Object —? (unless Intr. or Pass.) 1 (c) may have Subjective Supplement — (if Intr. or Pass.) (d) may have Objective Supplement -? If in the Infinitive Mood, the Verb may be used as - B. (a) Noun; Subject or Object (Complementary or otherwise) of -? (b) Adverb; modifying-? (c) Adjective; qualifying - 321 V. PARTICIPLES.- (i) Nature; (ii) Form; (iii) Use. i. NATURE: Transitive or Intransitive. ii. FORM: (a) Active or Passive. iii. USE: (a) joined to what Noun or Pronoun? (b) implies what Conjunctive word? A. If Active (see IV. above), may have Object, &c. B. If Passive (see IV. above), may have Supplement. 322 VI. VERBAL NOUNS.- (i) Nature; (ii) Form; (iii) Use. i. NATURE: Transitive or Intransitive. ii. FORM: Active2 or Passive. 1 A Passive Verb may have a " Retained Object." 2 The " State" of the action, whether " Complete " with having, or "Incomplete," without having, might also be mentioned. But these'forms are often used indiscriminately. 198 PARSING. [Par. 323-325. iii. USE: A. Noun-Uses. See I. above. B. Verb-Uses. See IV. above. 323 VII. ADVERBS.- Modify what Verb, Adjective, Adverb, or Sentence? 1 Many Adverbs are used as Conjunctions, in which case call them Conjunctions or Conjunctive Adverbs, and parse them as Conjunctions. Some Adverbs are used in three different ways: (1) Interrogatively; (2) in dependent Interrogation, or Conjunctively; (3) Relatively. 324 VIII. PREPOSITIONS. - Have what Object? Prepositions are sometimes used as (1) Adverbs; (2) parts of Compound Verbs, and, when thus used, must not be parsed as Prepositions. 325 IX. CONJUNCTIONS.-Join what two sentences together? It is so seldom that a Noun is modified by an Adverb (and the ellipsis of an Adjective is so probable in such cases), that a Noun is not here included in list of words modified by the Adverb. See Par. 45 The Degree of Comparison of the Adverb is also omitted. PART II. DIFFICUL TIES AND IRREGULARITIES IN MODERN ENGLISH. 326 CHAPTER I. PROSE. PARAGRAPHS 191-230 contained a few examples of Irregularities, shewing the method by which Irregularities must be explained. The present Chapter is intended to enumerate more fully and systematically the difficulties in Modern English Prose. The method of explanation will not be so fully given as before, in Part I.; but the pupil must bear in mind that in explaining these, and all other irregularities in English, and indeed in explaining any irregularity in any language, there is but one method:I. Ascertain the Regular Construction. II. Ascertain the cause of Irregularity. 200 DIFFICULTIES [Par. 327. The following is a key to the arrangement adopted in this Chapter. But only those idioms are selected that present difficulty to an English student:327 Syntax of Words and Sentences. SYNTAX OF WORDS; OR, THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 1. The Subject, "It" (328-32). For the Infinitive used as Subject, see 3, c, below. 2. Agreement of Verb with Subject (334-9). 3. Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases. (a) Uses or Cases of Nouns (340-6). (b) Prepositions: " against" (349); "at" (350-5); " by " (353-7); " for" (358-64); of" (365-72); "on" (373-5); "to" (377-9); "but" (380-1); used before Adverbs (382-3). (c) The Infinitive, used (1) as Subject or Object (386-9); (2) Adverbially (390-402). (d) The Participle (404-12). (e) The Adverb (413-20). 4. The Adjectie, " The " (421-6); "a" (427-9); the Possessive Objectively used (432-4); Noun with Preposition Adjectively used (436); Appositional use of " of " (437-9). SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 1. Co-ordinate Sentences. Co-ordinate Conjunctions (440 -43). 2. Subordinate Clauses. Condensed Clauses (444-7); Subject and Object Clauses (418-54); Adverbial Clauses (4.55-8); Conditional Clauses (459-71); Concessional Clauses (472-7); Result, Purpose (478-82); Clauses of Comparison (483-97); Adjective Clauses (497-500). For a full Alphabetical Index referring to each idiom explained in this and other Chapters, see page 327. With Par. 328, 329.] AND IRREGULARITIES. 201 out the aid of this Index, the reader will not find it easy to refer to a particular idiom. For example, the Conjunctional use of "' but " will not be found under "but " as a Preposition. But a reference to " but" in the Index will at once guide the reader to the right paragraph. 328 "It" Used as Subject.l 1. " It" is often used for (1) " the time, season," &c.; (2) "matters, affairs ": - (1) "It will soon be November." (2) "It will come to a quarrel." This use las its origin in the earliest period of the language. It is explained not only by (I.) desire of brevity, but also by the desire to express some unknown cause of inexplicable results: " it snows, hails, thunders," &c. Hence also in Early English, even up to tile Fifth Period, "it repents, shames, yearns, pities, me." The same tendency is observable in Latin to express feelings that are not controlled by the person, by means of Impersonal Verbs. A relic of the old usage is " methinks," i.e., "it seems to me." Compare Shakspeare: - " Where it thinks (seems) best unto your royal self." A similar explanation applies to "if (it) you please," which is illustrated by Shakspeare's "So (it) please him (to) come." 329 "It" is also used to prepare the way for the Subject. (See Par. 151):(3) "It is said that he will come." (If the sentence ran " that he will come is said," 1 For the Infinitive used as Subject, see Par. 386. 202 DIFFICULTIES. [Par. 330, 331. an undue emphasis [III.] 1 would be laid on "is said.") (4) "It is necessary to make a choice." More rarely " this" and "that" are used after the Subject for the purpose of recapitulation: - (5) "To fail after a third attempt-that indeed would be disgraceful." "It" is also used to prepare the way for the Object:(6) " I do not think it right to take this course." (7) " I can make it clear that I am guiltless." 330 " It" often prepares the way for a clause introduced by the Conjunction that: - (8) "It was then that the cavalry charged," i.e., "the cavalry's charging was then." (9) " When was it that they were in prison? " (The redundance of it here is shewn by the fact that in the last example, which is modernized from Robert of Gloucester, the author omits the it:(10) "' When was that they were in prison? ") Sometimes the Conjunction may be " whether":(11) "It is doubtful whether lie will succeed." 33I It stands for "( the person," and is the Antecedent of a Relative Pronoun in(12) " Who was it that said so? " (13) "Thou art it that hath cut Rahab." 1 The Roman numbers in brackets refer to the " Laws of Irregularity," Par. 198. Par. 332, 333.] "IT)) 203 In the earliest English (Anglo-Saxon) version of the Gospel, ' it," or rather the Saxon equivalent of " it," is not placed first, and we find St. John vi. 63 in this form:(14) " Spirit is it that giveth life." But as early as Wickliffe the it had been separated from its Relative, and had been placed at the beginning of the sentence. (15) " It is the Spirit that quickeneth." 332 In consequence of this change of position, the Verb agrees with the Preparatory Subject "it." Thus, instead of(16) " You were it that he laughed at," we say(17) "It was you that he laughed at."1 333 A Noun is sometimes used as the Subject or Object of some Verb understood, connected with another Verb by " and ":(1) (There were) "A few more struggles, and all was over." (2) (We must walk) " A mile further, and we shall be at our journey's end." t See Pars. 158-61. This construction is said not to be found in the earliest English, Mltzler, ii. page 25. 204 AGREEMENT OF VERB [Par. 334, 335. 334 Agreement of Verb with Subject. 1. The Verb sometimes has the Plural Inflection to agree with an implied Plural Subject: - (1) " Nor yew nor cypress spread their gloom," 1 i.e., "yews and cypresses do not spread." (2) " Neither you nor your brother were mentioned," i.e., "you and your brother were not mentioned." It would be intolerably harsh to write, however correct it might be - (3) " Neither you nor your brother was mentioned." Evade the difficulty by writing — (4) " Neither your brother nor you were mentioned," so that the Verb may either agree with the Grammatical Subject " you," or with the implicit Subject "your brother and you." 335 2. A Subject is sometimes introduced without a Verb, in a parenthesis, the Verb having to be supplied by repetition - (1) " His faults, not his recent misfortune, have alienated him from us," where " has alienated" must be repeated after " misfortune." I Campbell, quoted by Matzner. Par. 336, 337.] WITH SUBJECT. 205 336 3. The Verb is in the Singular after a number of Nouns as SubjectI. When the Nouns collectively express one notion: (1) "Much blood and treasure was wasted in these wars." (2) "The poetry and eloquence of that age deserves our study." In these cases the Nouns are often preceded by one Adjective, as above " much," " the." II. When the last Singular Noun (coming at the end of a climax) is prominently emphatic:(3) " Honor, justice, religion itself is derided by such policy." III. When the Verb precedes a number of Subject Nouns, the first of which is singular. (4) " Blessed is the womb that bare thee and the paps which thou hast sucked." IV. When the Verb is followed by a Complementary Subject in the Singular Number: - (5) " To inferiors, gentleness, condescension, and affability is the only true dignity." 337 4. A Collective Noun in the Singular may be used with a Plural Verb, where the notion of a number of individuals is more prominent than the notion of a collective whole: - (1) " The crew are rushing to the boats." 206 DIFFICUL TIES. [Par. 338, 339. (2) " Tle whole family are in tears." (3) "The majority of the inhabitants are ready to petition against his return." (4) " The army are anxious for a war." But where the notion of unity predominates, the Singular of the Verb is used: — (5) " Tle whole nation rouses itself like one man." (6) " The army is mainly composed of raw recruits." 338 There is an apparent inconsistency in - (7) " The army - which a month ago was pining for peace -are now, to a man, clamorous for war." (8) "This people, who knoweth not the law, are cursed." But this is explained (III.) 1 by the harshness of using a Plural Verb after a Relative with a Singular Antecedent. Where the Plural Verb closely follows the Noun of Multitude, the meaning of multitude naturally affects the Verb, but the intervention of the Relative Pronoun 2 diminishes the effect of the Noun's Plural meaning. 339 The following examples (Mitzner, ii. 144) admirably illustrate the use of the Singular where the t The Roman numbers in brackets refer to the Laws of Irregularity, Par. 198. 2 The effect of the intervention of the Relative is seen in the, strictly, ungrammatical passage of Pope, where the Third Person is used for the old Second: "T/Tlo great first Cause, lenst uuderstood: Who all my sense confil'd To know but this, that Tlou art good." Par. 340.] ADVERBIAL PJIRASES. 20 207 notion of unity, and of the Plural where the notion of plurality, is the more prominent - (9) " There goes " (unity) " a pair that only spoil (mutual action necessarily implying plurality) "one another." (10) " The stork-assembly meets " (unity) " for many a day. Consulting deep and various " (notion of plurality introduced) " ere t/wi, takce Their arduous voyage through the liquid sky." ADVERBIAL PHRASES. I. The Uses of Nouns. 340 The Object is used (see Par. 129) to denote extent, distance, dueration, or point of time: (1) "A shiort distance from the towvn was a small stream." (2) " One summer's day I was wvalking in the country." (3) "I shall expect you this dayq" (point of time) three months " (distance or interval of time.)2 (4) "1 saw himi five eiays ago."1 3 (5) le bathles sionmer and winter." Only a few unasoal Idioms are mentioned here. Far the more ordinary idioms, time reader is referred to Par. 127-131. 2 In Old Englishi (Layanion 1. 344), a preposlitin "1 on " or "1in" would be insertel before ' niontls." 3In Old Eniglislh. ' (lays" was sometimes made the Subject in a Parenthesis: "1 I saw lidni. gone is filee (lays," " ago " being for "1agone," the Passive Participle of "go." 208 ADVERBIAL PHRASES. [Par. 341-343. 341 In Early English, this was expressed by what is now the Possessive Inflection, so that the last Example would have then run - (6) " He bathes summeres and winteres." In the same way they used "nightes," dayes," "yeares," &c. In later times the Inflection was replaced by a Preposition " on," or "an," or "a-"; but sometimes we find the new Preposition introduced and the old Inflection retained, e.g. in " nowa-days." And this explains "in doors," "of late years," "o'nights." The old Inflection is retained, or has been introduced, in " always," "sometimes;" "sideways," "needs." 342 From a confusion (II.) of "at three years of age " and " he was three years (Object) old" (see Par. 129), there has arisen the following irregularity: - (7) " At three years, nine months, old." Here " three-years-old," " nine-months-old," must be now regarded as Compound Nouns. 343 The Object is also used to denote price: — (8) "Mutton is eight-pence a pound." (Here "pence" is not the Subjective Supplement. " At " might be inserted before " eight.") The distributive use of "a pound" in the last I Morris's Accidence, page 194. Par. 344-346.] ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 209 Example demands attention. It may be compared with(9) "I ride once a day." (10) " He gave them five shillings a-piece, or a man." In Early English (Morris's Accidence, page 195), this " a" is seen to be the old Preposition " on," " an," or " a." It is not (though it might seem to be) the Indefinite Adjective. 344 The Object is also used with Comparatives, to denote the amount of excess or defect: - (11) "He is a trife taller than my brother." (12) " The sooner, the better." In (12) " the " is not the Definite Adjective; it is a Use or Case of the old Relative or Demonstrative Pronoun (our " that"), and the meaning is " By what (in what degree) sooner, by that (in that degree) better." (13) " Thi, (or thy) sooner, thi better." 345 A Prepositional force implied in the Adverbial Phrase "on this side" explains the use of the Object in:(14) " On this side (of) the Tweed." 346 The Object is irregularly used for the Subjective form in: (15) "I7/hom say ye that I am? " 14 210 DI1FFICULTIES. [Par. 347. The reason is, obviously, (II.) Confusion with the regular construction: - (16) " Whom say ye me to be " But, doubtless, euphony (the same feeling that makes the French say "c'est moi" and English children " it's me ") is the reason for such irregularities as Shakspeare's: - (17) " No mightier than thyself or me." (18) " Is she as tall as me?" (19) "It is thee I fear." Milton has " Than whom." Perhaps, " than" and "as " were regarded as quasi-Prepositions. Pope (Sat. viii. 275) has"And lin'd with Giants deadlier thalC 'em all." II. Prepositions. 347 The English Prepositions originally represented local meanings, i.e. they indicated rest or motion in place. For example, "of," " off," meant " motion from;"- "by " meant "neighborhood," and so did " with; " "for " meant "' before." By degrees the uses of the Prepositions were extended to denote the relations of time as well as of space. For example, " before " and " after " are used of both relations. But sometimes a Preposition assumed two forms, one to denote space, the Par. 348, 349.] PREPOSITIONS. 211 other to denote time, e.g., " to " for space, " til" or " till" for time. See Par. 376. 348 Then the uses of the Prepositions were still further extended to denote other relations, e.g., agency, instrumentality, and the like. For example, we now say that a box is " made of (i.e., out of, motion from) wood." But there is no reason why we might not have used instead of "of," some Preposition denoting "neighborhood," e.g., "with" or "by." And here also (as with " to" and " till" above) the Preposition sometimes assumed two forms, one to denote the original local relation, e.g., " off, " "the leaves are falling off the trees;" another to denote the secondary relation, e.g., " the light of the sun." IHenice, in explaining the uses of Prepositions, the student should go back at once to the radical meaning of rest or motion, and thence should trace the derived meaning, whatever it may be.' "A," "a-piece;" see Par. 343: "a-ground," " a-sleep," for "on ground," "on sleep;" Par. 127. 349 1. " Against," now generally restricted to space, but still rarely (once commonly) used of time - (1) "We shall not be ready against the day of battle." 1 Before the Pupil deals with Prepositions and their metaphorical meanings derived from their local meanings, lie should thoroughly master the meaning of a Metaphor, and he able to expand a Metaphor into a Proportion or Simile. See English Lessons for English People, page 125. 212 PREPOSITIONS. [Par. 350-352. It is more commonly used in modern vernacular English as a Conjunction (like "after," "before," used for " after that," "before that"):(2) "We shall not be ready against (that) he comes." 350 2. "At," meaning "neighborhood," was early used to denote " proximity of value," " equivalence," or " price": - (1) " The house is valued at a thousand pounds." (2) " He lends money at a high rate of interest." (3) " We are travelling at a great pace." Hence it was used in Adverbial Phrases, where " estimated," "rated," can be supplied from the context:(4) "(Estimating your compensation) At (the) least, you will surely receive half the value of your loss ": so, " at most." 351 Hence it denotes (not "consequence," like "on," but) "immediate proximity, consequence, or dependence ":(5) "He fires up at a word": "At the word he vanished." (6) " The tiger cleared the avenue at a bound." (7) " Ie lies at the king's mercy ": "He is removable at pleasure." 352 I Tence " instrumentality," mostly of games at which one may be regarded as present: - (8) " He plays at cricket, football, chess, draughts," &c.: " lie is beaten at his own weapons." Par. 353-355.] "AT," "BY." 213 353 Note that "at" is used with reference to points, while " on " and " in" are used with reference to places. Hence "at" is used for a point of time, but " on," "in," or " by" for a space of time:(9) " On Monday," "at dawn; " " by day," "at sunset;" " in the afternoon," " at noon." 10) "At first;" ' at last;" "at length." So also of place, "at" is used for small places regarded as points, " in " of large places regarded as spaces: (11) "In London;" "at Clifton." Hence, metaphorically: - (12) "Distinguished in war, literature, &c.;" "Skilful at jumping, dancing, &c." 354 " In " denotes the sphere of action regarded as influencing the agent, e.g., "in wrath," " in anger," in haste." " At" denotes the point at which one rests, without the notion of influence, e.g., " at ease," " at peace," "at liberty," " at large," " at rest," " at leisure ": - (13) " He that marries in haste will repent at leisure." 355 3. " By," meaning originally "near the side of," i.e., neighborhood, is used to denote "time " ( by four o'clock "), " instrumentality," and " agency." - 1 "At night" really means " at night-fall." 214 PREPOSITIONS. [Par. 356, 357. From the notion of "instrumentality," it came to express "manner," "number," &c.:(1) " They sell corn by the bushel, drink beer by the gallon," &c. (2) " He is dying by inches, is wise by fits," &c. (3) "The citizens streamed out by hundreds." 356 In Old English, the repetition of an action, e.g., "streamed " in the last Example, was sometimes expressed by repeating the Adverbial phrase " by hundreds," so that the sentence ran(4) "The citizens streamed out by hundreds, by hundreds; by one and by one; by thousand and by thousand; by little and little," &c. So even Pope: - (5) " Loth to enrich me with too quick replies, By little and by little drops fis lies." When some of these phrases were condensed for brevity's sake, the first "by " was omitted: — (6) " They streamed out one by one." (7) "The water oozed out drop by drop." (8) " He is growing stronger year by year." (9) " The army is diminishing little by little." 357 From false analogy, i.e., Confusion (II.) with "They emigrated by hundreds," we say, even speaking of a single person(10) " He emigrated by himself." But even in the Earliest English we find, not the Adjective " self" (i.e. same) and the Pronoun " he," Par. 358-360.] "BY," "FOR." 215 " he-self;" in Apposition to the Subject, but a kind of Adverb formed out of the Dative Case of " he." Consequently "by himself " is simply a Prepositional equivalent of the old Case-Adverb. 358 4. " For," radical meaning "before," "in front of;" hence (as a champion may fight in front of; or in the place oJ; the person he is championing) " instead of," i.e. in the stead or place of,1 " as ": (1) "She passedfor his sister." (2) "This was meantfor a joke." 359 Hence, "for the purpose of," and hence, "considered for the purpose of," or "having regard to ":(3) "Fit for food." (4) "Small for his size." (5) "These apples are too sourfor eating," i.e. "for the purpose of eating, the apples are too sour." Hence, " for the sake of," " because of ":(6) " All kept away for fear of infection." (7) "For shame," i.e. " (I cry alack) because of shame." Some exclamation has to be supplied, and was often inserted in Old English. 363 It is easy to see how, after a negative, "for" may assume the meaning of " despite of ":(8) " He was not liked for his good temper," or (9) "He was disliked for all his good temper." 1 Hence ' I buy an applefor, i.e. in the place of, or sell itfor, i.e. for the sake of, a penny." 216 PREPOSITIONS. [Par. 361, 362. Hence, even where there is no negative preceding, " for " might be thus used:(10) " I shall succeed (and you will not prevent me) for all your tricks." It is fair to say, however, that in Old English " for" is used in the sense of "prevention," without any negative preceding.' 36 I From the notion of " purpose," " for " came to be used, even in Early English, with words denoting future time: - (11) " I have food stored upfor (the purpose, or need, of) many years." (12) " I will repeat the Psalter dailyfor a year." In the same way, " for" is used of space, with a notion of motion towards a purposed Object - (12a) " I am setting outfor Paris." 362 Hence "for" came to be used of time and space, without any notion of purpose, but with the mere notion of extension: - (13) "We have loved one anotherfor many years." (14) " For fifteen weary miles they plodded onward." (15) "For a short tinle." Hence (II.) by Confusion (where there is no notion of "extension "):1 It has been suggested that " for " might derive a meaning of opposition from its radic-al meaning of " before," "in front of." See Shalkspeariau Grammar, page 103. Par. 363-365.] "FOR," " OF." 217 (16) " He is now sleeping, for the first time since last Monday." (17) "Be sensible, for once." 363 The use of "for " after " but" is to be explained by reference to the radical meaning of "but," i.e. "except" (see Par. 381):(18) "He would have died but for me," i.e. "except, or only, (that it happened otherwise) because of me." 364 "For," in the sense of "in front of," i.e. "in behalf of," is often used at the beginning of a sentence, to call attention to that about which one is going to speak: - (19) " For his part, he is indifferent." Hence (20) "As for him, he is indifferent," i.e., " (So far) as (one may speak) for, i.e., in behalf of, about, him." In the middle of the Sentence, " for " is not now so common as it was once, e.g. in Bacon's time: "(The counsel of Rehoboam) was young counsel for (as regards) the persons, and violent counsel jbr (as regards) the matter." " For to," see Par. 402. 365 5 "Of," having originally the force of of, is still used with this meaning in(1) " Within ten miles of (i.e. from) the coast." 218 PREPOSITIONS. [Par. 366, 367. (2) " Of late." " Of old." " Of a child."- Mark ix. 21. (3) "Upwards of (i.e. rising from) ten years." From saying, logically, "ten of us," i.e. " ten out of our number," we have come to say, illogically - (4) "All ofus." 366 "Of" is also used with Verbs signifying "motion from ": (a) deprive, bereave, strip, rob, cheat, defraud; (b) rid, deliver, acquit; (c) cleanse, purge, cure; (d) beware. Also with Adjectives signifying emptiness. This use explains(5) "Void of sense." "Clear of debt." "She was delivered of a child." 367 "Of," from meaning " motion from," comes to mean (6) "out of," (7) "belonging to," (8) "resulting from ": — (6) "This box is made of wood." "He comes of good parentage." " Evil must come of evil." (7) " The light of the sun," i.e. " the light off or from the sun." (8) "The canal is full of water," i.e. "as the result of." "He did it of malice aforethought." "She died of a fever." "It smells of musk." "Of his own accord." " Of course," i.e., "as the result of the ordinary course of things." Compare Bacon's - (8a) " If Time, of course (i.e as the result of its ordinaly course) alter things to the worse." Par. 368-37I.] c" OF." 219 368. From meaning " resulting from," "of" comes to mean (9) on account of," (10) "because of ": (9) "I accuse him of treason." (10) "He is glad of success, afraid of death." 369 Hence, from meaning " that which comes from, has to do with, belongs to; or concerns," " of" has come to mean " concerning," " about ": - (11) " What of John? Tell me of his adventures." (12) "I am going of1 an errand." Lastly, from meaning " about," it comes to mean "' as regards ":(13) "Light of foot." " Hard of heart." 370 Only in vernacular English is " of " now used for "during," a use that springs naturally from the meaning "coming from," " belonging to," i.e. " in," or "on ": (14) "I can't get up of a morning." (15) "Of a sudden." But this was once more common. Compare Shakspeare's - " My custom always of the afternoon." 371 Since the action comes of, or from, the agent, "of" may be, and once was, commonly used where we use "by ": - (16) " He was despised and rejected of men." 1 This might be explained by (8) "as the result of." 220 PREPOSITIONS. [Par. 372-374 - (17) " That it might be fulfilled which was spoken of the Lord." (18) " When he was demanded of the Pharisees." 372 The Partitive use of " of " without a preeeding Noun, Pronoun, or Numeral Adjective, is now rare: (19) "He gave us (some) of his best." (20) "The dogs eat (some) of the crumbs that fall from their master's table." "What sort of," "A rascal of a cabman," &c. See Par. 438. 373 6. " On," " Upon." Since one event can happen on the top of another, or can be based upon certain conditions, it is easy to understand the use of the Preposition in(1) " Upon my arrival I will give you an interview." (2) "He acted thus on your suggestion." (3) " On hearing this, he rushed out of the house." (4) " They surrendered the city on these conditions." (5) "Pillage was prohibited on pain of death." 374 As we speak of being supported or sustained by bread, which we call the "staff of life," we naturally use " on" in the metaphorical expressions(6) "He lives on bread, feeds on success," &c. Since an oath is taken "' over " or " on " a Bible, sword, &c., it was natural to swear(7) "On the faith of a Christian." " On my honor." " l)pon my word." Par. 375-378.] " ON," " TO." 221 Since an action may spring "out of" a feeling, or be based " on " a purpose, we can say - (8) "He did it of malice," but "on purpose." 375 " On " is often abbreviated into " a-": - (9) "A-board," " a-sleep," "a-live," "a-ground." Shakspeare also has(10) "A-land," "a' sea," "an-end," i.e., "on end."1 376 7. " Till," which is now used only of time, was once used of space: — (1) " They went til Snowdon." (2) " Title him came his son Richard." 377 8. " To," meaning " toward," is sometimes used, without a Verb of motion, to denote "neighborhood " or " equivalence," where now "for" would be more commonly used:(1) " I call God to (i.e as) witness." In the last Example, motion may possibly be implied in " call; " but there is no motion implied in - (2) " The seven had her to wife." 378 "To " seems to mean "up to," "as far as concerns," " as to " in — (3) " To all appearance he is guilty." 1 Even Pope has" A little house with trees a-row." 222 DIFFICULTIES. [Par. 379-381. 379 " To " was early used (in the sense of neighborhood) for "toward" or "about" of past time, as well as of future, e.g. "to-eve " (yesterday evening). This explains the modern - (4) " I saw him to-day." "As to." See Pars. 487-489. 380 " But." See Alphabetical Index. When used as a Preposition, "but" should be followed by the Objective form; but, probably owing to confusion between the Prepositional and the Conjunctive usage, "but," even when a Preposition, is often followed by the Subjective form: - "And was not this the Earl? 'Twas none but he."Philip Van Artevelde. 381 In explaining the many idiomatic usages of " but," two things should be borne in mind; (1) that the radical meaning of " but" is " leaving out," and that it was a Preposition; (2) that a negative is often omitted, for shortness, before it. The trahsition from the Preposition to the Conjunction is well illustrated by the following modernized examples from Layamon: - (1) "Buten laeve," i.e. " without leave." -( Preposition.) (2) "He saw that the Britons must fall buten heo red hbaveden," i.e. "'without, or, unless they had counsel (rede)."Subordinate Conraniction. (3) " If you lo this, well; bute (i.e. otherwise), he will never deliver Evelin to thee." - to-ordinate Conjunction. The omission of the negative was facilitated by the blending of the negative ne with the Verb, so that nam meant "am not." Par. 382-384.] PREPOSITIONS. 223 (4) " Nabbe we buten the west end," i e. "we have but the west end." (5) " Nas he there bute one night," i.e. "he was there but one night." 382 9. Prepositions are sometimes used with Adverbs (used as Nouns) for their Objects - (1) "What. kind of country is it between here and Dover " (2) " The light comes/from behind, not from above." 3) " Until quite recently." "Since then." "For once." " Of yore." The older and preferable forms " Whither?" "Whence?" seem in danger of being supplanted by the modern "Where-to?" Where-from? "(4) " Wthere does this road lead to?" 383 Sometimes the Preposition precedes not an Adverb, but an Adverbial Phrase: - (5) "The mountain tremblesfr om on-high." (6) " Froml beneath-the-ground." "From beyond-theseas." (7) " Not till abont-six-years-afterwards."" "Till withina-f e w-weeks -of- his-death." (8) "It was soldfor under-half-its-value." 384 10. The Object of a Preposition is sometimes omitted, (1) when the Object is a Relative Pronoun, (2) when the Preposition completes a Verb in the Infinitive: - (1) " The will (that) I told you of is lost." (2) " lie lent me his horse to escape upon." 224 TIIE INFINITIVE. [Par. 385, 386. Such sentences as (2) are found without the Relative Pronoun in Old English; it seems best to consider the Preposition in such cases as part of a Compound Verb -" escape on," like " ride on." In Shakspeare we should often find "thereon" inserted- "to escape thereon." 385 " One another," " each other," have now come to be regarded as Compound Pronouns:(1) " They looked at one another, or, each other." But the explanation of the construction is as follows: " They looked one at another, or, each at other " — one " and " each" being in Apposition to " they," while " other " is the Object of " at." See Pars. 223, 531. Preposition omitted; see Pars. 127-131. The Infinitive.' 386 The " to " is omitted, not only after the Auxiliary Verbs, but also in a few very common idioms: — (1) "Better (to)2 wait a while." (2) " You had better (to) be quiet." Here " had" is Subjunctive, meaning " would have;" and the sentence would be in full — 1 For convenience, the Infinitive, even when not Adverbial, is discussed here. 2 This was the Infinitive, not the Imperative. Par. 387, 388.1 "1TO " OMiTTE D.25 221 5 (2) " You would have (find) it better (to) be quiet." (3) " I had rather (to) be a doorkeeper," i.e. " I sooner ('roatle' (Adj.) meant I early,' soon ' would have," i.e. " I prefer (to) be a doorkeeper." "To " is also omitted after "1have" in(4) " I must have you (to) attend." (5) " You will have your father (to) blame you." It is impossiblie to tell whether " Please help me," is for (1) "1May it please you to help roe," or for (2) ', Hellp mne, please," which. is an abbreviation of'I Help) me, if you please, or, so lilease you." Do," 0. E. dton, originalIly meanit ''cause,'' eq. '' (lo ine drenche,'' cause (somec one) to (dreiich ne.'' About the thirteenth cenitury it began to be use(l for simpl~e emphasis, and( in thle tifteentli century, was regularly isel thuis. In ' How (10 you do," the first (lo is the ordinary one, 0. E. don, the second is 0. E. ditgan "1to be good, or- worth." (.Monars). 387 lThe omission of "1to " after such Verbs as let, bid, make, dare, see, hear, feel, may be explained (1) by the desire of brevity manifesting itself, specially in the nse -of words so common as these are; and (2) by the fact that old constructions (i.e. the Old Infinitive without "1to ") are to be looked for in. common words. (See Par. 95, 96.) 388 But this explanation does not explain the omission of " to" after such uncommon words as " view," behold," mark," watch," observe," "1 perceive," &c. The explanation here is perhaps as follows: when the "1to " form of tile Infinitive came in, the construction would become(7) " I observed him to come." 15 '226 " TO " OMITTED. [Par. 389. But, side by side with this, there would be the Old Participial or Verbal construction: - (8) "1 observed him coining or a-comiing." In (7) the Object of the Verb is a fact, viz. "the fact that he came." In (8) the Object of the Verb is a person. But between these two constructions a compromise or confusion of thought was made, in which it was left uncertain whether the fact or the person was the more prominent; and, to represent this confusion of thought, there was made (II.) a compromise or confusion of language, in which (I. brevity) " to" was omitted as in (8), and " come " was substituted for " coming," as in (7), the result being(9) " I observed him come." 1 The confusion between the Infinitive and the Participle or Verbal would be facilitated by the similarity of sound between the old Infinitive in -en, and the Participle in -nd, or the Verbal in -ng. See Pars. 585-6. 389 The "to" is often omitted after " than," where it can be supplited from some other clause in the sentence:(1) " Sooner than (I am prepared to) make this concession, I am prepared to go to law." (2) " I will (i.e. wish; Par. 93) (to) die sooner than (to) desist." 1 This Infinitive would be rendered in Latin and Greek by a Participle. J Par. 390-392.] THE INFINITIVE. 227 390 III. Infinitive with "to." (1) "I was given to understand by him." The Active form is(2) " Ie gave me to understand," where " me " is the Indirect Object, and " to understand" the Direct Object, of "gave." Consequently the correct Passive form would be(3) " To understand was given me." But "give to understand" being looseiy treated as a Compound Verb, " me," in (2), has been taken as the Direct Object of the Active; and therefore the same Person, "I" in (1), has been made the Subject of the Passive. 39I This may be illustrated by(4) " So am I given in charge." The modern meaning of " I am given in charge" would be "I am placed in custody." But, in the foregoing example, "to give-in-charge " is treated as a Compound Verb meaning " to charge," "to commission," so that the sentence means, in Shakspeare, "I am charged, or instructed." 392 " To" follows naturally after "come," but expresses not a purpose, but a result, in(5) " How came you to be left behind " (6) " It came to pass." 1 2 Henry VI. ii. 4, 80. 228 THE INFINITIVE. [Par. 393-395. After several Intransitive Verbs of the feelings, e.g. " wonder," " rejoice," " sorrow," " to " followed by a Verb is used, or " at" followed by a Verbal Noun: (7) "I wondered, rejoiced, laughed, &c., to see him there," i.e., " at seeing." (8) "I blushed, was ashamed, angry, sorry, &c., to hear it." 393 After Adjectives, the Infinitive is sometimes used to limit the scope of the Adjective, " to " being used very much like " in ": (9) "Sad to relate," i.e., "in relating," 1 rather than "for the purpose of relating." (10) "He was the first to come," i.e., "in coming." (11) "You are unwise to speak so hastily," i.e., "for speaking." (12) "This was strange to hear, after all his professions." 394 "To " is also used after many Nouns resembling or implying Verbs that would naturally take "to" after them:(13) "I have no wish, hope, ambition, desire, &c., to succeed." (14) " Give me your promise to obey." 395 Somewhat different is the use of " to " after Nouns preceded by " the": — (15) "He had the sense to perceive his mistake," i.e., "the sense necessary, or enough, to perceive." 1 Compare " mirabile dictu." Par. 396, 397.] " 1TO." 229 Some Adjectives, such as "necessary," " fit," have to be supplied in such cases: — (16) " I llave the pleasure, honor, &c., to inform you," i.e. "the pleasure, honor, that goes so far as to," &c.i 396 In all the above Examples there are two causes for the use of "to " instead of " at," "for," "of," &c. (1) A Transitive Verb is often implied; (2) "to " being constantly used with the Gerundive of purpose, came to be used with the Infinitive (used for the Gerundive) even where there is no sense of purpose. See Par. 94; also 585-6. 397 " So as to." "To" is often found after "so...as ": (17) " Be so kind as to excuse me." This might have been written without " so... as:" "Be kind to excuse me," i.e. " Be kind to the extent of excusing me; " and this idiom is actually found, only with " enough " added: — (18) " Be kind enough to excuse me." In Early English "so" was added in the sense of " to that extent: " " Be so kind to excuse me." Afterwards, to join together the two parts of the sentence, the Relative form of " so," viz. " as " (see Par. 203), was inserted. 1 This Infinitive appears to describe the " honor," " pleasure,' &c., and therefore rather to be Adjectival than Adverbial. 230 0THE INFINITIVE. [Par. 398, 399. "To" in Questions and Relative Clauses. 398 There appears to have been an old Interrogative use of the Infinitive, of which we still retain remnants in such expressions as(1) " Where to begin? How (to) excuse myself?"1 In dependent questions this Infinitive was, and is, very common: - (2) "I know not where to begin, nor how to excuse myself." No doubt this idiom is facilitated by the analogy of "I know not the place to begin, nor the way to excuse myself," which may be compared with the Noun-use of "wherewith," e.g. "I have not the wherewith to Jkeep a carriage," "I must know the how and the why." Add(3) "I know not wlether to term it a fault or a misfortune." (4) " The difficulty is how to teach him that he needs teaching." 399 The sentence "I have no money to buy food" is logically correct, but is felt to be unsatisfactorily incomplete. It has therefore been completed in different ways: (a) " I have no money to buy food with, or withal, or therewith;" (b) "I have no 1 Although the words are not inserted, yet one feels that this is a short way of saying: " Where (am I) to begin? [low (am I to) excuse myself?" Par. 400, 40I.] TIlE INFINI TI VE. 231 money with which I may buy food;" and the confusion between (a) and (b) has resulted in - (1) "I have no money with which to buy food." (2) " I have no objectfor which to strive." (3) "I want a place in which tofeel at rest." 400 The Infinitive in Exclamations. The Subject, not the Object,' is usually found before the Infinitive in exclamations: - (1) "I to be so happy! " " He to desert me!" 40I The Parenthetical Infinitive. This is an Infinitive of purpose: - (1) " To tell you the truth, I was not up," i.e. " in order to tell you the truth (I must say that), I was not up." (2) " To be brief, or, not to be tedious, the expedition failed." (3) " To be sure he is not very clever, but he is very kind-hearted." (4) " Will you help me i" " To be sure I will." The meaning of " to be sure" seems to be "certainly," but used in (3) concessively, in (4) emphatically. Compare "to wit," i.e. "to know (the truth.)" 1 Compare the use of a Subject used absolutely with the Participle, where Latin and Greek usage would prepare one to expect some other form. Milton uses the Object with the Participle Absolute; but this is a Latinism. See Par. 408. 232 THIE INFINITI VE. [Par. 402. The Subject of the Infinitive, in " to be sure" and in " to wit," appears to be the person addressed, " that you may be sure," " that you may wit." 402 The Infinitive with " for to." In the Bible, the old Infinitive with "for to " is still found:(1) " What went ye outfor to see?" In Old English this Infinitive was used as Complement to a Noun, in the Object clause, just like the Infinitive with " to," e.g. — (2) " A many of rude villains made him for to bleed." (3) " If he will not suffer my people for to pass." We still, unconsciously, use this idiom, e.g.(4) " It is rare for a man to starve in this country." Here the meaning is, not that " starvation is rare for a man " (for of course a man can only starve once), but that "a man's being starved, or that a man should be starved, is rare." But, as this idiom is completely forgotten, we seldom use it, except where '"for" might take for its Object the Noun preceding the following Infinitive, as in(5) " The night is too darkfor us to travel." Here "us" may be called the Object of " for." But, in reality, the sentence owes its origin to the Par. 403.] THE INFINITIVE. 233 old use of " for to." It is impossible to treat "for " as governing a Noun Object in the first or third, and it is difficult in the second, of the two following Examples:(6) "He was too much accustomed to deeds of violence for the agitation ie had experienced to be of long continuance."- SCOTT.1 (7) " The wind sits fairfor news to go to Ireland." (8) " He belonged to a race that was too much detested- outside the cities -for him to hope ally thing fron charity." -Spectator, 1874. 403 The Complete Infinitive. -lopes and wishes about what is completed are necessarily reserved for cases where one has failed, and not fulfilled one's purpose. Hence with Verbs of hoping, wishing, intending, the old and correct use of Complete Infinitive (which it is most desirable to retain) expresses an unfulfilled purpose: - (1) "I hoped to have succeeded, but I failed." (2) But, on tile other hand, "I hoped to succeed, and I succeeded." So with some other Verbs: (1) " I could have repeated all Homer by heart once," i. e. " if any one had challenged me, but no one did." 1 Matzner, vol. iii. page 58. 234 TIlE PARTICIPLE. [Par. 404, 405. (2) But, on the other hand, "I could learn a hundred lines in an hour once," i.e. "and I; sometimes did." V 404 IV. The Participle. The Participle qualifying a Noun is sometimes incorrectly used, instead of a Verbal Noun qualified by a Possessive Adjective or Possessive form of the Noun, e.g. " In consequence of the king saying this" for "In consequence of the king's saying this." "Trusting to the certainty of the old man (for man's) interrupting him." This is rare, and not to be imitated. Putting " me " instead of " king " or "man" above, you see the incorrectness of the idiom. It is not now English to say "in consequence of me saying this ": "my " would be required in both cases. 405 The Passive Participle is perhaps allowable in this construction, e.g. - (1) " He insisted on the match being deferred," instead of, "the match's being deferred." (2) "In consequence of this motion having been brought forward without due notice." These are not exactly Participles. For example, (1) does not mean " Ile insisted on the match when it was being deferred," or, "that was being deferred": but "He insisted on the-match-being deferred," i.e. "the deferring of the match." This Par. 406, 407.] TIIE PARTICIPLE. 235 (which may be called the Noun-use of the Participle) is a Latin construction, alien to the genius of the English language; the native Verbal use should be retained, wherever euphony and clearness allow: (3) " He insisted on the man's being reprimanded." 406 The Participle with Conjunctions. The Participle is ambiguous; see Par. 66. " Walking " may mean " though he walked," " because he walked," &c. Partly to prevent ambiguity, and partly by (II.) Confusion of Construction, we blend together (a) " Walking on the ice I slipped," and (b)" Wh/ile, or when, I was walking on the ice, I slipped;" and, combining the clearness of the latter with the brevity of the former, we say(1) " While, or when walking on the ice, I slipped." (2) " Though walking very carefully, I slipped." 407 It would be convenient to say " because walking;" but "because" and "since" 2 are not used with Participles. We sometimes, however, use " as " in 1 It is sometimes called the Gerundive use of the Participle. GerLundie means " descrilbing that which is to be done." The Latins had a special form for the Gerundire. See Glossary. 2 " Since " is 1sed, as a Preposition, with a Verbal Nonn as its Object, but not with a Participle. "If" and " unless " are rarely used with Active Participles. 2396 THE I)PARTICIPLE [Par. 408, 409. this way, generally with " being," more rarely with other Participles:(3) " He was exempted from serving on the jury, as beiirJ over sixty." (4) "Our remaining horse was unfit for the road, as wanting an eye." (5) " If conquered, I am at least not disgraced." (6) " I should never have attempted it unless persuaded by you." (7) "I always failed till helped by my brother." 408 The Participle used Absolutely with Subject. In Early English the Objective form of the Pronoun was used, e.g. by Wyckliffe: - (1) " Him speaking these things," i.e. "while he spoke." Milton (probably imitating the classical usage) uses " him " and not " he" in(2) " Him destroyed...all this will soon follow." 409 The Participle used Absolutely. Some Participles, through frequent use in certain expressions, have come to be used even where the Noun or Pronoun qualified by them has been Par. 4IO.] USED ABSOLUTELY. 237 dropped out, so that some of them have almost the force of Prepositions: - Regular Construction. (1) " Concerninq you the decision is as follows." Irregular,,.. (1) " We talked for some time concerning the arrangements." Regular,,.. (2) " Considering the circumstances, I do not tlink him to blame." Irregular,.. (2) " Considerig the circumstances, it was thouglht that he was not to blame." Respecting, regarding, and touching are thus used. More rarely we have - (3) " Talking of books, here is a very rare book." (4) "Judging from his own behaviour, lie cannot be a desirable companion." (5) " Granting that you are right, what do you infer from this " (6) "Assuming that he is guilty, what ought to be done l" 40O In most of such cases the Infinitive might be substituted for the Participle; and it is possible that the old sound of the Infinitive " talken" being like the sound of "talking," may have facilitated the introduction of the latter: but it is more probable that the direct cause of the construction is (a) the frequent use of the Participle regularly, and (b) its retention when the Pronoun is changed: — (a) " Talking of books, I must tell you, &c." (b) " Talking of books, there is a very fine copy of," &c. 1 Here " concerning " may be said to qualify " decision." 238 THE PARTICIPLE. [Par. 411, 412. "In talking," or "a-talking" (compare the French "en attendant "), might also naturally be contracted into " talking," and might then be confused with the Participle. 4II The Participle with Implied Noun. It is scarcely correct, though not very uncommon, to say(1) "Having disposed of his first argument, his second argument remains to be considered," instead of " we have to consider." (2) " My farm consisted of twenty acres of excellent land, (I) having given a hundred pounds for my predecessor's good will." - GOLDSMITH.1 412 Where a Possessive Adjective is used, e.g. " his," it may be sometimes said that "his " is the same as " of him," and that the Participle qualifies " him," which is implied in "his ":(3) " Iaving finished his breakfast, his thoughts began to run on dinner." (4) " Repulsed at all points, their courage grew cold." Adjectives, as well as Participles, are thus used: (5) "Once free from debt, his best course is to emigrate." Such an expression as the following is by no means to be imitated:1 Matzner, vol. iii. page 80. Par. 413, 414.] AD VERBS. 239 (6) " He has a certain grandeur of soul, which cannot be contemplated unmoved," i.e., "by any-one unmoved." 413 V. Adverbs. Some Adjectives appear to be used as Adverbs, e.g."He ran fast." The explanation of these forms is as follows: In Early English an Adverb was often formed by adding -e to an Adjective, e.g. " bright" Adjective, "bright-e" Adverb. In Modern English the -e has been dropped (with many other Inflections), but several of the old Adverbs are retained, e.g. " quick," " sweet," &c. "There " redundant; see Par. 152. 414 "So" is used (1) for an Adjective, (2) for a Noun. The explanation of this is as follows: " So " means " in this way," and is a less emphatic form of "also," " all-so." Hence - (1) "He is an Englishman, and so (also) are you," i.e., "and you also are an Englishman." (2) "I am sorry, and so (also) is he," i.e., "he also is sorry." In time this restricted use of" so" (restricted to indicate the repetition of a previous statement) was 240 AD -VERBS. [Par. 4I5-4I7. forgotten, and " so " was used in other constructions, e.g.(3) " The prince (for so he was) threw off his mask." (4) "Tlle blest to-day is as completely so As who began a thousand years ago." In the last two Examples " so " must be parsed as put for " prince " and " blest " respectively. In "I thought so, (lid so, said so," "so" may often be treated as an Adverb, and also in, " It is so," i.e. "matters are in that condition." 415 So is sometimes used, not for the preceding Noun, but for something like (" in the same 1 way as ") the preceding Noun, i.e. for a preceding Noun modified by some Adverb, such as "about," " nearly": (1) "I am going out for a minute or so (about a minute.) 416 "Other" is used for "other-how " 2 (compare "other-wise ") in the expression - (1) "I must help you some how or other." 417 " No is often used with Comparatives, e.g. "no better," i.e. " in no degree better," and hence (1) " We saw him no more," where the Adverb " no" modifies the Adverb "more." " No," (" na," or "ne ") was used for 1 See Par. 203. 2 " How " is used as a Noun in " I must know the how and the why." See Par. 398. Par. 4i8, 419.] AD VERBS. 241 "not" (" no-whit," "naught ") in Old English, and is as correct as " not" in: - (2) " Whether he comes or no, it matters little." 418 Why" and " Well " are used as expletives: (1) "Why?" appears to have been originally thus used as an exclamation of impatience or surprise, equivalent to " Why do you say this? Why are you surprised? Why are you acting thus?" (2) "Well" seems to mean " This having been well settled," and is used in the sense of "' enough of this," "to pass on," &c., in order to prepare the way for a new point:(1) "Snakes! Why, there are no snakes in Ireland." (2) " Well, now let us come to more practical matters." / 419 Some Adverbs, especially those of place, are used with Nouns almost like Adjectives, except that they rarely come before the Noun: — (1) " God above knows best." (2) "What is the cause of your arrival here? I thought your education abroad would prevent your return homeward." It is allowable to put the Adverb first in "The above argument." Byron also writes " The then 1 world," " My almost drunkenness of heart." Shak1 This construction, sanctioned by Byron and Thackeray, is too convenient to be given up. 16 242 AD VERBS. [Par. 420. speare has " thy here-approach," " our hence-going," "till Harry's back-return." 420 Adverbs repeated. —Many Adverbs are repeated, sometimes to denote repetition, sometimes for emphasis. Thus we use "again and again," " in and in," (of horse-breeding), "over and over," logically; for the repetition of the action requires the repetition of the Adverb. But we also illogically use "through and through," "out and out," and Pope has:"Know there are rhymes which fiesh and freshl applied." This explains "by and by." " By " meant "near," either of space or time. Hence " by and by " meant "very near," either of space or of time. Chaucer uses it of space and speaks of "two knights sleeping by and by," i.e. "close by." But we now use it only in the sense of "very soon." In early English (Layamon ii. 447) we find "with and with" for " again and agaii." 2 1 So a dinner is served up " hot and hot." 2 'Tle later text has one " with " only. Par. 42I, 422.] " TIIE." 243 ADJECTIVES. "The" and "A." 42I " The " is often used to denote " that which is known as," e.g.(1) " The hero differs from the brute." " The earth" means "the planet, known as earth," " the earth known as distinct from the sea," &c. "Earth" means "our Parent Earth" personified: - (2) " The earth is larger than the moon." (3) "Earth smiles around, with boundless bounty blest." We still use "the" before'a Noun denoting a class, to define the individual selected out of that class - "The Prophet Daniel;" " the Astronomer Adams; " i.e., "the astronomer known by the name of Adams." Also, in the case of foreign titles, e.g."The Tycoon So-and-so;" "the Consul Appius;" "the Centurion Paullus." 422 But a familiar title is treated as a part of the 1 Bacon says, " The (substance known as) matter is in a perpetual flux." 244 ADJECTIVES. [Par. 423, 424. proper name, and therefore dispenses with "the." Compare - "The Centurion Paullus," with "Captain Smith." "King Edward," with "the Emperor Napoleon." In the earliest English, before this distinction was recognized, "the" was inserted before " king," "bishop," &c.; but Chaucer Qften omits " the." 423 Some epithets are distinctive of certain persons. For example, "Alfred" is known as "the Great;" Wellington as " the victorious;" " M inos" as "' the inflexible." (1) In cases of great notoriety, " the " may come after its Noun; (2) in other cases before its Noun: (1) "Alfred the Great is wrongly supposed to have established the form of trial by jury now existing among us." (2) " The classical Addison did not disdain to write a commentary on the ballad of ' Chevy Chase.'" On the other hand, an epithet (like a title) is often treated as though it were part of the name, especially in Poetry, eg. "god-like Turenne," and " the" is consequently omitted. See Par. 523. 424 Sometimes a proper name is used for a type of character; e.g. " Rupert" is used for "a dashing, impetuous leader." In such cases "the" may be prefixed, and'we can say(1) "Lord Derby was called the Rupert of debate." 2) "He was the Thersites (i.e., wrangling reviler) of the assembly." Par. 425, 426.] t" THE." 245 "The " is used before names that are regarded not so much as names as epithets, e.g. - "The Thames (river);" "the Atlantic (ocean);" " the Mediterranean (sea); " " the (range called) Chilterns; " "the (district known as) Crimea, Tyrol, Netherlands,1 Levant, Palatinate." "The" is omitted before names of towns, countries, and isolated mountains, all of which may be regarded as individuals requiring "proper names," e.g. "Paris," "England," "Snowdon," " Saddleback." "The" in "the Rigi," "the Matterhorn," "the Schreckhorn," &c., is probably of foreign origin. 425 "The" is the old Demonstrative and Relative Pronoun "by how much " and " by so much " (see Par. 344) in(1) " The sooner he leaves, the better for everybody." 426 There is no fixed rule as to repeating "the " between two Nouns, both of which are intended to be defined. Compare - "He arose and rebuked the winds and the sea," St. Matthew, viii. 26, with St. Luke viii. 25, " IHe commandeth even the winds and water." "The" is perhaps more often omitted than inserted, provided the omission causes no ambiguity: (1) " The prince and princess are expected; " " During the first and second centuries." 1 "The Netherlands " = " The Low Lands." 216 [Par. 427, 428. 427 " A " is used before " dozen," " hundred," " thousand," "million," "few," " great many; " all these words being half Nouns, inasmuch as they are preceded by "a," and half Adjectives, inasmuch as they are not followed by " of." See Par. 193. Anomalous uses of " a," or rather of Numerals preceded by "a," arose very early:"A(n) 5 mile;" "a(n) 2 furlong; " a(n) seven mile;" "a(n) twelve year." Here, as in "a sennight (seven-night)," "a fortnight (fourteen-night)," (Shakspeare uses " one seven years"), the Numeral and the Noun seem to form a Singular Compound Noun. But we sometimes meet with " a nine, or a ten, of men," where the Numeral by itself is treated as a Noun. 428 "A " appears to have (but has not) the meaning of "one" in(1) "Five-pence a quart," "a year," "a man." For in Early English the Preposition "on," "in," or " an" was used in such cases:(2) "Once in or on the year;" "I fast twice in the week; " "if he sin against thee' on day seven times." Hence "a" must here be regarded as an old Preposition. Par. 429, 430.] ADJECTIVES. 247 429 "A" (like "the" above) is used before names, when the name represents a character, e.g. ' a Croesus," i.e. "a man of immense wealth." " A little." See Par. 217. With many Adjectives that from use or termination approach Adverbs, " a " is often placed after, instead of before, the Adjective, e.g. " many a," 1 " what a," " such a," " half a." In Early English we also find " each a," "which a." Hence, though we cannot say "severe a man," we can say " so severe, too severe, as severe, a man." "A" is for " one" in "all of a sort, a piece." Compare:"And surely, Heav'n and I are of a mind? "-POPE. Other Adjectives. 430 Very once meant "genuine " (Lat. verus). Hence it came to mean " itself," "themselves," &c.; e.g. (1) "Your very looks betray you." The Adjective follows, instead of dividing or preceding, " something," "any thing," "every thing," and other similar Compounds of "thing." The reason seems to be that in Early English these words were sometimes used Partitively and followed by " of," thus:(1) "Of Nazareth may something of good be?" WYCKLIFFE. 1 See Shakspearian Grammar, Paragraph 81; see also Par. 218 above. 248 ADJE CTI VES. [Par. 431, 432. This has been shortened into (2) " I have heard somethuing good." 43I The Superlative form of the Adjective is sometimes used as a Noun, e.g. - (1) "He plunged into the thickest, hottest, of the fray." This is easily explained by the confusion (II.) with such expressions as "the best (fish) of your fish," " the finest (streets) of your streets." Here the Noun can logically be supplied, and the construction (owing to its convenient brevity (I.) ) has encroached, where, logically, it is unjustifiable. A few Adjectives of French origin follow their Nouns, in accordance with French usage, e.g. " heir apparenlt," " blood royal," "prince regent." In poetry the transposition is common, for emphasis. See Par. 515. Possessive Adjective, &c. 432 Tlle following curious idiom requires explanation - (1) " That ugly face of his quite frightened the child." The regular construction would have been " that ugly face of him;" and, irn the same way, instead of saying(2) " This news of John's is very strange." (3) "A friend of mine is here," Par. 433, 434.] "THAT FACE OF HIS." 249 - the regular construction would be " this news of John," " a friend of me." 433 In (3) it may be said that "mine" is put for "my friends;" but this explanation will scarcely apply to (2), and certainly not to (1): "that ugly face of his (faces)!" The truth is that "of him" and "of me," used Possessively, are intolerably harsh; and ambiguity also might often result from the regular construction; for " this news of John " would naturally mean "news about John." Consequently, partly to avoid the ambiguity caused by the double meaning of of " (viz. " belonging to " and "about"), and partly to avoid harshness of sound, we adopt the following illogical but serviceable device to make our meaning clear; we retain the Possessive "of," but we also add the Possessive 's. Thus we combine the French Prepositional Idiom with the English Inflectional Idiom. 434 A similar desire to avoid harshness (III.) has made us add an illogical but euphonious 's to "your " and " our," which are severally the Possessive Inflections of " you" and "we." " Your " sounds harshly at the end of a sentence, and requires some modification. Then steps in (II.) confusion between " this is your " and " this is John's," "William's, the man's," &c. " Your " has been treated as though it were a Noun, and has been changed into " your's " or yours." But, logically, " your's" 250 PREPOSITIONS. [Par. 435, 436. is as absurd as "of of you;" for "your" means " of you," and the addition of 's adds a superfluous of." 35 "These forms were confined in the 13th and 14th centuries to 435 the Northern Dialect, and are probably due to Scandinavian influences." - MORlIS. The more ordinary form in the Southern Dialect omits the s. " I wol be your in alle that ever I may." - CHAUCEIR. The vulgar yourn is an old provincial form, and exemplifies the same tendency, viz., to emphasize an unemphatic termination, where emphasis is required. (Prepositions in Adjective Phrases.) 435 A Phrase consisting of a Preposition between two Nouns (especially when the former Noun is preceded by "' the " or " a ") often has the force of an Adjective, the Relative being implied, e.g.(1) "A bird (that is) in the hand is worth two (that are) in the bush." Consequently, it is sometimes difficult to tell whether the Preposition is thus used to connect two Nouns, or to connect a Verb with an Adverbial phrase; e.g. "Send back the horse from the Red Dragon," may mean(1) " Send back the-horse-from-the-Red-Dragon," i.e., "the horse that has come from the Red Dragon," or: (2) "Send-back the horse from-the-Red-Dragon," i.e., "send back from. the Red Dragon my horse." In the same way there is an ambiguity in (3) " Did you see my agents at-Portsmouth?" (4) " Did you see my agents at Portsmouth.?" Par. 437, 438.] ADJECTIVE PHRASES. 251 437 " Of." When a name is given to a place, the name being regarded as the name of a person, and the town, land, castle, &c., as belonging to the person, the Preposition " of " was used in early times to denote the relation between the two - (1) "The city of London; " " the isle of Wight;" "river of Cydnus" (Shakspeare); "the lake of Gennesareth." Hence, in the same way, " of " is used after other words denoting a class, to prepare the way for the particular name of the individual: - (2) "The month of May;" " the hour of three;" "the feast of Tabernacles; " the year of Jubilee;" "the name of George; " "the cry of' breakers!';" " the play of' Hamlet';" " the art of medicine;" " the element of fire;" "the virtue of resentment." 438 It is not so easy to explain - (3) " He is a jewel-of-a man." (4) " This scamp-of-a coachman." Probably " of" is here partitive, as in " What sort, kind, of man is he? " The " man " is the class; the "sort" or "kind" is a part of the class, and therefore is naturally followed by the partitive " of." The answer to this question will necessarily be some part of the class " man:" he is " a good sort, bad sort, rascally sort, precious sort, of man;" hence, for shortness, " He is a rascal, or jewel, of man." 252 CO-ORDINATE [Par. 439, 440. But, owing to the Semi-Adverbial use of " What," "What sort," the Indefinite Adjective "a " is inserted before "man" (see Par. 219); so that the notion of class is lost, and "a man" appears to denote an individual, and "what sort of," "a jewel of," &c., come to be regarded as Compound SemiAdverbial Adjectives. 439 The use of " of" after "whole," " all" - (5) " The whole-of the day; " " all of us," -may be accounted for as a natural extension of, and (II.) confusion with, similar expressions, e.g. "half, quarter, &c., of the day;" "ten, eleven, almost all, &c., of us." SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. Co-ordinate Clauses. 440 "And " sometimes joins a sentence to a previous sentence implied but not expressed. It is often used in passionate exclamations: - (1) " (Is it true?) And will you then desert me? " "And " sometimes comes between an Adverb repeated twice, the repetition having the force of emphasis: 1 -(1) " More and more;" " worse and worse." 1 See Par. 420. Par. 441, 442.] CONJUNCTIONS. 253 441 Remembering that "by " means " near " of space, but also may mean " near" of time, we can understand - (2) "By and by," i.e. "near, very near (of time)," or, " very soon." 1 An Adverb, when introduced emphatically, might be emphasized by the repetition of the Verb and Object with " and" ": "I must see him, and see him quickly." Instead of this, "that" was often in early times substituted for the previous phrase (just as "it" is a preparatory substitute for a sentence or phrase; see Par. 151):(1) " I must see him, and that quickly." Relatives used Co-ordinately. 442,, What" is sometimes used instead of "both" and " and " - (1) "-What with his persuasive eloquence, and what with the presence of his armed followers, he soon overcame all opposition." This might naturally be explained as a condensation of " Reckoning what he effected with," &c.; but, more probably, "what" is to be treated as a I Both "by and by" and " presently " (owing to the natural habit of exaggerating one's readiness) lave come to mean much less than they once meant. "Presently" used to mean "at once." 254 CONJUNCTIONS. [Par. 443, 444. kind of Noun meaning " part," and used Adverbially, like "partly." Compare " some-what." "What" had come, very early, to be used as a Noun, so that men could say, not only " some-what," but also " a little what." 1 443 " Whether" is sometimes used with "or," not to introduce an indirect question, but (like *" what " above) as a Co-ordinate Conjunction, to mean " both... and;" " either... or ": (1) " The landlord reserves all game, whether birds or ground-game." The full construction would be " whether it be;" but " whether" has so completely assimilated itself to " either" in such expressions, that it seems best to parse "whether" as used for " either," and "birds " as Object, in Apposition to " game." SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. Condensed Clauses. 444 1. Some Conjunctions are formed from Prepositions or Adverbs followed by "that" e.g. " after (that)," "before (that)," "now (that)." In such cases " that" is often omitted: 2 -(1) "Now (that) we have arrived," But1 Shakspearian Grammar, page 5. Compare in Latin " quum -turn," ' qua-qua." 2 In Shakspeare, "that" is used after "when," "while," "whether," "because," "if;" and also after the Prepositions in, for. Par. 445, 446.] CONDENSED CLA USES. 255 (2) " On the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die." (3) " The instant (that) he saw me, he retired." 445 2. Conjunctions used with Participles: see Par. 406. Conjunctions are also used with Adjectives and Nouns, the Verb being omitted:(1) " This news, if (it be) true, will alter our plans." (2) " Though (he was) honest, he was not trusted." (3) " However thoughtless (he may be), he is at least not deliberately mischievous." (4) "Although (he is) a rascal, yet he's a very amusing rascal." In parsing Conjunctions so used, the Verb should be supplied. 446 3. " As" is used with Nouns, (1) sometimes for "as being," i.e. "since he is;" (2) sometimes it seems loosely used for "like," "in the character of ": - (1) "As (being) a foreigner, he claims our special consideration." (2) " As (in the character of) an author, he did not succeed." (3) " They regarded him as (in the character of, like) an adventurer." Such sentences can generally be reduced to their regular construction by bearing in mind the radical 256 CONJUNCTIONS. [Par. 447, 448. meaning of "as," viz. "in that way" or "in which way," or, as here, "in the way in which ": - (1) In full, " He claims our special consideration in the way in which a foreigner (would naturally claim it)." 12) In full, " He did not succeed in the way in which an author (would be said to succeed)." (3) In full, " They regarded him in the way in which (tiey would regard) an adventurer." With "possible," after Conjunctions, ellipses are very common: (1) "Come as soon as (it is) possible." (2) "Come if (it be) possible." 447 "That" sometimes implies a principal Verb before it in passionate exclamations: - (1) " Oh, (I would) that I had wings like a dove!" (2) " (To think) That it should come to this! " Object Clauses. 448 "That" (the Conjunction) often introduces a Clause as the Object of a Compound Transitive Verb implied in a previous sentence. For example, " I am sure," " I had no notion," " I have some hope," " I have evidence," all suggest the question Compare the use of the Infinitive after the implied Transitive Verb, Par. 392. Par. 449, 450.] OBJECT CLAUSES. 257 " Of what?" after them. " That" is here equivalent to "of the fact that." Distinguish the above use of "that" from its use when introducing a Clause in Apposition to a previous Noun, as in the following Examples: - (1) " They made an agreement that they would share equally." (2) " The axiom, that a whole is greater than its part, seems so true that its statement seems, at first sight, unnecessary." 449 On the other hand, "that" seems used for " for that,"" in that," "because," 1 after Verbs of rejoicing, sorrowing: - (1) "I am sorry that (i.e. because) lie failed." Also, in parentheses after "not":(2) " I must go now, not that (i.e. because) I want to go, but I have an engagement." In(1) " Did you see John " " Not that I recollect-" "that" is a Relative Pronoun, and the Antecedent must be supplied from the previous sentence: " not (a seeing) that I recollect." 450 But that," in its radical meaning, was " except that;" hence " barring," "to the contrary of." This explains(1) "I cannot be persuaded but that (to the contrary of the belief that) lie meant mischief." 1 Compare Latin " quod." 17 258 OBJECT CLAUSES. [Par. 451, 452. (2) " We did not know but that (to the contrary of the knowledge that) he might come." Here " but" was originally a Preposition having for its Object the sentence following it. 45I Sometimes " what" is used for " that":(8) " Not but what he meant mischief," i.e. " I do not admit, however, any thing to the contrary of his meaning to do mischief." This may possibly be a confusion arising from the grammatical constructions:(4) "He says nothing but what is true." (5) "Not a man (was there) but what cried shame." (6) "Not a tree but what has suffered from the frost." From these uses, " not but what" perhaps came to be used ungrammatically to mean " without any exception," " without any doubt;" but I have been unable to trace this construction. Yet it seems to be illustrated by the clhange from the Relative " that" in " For all that you did," to the Conjunctive "that" in "For all that you tried so hard." See Par. 475. 452 In time the " that" was omitted for brevity; and then "but" (though really a Preposition with the meaning of " prevention") appeared to be an ordinary Conjunction - (6) "Not but there are who merit other palms."P(PE. which originally would have meant, "I do not say any thing but (i.e. to the contrary) that there are," &c., but it gradually came to mean " I deny it not; Par. 453, 454.] " BUT TIIAT." 259 but, so far from denying, I admit that there are," &c. (7) " Never dream but (i.e. any thing but, except, or to prevent that) ill must come of ill." 1 - SHELLEY. (8) " VWho knows, but (any thing but, except, or to prevent that) he'll come yet? " 453 Hence, after " doubt not," " but" came to be used regularly with its ordinary adversative force, so that there is no difference between(9) " Doubt not that God will help you," and (10) " Doubt not but God will help you." (11) " It cannot be denied but, or that, he is a rascal." The curious inconsistencies of idiom are illustrated by comparing - (1) " He is all but perfect," and (2) " He is any thing but wise." In (1) the meaning is " He is altogether (perfect)," " all except (being absolutely) perfect;" 2 in (2) the meaning is " He is any thing except wise." 454 The Prepositions "of" and "about" are (rarely) used before Object-Sentences: - (1) " He tells us a good deal about why he travelled, but nothing of how he travelled." The Adverb " where " is not only used as a Noun 1 Matzner. 2 Compare oaov ov. 260 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. [Par. 455,456. (Par. 398), but also as a Noun and Relative Adverb together: (1) " He lives about ten miles from here." "From where?" (2) "He lives ten miles from where I am living," i.e. "from the place in which or where I am living." ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 455 " That." Instead of " when " used Relatively, sometimes the Relative Pronoun " that" is used (Par. 444): — (1) " He never (at no time) sees me that (at which time) he does not mock me." Compare, in Early English(2) " Scarcely was this speech finished that (i.e. when) they saw Hengist approach." 1 456 "But" being used after negatives to intensify an affirmative, e.g. " This is nothing but the truth," came to be irregularly used, in Shakspeare's time, after Negative Comparatives, e.g. "This is no more but the truth." This seems to be a (II.) confusion between " nothing but" and " no more than." Hence (in colloquial English), after "not," "no sooner," "scarcely," and other words implying a I Layamon, ii. 262. Par.457, 458.] ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 261 negative, "but" is used, partly as an Adversative Conjunction, and partly with a Relative force — (1) "No sooner did lie hear her but he burst into a passion." (2) " I had scarcely gone a mile but I met him again." In the last Example the negative is implied: "I had not gone a mile." In Modern English it will be advisable to treat " but," when thus used, as an Adversative Conjunction, as though the sentence ran, " He had not fully heard her; but (before fully hearing her) he burst into a passion." 457 " Since " once meant " later-than," hence " after," hence " because;" (Early English, sith than, i.e. "later than.") "Until" is the same as "unto;" "til" being often used for " to " in Early English. Par. 376. "That" used for "because: " see Par. 449. "That" is used for "so that" in impassioned questions: - (1) " Is he an oracle, (so) that we are to regard him as infallible " (2) "What were you doing, (so) that you were not in time to-day?" 458 "Forasmuch as" and " Inasmuch as" = "for that," " in that," i.e. " because." r 262 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. [Par. 459 -"As," in virtue of its radical meaning, is often interchanged with " that:" Par. 205. The "as much" appears intended to emphasize, and give importance to, the cause. "Seeing," like " concerning," " considering " (see Par. 409), has come to be used as a Conjunction, meaning "since." The Regular Construction would be(1) "Seeing that you are a foreigner, I will strain a point for you." Hence comes the Irregular Construction, by confusion: (2) " Seeing that you are a foreigner, you are entitled to special consideration." Conditional Clauses. 459 "If" is sometimes used of a supposition made for the sake of argument; hence of a concession; hence (190) of an admittedfact:(1) " If I am poor, yet I am honest." "If" (like other Conjunctions; Par. 445) is often used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs, the Verb being omitted:(1) "If somewhat slowly, he at least did his work thoroughly." (2) "If not to-morrow, we shall at all events arrive next day." Par. 460, 461.] SO THAT," " SO AS." 263 "On condition," "in case," "provided," "supposing," are often used as Conjunctions, "that" being omitted after them:(1) "In case (that) you come early, we will have a long walk." (2) " Provided (that) you agree, it matters little who disagrees." "In case (that)" and " provided (that) " may be treated as Conjunctions; or, in the last Example, "you agree" may be regarded as a Subject-clause used absolutely, and qualified by the Participle " provided." 460 "So that" is sometimes used to express condition - (3) "You may go where you like, so that you are back by five." In Elizabethan and earlier English the Subjunctive would here be used - (4) "It is a pleasure to see the errors of others, so always that this prospect be with pity," i.e. "yet in such a way in which way the prospect may be with pity." 461 "So as " is less common in the sense of condition, and is now restricted to vernacular English. But Shakspeare has - (5) " So as thou livest in peace, die free from strife." 264 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. [Par. 462, 463. Sometimes neither " that" nor "as " is inserted in Elizabethan English (the Verb being in the Subjunctive):(6) " So it be new, there's no respect how vile." This brief idiom is still used colloquially, with the Indicative for the Subjunctive. 462 The Imperatives "suppose," "admit," "grant," "say," are used to introduce conditional clauses: (1) " Say I fail at first, I have another chance." 463 A question may be used to introduce a Condition, thus:(1) "Did you not know his intention? Then, of course, you were surprised." It is an easy transition from this to the use of the Conditional Mood (Indicative form in Antecedent, the " shall-form " in Consequent), retaining the interrogative arrangement of the words:(2) " Did I not know his intention, I should of course be surprised." This also explains the Interrogative arrangement of the " shall-form " in the Antecedent: - (3) " Should you see him, you would find him much changed." The original use of Interrogatives to express Condition may explain the following: — Par. 464, 465.] " SIO ULD," " TWO ULD." 265 (1) " Whether he said it or denied it, the facts remain the same," i.e. " Whether said he it, or denied it? In either case the facts remain the same." (2) " Whoever said this, it was a mistake," i.e., "Who in the world said this? It was at all events a mistake." (3) " However hard it may be, you must try," i.e. "In whatever degree it may be hard (in that degree, i.e. none the less) you must try." In Early English this use was more common: - " Knew I her name, I were happy." 464 "As" seems used for " though " in(1) "Young as I am I cannot be deceived by this." The fuller construction is, " As young as I am," and this appears to be an abbreviation of" (Be I) as young as I am," i.e. "though I be." 465 "Should " and " would" are often used where a Condition is implied though not expressed: — (1) "I wish summer would come." This is a confusion between " I should be glad if summer would come" and "I wish summer to come." (2) "I am willing that he should receive the money." Confusion of (1) " I am willing that he shall" and (2) "I should be willing, if, or that, he should." 1 "How " and " why " are old cases of "who." 266 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. [Par. 466, 467. (3) " It is shameful that he should be treated thus." Confusion of (1) "It is shameful that he has been " and (2) "It would be shameful, if, or that, he should be." (4) "It is not strange that he should have succeeded." Confusion of (1) "It is not strange that he has succeeded" and (2) "It would not have been strange, if, or that, he should have succeeded." 1 (5) "It will be better that I should withdraw." Confusion of (1) "It will be better that I (shall) withdraw " and (2) " It would be better, if, or that, I should withdraw." 466 " Unless " was once " on less," and followed by "than," e.g.(1) " This cannot be, on less than (i.e. on a less condition than this, viz. that) we gain the battle." The notion of comparison falling out of sight, the Conjunctive "that" was substituted for " than," and lastly " that" was omitted for brevity. 467 " But," meaning radically "except," was very early used for "if not," with the Subjunctive. We still retain this use in - (1) "It never rains but it pours." (2) " Ten to one but he comes." 1 See Par. 236, note. Par. 468, 469.] "BUT TIHAT." 267 This last sentence is a confusion of "I lay ten to one that he comes" and "I'll pay you ten to one if he does not come," i.e. " except or but he comes ": (3) " Beshrew my soul but I do love," &c., i.e. " if I do not love;" compare our "I'll be hanged but" &c. 468 "But that" is to be explained as "except because": (1) "But that he has a family, he would have left England long ago." Just as "as" (Par. 205) is used for the Relative Pronoun "that," so " but" is used for " that not": (2) "There is no one but hates me," i.e. "that hates me not." 469 "But" ("except," "unless," "if not"), used without a Verb, generally in connection with some Preposition, e.g. "but for," "but to," &c., may be explained either as a Preposition governing an Adverbial Phrase, or as a Conjunction with the Verb omitted: (1) "But for you, we should have failed," i.e. " if it had not been (otherwise) for (because of) you, we should have failed." (2) " To whom can he be referring but (i.e. if he is not referring) to his brother? " 268 CONCESSIONAL CLAUSES. [Par. 470-473. 470 "' Without" is sometimes used for "unless": (1) " He will not come without he's compelled." But this is not to be imitated. 471 " Save " seems originally to have been used as a Passive Participle, like " except," " provided," &c., with a Noun used as a Subject absolutely.' But now (like " except ") it is used as a Preposition, and is followed by an Object. Concessional Clauses. 472 A Concessional Clause is sometimes expressed by the old Subjunctive used interrogatively (Par. 463) without any Conjunction: — (1) "Be it a trifle, it should be well done." (2) " Which refuseth to hear the voice of the charmer, charm he never so wisely," i.e. " (though) he (should) charm so wisely (as) never (he charmed before)." (3) " He will never equal his brother in singing, sing he ever so well." 473 The last Example, which is the modern idiom, appears to have arisen from a misunderstanding of the old negative. We say, colloquially, " He was ever so ill;" but the correct (though old fashioned) 1 " All the conspirators save only he." - Julius Ccesar. Par. 474, 475.] "FOR ALL THAT." 269 idiom would be " He was never (before) so ill (as then)," or "he was so ill as (he was) never before": (4) " Were you a millionnaire, you could not afford such expense as this." (5) " Come who may, I am not afraid," i.e., "(though there may) come who(soever) may (come)." 474 Here the Antecedent "understood" is the Subject of "come;" but sometimes the Subject of the Verb is omitted, as in the following: — (6) " Do (I) what I may, I cannot persuade him of my innocence." (7) "Say (you) what you will, you will fail." In such sentences as the last it is not easy to tell whether the Verb is Subjunctive or, as in Par. 462, Imperative. " However," as a Co-ordinate Conjunction, is a contraction of however it be," sometimes found in the form i how-be." Compare "howbeit," "albeit." 475 "For all that," in the Antecedent part of a sentence, naturally acquires the meaning of " although," when there is a negative in the Consequent.. The transition can easily be traced: — (1) " He will not change his mind for (i.e., because of, to oblige) you." (2) "He will not change his mindobr all your efforts, or,for all that you can do." 1 The full idiom is found in Layamon, vol. iii. page 4, where it is said that soldiers assembled, "swa muchel swa per nevere rerer," i.e. " so mlally as never before." 270 CONJUNCTIONS. [Par. 476, 477. In the last Example "that" is a Relative Pronoun, having for its Antecedent " all; " but it is an easy transition (the " all" being irregularly retained for emphasis) to the use of "for all that" as a Conjunction, where " that" is Conjunctional (as in "after that," "before that;" see Par. 444: and compare the change of "not but what" into a Conjunction; Par. 451): - (3) "He will not change his mind for all that you tried so hard to persuade him." 476 This emphatic use of "all" in Concession Clauses may be illustrated by its use inl "although," i.e. "all-though," which is sometimes written "thoughall" in Early English. Compare also " al(l) be it," i.e. " (though) it be all, i.e. altogether true that." In Early English we sometimes find "all-if" used like " all-though." 477 "Notwithstanding" is rarely used as a Conjunction: - (1) "Notwithstanding (that) he is so rich, he is excluded from respectable society." This Conjunction is, by derivation, a Participle used absolutely with a Subject Sentence: " The fact that he is so rich not withstanding, i.e. being no obstacle, he is still excluded," &c. Par. 478,479.] "SO AS," "SO THAT." 271 Result; Purpose. 478 A result following an action is naturally expressed by stating that " the action was done so (i.e. in such a way) that (in which way) the result followed." Hence " that " and "as" (both of which mean " in which way") are Conjunctions naturally used to introduce sentences expressing result. " That" was once used for "so that," and is found so used in Shakspeare:(1) "A sheet of paper Writ on both sides the leaf, margent and all, (So) That he was fain to seal on Cupid's name." This irregularity (of which (I.) " brevity" is a sufficient explanation) was common in Early English, and might perhaps explain - (2) " He never sees me that he doesn't mock me." But " that" here is more probably " when." See Par. 455. 479 " As " is used after " so," to denote, not exactly resultant facts, but results regarded as possible or future; hence " as" is used before Infinitives:(1) "He was so kind as to promise." This is nearly the same as " he was so kind that he promised," but not quite so strong.1 1 Compare the use of %Z-re with the Infinitive to denote possible consequeiwe, and with the Indicative to denotefact. See Par. 204. 272 CLAUSES OF COMPARISON. [Par. 480-483. 480 In Elizabethan English " as" is used, where we use "that," before an Indicative: — (2) " Thou hast given the house of York such head as thou shalt reign but by their sufferance." (3) " Such signs of rage they bear as it seemed they would debate with angry swords." (4) " If a man have that penetration of judgment as he can discern what things are to be laid open." This use of "as" is now a vulgarism. 481 " So that" (- "in that way, in which way") naturally expresses purpose with the Mood of Purpose: - (1) " Work so (in that way) that (in which way) you may earn your bread." 482 Lest" is a contraction for "by which the least or less " (compare the Latin " quominus "). " Be careful lest you may make a mistake, i.e. by which (care) you may the less (probably) make a mistake." Clauses of Comparison. 483 "As " is a contraction of "all-so," "alse," and means sometimes " in which way," sometimes (like " so ") "in that way." Consequently " as" is, by derivation, an emphatic form of " so." Hence the words are sometimes very similarly used: — (1) "IIe is not so clever as you." (2) " He is as clever as you." Par. 484-486.] "SO," "AS." 273 The reason for altering " so " into " as " (except after negatives) is, perhaps, that the notion of similarity favors the repetition of the same word. But the "not," introducing the notion of dissimilarity, favors the retention of the old dissimilar forms. Sometimes both forms are retained:(1) "So, or as, far as I know." 484 Any Relative Adverb (compare Latin "quum... turn," " qua... qua," and the use of " what with... what with," Par. 442) may naturally be used with its correlative to express" both... and." Hence the following idiom:(1) "As (in the way in which) he was first in the field, so (in that way) was he pre-eminent in the council-hall." 485 "As" (Par. 205), being often used to express Relative Adverbs, came sometimes to be used for the Relative Pronoun:(1) "Tears such as (i.e., which) angels weep." (Shakspeare uses " which" 1 and "that" thus, after " such "):(2) " He is the same as or that he always was." (3) "Bring such books as you have." 486 "As," in a Conditional Sentence, often has a Consequent implied after it:(1) "He looks as (he would have looked) if he had seen a ghost." 1Even Pope has: - "Let such teach others who themselves excel." 18 274 " AS." [Par. 487. The "if" was sometimes omitted, the Condition being expressed by the old Subjunctive; and this omission is still sometimes found in modern poetry, e.g. in Byron's:(2) "And half I felt as (if) they were come To tear me from a second home." " As " - (in the character of:" see Par. 446. 487 "As " is used with "yet," to remind the hearer that the statement is limited to a certain time, and does not extend beyond it. Compare" I have never been beaten yet." (1) " I have never been beaten as yet," i.e. "sofar as concerns past time, but not the future." This use of the word was common in Early English with dates:(2) "He died as in twelve hundred year and eight and no more." Here the " as " and " no more " seem to have the same force, viz. that of limitation. Compare - (3) " He wished to chastise him discreetly as (i.e. so far as lie could, only) by word and not by deed." (4) "You must be very secret as in this case," i.e. " so far as concerns this case." In the last Example and many others, "as'" is equivalent to our " just." Compare - (5) "Though in mysterious terms judg'd, as then, best," (MILTON) i.e. "just then," "at that precise time." Par. 488-491.] CONJUNCTI ONS. 275 488 There seems to be a different use of " as," still current in some parts of England, e.g., Derbyshire, where the word implies that a time mentioned is not vouched as accurate by the speaker, but is merely mentioned by another:(6) " He says lie wilt come as to-morrow." 489 " As" is generally used in the sense of limitation before "for " and " to ":(7) " As to your affairs, you must decide; but as for myself, I shall remain neutral." 490 "The " is not the ordinary Adjective, but a form of the Demonstrative and Relative Pronoun, meaning " by how much," " by so much," in - (1) " The sooner he comes, the better it will be," i.e., "by how much the sooner he comes, by so much the better it will be." "The " is to be parsed in the same way in "the more," " the less," &c. See Pars. 344, 571. 49I " More than," from its ordinary use in "more than man," came to be used as part of a Compound Verb in(1) " Ie more-than-hesitated, he refused." Beware of supposing that you can supply a Verb before "more than," e.g. " He refused more than hesitated;" that is not the meaning here: the meaning is "H e did something-more-than-hesitate." In the same way, "more than" is part of a Compound Adjective in - (2) " This is more than ridiculous, it is immoral." 276 CONJUNCTIONS. [Par. 492, 493. Compare Byron's use of "less than woman" as a Compound Noun in(3) "Go! let thy less-than-woman's hand assume the distaff."1 492 "Than," when followed by a Noun or Pronoun, requires care; for, as the sentence following " than" is generally abridged, it is impossible to tell whether the Noun or Pronoun is Subject or Object, till we have supplied the implied Verb or Preposition: - (1) "I like you better than (I like) Thomas," Object. (2) "I like you better than Thomas (likes you)," Subject. f Thomas (respects you)," (3) " There is no one re- Subject. spects you more than (he respects) Thomas," I Object. "' Than," meaning " in which degree," "where493 as," may loosely be used like " whereas," and join together two sentences in which the principal Verb is not the same, e.g. " Whereas John has given good counsel, there is no counsel better;" i.e. - (1) "There is no counsel better than John has given." 2 It would seem easy to explain the above Example (and many others of the same kind) by supposing the Relative Pronoun " that" to have dropped out 1 Matzner, iii. 410. 2 See Layamon, iii. 275, for a precisely similar example. Par. 494-496.] " THAN." 277 after " than," i.e. "than (is the counsel that) John has given;" but the use of "than " without the Relative Pronoun in Early English is so common that this easy explanation does not seem to be correct. Compare:(2) "This is as fine a horse as I have ever seen," i.e. "As (in what degree) whereas I have ever seen (a fine horse), this is as fine a horse." 494 After " than" the Conjunction "that" is sometimes omitted, perhaps for euphony as well as for brevity: - (3) "Rather than (that) he should be punished I would make any sacrifice." 495 "Other," conveying a notion of comparison, is followed by "than":(1) " This boy is no other than my long-lost son." But here it is difficult to supply the Verb omitted after " than." It seems as though it would logically be " Whereas my long-lost son (is of a certain nature) John is no other, i.e. in no way different." But more probably the sentence is formed by Confusion, on the analogy of "no taller than, shorter than, &c.;" "other" being felt, by its termination, to have a comparative force. 496 " Than " in this phrase (and sometimes in others) 278 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. [Par. 497. has occasionally assumed the force of a Preposition, e.g. in Shakspeare: — (2) " Elect no other king than him." (3) "And lin'd with giants deadlier than 'em all."POPE. Hence sometimes " other but" or "other from" is used for " other than." " Who else than," though supported by Byron's authority, (and though " else" is, by derivation, an Adverb meaning " otherwise,") is scarcely to be imitated; it is more customary to say " who else but." Adjective Clauses: Relative Pronouns. 497 The use of " the... that," with a Superlative between them, seems to require explanation. Compare - (1) "He is the old man that I saw yesterday." (2) " He is the oldest man that I know." In (1) the Antecedent of "that" is "old man," and you can substitute " old man" for " that" thus: "HIe is the old man which old man I saw yesterday." But substitute similarly in (2), and what is the result? "He is the oldest man which oldest man I know." This is at once felt not to be the meaning: the meaning is " He is the oldest man of the men that I know." Par. 498-500.] RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 279 How then account for (2)? The explanation appears to be as follows: It was usual (and logical) to say (a) " He is the oldest man in England among my friends, acquaintances, &c." But" a man among my acquaintances" is the same thing as "a man that I know." Hence came (b) " He is the oldest man-that-I-know." But "man that I know " is a sort of Compound Noun, and the Antecedent of " that" is not " oldest man " but " man." An Antecedent is rarely implied in a Possessive Adjective:"Theirs is the fault, who began the quarrel." But this is common in Shakspeare; see Shakspearian Grammar, Par. 218. 498 ' But" when used for the Relative and "not," is generally Subject. It is rare to find"Who ne'er knew joy but friendship might divide." POPE. 499 That" is (rarely) used for "for which," "why," ill - (1) " This is the reason that I sent for you (for)." In Early English the different uses of " that " were more numerous; the word represented (2) " where; " (3) "when;" (4) " with which: "(2) In the place that they were." (3) "At the first sight that (i.e. when) men see the souldan." (4) "With the loudest voice that (i.e. with which) they could." 500 " That" in " It is you that...:" see Par. 159. From the Relative use of " that" in " It is you 280 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. [Par. 500. that," we must distinguish the Conjunctive use in(1) "It was then that the Danes first came to England." Here the words " that the Danes... England " are equivalent to "The Danes' invasion of England;" "it" is redundant (see Par. 162), and the sentence is "The Danes' invasion was, i.e. took place, then." But " that" seems not a Conjunction but a Relative Pronoun in - (1) " It was of you that I spoke." This is the same as(2) "It was you that I spoke of, or mentioned," where " that " is clearly Relative. Hence it would seem that " It was of you that I spoke " is a transposition of " It that I spoke of was you." On the other hand, in " It was owing to you that I failed," the meaning is " My failure was owing to you," and " that" would appear to be a Conjunction. CHAPTER II. POETICAL CONSTRUCTIONS. 50I The object of ordinary Prose is to give information, but the object of Poetry is to give pleasure. Hence Poetry is (1) archaic; (2) irregular; (3) terse. I. Poetry is archaic, because pleasing associations are often connected with many old-fashioned words and forms that may have fallen into disuse in Prose, as not being the fittest to give information. II. Poetry is irregular, because it is more "passionate " 1 than Prose. Hence it readily breaks the rules that bind Prose, wherever these rules hamper the expression of passion. III. Poetry, disliking lengthiness, abridges grammatical constructions (though it expands, and dwells on, ornament, e.g. preferring the expanded form of the Simile to the compressed form of the Metaphor). Pope speaks of: " Prose swell'd to verse; verse loit'ring into prose." x Poetry, according to Milton, ought to be "simple," "sensuous," i.e. appealing to the senses, " and passionate." 282 POETICAL CONSTRUCTIONS. [Par. 502-505. The reader should commit to memory the following description of the Thames (as it was) by Denham, a model of terse yet varied clearness, repeatedly imitated by Pope: " Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull; Strong without rage, without o'erflowing full." I. Poetical Archaisms. 502 Archaisms may be (1) of words; (2) of constructions. Archaic words are such as " hallowed," " sojourn," "woe," "ire," "wrath," " a-weary," "ken," &c. " Thou " for " you " Singular, and " ye" for "you" Plural, are also archaic. 503 Instances of Archaic Construction are(1) "Meseems," "methinks," i.e. "it seems, thinks,1 to me." 504 The use of the Subjunctive to express a wish: (1) "Perish the man whose heart is backward now." (2) " Ruin seize thee, ruthless king." (3) " To White's a bull be led." (4) "' And rest we here' Matilda said." — SCOTT. 505 The use of the Subjunctive to express a Conditional Antecedent, and of other old Conditional forms: (1) " His spear, to equal which the tallest pine Were but a wand." - Paradise Lost, i. 294. (2) " Else I often had (should have) been miserable." 1 " To think " once meant " to seem:" see Par. 328. Par. 506-509.] ARCHAISMS. 283 (3) "I am content, so (i.e. " so that," "provided that," Par. 460) thou wilt have it so." (4) "And into strange vagaries flew, As (if) they would dance."-lb. vi. 615. 506 More rarely the Subjunctive is used with Conjunctions of time:(5) "Ere thou go." (6) " Ridotta sips and dances till she see." - POPE. 507 The old Interrogative (without " do ") is used for the modern lengthy form. This is both archaic and terse: - " Gives not the hawthorn-bush a sweeter shade?" " Breathes there a man with soul so dead? " 508 "Him," " them," are used for " himself," " themselves." This again is terse as well as archaic: - "The poor contents him with the care of heaven."POPE. 509 The old use of the Interrogative, or semi-Interrogative Pronoun, where the moderns use the Relative and Antecedent: " W/o builds a church to God, and not to fame, Will never mark the marble with his name." - POPE. This use, being (III.) terse, is a favorite use with Pope (though his style is by no means archaic) and is extended to sentences that cannot be resolved 284 POETICAL CONSTRUCTIONS. [Par. 510-513. into question and answer. In Pope it is perhaps an imitation of Latin usage:"To help who want, to forward who excel." "In who (i.e. those that) obtain defence, or who defend." 510 The Relative, in Milton, often precedes the Antecedent, according to Latin usage:"Whom they hit, none on their feet might stand."Paradise Lost, vi. 592. 511 The old demonstrative use of "he" combines archaism and "sensuousness," i.e. picturesqueness, in - "He of Tusculum" for Cicero; "Ilie of Marengo's field " for Napoleon I., &c. "The demonstrative character of this Pronoun is seen in such expressions as ' He of the bottomless pit.' "- MoRtIs. 512 "Or " is used for " either ":"But they or underground, or circuit wide With serpent error wandering."Paradise Lost, vii. 301. II. Poetical Irregularities. 5I3 The Subject is sometimes put first, because it is uppermost in the Poet's mind; then, after a pause, a Pronoun is introduced, as the legitimate subject of the Verb. It is as though the Poet were half in Par. 514, 5I5.] IRREGULARITIES. 285 doubt whether to speak of a thing as Subject, or to it Vocatively: - (1) " The Pope he was saying the high, high mass." -SCOTT. (2) " The smith, a mighty man is he." 514 The Verb is sometimes (a) placed after the Object, sometimes (b) before the Subject. The arrangement is subordinated to emphasis. In the following Example the Subject "stalk" seems to gain emphasis from its position, and so does the Verb " breathes ":(1) "So from the root Springs (b) lighter the green stalk, from thence the leaves More aery; last, the bright consummate flower Spirits odorous (a) breathes." - Paradise Lost, v. 480. The Object is sometimes placed before the Verb, and the Subject after the Verb, the whole sentence being reversed:(1) "Such resting found the sole Of unblest feet. Him followed his next Mate."Ib. i. 238. 515 The Epithet is often placed after the Noun. Indeed, great license is assumed by Poetry as to the position of the Epithet; for this reason, that the Epithet is used as a substitute for Participles, Verbs, Conjunctions, &c. (see Par. 525), so that 286 POETICAL "PASSION." [Par. 516. it has a larger and more varied use than in Prose: (1) " They ended parle, and both addressed for fight Unspeakable." -Ib. vi. 297. (2) " A stream of nectarous humour issuing flowed Sanguine." - lb. vi. 333. (3) "Nor from the Holy One of Heav'n Refrained his tongue blaspheinous."- lb. vi. 360. Even a Noun in Apposition may be placed before the Noun with which it is in Apposition: - (1) " Two broad suns, their shields Blazed opposite." -lb. vi. 305. (2) "All heart they live, all head, all eye, all ear." — Ib. vi. 350. 516 The irregularities of Poetry, though very numerous and manifold, can generally be readily explained by reference to the meaning, which ought to be rather made more clear than less clear by the irregularity. The following is a good instance of " passionate" irregularity. Satan is speaking, under the influence of strong " passion," pouring forth "words interwove with sighs," and, though his meaning is clear, his sentence cannot be grammatically analysed: — "Thrice he assayed, and thrice, in spite of scorn, Tears such as angels weep burst forth: at last Words interwove with sighs found out their way. ' O Myriads of immortal Spirits, O Powers Par. 517-520.] ABRIDGMENTS. 287 Matchless, but with th' Almighty -and that strife Was not inglorious, though th' event was dire, As this place testifies, and this dire change Hateful to utter: but,'" &c. -Ib. i. 622. Here the speaker is led away by " passion " into a Parenthesis, which prevents him from continuing the address he had begun to the "immortal Spirits." Many of the Irregularities of Poetry will find their place under head III., "terseness;" see Pars. 517-532. 517 III. Poetical Abridgments. Poetry chooses short forms of words, e.g. "questionless " for " unquestionably;" " altern," " marge," " scarce," " vale," for alternately," ' margin," &c. 518 The Verb " is," or " was," is sometimes omitted: (1) "Dagon (was) his name." " Cruel (was) his eye." 5I9 Sometimes the Subjunctive "be" is omitted: (1) " Woe (be) to the man." "Peace (be) to his hones." 520 The Relative Pronoun is omitted, even when it would be the Subject, if it had been expressed: (1) "'Tis distance (that) lends enchantment to the view." (2) " What is this (that) absorbs me quite, Steals my senses, shuts my sight " 288 POETICAL CONSTRUCTIONS. [Par. 52I-523. 52I The Conjunction " that" is used for "so that": " With high woods the hills were crowned, With borders long the rivers: (so) that earth now Seeni'd like to heav'n." - Paradise Lost, vii. 329. 522 The Adjective is used for the Adverb, partly to avoid the lengthy Adverbial form, partly because Poetry dwells rather on distinguishing marks than on methods, and therefore prefers Adjectives to Adverbs: - (1) " While the billow mournful rolls." (2) " My wedding bell rings merry in my ear." (3) " HIope springs eternal in the human breast." (4) "Less winning soft, less amiably mild." In the last Example, certainly, and probably in the others, the Adjectives should be parsed not as Adjectives, but as Adverbs. In old English it was common to form an Adverb by adding -e to the Adjective, e.g. "bright," Adjective; "brighte," Adverb. See Par. 413. c523 "The" is often omitted before an epithet, the epithet being treated as part of the name: — (1) " See god-like Turenne prostrate on the dust." (2) " On such a stool immortal Alfred sat." Also before names of rivers, which, in Poetry, are often personified: - (3) "Firm reedy Simois;" "The flies and gnats of Nile." Par. 524-526.] A BPIDUHE NTS.28 289 52 Neither " is omitted preceding ",1nor"(1) "1-Jeim nor hauberk's twisted mail." (2) " Sigh, nor word, nor struggling breath." 525 Poetry dispenses, as far as possible, with dependent 1 Conjunctional sentences and Relative Pronouns, avoiding them by means of (a) Apposition, (b) Adjectives and Participles, (c) Parentheses, or co-ordinate sentences:(a) " Next Chemos (who was) t1h' obscene dread of Moab's sons." -Paradise Lost, i. 406. (a) "The fiend, Mere serpent in appearance,..where hie might find Trhe whole included race, his purposed preq." lb. viii. 416. (a) "1(lie) each perturbation smooth'd with outward Calm Artificer (i.e., since hie was an a.) of fraud." lb). i v. 12 1. 526 (b)) "See that your polieh'd arms be primed with care," that is, "be polished and primted." - CO WPER. (b Lely on animiated canvas stole The sleepy eye which spoke the melting sonl." Popp'. That is, "tie canvas that assumed animation unuder his pencil." (b) "And reck'nest thoui thyself with spirits of Ileav'n, Hell-dlooin'd? Paradise Lost, ii. 167. That is, " wvhereas, or though, thou. art hell-doomed." 1 This is in,accordance with Milton's dictum that Poetry must be "1simple." 19 290 POETICAL CONSTRUCTIONS. [Par. 527-529. (b) " (while) Alive, ridiculous; and (when) dead, forgot(ten)." - POPE. 527 (c) "Hell Grew darker at their frown, so matched they stood. " - Paradise Lost, ii. 719. (c) "Eve separate he spies, Veil'd in a cloud of fragrance where she stood, Half-spied - so thick the roses blushing round About her glowed." -Ib. ix. 426. That is, "or rather only half spied, because the roses," &c. (c) " Down he fell... Reluctant, but in vain.... a greater power Now ruled him." - lb. ix. 576. 528 HIence Poetry prefers the Participle Absolute to a Conjunctional sentence, and occasionally even places the Participle before its Noun:"An Iris sits.... and, unworn Its steady dyes, while all around is torn By the distracted waters, bears severe Its brilliant hues." -- Childe HIarold. 52g The Epithet is substituted for the thing denoted. Thus Milton uses "the dank " for " water;" "the dry" for "land." This is both terse and "sensuous":(1) "Below the chestnuts, when their buds Were glistening to the breezy blue." TENNYSON. (2) " Neither keen Nor solid might resist that edge." Paradise Lost, vi. 323. Par. 530, 53I.] ABRIDGMENTS. 291 530 The principal Verb is omitted, and the question is expressed by the Infinitive (possibly an old form; Par. 398):(1) "Why longer dwell on horrors?" " Why still delay?" The desire to be terse produces countless irregularities in Poetry, even in a polished and fastidious Poet such as Pope. His meaning is transparent, but his grammar is (pardonably) most irregular: (1) " O'er the pale marble shall they join their heads, And drink the falling tears each other sheds." POPE. 531 We are accustomed, in Prose, to the condensed expression (see Par. 223)- "they loved each other;" but this is a condensation of " and drink the falling tears —each (shall drink the tears that the) other sheds." Practically, no doubt Pope regards " each other" as a Compound Pronoun. (2) "Who has the vanity to call you friend, But wants tile honor, injur'd, to defend."-Ib. That is, "to defend you when you are injured." (3) "Who first taught souls enslav'd, and realms undone, Th' enormous faith of many made for one? " - b. That is, "the abnormal belief that the governed are made for the governor." (4) " And on the washy ooze (the waters) deep channels wore; Easy (i.e., an easy task), ere God had bid the ground be dry." - Paradise Lost, vii. 304. 292 POETICAL ABRIDGMENTS. [Par. 532. (5) "'Gainst Pallas, Mars; ('gainst) Latona, Hermes arms." - POPE. 532 Terseness is aided by the license of making (a) Verbs out of Nouns, (b) Transitive Verbs out of Intransitive: (a) "And as they please They Limb themselves." -P.L. vi. 352. That is, "endow themselves with limbs." (a) " Hell saw Heav'n ruining from Heaven." - lb. vi. 868. "Part, huge of bulk, Wallowing unwieldy, enormous in their gait, Tempest the ocean." — Ib. vii. 412. (b) " The terms we sent were terms of weight And stumbled many." -Ib. vi. 624. (b) " That be assured," i.e., " know that for certain." Ib. ii. 685. APPENDIX I. ON THE GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Chronological Summary. 533 A.D. 450-547. The English language was brought into Britain. It adopted a very few Celtic terms, and one or two Roman local names. A.D. 596. Christianity was introduced, and with it several Latin ecclesiastical terms. A.D. 878. Cession of Northumbria, East Anglia, &c., to the Danes, and - 534 A.D. 1017-'42. A Danish dynasty reigns in England. Hence the introduction of several Scandinavian terms and a general unsettling of Inflections in the Northern Dialect.1 Hence (in part at least) - A.D. 1100. The " Period of Confusion " begins, first affecting the orthography of Inflections, and afterwards dispensing with the Inflections. t It has been asserted that, even in parts of the North where no traces of Danish influence can be suspected, the inflections were becoming unsettled. But there is difficulty in proving the absence of Danish influence. 294 TIHE GROW TH OF' [Par. 535, 536. 535 A.D. —1 The Norman Conquest introduced, in course of time, some terms belonging to the church, chivalry, the law, the chase, and cookery. Norman-French was established as the language to be used in the law-courts and the records of state. For some time the nobility retained French as their language, and hence the English was little influenced by the French; but, by degrees, the coalition between the nobles and commons in King John's time, the loss of Normandy in the same reign A.D. 1204, and the French wars of Edward III. A.D. 1339, brought about a degradation of the French from " French of Paris" to the French after the school of "Stratford atte Bowe" (Chaucer, Prologue, 1. 125), and, still lower, to the French "of the ferthest ende of Norfolke " (Piers the Plowman, Passus v. 238, Ed. Skeat). By degrees, French was not only debased but disused. Hence, not to conciliate the lower class, but to suit the higher - 536 A.D. 1362. An Act of Parliament directed that all pleadings in the law-courts should be conducted in English and not French, inasmuch as French had become " much unknown in the realm." Naturally, when the higher classes adopted English as their native tongue, there came at once an influx of Norman-French words, and an increased degradation of the English Inflections. 1 The date is purposely omitted lest the reader should be led to suppose that any sudden change took place in A.D. 1066. The Norman Conquest was very slow sm its results on English. Par. 537-542.] THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 295 537 A.D. 1500. The revival of the study of Latin Literature introduced a vast number of Latin words direct from the Latin. The English Inflections were now lost, but the sense of Inflections, and the consequent license, remained. 538 A.D. 1600. A reaction set in against the excessive Latinisms and licenses of the sixteenth century. This reaction was aided by - 539 A.D. 1660. The Restoration, which brought French influence to bear on the language, partly in words, but more by favoring a lighter structure of sentences, and increased regularity in grammatical construction. 540 A.D. 1800. The study of chemistry, geology, zoology, &c., has introduced a vast number of scientific terms, mostly compounded from the Greek. The Vocabulary. 541 Celtic. - The Celtic words introduced into our language directly are very few. They mostly relate to (1) coarse dress and rough household work or agriculture; (2) to wild scenery:(1) Breeches, darn, clout, mop, pillow, cradle, crock, mattock, kiln, basket. (2) Crag, glen, pool. 542 The Norman-French introduced some of these words borrowed from the old Gallic; most of these 296 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [Par. 543-545. are of Class (1), but some relate to (3) petty trade: (1) Bonnet, bucket, button, chemise, mitten, gown, ribbon, bag, basin, barrel, pot, varlet, vassal, rogue, car, cart, gravel, marl, bran. (3) Bargain, barter. 543 Danish. -Several words in common use, e.g. "scold," " shy," " sly," "fellow," "cake," "call," "cast," are of Scandinavian origin; as also is -by in " Derby," " Appleby," &c., meaning "town." "Are," the 3rd Pers. Plur. Pres. of " be " is also Danish. 544 French. -French words came into the language in small numbers until the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; then they were plentifully introduced, e.g. in Chaucer's time. The earlier importations were mostly terms of war, religion, and literature. But in the fourteenth century there was an influx of the technical terms of law, art, commerce, medicine, astrology, and the other sciences; and these technical terms (compare the history of Latin technical terms, such as "influence," " triumph ") when incorporated in the language often assumed metaphorical and wider meanings.1 545 Latin (First Period), A.D. 43-426. - From the Roman occupation we have borrowed -cester ("camp"), 1 See English Lessonsfor English People, Paragraph 37, page 51. Par. 546-548.] VO CABULAR Y. 297 e.g. in " Glou-cester," " Chester," " Dor-chester," &c.; also the words " street" and " wall" (valium). 546 (Second Period), A.D. 596-1200. —The introduction of Christianity introduced (a) a number of religious technical terms, e.g. " preach" 2 (przedicare,) "mass" (missa), &c., together with a few names of (b) food, e.g. "butter; " (c) trees, e.g. "fig;" (d) animals, e.g. "camel;" (e) weights and measures, e.g. "pound," "ounce," "inch." 547 (Third Period), A.D. 1200-1400. - Indirectly through the French; see above. French words were not freely admitted into the language till the upper classes began to adopt English as their native tongue, i.e. till A.D. 1300 -1350. In the earlier text of Layamon's "Brut" (A.D. 1205) there are only about 112 Norman-French words throughout the whole of the poem. See the lists of Norman-French words in Morris's Historical Outlines. 548 (Fourth Period), A.D. 1500-1660.- Direct importation of Latin words, through the revival of the study of Latin Literature. Many of these words have changed their meaning, either (1) narrowing their meaning (e.g. " extravagant" no longer means " wandering outside," 3 but simply " wandering beyond the due bounds of expense "), or (2) extending 1 I have Mr. Skeat's authority for inserting this word, as probably borrowed from the Latin; cf. Welsh gwal, " a rampart." 2 ", Preach" has come to us through the French; but it is also found in A.-S " predician " -both from the Latin " predicare." 3 "T The extravagant and erring spirit.' "- hakspeare. 298 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [Par. 549-551. their meaning (e.g. "influence " no longer means "the power that flowed from the stars on to men," but " any modifying power "), from a narrow technicality to a broader and metaphorical meaning. 549 A few French " words of society " and military terms were introduced during the eighteenth century. Later introductions have been for the most part technical terms of philosophy and science, formed from the Greek. Inflections. 550 Six Periods may be marked out in the growth of the English language: I. A.D. 450-1100; II. A.D. 1100-1250; III. A.D. 1250-1350; IV. A.D. 1350 -1500; V. A.D. 1500-1600; VI. A.D. 1600 to present time. 551 First or " Synthetical Period," A.D. 450 -1100. - This may be called the c Inflectional or Synthetical Period;" for during this period the language shewed a power of construction (syn, con; thetical, structional) so as to represent Tense, Person, Number, Gender, Case, &c., by Inflections. In particular, the distinction was carefully observed between Par. 552, 553.] INFLECTIONS. 299 To LOVE. Gerund, or Noun Infinitive. Infinitive of Purpose. Active Participle. lufi-an. (to) lufi-anne. lufig-ende. 552 But already, towards the end of this period, there seems to have arisen, partly perhaps owing to the influence of the Danish invaders, some confusion among the Inflections, and a tendency to simplify them by assimilation. See the extract from the Gospel of St. Mark in Par. 558. It has been asserted (but see Par. 534, note) that, apart from Danish influence, there was a tendency (a) in the North to discard Inflections while retaining old forms; (b) in the South to cling to Inflections while freely modifying forms. 553 Second Period, or "Period of Confusion," A.D. 1100-1250.- This may be called the "Period of Confusion;" for during this period (perhaps partly in consequence of political confusion) the language began to assimilate forms by confusing sounds and Inflections. In particular, the vowel sounds of Inflections were assimilated so that a, o, and u frequently became indistinguishable by being all changed into e.' 1 The same confusion of vowels and diphthongs is found in the Greek MS. of the New Testament. 300 ENGLISH1 LANGUAGE. [Par. 554-556. The following changes are some of those mentioned as occurring 554 in this period by Dr. Morris (Historical Outlines, p. 52), to which the reader is referred for fuller information on this subject:1. Dative him used for Accusative. 2 The n in min, thin, dropped before Consonants, but retained in the Plural and Oblique Cases. 3. The Infinitive (even in the South) often drops final -n. To is sometimes used before ordinary as well as before Gerundial Infinitives. 4. The Gerundial or Dative Infinitive often ends in -en or -e (the ordinary Infinitive ending) instead of -enne (-anne). 5. The Present Participle (Southern) ends in -inde (instead of -ende), and is frequently used for the Gerundial Infinitive, e.g. " to swilinlde" used for "to swimene." The Participle Passive often drops -n. 6. Nominative Plural Inflections in a or it, and Dative Plurals in -urn, were supplanted by -e or -en. Genders began to be confused. 7. Shall and will began to be used as Future Auxiliaries. 555 A specimen of the tendency to drop Inflections is given in the two following extracts from the earlier and later texts of Layamon,-the earlier written about A.D. 1200, the later about A.D. 1250:1. Early... " Up heo duden heora castles gaten." 2. Later... "Up hii dude hire castles geate." 3. Modern... "Up they did their castle's gates." Note also the approximation to modern usage in the dropping of the o in " heo," "heora." A similar approximation may be noted in the following Example (in which observe " alse," the later form of "al-swa "): - 1. Early... "And ferden ut swa stille swa heo stelen wolden." 2. Later... "And werde ut so stille alse he (?hi) stele wolde." 3. Modern... "And they marched out as still as (if) they would steal." 556 Third, or "Analytical Period," A.D. 1250 -1350.-As the First Period was called Synthetical, Par. 557, 558.] INFLECTIONS. 301 so the Third may be called Analytical, the tendency being developed to take the language as it were to pieces, dropping Inflections and using existing words, e.g. Prepositions and Auxiliary Verbs, to replace them. The Present Participle in -inge appears about A.D. 1300, and the ordinary Infinitive takes " to" before it. French words now became so common as to be estimated at 4 per cent. of the Vocabulary. 557 Fourth, or "National Period," A.D. 1350 -1500.- This period witnessed the decay of the last refuge of many Inflections, viz. final -e. During the earlier part of the period, -e was used according to rule, and represented(1) The mark of (a) the Plural Adjective; (b) the Definite Adjective:(a) " smale fowles;" (b) " the grete see." (2) The mark of the Adverb, e.g. "brightS" (brightly). (3) The mark of the Infinitive, and of the Past Tense: 1 " Iim thought} that his herti wolde breke." 2 558 But, towards the end of this period, the use of final -e became uncertain. Also the Present 1 It represented the Plural of Past Tense of Strong Verbs, the Singular and Plural of the Past Tense of Weak Verbs, also some Cases of Nouns. &c. 2 Chaucer, quoted by Morris, Historical Outlines of English Accidence. 302 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [Par. 558. Participle in -ing (inge) had now become the usual form. Before this period many Passive Participles of Strong Verbs dropped the final -n; and it is curious to observe that the anti-inflectional tendency reached lengths from which it has retrograded in modern English. Thus the -n or -en was dropped not only in fought, bound, shrunk, sunk, but also in spoke, broke, -curtailed forms that are found even in Milton and Shakspeare, but are not accepted in modern English. Chaucer (who drops -n as a rule) even uses "be" for " been." Note that we retain some of these old Participial forms as Adjectives: "a molten image;" "our bounden duty;" " a.foluhten field;" " a drunken man;" "a sunken ship." It may be useful to compare the early part of this period, when English had been just recognized by royal edict as the language of the realm, with the language of the First or " Synthetical Period." 1 1 Mr. Skeat suggests the following alternative names for the six Periods. They may conveniently be set by the side of the names suggested above. 1. Anglo-Saxon or Oldest English. 1. Inflectional. 2. Late Anglo-Saxon. 2. Period of " Confusion." 3 Early English. 3. Analytical. 4. Mliddle English. 4. National. 5. Tudor English. 5. Period of" License." 6. Modern English. 6. Modern English. Par. 559.1 INFLE CTIONS. ~ 803 St. Mark i. 6, 7; 34. WYCKLTFFE, A.D. 1000.1 About A.D. 1150. A.D. 1380. And John was clotlid And Iohannes waes And lohannes wies gescryd ge-sclryd with heeris (a) of mid oluendes haer- mid olfendes here, (a) calnelis, um (a) and a girdil of(a) skyn & fellen (a) gyrdel & fellen (a) gyrdel abowte his leendis; waes ymbe his lend- waes embe his lendene enlt. and he eet locustus, & gmerstapan & & garstapen & and hony of (a) the wudu((a)hunighe et. wude (a) hunig he wode,,et. and prechide, seyinge & he bodude & cweth. & ihe bodede & cweeth. A strengere than I strenlgra (c) cymth 2 strengre (c) kymth schal (c) come aftir me refter me aefter me. of thcom(b) Iknelinge thces (b) ne eom ic thas (b) ne tem ich (d) wyrthe wurtlie am not worthi for to that ic his sceona (a) that ic his scone (a) unldo thwanga thwange the thong of (a) his bugende (d) uncnytte bugende (d)un-cnette schoon And he sufrride hem & hi sprecan (e) & hyo sprecen (e) nat for to (e) speke ne let ne leten. 559 Here we find (a) the old cases in -um, -en, -a, dropped and replaced by Prepositions; (b) the Interrogative " of whom" has supplanted the Possessive Case of the old Relative " thaxs;" (c) the Auxiliary " schal " has stepped in to form a Future; 1 The Gospel according to St. Mark in Anglo-Saxon and Northumbrian Versions. Edited by the Rev. Walter W. Skeat, Cambridge. 1871. Of the A.D 1150 Version, Mr. Skeat says, in his Preface, page x. "It isinteresting as shlewing how the lanrguage beg:tn to lose strength in its Intlectional forms, as is at once apparent by comparing it with the older text here printed beside it." 2 Here, it is true, the original has the Present; but in v. 8, "he shall baptize you," the same difference is apparent. 804 ENGLISH LANGUA GE. [Par. 560, 561. (d) instead of the Present Participle in -ende (bugende), we have the form in -inge (kneelinge); notice also (e) the change from " sprec-an" to "sprecen," and thence to "for to speke." 560 As English was recognized as the language of the whole nation soon after the beginning of this period, and was so far settled that the Vocabularg (as distinct from the Orthography and Inflections) of Wyckliffe differs little (except in scantiness) from our own Vocabulary, we may call this period " the National Period." A glance at the three columns above will suffice to show the great difference between " The National Period " and " The Inflectional Period," in point of Vocabulary. 561 Fifth, or " Period of License," A.D. 1500 -1600. - Before the end of this period the use of -e (which fell into disuse or abuse soon after Chaucer's time) became quite forgotten. Indeed, there was in this period a tendency to carry the disuse of Inflections even to a greater degree than has been sanctioned by modern English, e.g. "spoke"1 for "spoken; " so "chose(n)" "rode" (for " ridden "), "drove," "took," &c. "To " as the sign of the Infinitive was used irregularly, "I saw him to walk," but " You ought not walk." This therefore (like Period II.) was to some extent a " Period of Confusion." In Shakspeare we find " I have swam, spakce, fell, droven, strztclen, splitted, beated." The n had been dropped as early as the thirteenth century. Par. 562-564.] INFLE CTION7S. 305 The -y that is historically an Adv.1 prefix in " ywis " (i.e. Germ. " gewiss," certainly) was, by misunderstanding, changed into " I" in " I wis." The "of" that is regularly and intelligibly used after a Verbal Noun, e.g. " the shepherd is a-blowing, i.e. (in-blowing) of his nails," was retained even when the Verbal had been completely confused with the Participle: "The shepherd is blowing of his nails." 562 The old power of forming Adverbs from Adjectives by adding -e (once sonant) was extended to the license of using any Adjective as an Adverb, and this even with Latin words, so that "honorable," " excellent," could be used as Adverbs. Even Latin Inflections (where they fell in with the Old English Inflections) were experimented upon, so that Shakspeare uses "deject" for " dejected," "infect" for " infected." 563 Generally it may be said that in this period the Inflections had departed, but the sense of Inflections still remained, causing many curious irregularities and licenses, and adding to the obscurity and to the vigor of the sixteenth-century English. Hence this may be called the " Period of License." 564 It may be added that this period witnessed (1) 1 See Mr. Skeat's Index to Piers the Plowman: "y-, prefix; answering to G. and A -S. ge-, which is etymologically the same as Lat. con-curi.: usually pref to Past Participles, but also to Past Tenses, Infinitives, and Adjectives." The word was commnonly written " I wis" even in the fourteenth century. The " I" in "I wis " is the same prefix as the " a " in " aware." 20 306 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [Par. 565, 566. a great influx of Latin words, (2) an introduction of the periodic structure, involving a freer use of Conjunctions and of the Subjunctive Mood. 565 Sixth Period, or " Period of Settlement," A.D. 1600 to the Present Time.- This was a period of reaction from the "Period of License." The use of " shall" and " will," variable toward the end of the " Period of License," was defined in the seventeenth century. Many old licenses (e.g. the use of "of" after (what are now) Participles) were discarded as vulgarisms, or as unjustifiable irregularities.' The periodic structure was simplified by the easy vigor of Dryden and the incisive French style. 566 Several superfluous words of Latin importation were rejected. M3any Elizabethan usages, theoretically accurate, had become practically inconvenient. For example, " so" being by derivation connected with " as " (" al-so," "alse," " als "), had been, in Elizabethan times, freely interchanged with " as;" "which," being the original co-relative to "such," had been used where we use " as," e.g. " such which" for "such as; " " as " retaining its original force of "in which way," had been used as the natural sequel to " so " (" so... as," where we use "so that") -all theoretically legitimate usages, and based on ancient derivations: but, as the derivations were 1 Pope even discards the use of mine and thine before a vowel, preferring "m ny eye," "' thy eye." In revising a Concordance to Pope. I have noticed thine twice, mine (as an Adjective before a Noun) never. Par. 567-569.] INFLECTIONS. 307 forgotten, and greater clearness was required to make up for the disuse of Inflections, it had become necessary that the province of each particle should be narrowed and defined; e.g. that "as" should no longer bear the burden of " that" so as to denote 567 consequence and purpose. Thus, in many respects the language of Pope is less ambiguous than that of Bacon or Shakspeare. But unfortunately, in sweeping away monopolies, the old distinction, generally observed by Shakspeare, between the Relative Pronouns "that" and " who," fell into oblivion; and, in the course of a reaction against the excessive use of " that," "' who " was allowed unduly to encroach.' This is the most serious blot in Modern English. 568 More recently, the Inflections of the Participles (after a long-continued fluctuation) have been settled so as to prevent ambiguity, e.g. we have rejected the Participle " chose," "spoke," though sanctioned by Pope, and the Past Tenses "sung," "rung," though sanctioned by Milton.2 569 Some specimens of the Accidence of the First or 1 Who introduces a new fact about the Antecedent: that completes the Antecedent. This is the general rule subject to a few excel,tions arising from the desire of euphony. See How to Write Clearly, page 17. Addison, in his Humble Petition of Who and Which, allows the petitioners to say: " We are descended of ancient families, and kept up our dignity and honor many years, till the Jack-sprat Theft supplanted us." But That was the legitimate sovereign, and Who aidl Whwiich were tle Jack-sprats. However, Pope, perhaps in consequence of Addison's mistake, often uses " who " for "that." 2 Tlhe formns stri, rung, in the Plural, are sanctioned by the usage in Early English. See Morris's Outlines, page 159. 308 SYNTHETICAL PERIOD. [Par. 569. "1Synthetical Period" are given below, to show the extremely complex nature of the language before it was simplified in the " Period of Confusion." NOUNS. SINGULAR NU.MBER. Fern. Neut. Fern. Masc. Masc. (tongue) (word) (hand) (son) (shep-herd) Nom. tung-e word hand sun-u hird-e Gen. tung-an word-es hand-a sun-a hird-es Dat. tung-an word-e hand-a sun-a hird-e Ace. tung-an word-e Ihand sun-u hird-e PLURAL. Norn. tung-an word hand-a sun-a hird-as Gen. tung-ena word-a hand-a sun-a hird-a Dat. tung-um word-urn hand-urn sun-urn hird-um Acc. tung-an word hand-a sun-a hird-as Self. In 0. E., Pronouns- were often used reflexively without "cSelf," which merely adled emphasis. "Self" was an Adjective nieaniing "1same," so that " lie killed himsef "' meant emphatically "liHe killed the same or the above-mentioned him." Gradually this Adjective ceased to he inflected, and came to he regarded as a Noun. Tile following were the changes: - (1) "I came me (Dat.) si/f-nm (Dat. Adj.)." (2) "I came me (Dat.) si/f (Nom. Adj.)." (3) "I came mi (Gen.) si/f (Indeclinahle Adj. or Noun)." (4) "I came myself." Hence the modern "1our selves," "1his better seflf. Par. 569.] NO UNS AND PRONO UNS..309 PRONOUNS. SINGULAR. (I) (Thou) (He) (She) (It) Nom. Ic thu 5 he heo'1 hit Gen. min 2 thin 2 his 2 hire 2 his Dat. me the him 2 hire 2 him Acc. meC,3 me thec,3 the hine hi hit PLURAL. Nom. we ge hi Gen. user, uires eower2 hira (heora) Dat. us eow hem 4 (heom) Acc. UfisC,3 fis eowic,3 eow hi She is an altered form of the Old Feminine Definite Adjective, Seo, or sio. 2 Hence we see the origin of the Possessive Adjectives "1mine (my)," "thine (thiy)," "1her," "6our," &c. Also we see the Dative origin of " hi-in," "1he-r." Note also that he, heo, hit Was really a Demonstrative Adjective. Cf. the Latin is, ea, id. He means "that man "; heo mneamis "that woman." 3Chiefly Northumbrian forms. The substitution of they (= thai, th&) for hi is (ins to.Northumbrian influence. 4 In the Elizabethan dramatists, and even in Pope, we often find 'em printed with ai Apostrophe, as though it were a contraction for them. But thuis is not so: it represents the Old English hemz. See Dr. Morris's Accidence, Par. 160. 5 Thiou was discarded as being discourteous, and was replaced by you. See Shakspearian Grammar, Pars. 231-35. 810 SYNTHETICAL PERIOD. [Par. 570, 571. 570 To explain the modern forms "she," "that," "they," "1them," we must have recourse to the old declinable Definite Adjective:DEFINITE ADJECTIVE, Modern "THE." SINGULAR. PLURAL. Maso. Fern. Neut. Norn......se seo thae-t t ha" Gen. thae-s thae-re thae-s tha'-ra Dat. tha-m thae-re tha-m tha-rn Ac......tha-ne tha that th&a Instrumental Case, thli, th'e tht, the RELATIVE PRONOUN, MODERN "1THiAT." "The" (Indeclinable). 57I Origin of "she," "they," "them," &c. Just as in Latin is and ille diff er so little that they may be easily interchanged, so in Engulish "he" and "se," both meaning, "that man, were interchan gred, e.g."ICh ami the (lie) that spec (spake)."1 The interchange of the Feminine forms "heo" and "1seo " became so common that"1 seo " (possibly as being less similar to "he,"~ and therefore less I Morris. Par. 572.] PR ONO lUNS. 311 liable to confusion with " he " than " heo ") supplanted " heo " in the North, and subsequently also in the South. Hence our " she." In the same way "th'" supplanted " hi," and made our " they;" "tha-m " supplanted " hem," and made our ' them;" "thara " supplanted * hira," and made our "their." Note also the Instrumental form " the," which still exists in our " Y'he sooner the better." See Par 344. 572 Changes in the Relative Pronoun. In the First Period " se " was the Definite Adjective, and "the" the Relative. Later,1 the form " the " came to be used as the Definite Adjective, and consequently ceased to be used as the Relative, being supplanted by the heavier form " that" (the Neuter), which had become the ordinary Relative in the fourteenth century. When the need of a Possessive and Objective Case for the Relative was felt, the Possessive and Objective Cases of the Interrogative "whose" and "whom," were used as early as the thirteenth century; but "who" was not common as a Relative till three centuries later. As to the way in which the Interrogative came to be used Relatively, see Par. 27. 1 In the North, " the " appears early as the Definite Adjective even in the tenth century. 312 S YATTJIETi CAL PERIOD. [Par. 573. 573 VERBS. THE VERB "BE." It is curious to note the multiplicity of forms, as compared with the barrenness of Tenses, in the old Verb "1be." Our modern Verb contains remnants of three distinct roots - I. AS (IS). II. BE. III. (WAS). INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular Number. Plural Number. I. Rout ("I as ")~ 11. Root ("be")! I. Root ' as!')'IL. Root (" be") 1. eo-m, ea-rnl beo-m, beo ar-on, sind 2 beo-th 2. ear-t bi-st ar-on, sind beo-th 3. is bi-th ar-on, sind beo-th Past Tense. Singular Number. Plural Kurnfer. 111. Root "Iwas." III. Root "was." 1. waes wae~r-on 2. waer-e wae~r-on 3. waes waer-on Our "1a-rn" is a contraction from "1ar-rn," or " as-rn," where the "as" is the same root as in tbe Greek ' elni " or "1esmi,"1 I "1am." 'Ihe terminations -mn, -t, -s, are Personal Inflections; so that the Relations between the Original Root " as " and the Modern Verb, are represen~ted in the followitig column: - ROOT. MODERNX. as-rn a-rn as-t ar-t as'-th i-s 2 "1Sind " is sailI to be for as-ant. Cf. Latin s-ant, also the Subjunctive si, sin, below. Par. 574-576.] "IS," "BE," " TAS." 313 574 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular Number. Plural Number. Root I. Root II. Root III. Root I. Root IT. Root III. ("as.") ("be.") ("was.") ("as.") ("be.") ("was") 2.} s beo wes-e si-n beo-n wes-e-n 3. Past Tense. Singular Number. Plural Number. Root III. (" was.") Root III. (" was.") 2. waer-e waer-e-n 3.J 575 IMPERATIVE MOOD. Root I. ("as.") Root II. ("be.") Root III. ("was.") Sing. 2. seo or si beo wes Plur. 2. - beo-th or beth wes-ath 576 INFINITIVE MOOD. I Root I. ('" as.") Root II. (" be.") Root III. (" was.") - beo-n or ben wes-an 314 SYNTHETICAL PERIOD. [Par. 577-579. Anomalous forms of "Be." 577 Are. - Our "are" represents the old Northern " aron," and is therefore a lasting monument of the influence of the Northern dialect. 578 Be. - The Southern " be " is now banished from the Indicative (except in vulgarisms), but it is retained in the rare Conditional " if it be true." The retention of be in the Subjunctive may be explained by the fact that the Verb beon in A.S. from the earliest times had a future force. Even in Shakspeare and Milton we find a kind of transitional use of " beest " in hypothetical sentences, the form " be " being used to denote hypothesis, and the Indicative Inflection to denote the truth of the hypothesis: — " If thou beest he." 1- Paradise Lost, i. 84. " If thou beest Stephano."- Tempest, ii. 2, 104. 579 The Indicative " be " in the Plural and in the 1st Person Singular remained in use long after the extermination of the 2nd and 3rd Persons Singular; seemingly because the absence of Inflection assimilated these forms to the Subjunctive (which was spared for the present), and thus 1 Perhaps this use may be in part accounted for by the feeling that "thou," having a Verbal inflection of its own, and a very marked one, ought not to be deprived of it even when the Verb is in the Subjunctive. Compare " wert" below. Par. 580-582.] " IVAST," " WERT." 315 allowed them as it were to exist under this disguise. "Be " in Modern English, as Indicative, is an archaism. 580 Bi-n, used by Shakspeare as the 3rd Person Plural of "be," is the Midland form. There are(1) Bes, Northern. (2) Ben, Midland. (3) Beth, Southern. 581 Was-t. - In Early English the 2nd Person Singular Past Indicative of a Strong Verb had e- for its Inflection, e.g. " thou heold-e," and, above, " thou waer-e." But in the fourteenth century the Inflection in Strong Verbs was varied with, and finally assimilated to, that of Weak Verbs, i.e. -est. Hence "thou heold-e" became "thou held-est;" and in the same way "thou were" became " thou wast." 582 Wert is even more anomalous than the Conditional " be-est " above. The old Subjunctive form is " were." But, apparently, a sense that the marked Verbal Inflection usually following "thou" ought not to be dispensed with, even when the Verb is in the Subjunctive, led to the construction of a new word, similar to the modern Subjunctive in form, and to the modern Indicative in Inflection. From this confusion resulted wert, which is now estab 316 SYNTHE TICAL PERIOD. [Par. 583. lished English, so that no one hut a pedant would venture to wrjite, "1if thou were." The Regular Verb. It may he useful to compare the scanty Tenses of the Verb in the First Period with the developed Verb as we now have it: - FIRST PERIOD. Luf-i-an "- 1to love." INFINITIVE. Noun Form. lufi-an Form of Purpose (Gerund.) lufi-anne PARTIclPLES. Active. lufig-ende Passive. luf-o-d INDICATIVE MOOD. Present and Future Tense. I Past Tense. 1. 2. 3. Sing. lufig-e luf-ast luf-ath Plural. infl-ath lufi-ath lufi-ath Sing. 1. luf-o-de 2. luf-o-dest 3. luf-o-de Plural. luf-o-den luf-o-den luf-o-den Par. 583.] THE REGULAR VERB. 317 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. Past. Sing. Plural. Sing. Plural. 2. lufig-e lufig-on 2. luf-o-de luf-o-don 3. 3. J IMPERATIVE MOOD. Sing. Plural. 2. luf-a 2. lufi-ath 318 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Par. 584. 584 "TO ACTIVE Simple Incomplete or or Indefinite. Continuous. INFINITIVE (to) help (to be) helping PAnTI helping helping INDICATIVE Present (he) helps (he) is helping Past (he) helped (he) was helping Future (the) will help (he) will he helping (I) shall (I) shall b helping OBSOLESCENT SUB Present (he) help (lie) be helping ANTECEDENT CON Present elps is helping ] helped 2 were helping should help a should be ^ 1 helping Past were to help ' were to be helping This Verb has been chosen because (if it is to be learned by ' helped " may oblige the pupil to pronounce distinctly. 2 Same as Indicative. 3 Several of these forms are not used. And there is not the least logical symmetry with which Tenses might be constructed with the Par. 584.] THE REGULAR VERB. 319 HELP." 1 VOICE. Complete. Complete, Post-Continuous. MOOD. (to) have helped CIPLES. having helped MOOD. (he) has helped (he) had helped (he) will ed (I) shall have helped JUNCTIVE MOOD. (he) have helped DITIONAL MOOD. has helped had helped 2 should have helped 2 were to have helped (to) have been helping having been helping (he) has been helping (he) had been helping (he) will } (I) shall have been helping (he) have been helping has been helping had been helping2 W should have been helping were to have been helping 3 heart, which is quite unnecessary) the difficulty of pronouncing use in committing them to memory. But it is useful to see the aid of the Auxiliary Verbs. 4 320 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Par. 584. ACTIVE, Simple or Indefinite. Incomplete or Continuous. -- i Present Past Present Past (he) will help (I) shall (lie) would help (I) should el ' [f may help C.might help help CONSEQUENT CON (he) will,} (I) shall be helping (lie) would t be help(I) should ing MooD OF ' a may be = I helping I might be helping IMlPERA be helping I 1 Same as The Passive Voice is easily formed from the Verb "to be," by placing after it the Passive Participle " helped." It has no pretensions to be called a Passive " Voice," and would not have been called so but for a desire to ape the terms of Latin Grammar. The Latin Passive Voice has distinctive Inflections, and deserves its name. The English "Voice" is a mere imposture. Par. 585.] THE REGULAR VERB. 321 VOICE. Complete, Complete. Post-Conditional. DITIONAL MOOD. (Ie) sll have helped (I) shall have been elpin (he) would have helped (he) would have been help(I) should (I) should ing PURPOSE. may have a, may have been J helped J helping might have ] might have been helped lhelping TIVE MOOD. have helped Future Indicative. 585 The Infinitive. The results of the confusion between the Noun Infinitive, the Gerundial Infinitive, the Active Participle, and the Verbal Noun, are so important in their influence on modern English that they deserve special mention. The old forms of the Infinitive mentioned in Par. 551 had been modified as follows:21 322 INFINITIVE, GERUND. [Par. 586, 587. NOUN GERUND, OR ACTIVE VERBAL AD. INFINITIVE. INFINIPATICIPLE. NOU. PURPOSE. -1100 -an (to), anne (-enne) -ende -ung -1250 -en, -e (to), -ene, -en, -e -inde -yng -1350 (to), -e (to), -en, -e -inde -yng, -ing rarely -inge -1500 (to), -e sometimes omitted usually -ing(e) -yng, -ing -1600 (to) -ing 586 The law of these changes is not difficult to perceive. (1) The Noun Infinitive has become confused with the Gerundial Infinitive; (2) the Active Participle with the Verbal Noun. In both cases there has been a compromise: (1) the Noun Infinitive has dragged down the Verbal to its own Inflectionless state, but it has also accepted the " to " from the Gerund; (2) the Active Participle has accepted the termination of the Verbal Noun, but has communicated to the Verbal Noun, as will be seen below, some of its own syntactical peculiarities. 587 While these processes of assimilation were going on, various experimental confusions were introduced and rejected: - Par. 588, 589.] PARTICIPLE, VERBAL. 323 1. The Participle (1) in the twelfth century, in the form -nde, (2) in the fourteenth century, in the form -inge, invaded the province of the Gerundive; and we find " for to witiende," i.e. " to guard; " "to witinge," i.e. "to wit;" "the night that is to coming," i.e. " to come;" "to beringe," i.e. (ready) " to bear."1 But in the fifteenth and following centuries these forms died out. 2. In the latter part of the fifteenth century we find an attempt, on the part of the form in -ing, to appropriate the province of the Noun Infinitive: "Our lord will yeu/ng (= yeven) hym pardon." But this is both late and exceptional.1 588 But the great and important change was the assimilation of the syntax of the Verbal Noun to the syntax of the Participle. At first the uses were distinct: PARTICIPLE. VERBAL. " He is huntinde." 2 "He went on huntinge."2 "Lesende ane finger." " Up peyn of losing of a finger." 589 While this distinction was preserved, the Verbal Noun was not used (according to Dr. Morris) after "is " or " was," except in Passive signification:"The churche was in byldynge;" "As this was a (i.e. in, on, or an) doyng." 1 Morris's Historical Outlines, page 177. 2 So also" He fell on sleepinge," but not "he was on huntinge," ib. page 177. " Was " and "is" were followed by the Active Participle. But the Active Participle is said to be very rare between 1150-1250 A.D., only occurring twenty-two times in the whole of the earlier text of Layanion, and only eleven times in the later. See Par. 24, Dissertation on the English Verb, by Emil Schwerdtfeger, Holt and Co., New York. 324 INFINITI VE, GERUND. [Par. 590-593. But in course of time the two usages became confused. * 590 1. Hence, Ben Jonson, while carefully selecting the (then) archaic termination in -and, with the intention of representing the old Participle, places "of" after it, just as though it were a Verbal Noun:"With all the barkand parish-tikes set at her, While I sat whyrland of my brazen spindle." Sad Shepherdess, i. 2 ad fin. 59I 2. On the other hand, Shakspeare, while inserting -a, as though he were using the Verbal Noun nevertheless omits" oJ;" using the Verbal just like the Active Participle, even after "is" and "was" in Active signification: - " He's a-birding; " " When green geese are a-breeding." "The slave that was a-hanging thee."1 592 3. Again, sometimes the "of" is inserted, but the a- omitted:" The shepherd blowing of his nails." 593 4. Again, sometimes both -a and " of" are 1 See Schmidt's admirable Shakspeare Lexicon for these and many other instances. Par. 594, 595.] PARTICIPLE, VERBAL. 325 omitted, but "the" is inserted, indicating the Noun nature of the word: "Nothing in his life Became him like the leaving it." 594 5. Further, to such an extent had the Verbal Noun encroached under the Participial mask, that we not only have the legitimate uses " a ridingwhip," "a walking-stick," but also in Shakspeare and Bacon: "A trembling contribution," i.e. "a contribution that has to do with trembling." " The loading side," i.e. "the side that has to do with loading." These and other idioms give the impression that the Active Participle may be Passively used, e.g. that "loading" is put for " laden;" and perhaps this in part explains the apparent use of " seeing" for "it being seen; " " providing" for "it being provided;" "considering" for "it being considered." 595 The modern result of all these confusions is this: our modern Participle often represents a latent Verbal Noun and an omitted Preposition, and is therefore used where, in strictness, a Participle could not be used: — (1) "I shall go (a-) fishing." (2) "The kettle is (a-) boiling." (3) (Perhaps) " I saw him (a-) walking." 326 MODERN PARTICIPLE. [Par. 595. (4) "Speakiqg roughly, there were about a hundred." "In speaking," or " it being spoken," or " to speak." (5) "(On) walking on, you will see the river." It is not at all unlikely that in (3) and (4) there are also traces of some confusion with the Infinitive, such as is mentioned in Pars. 67, 68, Note 388. Dr. Morris gives instances of "he fell to, of; on, a fighting," which shew the diversity of the Prepositions that may be supplied before the Verbal. I INDEX. (For an Explanation of Grammatical Terms, see the Glossary, page xvii.) A. A (adj.), "a ten furlongs," 213, 427. "al dozen sheep," "a little pudding," &c., 193. " many a," "what a," 218. "a jewel of a, what sort of a, man," 438. "a Croesus," 429. "we are all of a mind," 429. A-, Prefix to Verbal Nouns, 591. from " on," 375. " a-fishing," a-foot," &c., 127. " a-,ear," 428. " a-row" for " in a row," 375, note. " eightpence a-pound," " a-piece," 343. Ablative (Absolute), imitated by Milton, 408. -able, Suffix, 285. About, "he tells us nothing about how he travelled," 454. Absolute, Subject used absolutely, 135. Accuse, "I accuse him of treason," 368. Active (Form). 59-62. Addison, his mistake about who " and " that," 567, Note. Adjectives, uses and Inflections of, 41-44. sometimes used as Supplements, 149. inflected in Chaucer's time, 43, 557. degrees of comparison, 43. used for Adverb, 113, note, 522. used Participially after Nouns, 149. after Nouns in poetry, 515. with implied Nouns, 412. (Clauses) with Relative 'ronouns, 497-5(0. (Phrases) with Infinitive, 98. " the thickest of the fray," 431. " heir apparent," 431. Adverbs, 413-20. uses and Inflections of, 45-54. Interrogative, how used, 49. The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. 328 828 INDEX. Adverbs, repeated, 420. used as Nouns, 882, 454. in -e old foim, 413, 522. used like Adjectives with Nouns, 419. in -e 557. Adjectiv es used as, 562. Adverbial Clauses, 455-8. Phiases, 340 420. Phrase', omit Prepositions, 131. Phrases, containing Infinitive, 98. Against, a Con junction, 349. Ago, "lfive days af/o, " 340. Agre enient of Verb with Noun, 78, 79. not true of the Imperative Mfood. 9 1. apparently violated, 86. violated af ter " nor," 228, 334. violated in use of " none, " 227. A-ground. 348, 375. A lb eit, 4 76. Almost, "'my almost drunkenness of heart," 419. All, "a ll of us," 199, 215, 365. "for all that," "though," 475. All, "all-it; '' like "although,'' 476. Analgsis, scheme of, 265. of Sentences, 239-265. meaning of, 253. Analytical structure of language, 556. And, and will you leave me '?" 440. and that, quickly, 4141. by and by," 441. -ant and -eat, 288. Antecedent, in Conditional sentence,167. Antecedialt (of Relative), omitted, 25. implied in Possessive Adj., 497. Apostrophe, whene inserted and omitted, 37. in 'ens, 569, Note 4. Apposqition,. 137-143. with implied Noun, 143. Apposition, with Indl. Obj. and Possess.-Case, rare, 141, 14-2. -Appositional rerbs, 147-150. Arccaisins, Poetical, 502-512. Are, origin of, 577. As, radical meaning of, 203. used for Rel. Pron., 205. vulgar use of, 207. parenthetical use of, 208. redundant, 209. for "-that," (Conj.), 480. in condensed clauses, 446. "so as " " 1provided that," 461. in Early English, 487. "as far ais I k now, " 483. "as -so " "=IIboth - and," 484. "as good as,"I but "1not so good as," 483. for "as if," 486. "as yet " as then," 487. (as for;""as to," 364, 489. "this will serve as ink," 209. (is if," 'as though,'' 211. "This is as fine a horse as I have seen," 493. K The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and net to the pages. INDEX. 329 As, "he was so kind as to promise," 479. provincial, "he says he'll come as to-morrow, "488. "inasmuch as," 458. "as far as," &c., 53. "young as I am,". 464. " as being," 407. Ascendant, used by Pope as Adj.. 228. Ask, he asked me a question," 119. "I was asked three questions," 122. "he was asked to explain," 103, 105. Asleep, 348. At, 350-353. difference between at and "in," 353, 354. "at three years old," 342. Auxiliary (Verbs) take the old Infinitive, 93-96. used Condit;onally, 170. used Indirectly, 174. used in Past Tense after a Past Tense, 180, 181. B. Be, an Appositional Verb, or Verb of Identity, 147 -150. takes a " Supplement," 148. old form of, conjugated, 573-576. in the Indicative, 578 -579. Subjunctive modern, 168, note. omitted "woe to the man," 519. Beest, " if thou beest," 578. Ben Jonson used Participle in -and before "of," 590. Better, origin of, 43. "you had better," 386. " better wait a while," 386. Bin, origin of, 580. Blue, "the breezy blue," 529. Brackets, when used, 315. But (Preposition), 380-1. Radical meaning and uses of, 381. "'twas none but he," 380. transition to adversative use, 452. But, (Conjunction) put for "that not," 202. " but for," 469. = "that not," rarely as object, 498. "we did not know but that," 450. "not but what," 451. "not but there are," &c., 452. "it cannot be denied but," 453. "it never rains but it pours," 467. "I'll be hanged but," &c., 467. "there is no one but hates me," 468. "No sooner -but," 456. "I had scarcely gone a mile, but," 456. "he is all but perfect," "any thing but," 453, "but for me," 363. But that, " but that he has a family," 468. "I cannot be persuaded but that," 450. The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. 330 330 INDEX. By, 355-357. " little by little," 356. "by himself," 357. " By and by," 420. By and by, change in meaning of,7 441, Note. C. ('amC, "It came to pass," 392. Cardinasl (Nunabers), see Glossary. Cases, 32. Cumeaning of term, 33. 9 Gasative (Verbs), "lay," "fell," " raise," "set," &-c, 76. Cuxton,; his remarks on the English of his time, 82. -ce, se, "licence," li cense," 290. Charge. " I am given in chasqe," 391. Celtic terms,, 533, 541, 542. Clause, defined, 239. Clauses, Snbordinate,7 444 -500. Condensed, 444-447. Object, 448-454. Adverbial, 455-458. Conditional, 459-471. Concessional, 472-482. Comparative, 483. (Adjective) with Relative Pronouns. 49 7-500. Clear, " Clear ot' debt," 366. C'ollective (Noon) with Plur. and Sing. Verb, 337, 338. Cogqnate (object), 125. Colon, 309. Come, "'he is caose," 62. Comma, 294. general roles for, 294 -308. Complemsentary(Inflnitive). 97. (Infinitivel as Sobject, 106, 107. Complele, the CJompiete "~State" of an action, 72. Coamplex (Sentence), 250. Cosapound (Sentence), 247. Concessioual (Clauses), 472 -482. Condens~ed (Clauses), 444 -447. Conditional (Mood), 163-180. anomalies at; explained, 231-238. difference between Mood in Antecedent and Consequent, why, 231-233. wvith, '4shoold," 236. (Clauses), 459-471. 6'osi~jnctiosss, 52. used with Participles, 407. Co-ordinate, 246, Note. Sub-ordinate, 249. Considernng, Participial Preposition. 409. Could" "I could have," 403. Course, " Of Course," 367. Courtesy, discards " thou," 569. substitutes "will" for "shall," 87. D. Danish influence on Inflections, 534, 543, 552. Dare, with and without " to," 96, Note. Dash, used as stop, 314. Mgl — The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. INDEX. 331 Dative, Early English, 126, 128. "him" used for Accusative, 554. Plural in -urn supplanted, 554. Dependent, and dependant, 288. Do, originial meaning of, 386. "how do vou do," 386. " do what I may," 474. Done, "this done, they departed," 135. Doors, in doors," 196, 341. Doubt, "doubt not but," or "not that," 453. Dozen, " a dozen sheep," 193. Distance, "it was a short distance off," 340. Drier, spelling of, 268. E. -e final dropped and retained before affixes, 270. what it represented, 557. used for -en, e.g " broke(n)," 558. Each, not with Plural Verb, 224. "They hated each other," 223. Each other, " each other sheds," 530. -ede, -eed, spelling of, explained, 283. Either, "either a or b was," not ' were," 228. -ive, affix spelling of, 283. -el, Verbs ending in -el, double I in Pres. Participle. Ellipses, see As, Than, That, &c. 'em, represents not them but henm, 569, Note 4. -en, Participial Adjectives in, 558. Infinitive termination, 94 -96, 585, 586. -ene, enlte, Gerundive termination, 585, 586. Enlargement, of Subject or Object, 263. English, Periods of, 533-595. recognized as the National language, 536. Caxton's remarks on,82. Enough. 216. kind enough to," 397. Epithet, used for thing denoted, 529. -er, suffix for Comparative, 43. Verbs ending in -er accented, double r in Pres. Part., 277. Ever, "he was ever so ill," 473. Every," every hundred years," 225. Exclamation, note of, 313. Extension (of Predicate), 263. Extent, Adverbial Phrases of, 340. F. Feel, followed by Passive Participle, 260, Note. Few, "afew men," 217. Foot, "bound hand and foot," 128. For, 358-364. f"Jo a year," "'obr once," 362. "Jfir mv part," 364. "'for shaame! " 259. The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. 382 832 INDEX. For, "for all," &c. 360. "fior all that ' "though," 475 -For to, with Infinitive,7 402. what went ye out for to see?" 402. Fortnight, derivation of, 214. Free, "1 had iathtr starve f-ree." 113, Note. FrenAe, influence of on position of Adjectives, 431. terms, 535, 5056. debased, 535. later influence of, 539, 549, 5f15. idiom combined with English, 433. Freshe and fresh, 420. G. Genders, none in M~odern English, 37, Note. confused, 554. Genitive, see Possessive, also the Glossary, P. xxii. Give, IJ was giv'en to understand," 390. Gerundial -inflnitive, changes in, 554, 583, 586. 11Governing" an Object, 84. Grow, " 1 grew tall," 260, Note. Have, "1I have caught," a Present Tense, 73. "I hoped to have, could hare, succeeded," 403. "You mighit 'have helped me, "177. I must leave you attend," 386. He, "le of Tusculum," 511. Hear, "1I heard her sing," 94-96. Help, " More than Ilean help,," 104, Note. Her, old form of, 569. Rima, old form of, 569. for "1 himself,' i.e. ''the same hiuz," 508, 569. Hiaseyf " by himself,"' 357, 569. Home, " go home:" sometimes Adverb in E. E., 127. Honour, or " honor," 284. "1 lave the honour to inform von," 395. Hope, " I hoped to have succeeded," 403. How, " I know not how to begin," 398. derivation of, 463, Note. however-, derivation of, 474. L. I, old form of, Sf19. "1 1 Wis " Sf11. -ibis, suffix, 285. Identity, Verbs of, 147-150. -ieve, affix, spelling of, 282. If, influence of on Conditional forms, 233. H. Had, " you had better," 386. Half; "`half' the countrx'," 213. Hand,7 " boumd hosed and foot," 128. C -The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. INDEX 33 3310, If, of admitted facts, 459. "i true," 445. Imperative (Mood), defined, 70. alwavs in Second Person, 88. Passive, 89. generally omits Snbject, 90. or Subjunctive, doubtful, 474. used to express condition, 462. Impersonal (Verbs), 328. In and "at," difference between, 35.3, 354. Inasmuch as, 458. Incomplete, State of Action, 72. Indefinite (Article), see Glossary, Article and Indefinite. state of action, 72. Indicative (Mood) defined, 70. used illogically, 80. even after" " hope,"1 "fear," &c., 184, Note. after " if," illo-ical1, 189. Indirect Object. 117-120. after Passive Verb, 122. " retained," 123. rarely admits "1 apposition," 141. In flnitive (1Mood), 92-113, 386-403. *defined, 70. Tenses of, 92. preceded by " to," 390 -401. without "1to," 93-96. ordinary in -ing, very rare, 587. after Adjectives, 108, 393. Adjectival use of, explained, 109. Isflnitive, changes in Inflection, 551-559. changes table of, 585 -586. "Complete" after Verbs of hoping, &c., 403. as Noun, Adverb, Adjective, 98-100. after Nouns, 394, 395. Exclamatory, 111. in exclamations, 400. Parenthetical, 119, 401. See " to " for examples. - Inflections, see Noin, Verb &c., confused, 5503. -ing represents -uny, -inde, -enne, and perhaps -en, 585-588. Intend, "11I intended to lhave, come,'" 403. Interrogation, note of, 312. Interrogative, the old, without " do," 507. used to express condition, 463. (Adverbs) used Relatively, &c., 49. (Subjunctive), 472-474. "Do what I mia'," 474. (Pronoun) supplants itelative, 559, 567. Intransitive (Verbs), 55-58. Verbs followed by " Supplements," 147-149. Irregularities, how explained, 191-199. bred by custom, 213, Note. of words, 195-197. in poetry, 513-516. -ise, or -ize, 289. It, old formi of, 569. as Antecedent, 331. as -Antecedent, "1 who was it that you saw?" 158. rf The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. 334 INDEX. It, as Antecedent, "it is you that say so," 160. preparatory, 329. "it was then that," &c., 162, 330. "it is said that he is coming," 151. "it will soon be November," 328. " it pities me," 328. " it thinks," for " it seems," 328. -ize or -ise, 289. -it, Verbs in -it accented double t in Pres. Part., 277. K. Know, " he is known to be honest," 107. L. Latin, words derived from, 533-548. Lay, principal parts of, 76. causative of " lie," 76. Layamon, texts compared, 555. Present Participle rare in, 588, Note. Less than, "thy less-than woman's hand," 491. Lest, derivation of, 482. followed by " should" instead of might," 166. Let, "let me see," 88. "a house to let," 109. Lie, principal parts of, 76. connected with "lay," 76. Like, " I like a rascal to be punished," 97. Little, "by little and little," 191, Note, 356. -II, modified before affixes, 275. Lose, "this will lose you your friends," 117. M. Make, " they made him king," 148. ~Many, " many a," 218. May, double meaning of, 170, 175-6. Methinks, 328. lMight, after "that; " " should," after "lest," 166. "he might have helped me," 172. "a king, who might keep us in order," 185, Note. different meanings of, 175-6. Milton, his dictum on poetry, 501, Note. anomalies in, 568. "than whom," 346. use of Ablative Absolute, 408. Mine, 197, 569. Jloods, see Indicative, &c., 70. MAore, used as a Noun. 'he more than hesitated," 491. "somee more pudding," 219. " asking for more," 221. Jly, old form of, 554, 569. N. -n final, dropped in Passive Participles, 554, 558. The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages., INDEX. oaID'r -n, dropped in min and thin, 554, 569. dropped in Infinitives, 544. Nam, for" "am not," 381. Natbliess, 230. Naugyht, 417. Nat wnal, the " National Period of the English Language, 535. -ne, the old -nte retained for emphasis in " none," n6 ine," &c, 197. Near, derivation of, 197. Nreeds, ''I must needs come," 341. Negative, before " but," 381. Neither - nor, followed by Plural Verb for Singular, 33, 228. Never, ' though you were never so ill," 473. " lie never sees me that he does not laugh," 455. No, Adverbial, 230. "y, ou are no soldier," 230. "whether he tomes or no,,, 417. "he slept no more," 220. and " none," differe nce of use, 2-29-30. Nominative Plurals, changes in, 554. ~See also Su~ject, and Glossarv. None, for "no," 197, 229. Singular, 227. used as Plural, 227. Adverbial, 229. Nor, 'nor yew nor cypress ~speadl,'' for " spreads," 3134, also 33~ 228. Normnas-Freech terms, 535, 544. Norther-n Dialect, 533 —583. Not, a contraction for "naught, " 417. "not but what," 451. "not but" 452. Notwithstanding, 477. Nones, Uses and Inflections of, 30-37. Pl ural IInflections of, 34 -36., of the Synthetical Period, 569. Noun-obyject, 81 Nloune 1)/irases, containing Infinitive, 98. Nounesubject, 81. Now 4, now (that) we've come, 444. Now-a-dags, 196, 341. Numeerol (Adjectiv es), why Iiregulai, 19.3-212. Number, -agreeing ia cnunber- 78. 0. Object, 12-20. meaning of, 13. different forms of, 15. "governing an Object," 84. with Verb omitted before " and," 333. (Indirect) see Indirect. Cognate, 125. Adverbial, 127-131. used Absolutely by Milton and Wyckliffe, 408. (Clauses), 448-454. before Verb in Poetry, 514. Of, 3-65-372. LF- The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. 336 A INDEX. Of, after Participial Verbals, 561, 590. "all of us," 199. " he is a jewel of a man," 438. "he tells us nothing of how he travelled," 454. "that ugly face of his," 432. "the city of London;" the cry of ' breakers,'" 437. of a child," 365. "of course," 367. "light of foot," 369. "to eat of the crumbs," 372. "blowing of his nails," 592. Of, emphatic form of "of," 348. Old, "ten years old," 129. "at three years old," 342. Olden, 43. On, 373, 375. "on my honour;" "on purpose," 374. abbreviated to "a," 375. Once, derivation of, 196. "at once," 196. One, various uses of, 226. "their young ones," 226. One, " one... another," 385. Only, anomalous use of, 45. Or, 'either A or B was," not " were," 228. -or, -our, spelling of, 284. Other, " no other than," 495. somehow or other," 416. "they hated each other," 223, 385, 530. Ought, "you ought not (to) walk," 561, 93. Our, old form of, 569. Ours, 435. Ourselves, derivation of, 569. Over, " over and over," 420. P. Paint, "I painted my house white," 149. Parsing, scheme of, 316-325. Participles, 63-69. have no tenses, 261. imply (1) Adverbial, (2) Adjectival Phrases, 261. Participle Active, table of changes in, 585, 586. followed by "of," 590. modern results of old confusions, 595. confused with Gerundial Infinitive, 554. in inge, 587, 556, 558. rare in Layamon, 588. "in consequence of the king saying this," 404. Participle Passive, 65,404, 412. in -en, -e, 558. used as Gerundive, 405. with implied Noun, 411 -412. with Adverbial Subject, 135. with Conjunctions, 406 -407. used absolutely with Subject, 408. as Preposition, 409. 404, 412. Passive (Form), 59-62. (Voice), an imposture, 584. Verbs, followed by Objects and " Supplements," 147-149. The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. _____ __ INDR Periods, of the English language, 533-595. Person, explanation of term, 79. agreement "in Person," 78. Personal endings in Past Tense of Strong Verbs, 581. Personal Pronouns, 38, 569. see him, her, &c. Phrase, defined, 239. Noun l'Phrases, 240. Adjective Phrases, 241. Adv-erbial P'hrases, 242. Relative, 255. Pity, ' it pitied me, ' 328. Plly, " heplt)yed me a trick," 119. Please, "please help me," 386. "if you please," 328. Pleasure, " I have the pleasure to inforin you," 395. Plural, Inflections of Nouns, 34-36. (Verbs) with Singular Nouns, 86, 336, 338, 339. Poetry and Prose, difference between, 500. archaic, irregular, terse, 500. Pop e, unrrammatical, 530, 338, Note. th than 'era all," 346. Position (of wiords) irregular ill poetry, 51.3-516. Possessice Inflection, 37. rarelv a(dmits Apposition; " Willitam tle 'Conqueror's character," 142. EX. 837 Possessive (Adjective) irregularly used, 432-435. "that ugly face of his," 433. implies Antecedent of Relative, 497. Predicate, 263. Prefixes, see a(- above. alter spelling, 275. Prepositions, 50-51, 349 -383. original meanings of, 347. derived meanings of, 348. omitted, 127-131. in Adjective Phrases, ambiguous, 436. with Adverbs as Objects, 382-383. Objects omitted, 384. parts of Compound Verbs, 384. followed by "that" become Conjunctions, 444. Present, used for Future, 189. used indifferently with Future by Pope, 191. Presently, chaige in meaning of the word, 441, Note. Price, expressed by Adverbial Object, 343. Pronouns, uses and Inflections of, 38. See Personal, Reflexive, Relatire, &c. of the Synthetical Period, 569-572. Prose and Poetry, difference between, 501. Punctuation, hints on, 292 -315. Puipose, conjunctions of, 478 -482. ' The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. 22 338 INDEX. R. Rather, " I had rather," 380. Reduplication, of Inflections, 1.96-197. Reflexive (Pronoun), 569. omnitted in Poetry, 508. Rejoice, " I rejoiced to see him," 392. Relative Pronoun, old form of, 570. changes in, 572. how to p~arse, 21-24. omitted, 26. Antecedent omlitted, 25. Antecedent imph~ed, 407. once Interrogative, 27. before Prep~ositions, 51. omitted, as Subject, in Poetriy, 520. inil)lied beore Prepositions in Adjective phrases, 4356. supplanted by Interrogative, 559, 567. the olilest man that I know,' 497. "there goes a pair~ that only spoil one. another," 338 difference between "who" and " that, " 567, Note. Phrases, 255. Retained (object), 123. Result, conjunctions of, 478 -482. Rivers, "the " inserted before, 424. omitted before, 523. Royal, " blood royal," 431. Rusig, for " rang," 76, 568. S. -s in " unawares," "now-adayvs," 196. in younrs," 197, 434. Sang, and "1slingr," 76. 568. Save,' saveounivyIe," 471, Note. say, "Say I fail at first," 462. be is 5(aid to be coming,' 98. "ichoin si ye that I (1111? " 346. -e-e,'license,'' "licence," 290. Scotch, 11se of "1will " for slisiill,'' 170, Note. "it is sonsle late,'' 222. See, "I stit, linin sh ot (/0111, " 68. I salv llilll ciille,' 96. Seeing, irregu~lar use0 of, 458. Selj; Selves, 569. omitted imi poetry, 508. Semui-colosl, 310,;311. Sentence, defiled, 2:39. Simpille, 245. Co-orllilate, 246. Colnlllollld, 247. Prinlcipal, 248. Sllbordlilate, 249. Compllex. ~250. Contracted, 252. 'see Clauose. Shakspeaie, allonalies in, 561, 562. Shall and icili, distinction between, 87. illtrolducecl as Auxiliaries, 554. ori-iiial~x' meant " I owe," '' ami bound,'' 1.77. John says lie sh(1ll Ilelp us," 177. "if lie s/lall come," 2~36 237. J~-The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, amid not to the pages. INDEX.39 339 She, origin of, 569-5711. Should, confused use of, 465. after ''lest;'"' '' might after '-that," 167. used in Antecedent, "wIVo uld " in consequent, 2317. different meanings of, 177, 178. "John said he should help me," 178. "It is a shame that I should he insulted," 188. "should I see him,' 2113, Note. "lie ordered that no f rog should croak," 187, Note."if you shtodd hare taken vengeance,' 2116, Note. Shout, "'they shouted applanies," 125. Side, "os this side the Tweed," 1145. ieo stood this side of ioe " 1111. Sideways, explanation of, 1141. Siece, derivation of, 457. Siugular (Nouns,) wvith Plural Verhs (see Agreemuent), 86, 3311, 3:t8. Smnell, it smells of musk,' 367. So, why changed into 'as,' 484. "so as " - "4 provided that," 461. "lie is s0," 203. "so as to," 397-204. "the prince (for so he was)," 414. a minumte or so," 415. Some, ',souse more pudding," 219. "some twenty men," 222. it is solse late," 222. Something, "some thing good," 4110. Sonsetisues, explanation of, 341. Songster, 197, Note. Sorry, ' I was sosry to see it," 393. Sort, "4what sort of a man" 4318. S~pelling, hints on, 266-291. influenced hy pronunciatisn, 267, 271, 273. influenced hy earlier or later introduction of words, 36, 2811, 284. -ster, old Ferninine termilnation, 37, Note, 197. Stops, 292, 2911. Strong Verbs, assimilated to Weak Verhs, 581. Subject, 1-11. omitted, 6. psosition ot, 8-10. different forms of, 11. with Verh, omitted hefore " and," 3111. Adverhially used with Particilile, 135. used with thu Infinitive, 400. repeated, 513. placed after Verh, 514. in Parenthesis, 3115. Subjunctive (Mood), 163-190. defined, 70. used Indefinitely, 188. quas-i - Interro~gatively, 47-2. Tenses of, 189. Asnonmalies of, explained, 2111-2118. of "he," 579. of Psirp~ose, after "pray," bheseech,' 167. KV- The refereisces are ini all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. 340 340 INDEX. iSubjatnctive (Mood) in Poetry, to express a wish, 504. old form11 of, 505. in Poetry,7 after " ere," till, 50(3. "Do what I may," 472. ''Coine who may,'' 473. Sitbo?-linate C/oases'(see Senstrace), 444-500. Satch, "sac/h a," 218. "'let such teach others w-hto themselves excel," 486. Suti'xes, see -ste?, -he,-n Seing and sang, 76, 568. eSitprlatives, how formned, 43. the oldest man that I know,"1 497. Saippleseent, follows " be,'' 4&seenm," "appear," &c., 147-148. sometimes Adjective. 149. Sac-e, " to he sure," 110, 401. Sicomd, '' swore! in hand,'' 136. Spnthesis, meaning of, 253. T. Torlkiagq, " talking of books, here is a book," 410. Teach, Object1 after, 117. Tell, ''trite/I vou the fruth,' 110, 401. Teanses (see Present), 71-75. 7/eon, explained, 252, 49:3. whlo else thon,'' 496. hie mnore t/hon Ihesitated," 491. no other thafn,'' 495. ''thy less than woman's li~nd," 491. Than, " th an me" for "than I,'' ''than whom,' 346. "There is no counsel better than John has given," 493. That (Eel. Proii.), snpplanted b-y " who,'' 559, 567. ERiv Engflis ulse of, 49~9. for "as," 210(. for 'so that,'' 521. onuitteri as StibJect, 201. omitteil after " than,' 494. ='on account of which," 499. the oldest man t/hat I know," 497. not t/eat I recollect,' 449. T/eat (een j.) for "so thret," omitted after "in case," & c., 45 9. 44so theot '' = provitled that, 460. omi'tted, mleaning " when," 444. on the clay that thoan eatest thereof," 444. ''He never sees me that hie does not mock nm," 455. l tce axiom that," &C., 448. " I ami sorry that,'' 449. "Theut it should come to this!" 447. "WANhat were yout doing t/cot you were late? 457. "I1 cannot be persuaded hat that,'' &c., 450. Beet thcet hie has a fam.ily," 468. old form of, 570. Uf'The references are in all cBases to the Paragraphs, and not t6 Cthe pages. I NDEX. 841 That, (Conj.) omitted in Poetry, 523. The, 421-424. "the sooner the better," 344, 490, 571. "the leaving it," 593. "' during the first and sec — ond centuries," 426. " the earth," " the astronolner Adamss," 421. "the classical Addison," 423. "the IRupert of debate," 424. "the Thames, Chilterns, Levant, itigi," 424. Thee, "It is thee I fear," 346. Their, old form of, 569. Them,, old form of. 569, 570. origin of, 571. spelt 'enL, 569, Note 4. Then, "' the then world," 419. There, preparatory,"t there was once a bov," 151. They, old form of, 569, 570. origiin of, 571. Thi, a Case of "the " in " the sooner the better," 571. Think, '' we thought her Joolish," 149. "where it thinks best," 32. Thine, 569. This, " this day three months," 340. Thou, old form of, 569. followed by Verbal InfSection in -e. 581. replaced by "you," 569, Note 5. Though, " though conquered," 407. "as though," 211. Thy, 569. Till, once used of space, 376. Time, Adverbial Phrases of, 340. To, 377-379. usel before Infinitives, 554, 556. used irregularly, 561. omitted or inserted, 93-96, 38-3;83. after Intr. Verbs of feelings, 1392. after Verbs of the senses, 388. after Verbs of asking, 105. after " than," 383. l)ieasant to see," 108. " he was ordered to conie," 107. "water to drink," 110. "willing to help,'' 104, Note. "to think that he should say so," 111. "'to tell vou the truth;" " to be sure," 110, 401. "I know not how to, whether to." &c., 398. "I have no object for which to strive," 39'9. "he was the first to comle," 393. "give me your promise to obey," 394. "be kind enotugh to exctuse nme," 397., Where to begiln!" 398. "I call God to witness," 377. "I have the pleasure to inform you," 395. "to all appearance," 378. " le is said to be coming," 98. "nothing to do," 109. f The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. 342 INDEX. To-day, 379. Transitive (Verbs), 55, 58. U. -urn, Early Dative Inflection, 126, 128. Ussawares, 196. Understand. " I was given to u ndelestanl," 390. -any, for -an in Milton and Pope, e.g. "sung," 76, 568. Unless, (lerivationl of, 466. UPon, 373-5. &.up~on my wordl," 374. Upwards, 4 upwards of ten years," 365. Use, " we used to walk,"' 104, Note. Utop1ia, More's spelling in, 267. V. Verbs, see Tranasitive, Strong, W~eak, &c. old, conjugated, 573, 583. modern. conjugated, 584. agreement of, see Agreemnent. Negative and Interrogative form of, 77, 381. emphiatic form, of, 77. of seeing, feeling, hearing, &C., 68. of Mlotion, used Passively, 62. of asking, commanding, &c., followed by " to," 105. made frorm Nouns, 532. Plural for Singular, 22, 88, 334-339. Verbs, omitted after " if," " though,'" &c., 445. omitted in poetry, Sf8, 519. Verbal Noun, 54. confused with Participle, 585-94. counterfeits a Passive Participle, 594. precedled by "a," 591. preceded by "thie" 593. used after, 'went," 'tell," &c., but not after " is," "was," except in 1'assive signification, 588, 589. Very, "1your rery looks betray you, 430. Void, " void of," 366. Vowels, assimilated, 553. changed in Plurals of Nouns, 36-553. changed in Strong Verbs. See Glossary,"1 Strong." W. Wait, "he waited an hour," 131. IWas, "1ffI was von," 168,Note. IWast, 581. Way, "lie came the shortest way,"1 131. Weak Verbs, see Glossary, and 581. Week, month, &c., " this day week," 340. Welt, as Comijunctional AdVerb, 418. Were, Subjunctive, 168, Note. "if lie were to," 189. Were, for " wast, " 581I. Wert, anomalous, but now correct, 582. j~'The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. INDEX.84 343 What, how used Relatively, 27-8. used in dependent questions, 28. '' what with -what with,' 442. 4not but?ahat he meant mischief," 451. "4 what a,'' 218. When, "when walkin~ " 406. JWhence, supplanted by 'where from,' 383). Where, " froin where? " 454. "1 know not where to begin," 398. Where-to, for whither, 382. Whether, once Interrogative, 463. used as Co-ord. Conjunction, 443. Which, for modern "as "in Slhakspeare, 206. "I have no money with which to buy food," 398. "which a," 218 -While, " while walkingh" 406. W~hi t h er, supplanted by " where-to," 384. JWho, how nsed Relatively, 27. used in dependent questions, 28. three centuries later than "4whose " as a Relative, 5 72. for "lie that,' 509. Whoin, "withoin say ye that I am?"' 346. Why, as Conjunctional Adv~erb. 418. derivation of, 463, Note. Will and shall, distinction betwveen, 87. "I will" II "I shall willingly," 173. lVillina, "Iwilling to wound and vet af raid to strike," 104, Note.' Wis, "I wis," 561. Wit, " to 'wit,"I 401. Withe and with, 420. W~ithout, for '' unless," 470. W~orth. followed by Object, 129. IWould, different meanings of, 177-8. used in Consequent, ''ishould '' in Antecedent, 237. I 'used to," 179. "0 that he would," 185, Note. after "1 prayed," " besought," &C., 167, 185, Note. "I wish he would come," 465. "He thought he would take a walk,"1 173. Scotch use of for "4should," 170, Note. Wycklife 408, 558. Y. -.y, changed in passing from Sing. to PlUr., 267. Ye, old form of, 569. once only used as Subject, 38. You, substituted for thou, 569, Note 5. substituted for ye, 38. Your, old formn ot; 569. old use for " yours," 435. "this of yours, " 434. Yourn, origin of, 435. Yourselves, derivation of, 569. &'The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. I -0 Afessrs. Roberts Brothers' Publications. ENGLISH LESSONS FOR ENGLISH PEOPLE. By Rev. E. A. ABBOTT, M.A., and Prof. J. R. SEELEY, M.A. Part I. - Vocabulary. Part II. - Diction. Part III. Metre. Part IV. Hints on Selection and Arrangement. Appendix. i6mo. Price $1.50. From the London A thenaum. The object of this book is evidently a practical one. It is intended for ordinary use by a large circle of readers; and though designed principally for boys, may be read with advantage by many of more advanced years. One of the lessons which it professes to teach, "to use the right word in the right place," is one which no one should despise. The accomplishment is a rare one, and many of the hints here given are truly admirable. From tue Southern Review. The study of Language can never be exhausted. Every time it is looked at by a man of real ability and culture, some new phase starts into view. The origin of Language; its relations to the mind; its history; its laws; its development; its struggles; its triumphs; its devices; its puzzles; its ethics, - every thing about it is full of interest. Here is a delightful book, by two men of recognized authority, -the head Master of London School, and the Professor of Modern History in the University of Cambridge, the notable author of "Ecce Homo." The book is so comprehensive in its scope that it seems almost miscellaneous. It treats of the vocabulary of the English Language; Diction as appropriate to this or that sort of composition; selection and arguments of topics; Metre, and an Appendix on Logic. All this in less than three hundred pages. Within this space so many subjects cannot be treated exhaustively; and no one is, unless we may except Metre, to which about eighty pages are devoted, and about which all seems to be said that is worth saying, - possibly more. But on each topic some of the best things are said in a very stimulating way. The student will desire to study more thoroughly the subject into which such pleasant openings are here given; and the best prepared teacher will be thankful for the number of striking illustrations gathered up to his hand. The abundance and freshness of the quotations makes the volume very attractive reading, without reference to its didactic value. -4-~ — Sold by all booksellers. Mailed, postpaid, by the Publishers, ROBERTS BROTHERS, BOSTON. TO THE REV. G. F. W. MORTIMER, D.D., Prebendary of St. Paul's Cathedral, late Head Master of the City of London School. DEAR DOCTOR MORTIMER, We have other motives, beside the respect and gratitude which must be felt for you by all those of your old pupils who are capable of appreciating the work you did at the City of London School, for asking you to let us dedicate to you a little book which we have entitled " English Lessons for English People." Looking back upon our school life, we both feel that among the many educational advantages which we enjoyed under your care, there was none more important than the study of the works of Shakspeare, to which we and our school-fellows were stimulated by the special prizes of the Beaufoy Endowment. We owe you a debt of gratitude not always owed by pupils to their teachers. Many who have passed into a life of engrossing activity without having been taught at school to use rightly, or to appreciate the right use of, their native DEDICA T ON. tongue, feeling themselves foreigners amid the language of their country, may turn with some point against their teachers the reproach of banished Bolingbroke:My tongue's use is to me no more Than an unstringed viol or a harp, Or like a cunning instrument cased up, Or, being open, put into his hands That knows no touch to tune the harmony; Within my mouth you have engaoled my tongue, Doubly portcullis'd with my teeth and lips, And dull, unfeeling, barren ignorance Is made my gaoler to attend on me. I am too old to fawn upon a nurse, Too far in years to be a pupil now. It is our pleasant duty, on the contrary, to thank you for encouraging us to study the "cunning instrument" of our native tongue. Our sense of the benefits which we derived from this study, and our recollection that the study was at that time optional, and did not affect more than a small number of the pupils, lead us to anticipate that when once the English language and literature become recognized, not as an optional but as a regular part of our educational course, the advantages will be so great as to constitute nothing short of a national benefit. The present seems to be a critical moment for English instruction. The subject has excited much attention of late years; many schools have already taken it up; others are DEDICATION. on the point of doing so; it forms an important part of most Government and other examinations. But there is a complaint from many teachers that they cannot teach English for want of text-books and manuals; and, as the study of English becomes year by year more general, this complaint makes itself more and more distinctly heard. To meet this want we have written the following pages. If we had had more time, we might perhaps have been tempted to aim at producing a more learned and exhaustive book on the subject; but, setting aside want of leisure, we feel that a practical text-book, and not a learned or exhaustive treatise, is what is wanted at the present crisis. We feel sure that you will give a kindly welcome to our little book, as an attempt, however imperfect, to hand on the torch which you have handed to us; we beg you also to accept it as a token of our sincere gratitude for more than ordinary kindnesses, and to believe us Your affectionate pupils, J. R. SEELEY. EDWIN A. ABBOTT Messrs. Roberts Brothers' Publications. LAOCOON. An Essay upon the Limits of Painting and Poetry. With remarks illustrative of various points in the History of Ancient Art. By GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM LESSING. Translated by ELLEN FROTHINGHAM. I6mo. Price $1.50. In reference to this work, we can give our readers no better proof of its merit than by quoting the words of an English critic uttered many years ago: "The author of the ' Laocoon' was perhaps the greatest critic of moder times. The object of this celebrated work is to show that the isolation of the several fine arts from each other is essential to their perfection, and that their common aim is the production of beauty. The peculiar province of poetry is proved to be entirely distinct both from that of morality and of philosophy; being limited, strictly speaking, to the exhibition of ideal actions. These views, in which Lessing differed widely from Klopstock, who made moral beauty, and also from Wieland, who considered nature and truth, as the great aim of poetry, but in which he agreed with Aristotle, and was closely followed in their zesthetical theories by Goethe, Schiller, and Humboldt, were enforced with great argumentative power, extraordinary purity and correctness of taste, and with rich and pertinent illustrations from the art and literature of Greece." From the Boston Transcrij.t. It is a matter for real congratulation that Messrs. Roberts Brothers have given us the " Laocoon" of Lessing in a form accessible to readers ignorant of German. Miss Frothingham has evidently done her work of translation as a labor of love. Her rendering is at once accurate, and in pure, flowing English; an achievement very difficult to accomplish where the whole grammatical structure of two languages differs so widely. It is also a feature of great value toward the general usefulness of the book that she has appended translations of the many passages from Latin and Greek authors through which Lessing illustrates his argument. The growing interest in our country in questions of art and criticism ought to secure for this work a wide class of readers. No thoughtful person ever torgets the outburst of enthusiasm its first reading awakened in him. Even Goethe said of it that in the confused period of his own youth it cleared up the whole heavens to him and made his path plain before him. As an offset to such books as those of Ruskin, marvellously rich and suggestive, but full of subjective caprice and dogmatism, it teaches invaluable lessons of method. Lessing was a legislator in the domain of criticism. His insight was so nearly unerring, and his knowledge so vast and accurate, that his verdicts stand like those of a Mansfield or Marshall in the courts of law.... The book must be read and re-read. It created an epoch in art criticism when it first appeared, and its lessons are as fresh and weighty to-day as ever. On every page great principles are developed which help one to an ever deeper appreciation of the works of the great masters in art and literature. -4 —+Sold everywhere by all booksellers. Mailed, postlaid, by the Publishers, ROBERTS BROTHERS, BOSTON. Messrs. Roberts Brothers' Publications. GOETHE'S HERMANN AND DOROTHEA. TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN BY ELLEN FROTHINGHAM. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. Thin 8vo, cloth, gilt, bevelled boards. Price $2.00. A cheaper edition, i6mo, cloth. Price $I.oo. "Miss Frothingham's translation is something to be glad of: it lends itself kindly to perusal, and it presents Goethe's charming poem in the metre of the original.... 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"In many respects this is a remarkable book, - the last and best production of a singularly well balanced and finely cultured mind. No man whose life was not lifted above the anxieties of a bread-winning life could have written this work; which is steeped in that sweetness and light, the virtues of which Mr. Arnold so eloquently preaches. Compared with Mr. Hamerton's former writings, 'Th* Intellectual Life' is incomparably his best production.... But above all, and specially as critics, are we charmed with the large impartiality of the writer. Mr Hamerton is one of those peculiarly fortunate men who have the inclination and means to live an ideal life. From his youth he has lived in an atmosphere of culture and light, moving with clipped wings in a charmed circle of thought. 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' It is impossible to read George Eliot, either in prose or poetry, without beirg reminded of Shakespeare; and the resemblance is borne out in that habit of net mind which throws off thought in crystals, in terse and lucid generalizations, in flashing surprises of wit, and in epigrams that will pass into the immortal cuiyency of the world's proverbs. From no other writer, it seems to us, since Shakespeare, could so many gems or statements - witty and wise-be culled as from the works of this wonderfll mind; and in 'Wit and Wisdom of George Eiiot' we have a collection which cannot fail to be greatly enjoyed, and of which we can only say that it is so good that we wonder at its not having been done before." - Christian Union. "The novels of George Eliot are full of nuggets of wisdom and bits of felicltons characterization that dwell in the memory of the attentive reader. 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